LOGICAL INFERENCE

Inference seeks to conform to the standard set by the propositions and by doing so it sets to establish
a frame of reference for the emergence of new ideas.

process of the mind by which we go from one part of the system of facts or ideas to another
part of the same system

KINDS OF INFERENCE
1. Immediate Inference this type of inference draws its conclusion from one proposition only
without the aid of second proposition.

Example:
1. All religious people are God-fearing.
Ergo, some God-fearing (people) are religious people.
2. No senators are congressmen.
Ergo, no congressmen are senators.

** Due to the material make-up of this inference, it offers little knowledge and cannot elicit an advanced
type of knowledge. This is what makes other logicians consider it as non-inference in the strictest sense.

2. Mediate - this type of inference draws its conclusion from two given propositions; from these
two, a new idea and truth will emerge.

** There are two known types of mediate inference: INDUCTIVE and DEDUCTIVE.

Example:
INDUCTIVE: Maria is a good nurse and she comes from the Philippines.
Soccoro is a good nurse and she comes from the Philippines.
Lucia is a good nurse and she comes from the Philippines.
Ergo, there is a possibility that all good nurses are from the Philippines.

DEDUCTIVE: All birds are winged creatures.
Some winged creatures are colorful.
Ergo, some colorful (animals) are birds.

STRUCURE OF LOGICAL INFERENCE
To establish new idea there is a need to compare ideas. In this case, inference necessitates the
emergence of propositions in order to elicit an ANTECEDENT and CONSEQUENT relationship.

ANTECEDENT is regarded as the structure of logical inference to which something is to be taken or
inferred from.

CONSEQUENT - is regarded as the structure of logical inference to which something is taken or inferred
from the antecedent.




NATURE OF RELATIONSHIP (ANTECENT AND CONSEQUENT)

1. VALID EQUENCE it is essential for the consequent to be true if the antecedent is also true.
However, there are cases that the consequent is false because the antecedent is false.

Example: All Chinese are Asians.
Some Chinese are businessmen.
Ergo, some businessmen are Asians.

Every dog is biped.
Ergo, some bipeds are dogs.

2. PSEUDO SEQUENCE The consequent does not flow with logical necessity from two premise or
antecedents. It simply mimics the material form of a valid sequence.

Example: All mayors are local officials.
No mayors are councilors
Ergo, no councilors are local officials.

3. INVALID SEQUENCE Happens if the connection simply mimics the material feature of a valid
sequence.

Example: Man is a creature.
Ergo, man needs God.

PRINCIPLES OF INFERENCE
Connotes something that already existed and from it something else will either come to exist or will
be known.

1. Principle of identity and Contradiction

Principle of identity is a principle which claims that if any argument is true then it is really true.

Example: Every flower is fragrant.
Rose is a flower.
Ergo, rose is fragrant.

Principle of Contradiction a thing cannot be and not be at the same time or in the same respect.

Example: You are a man.
Ergo, you are a woman.

2. Principle of Identifying and separating the Third

Principle of Identifying the Third two thing that are identical with the same third thing are identical
with each other.

Example: Every plant is a living thing.
Every orchid is a plant.
Ergo, every orchid is a living thing.

Principle of Separating the Third two things of which the one is identical with the same third thing and
the other is not are not really identical with one another.

Example: No rapist is a good man.
Every rapist is criminal.
Ergo, no criminal is a good man.

3. Dictum de Omni and Dictum de Nullo

Dictum de Omni (Law of All) what is predicated of a logical whole maybe predicated distributively in
each of its inferior.

Example: Every physician is a medical expert.
Every pediatrician is a physician.
Ergo, every physician is a medical expert.

Dictum de Nullo (Law of None) what is denied of a logical whole maybe denied distributively in each of
its inferior.

Example: No genius is dumb.
Every philosopher is a genius.
Ergo, no philosopher is dumb.