Geological Exploration and 3D Modelling for Optimized Storage

Cavern Construction in Complex Salt Dome Structures

Max G.E. Wippich, Fritz H. Wilke
DEEP. Underground Engineering GmbH, Eyhauser Allee 2a, 26160 Bad Zwischenahn, Germany

Abstract
A comprehensive programme of investigations performed with every cavern well offers the possibility
for detailed interpretation of the geological setting of cavern wells. Methods include petrographical
analyses of cutting samples, oriented coring to obtain direct lithological/stratigraphical information and
structural data, bromide analyses for relative age-dating and indirect structural interpretation, and open
hole wireline logging (gamma-ray and density logging). Additional methods, such as ground-
penetrating radar (GPR) surveying may be additionally applied to obtain larger-scale structural data.
The combined application of standard geological and geophysical exploration techniques and newly
developed methods along with the appropriate visualization of the data by means of digital geological
3D modelling offers a valuable planning tool in cavern construction. This combined approach has
proven in several projects that the risk of a cavern well to fail could be substantially reduced.

Key words: salt dome, geology, exploration, digital 3D modelling, cavern construction

Introduction
Salt dome structures are often rooted several 100s to 1,000s of metres deep, thus offering 'unlimited'
thickness and large volumes of salt. Owing to the mechanisms of salt 'flow' and the different
rheological behaviour of the rocks involved, salt domes are geologically highly complex. However, for
storage cavern construction the detailed internal structure of a dome is crucial to know in order to
identify appropriate cavern locations that offer leachable salt formations,
to define safety distances towards any internal 'risk horizons' or external boundaries, and
to ensure optimized cavern construction and long term safe storage operation.
Thick, economically significant salt deposits were formed back in earths geological past under non-
actualistic conditions. Salt deposition was a cyclic process, in which an ideal cycle started with a
succession of clay, carbonate and anhydrite (from bottom to top) before a large volume of halite
subsequently precipitated from the sea water. A layer of potassium salt minerals, such as carnallite,
may have formed at the end of each cycle when evaporation was at its peak.
In the context of salt cavern construction, it is thus important to keep in mind that any beds that are
undesirable for cavern leaching occur around the cycle boundaries: these 'risk horizons' include the
highly soluble potassium rich salts as well as stiff, insoluble carbonate and anhydrite beds that may
cause stability problems or may fall down in large blocks when being exposed during the leaching
process.
This paper describes how detailed geological exploration and the strong interaction of solution mining
engineering and geological interpretation are used to minimize geological risks and to optimize the
exploitation of large but geologically complex domal salt deposits.
Exploration Methods
A comprehensive programme of investigations is usually performed with every cavern well. Some
applications are standard procedures while others have been especially designed in recent years for
salt exploration and cavern planning. Some of these were adapted from the detailed exploration of
different salt deposits considered for nuclear waste repository [1].
The exploration methods and their significance are described in the following.
Standard Formation Logging
Drill cuttings circulated to surface by the drilling mud are collected with usually 2 to 5 m sample
spacing and are analyzed on-site using standard petrographical methods. In the salt sequence, the
proportion of non-salt lithologies such as anhydrite, dolomite, clay etc. is semi-quantitatively identified.
Salt minerals other than halite, e.g. kieserite (magnesium sulphate), can be identified as well. The
constant monitoring of drilling parameters, such as the rate of penetration, can also be used to detect
lithological changes and formation boundaries.
Bromide Analysis
With progressive evaporation of each depositional cycle, the trace element bromine becomes enriched
in seawater and chloride anions are increasingly substituted by bromide in the crystal lattice structure
of the precipitated halite (rock salt, NaCl). Therefore, halite formed in marine environments has a
certain bromide content (usually given in ppm) that increases towards the upper (younger) end of each
cycle.
This general pattern is independent of the cycle magnitude. In the Zechstein Group of Northern
Germany, for example, large-scale cycles are seen to exist on Formation level, while a superimposed
small-scale cyclicity is also frequently observed. Bromide values are known to peak around the potash
seams that have usually been deposited at the top of fully developed cycles.
When sampled and analyzed in narrow and equidistant intervals, the bromide signature along a well
path provides a viable tool for relative age-dating. With increasing bromide data at one particular
locality, absolute bromide values can directly be linked with the stratigraphical information from cores
and allow for the creation of a local reference bromide profile. Variations in the bromide profile gives
indirect information on the structural alternation of older and younger units and thus, on the degree of
folding and the structural style in close vicinity around the well [2].
When drilling a cavern well, salt cuttings are continuously sampled and analyzed by ion
chromatography immediately after the respective section has been drilled. Provided an appropriate
laboratory facility is available nearby, this approach allows for a stratigraphical interpretation of the
section almost in parallel to the drilling progress. In case the succession is well known, the occurrence
of potassic layers may also be forecast and the exploration or mud programme may be adjusted
accordingly in due time.
Oriented Coring
Although drill cores are only 'spot exposures', coring however provides the only direct exposure of the
undisturbed formation and therefore it is the prime source of lithological and structural information. For
analyzing the dip and strike of bedding planes and oriented fabric, orientation of cores is an
indispensable requirement. While being cut, the core is continuously scribed by three differentially
spaced knives as it enters the core barrel. The reference scribeline has a known angle to magnetic
north.
A typical well programme involves between 5 and 10 single cores typically of 9 m length from selected
depths. The core diameter is usually 4 as this is the ideal dimension for subsequent rock-mechanical
and leaching tests. The extracted cores are petrographically described on-site and photographically
documented in transmitted and under reflected light for further interpretation.
Geophysical Well Logging
Well logging means the continuous measurement of the physical properties of the formation in the
open borehole using a wireline suspended downhole tool. The standard logging programme in salt
exploration includes the formation density log and the natural gamma ray log. These two log types
usually suffice to differentiate between rock salt and the 'heavier' lithologies such as anhydrite,
carbonate, etc. and to identify gamma-emitting (i.e. mainly potassium-bearing) lithologies such as clay
and potassic salt. The combination of both logs has proven to provide the basic data set and a viable
tool for further geological interpretation.
Other log types occasionally applied in salt exploration include the gamma spectroscopy, sonic-, and
neutron logs, which mainly serve for a more detailed differentiation of evaporite minerals.
Ground-penetrating radar (GPR)
The ground-penetrating radar (GPR) technology is becoming increasingly established in salt dome
exploration and cavern planning [3, 4]. Depending on the geological setting, a GPR survey can
provide information on the orientation and distance of formation changes and structural boundaries in
a radius of up to several hundreds of meters around the well. However, the GPR results can only be
positively assigned to geological structures in correlation with other exploration methods.
The GPR sonde is a wireline-operated downhole tool with an omni-directional transmitting dipole
antenna and a receiving antenna. Two different tool configurations are commonly in use: the 50 MHz
antenna of two orthogonally oriented frames measures directionally sensitive, i.e. it allows the
determination of the reflector orientation in 3D space, whereas the 10 MHz antenna records the signal
without any angular information. The received signals are reflections from boundary layers that show
different electric impedances. Later these signals are processed to geological 'reflectors' and the travel
time of the radar waves is used to determine the actual distance of the reflectors to the borehole.
Geological reflectors can mark the boundary layers between different salt units and other lithologies,
such as anhydrite, clay, or potassic salt.
Geological Interpretation and Modelling
By considering recurrent patterns in the bromide curves and by identifying marker beds and
characteristic lithologies in cores and geophysical logs, it is possible to establish a local standard
section which also includes the reconstruction of the primary bed thickness of the different units. This
basic understanding of the local geology is required when extrapolating geological information from
the well path and correlating geological features between nearby wells, or in estimating distances to
'risk horizons'. A fundamental knowledge in salt tectonics and an understanding of the deformation
mechanisms acting on rock salt and associated evaporite rocks is required to carry out such
interpretations. Detailed investigations of different salt domes of Northern Germany have shown that
three-dimensional, often overturned multi-generation folds dominate their internal geometry. An
increase of primary bed thicknesses by intense small-scale folding is a widespread feature while, vice
versa, other parts of the sequence may have been reduced in thickness or even fully suppressed.
In many projects, digital geological 3D modelling, or 3D construction, is applied to interpret and to
visualize the complex tectonic structures that can hardly be illustrated by means of conventional
geological cross-sections. We are using an AutoCAD

-based computer software that has been

especially designed to model such features [5].
Every modelling starts with the interpretation of the available data (such as geophysical logs,
description of cores and cutting samples etc.) and the definition of stratigraphical units. The next step
is the three-dimensional visualization of well geometries, of stratigraphical units (as colour-coded
segments along the well path), of structural data from drill cores and of any other related information
(i.e. interpreted reflection seismic data). Then the internal structural features of the salt body are
modelled, usually starting from the construction of a couple of horizontal and/or vertical cross-sections.
Boundary planes between the pre-defined stratigraphical units are added as triangulated surfaces in a
final step.
Naturally, the level of detail and predictive potential of a geological 3D model is much dependent on
the density and quality of geological input data. When 'historical' well documentation has to be used to
develop a 3D model, heterogeneous data and inconsistent data quality may result in a larger margin of
error. When an initial model is being expanded or newly set up parallel to a drilling campaign, the
exploration programme will be performed as such as to provide a consistent data set tailored to the
requirements of subsequent interpretation and modelling.
Benefits for Storage Development
Digital geological 3D modelling is essentially beneficial for developing a cavern storage site in a domal
setting, as it provides a powerful tool for a detailed and reliable representation of the complex geology
and allows for the visualization of the spatial relationships between internal structural features and
wells, caverns etc. Typical applications are briefly described in the following.
Field Planning
In many projects the original field layout has been based on a mere geometrical approach defined by
the boundary of the concession area and the size of the safety pillars around the caverns. The
potential of a particular location to develop a cavern could usually only be proven by actually drilling
the well.
Digital geological 3D modelling allows for quite reliable predictions on the occurrence and the total
volume of resources of leachable salt within a salt dome structure and helps to selectively develop
prospective locations. In several projects the risk of a cavern well to fail could be substantially reduced
by using a geological 3D model as a planning tool [5, 6].
Rock-mechanical Modelling
In times of changing demands regarding the operational mode of storage caverns, i.e. from seasonal
to commercial storage, rock-mechanically defined limiting values such as minimum and maximum
allowable internal pressure, frequency of load cycles etc. have become increasingly important. These
values are usually derived from numerical models describing the stress state in the formation around
the cavern. In this context, a geological 3D model can provide important input for a more realistic
representation of the geometry of different rock units. The consideration of more complex geological
conditions reduces the margin of error inherent to any rock-mechanical model and will help to define
appropriate operational parameters more precisely.
When defining safety distances to e.g. potentially permeable non-salt interbeds or beds of different
geomechanical behaviour, the reliable representation of geometries in a geological 3D model and the
possibility of taking distance measurements (within the range of uncertainty of the model) generally
allow for a more progressive approach.
Cavern Design
Complexly shaped geological structures, especially in parts of a cavern field where leachable salt is
rare, may require the optimization of cavern shapes. For maximum utilization of resources it is feasible
to realize non-cylindrical - though rotational symmetrical - caverns, which can have a contour that
follows a structural element in the salt body, such as e.g. a folded non-soluble layer. Geological 3D
modelling helps the solution mining engineer to design the cavern shape and to set up the leaching
programme accordingly.
During the planning phase, digital cavern models are created with a simulation software and can be
displayed, while during leaching operation the digital data sets produced from echometric cavern
surveys can also be loaded into the geological 3D model. In this way the actual development of the
cavity can be evaluated in the geological context and any asymmetrical or irregular shapes that may
result from geological conditions in the salt rock (i.e. oriented fabric, dip of beds etc.) can be identified
and used to prognosticate the further shape development of the cavern.
Conclusions
In-depth investigations of complex salt domes are beneficial for the cavern industry as these structures
bear a high potential for the construction of large storage volumes in a wide depth (and pressure)
range. The combined application of standard geological and geophysical exploration techniques and
newly developed methods along with the appropriate visualization of the data by means of digital
geological 3D modelling offers a valuable planning tool.
For some cavern sites the geological knowledge has reached a level of detail where any uncertainty is
largely minimized. Recent successful applications of the described approach include, among others,
the extension of Germanys largest storage cavern field [5] and the development of first cavern storage
for natural gas in the Netherlands [6].
References
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Dome. SMRI-Meeting, Albuquerque.
[2] Schramm, M., Bornemann, O., Siemann, M., Wilke, F., Geluk, M. C. (2005): Correlation between
bromide concentrations in halite and their stratigraphical position in Zechstein 2 salt deposits of
North-West Europe. Geophysical Research Abstracts, 7.
[3] Petrat, L., Kleinefeld, B., Elsen, R. (2006): Directional borehole radar system, a review on
technique and service conditions in Solution mining. SMRI 2006 Spring Meeting Technical
Session Brussels, Belgium, 30 April - 3 May 2006.
[4] Gundelach, V., Eisenburger, D., Wilke, F. (2002): Ground penetrating radar, a tool for
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Conference Paper, Porto.
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