Anda di halaman 1dari 19

Fundamental issues related to ow boiling in

minichannels and microchannels


Satish G. Kandlikar
*
Department of Mechanical Engineering, Rochester Institute of Technology, Rochester, NY 14623, USA
Received 20 May 2001; received in revised form 30 August 2001; accepted 18 December 2001
Abstract
Flow boiling in small hydraulic diameter channels is becoming increasingly important in many diverse applications. The previous
studies addressing the eects of the channel size on the ow patterns, and heat transfer and pressure drop performance are reviewed
in the present paper. The fundamental questions related to the presence of nucleate boiling and characteristics of ow boiling in
microchannels and minichannels in comparison to that in the conventional channel sizes (3 mm and above) are addressed. Also, the
eect of heat exchanger congurationsingle-channel and multichannelon the heat transfer and pressure drop performance is
reviewed. The areas for future research are identied. 2002 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords: Multichannel evaporation; Compact evaporators; Flow patterns; Heat transfer; Pressure drop; Microchannels; Minichannels
1. Introduction
The distinction between small diameter channels,
minichannels, and microchannels is not clearly estab-
lished in the literature. It is, therefore, prudent to es-
tablish these limits based on engineering practice and
application areas employing these channels.
Flow boiling has been studied extensively for many
decades. Correlations and experiments prior to 1960s
generally focused on steam tube boilers. Here, the av-
erage heat transfer coecient and average pressure drop
over the length of the evaporating section were of prime
interest. Bo Pierres [7] correlation serves as a repre-
sentative example of the prevailing technology. This
correlation was based on the experimental data for
steam tubes of 25 mm or larger diameter.
With the strong emergence of refrigeration industry
in the small tonnage units, tubes of smaller diameters
were used. The extensive experiments carried out by
Chawla [8] provide a clue for the diameter ranges of
interest in the refrigerant industry. The smallest diame-
ter tubes employed by Chawla in his experiments was 3
mm. Very few experimental results are reported for
tubes smaller than 3 mm, although a few researchers
working on some of the advanced systems at that time
studied smaller diameters tubes as well; e.g., Bergles [3,4]
studied heat transfer in 1.54 mm diameter tubes. Using
these major representative research milestones, 3 mm
may be considered as the lower limit for the hydraulic
diameters of the conventional evaporator tubes.
As the heat ux densities increased in automotive,
aerospace, air separation and cryogenic industries, the
use of compact evaporators became quite widespread.
The plate-n evaporators are commonly employed in
these applications. Again, looking at their dimensions,
the lower limit of about 200 lm may be considered as
the boundary of the next range. The channels employing
hydraulic diameters between 200 lm and 3 mm are re-
ferred to as minichannels.
The application in the eld of microelectronics created
entirely new paradigms. The evolution of ink-jet printing
technology showed that boiling is a viable phenomena in
extremely small dimension passages. Controlled growth
and collapse of bubbles is used eectively in ink-jet
printers, optical multiplexers and switching devices
(Agilent Technolgy, Inc.). The range of hydraulic diame-
ters below 200 lm is becoming important in these and
many other microelectro mechanical systems (MEMS)
related applications. Development of MEMS devices,
in engineering, biomedical, and genetic research opened
a whole new eld at the micron level for conned boiling
Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 26 (2002) 389407
www.elsevier.com/locate/etfs
*
Tel.: +716-475-6728; fax: +716-475-7710.
E-mail address: sgkeme@rit.edu (S.G. Kandlikar).
0894-1777/02/$ - see front matter 2002 Elsevier Science Inc. All rights reserved.
PII: S0894- 1777( 02) 00150- 4
and ow boiling applications. The hydraulic diameter
range of about 10 to 200 lm is considered to fall
under the classication of microchannel. Small heat
pump devices employing microchannels are being fabri-
cated with the silicon fabrication technology.
Flow boiling in channels smaller than 200 lm re-
quires especially clean uids. The pumping power re-
quirements are also signicantly higher. However,
boiling inside such small passages provides a very ef-
fective way of uid movement, as well as relatively large
heat dissipation capabilities for specialized applications.
To sum up the denitions based on the above dis-
cussion, the following ranges of hydraulic diameters are
attributed to dierent channels.
Conventional channels>3 mm
Minichannels200 lm to 3 mm
Microchannels10 to 200 lm
Flow boiling in minichannels and microchannels
raises three fundamental questions for researchers as
well as designers:
1. How does the small passage dimension aect the bub-
ble dynamics and the two-phase ow?
2. How is the heat transfer and pressure drop aected in
these channels?
3. What is the dierence in performance between single
and multiple parallel channels?
These questions will be addressed in the present
paper. However, this eld is of great current interest and
new information, especially for microchannels, is being
actively generated worldwide. Another major opera-
tional concern, which is not addressed in this paper, is
the critical heat ux in minichannels and microchannels.
It will be the topic of a follow-up paper by the author
that will be soon published.
Recently, an exhaustive review of available literature
on minichannels has been published by Kandlikar [29].
Table 1 shows a revised list of some of the important
investigations on ow patterns, heat transfer, and pres-
sure drop in minichannels and microchannels.
2. Minichannel and microchannel heat exchanger cong-
urations
Compact evaporators are used extensively in auto-
motive, aerospace, air-separation, and cryogenic appli-
cations, Mehendale et al. [50]. Fig. 1 shows a plate-n
evaporator geometry widely used in compact refrigerant
evaporators. The refrigerant side passages are made with
two plates that are brazed together, and airside ns are
placed between two refrigerant ow passages. The plates
have cross ribs that are oriented in opposite directions
such that the top and the bottom plates (forming a re-
frigerant passage) have only contact points at the inter-
section of these ridges. Cohen and Carey [10] report heat
transfer characteristics and ow visualization studies for
this heat exchanger geometry. The two-phase ow of
refrigerant gets distributed across the width of the ow
passage. This feature is important in that the localized
ow oscillations, caused by nucleate boiling and
Nomenclature
C constant in Eq. (1)
C
1
and C
2
constants in Eq. (9)
D diameter of
e gap size (m)
F
1
and F
2
constants in Eq. (9)
G mass ux (kg/m
2
s)
g acceleration due to gravity (m/s
2
)
K
sa
pressure drop multiplier in acceleration
pressure drop Eq. (2)
h
ffg
latent heat of vaporization (J/kg)

hh average heat transfer coecient in the evap-


orator (W/m
2
C)
L length of the evaporator tube
n number of parallel small diameter tubes for
each large diameter tube
Dp pressure drop (N/m
2
)
q heat ux (W/m
2
)
x quality
Greek Letters
a void fraction
q density (kg/m
3
)
r surface tension (N/m)
v
tt
Martinelli parameter
q
V
q
L

0:5
l
L
l
V

0:1


1x
x

0:9

Subscripts
D large diameter tube
d small diameter tube
ex exit
f friction
in inlet
L liquid
LO all ow as liquid
TP two-phase
tt turbulentturbulent
V vapor
390 S.G. Kandlikar / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 26 (2002) 389407
Table 1
Summary of investigations on evaporation in mini and microchannels
Author/Year Fluid and ranges
of parameters,
G (kg/m
2
s),
q (kW/m
2
)
Channel size/D
h
(mm), Horiz.
(unless otherwise
stated)
Heat transfer Pressure drop Flow
patterns
Remarks
Lazarek and
Black, 1982
[42]
R-113,
G 125750,
q 14380
Circular,
D 3:1,
L 123 and 246
Heat transfer co-
ecient and
CHF
Pressure drop
measured and
correlated
Not observed Subcooled and saturated data
obtained, h almost constant in
the two-phase region, dependent
on heat ux. Behavior similar to
large dia. tubes-combination of
nucleate and convective boiling.
Pressure drop correlations ob-
tained.
Cornwell and
Kew, 1992
[13]
R-113,
G 124627,
q 333
Parallel rectan-
gular, 75 chan-
nels-1:2 0:9
deep 36 chan-
nels-3:25 1:1
deep
Heat transfer
coecient
Not reported Isolated bub-
ble, Conned
bubble, an-
nular-slug
The heat transfer coecient was
found to be dependent on the
existing ow pattern. In the iso-
lated bubble region, h q
0:7
,
lower q eect in conned bubble
region, convection dominant in
annular-slug region.
Moriyama
and Inoue,
1992 [53]
R-113,
G 2001000,
q 430
Narrow rectan-
gular channel,
0.0350.11 gap,
width30,
L 265
Heat transfer
coecient
Pressure drop
measured and
components cal-
culated
Flattened
bubbles, w/
coalescence,
liquid strips,
liquid lm
Two-phase ow boiling data in
narrow gaps obtained and cor-
related with an annular lm ow
model. Nucleate boiling ignored,
although a dependence of h on q
was observed.
Wambsganss
et al., 1993
[70]
R-113,
G 50100,
q 8:890.7
Circular,
D 2:92 mm
h as a function of
x, G and q
Not reported Not reported Except at the lowest heat and
mass uxes, both nucleate boil-
ing and convective boiling com-
ponents were present.
Bowers and
Mudawar,
1994 [6]
R-113,
q 10002000,
0.281.1 ml/s
Mini- and micro-
channels,
D 2:54 and
0.51
Heat transfer
rate
Pressure drop
components
Not studied Analytical (1993) and experi-
mental (1994) studies comparing
the performance of mini and
micro channels. Mini-channels
are preferable unless liquid in-
ventory or weight constraints are
severe.
Mertz et al.,
1996 [51]
Water and R-
141b,
G 50, 100, 200,
300, q 3227
Rectangular
channels, 1, 2
and 3 mm wide,
aspect ratio up
to 3
Heat transfer
coecient and
heat ux
Not measured Nucleate
boiling, con-
ned bubble
and annular
Single and multi-channel test
sections. Flow boiling pulsation
was observed in multi-channels,
with reverse ow in some cases.
Nucleate boiling dominant.
Ravigurura-
jan et al.,
1996 [58]
R-124, 0.65 ml/
s, 20400 W
270 lm wide,1
mm deep. 20.52
mm long,
Heat transfer
coecient
Not studied Not studied Experiments were conducted
over 00.9 quality and 5 C inlet
subcooling. Wall superheat from
080C
Tran et al.,
1996 [66]
R-12,
G 44832,
q 3:6129
Circular,
D 2:46, Rect-
angular,
D
h
2:4
Heat transfer
coecient
Not studied Not studied Local heat transfer coecient
obtained up to x 0:94. Heat
transfer in nucleate boiling
dominant and convective domi-
nant regions obtained. New cor-
relation for nucleate boiling
dominant region
Kasza et al.,
1997 [31]
Water, G 21,
q 110
Rectangular
2:5 6:0 500
Not reported Not reported Bubbly, Slug Increased bubble activity on wall
at nucleation sites in the thin
liquid lm responsible for high
heat transfer in small channels
(continued on next page)
S.G. Kandlikar / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 26 (2002) 389407 391
Table 1 (continued)
Author/Year Fluid and ranges
of parameters,
G (kg/m
2
s), q
(kW/m
2
)
Channel size/D
h
(mm), Horiz.
(unless otherwise
stated)
Heat transfer Pressure drop Flow
patterns
Remarks
Tong et al.,
1997 [65]
Water,
G 25,000
45,000, CHF of
5080 MW/m
2
Circular,
D 1:052.44
Subcooled ow
boiling
Focus on pres-
sure drop
Not studied Pressure drop measured in highly
subcooled ow boiling, correla-
tions presented for both single
phase and two-phase.
Bonjour and
Lallemand,
1998 [5]
R-113, q 020 Rectangular,
0.52 mm gap, 60
wide, 120 long,
Vertical
Not studied Not studied 3 ow pat-
terns with
nucleate boil-
ing
Nucleate boiling with isolated
bubbles, nucleate boiling with
coalesced bubbles and partial
dryout, criteria proposed for
transitions.
Kawano
et al., 1998
[32]
Water,
Re 150200,
q 300 kW/m
2
Rectangular,
57 300 lm
2
Single-phase Single-phase N/A The study focused on single-
phase ow. It is included here to
illustrate the practical applica-
tion of microchannels in micro-
electronics chip cooling.
Peng and
Wang, 1998
[56]
Water, ethanol
and mixtures,
Rectangular,
width 0:20.4,
height 0:10.3,
L 50; Triangu-
lar, D
h
0:20.6,
L 120
Heat transfer co-
ecient, heat ux
Not reported Not observed The heat transfer results indicate
that both, nucleate and forced
convection boiling are present.
No bubbles were observed, and
the authors propose a ctitious
boiling. The authors did not use
proper microscope and high-
speed video techniques resulting
in contradictory conclusions.
Peng et al.,
1998 [57]
Theoretical Theoretical Bubble nucle-
ation model
Not studied Not studied Bubble nucleation model uses a
vapor bubble growing on a
heater surface with heat diusion
in the vapor phase. This corre-
sponds to post- CHF heat
transfer and is an inaccurate
model of heat transfer during
nucleation and bubble growth.
Kamidis and
Ravigurura-
jan, 1999 [23]
R-113, power
25700 W,
Re 1901250
Circular,
D 1:59, 2.78,
3.97, 4.62
Single and two-
phase, max
h 11 kW/m
2
C
Not reported Not studied Extremely high heat transfer co-
ecients, up to 11 kW/m
2
C were
observed. Fully developed sub-
cooled boiling and CHF were
obtained.
Kuznetsov
and Sham-
irzaev, 1999
[39]
R-318C,
G 200900,
q 2110
Annulus, 0.9
gap 500
h 120 kW/m
2
C
Not studied Conned
bubble, Cell,
Annular
Capillary forces important in
ow patterns, thin lm sup-
presses nucleation, leads to con-
vective boiling.
Lin et al.,
1999 [46]
R-141b,
G 3002000,
q 10150
Circular, D 1 Heat transfer co-
ecient
Not studied Not studied Heat transfer coecient ob-
tained as a function of quality
and heat ux. Trends are similar
to large tube data.
Downing
et al., 2000
[15]
R-113, Ranges
not clearly stated
Circular multi-
channels in coils,
D
h
0:231.86,
helix dia 2.8
7.9
Not studies Single and Two-
phase
Not studied As the helical coil radius became
smaller, pressure drop reduced
possibly due to rearrangement in
ow pattern.
Hestroni
et al., 2000
[18]
Water, Re 20
70, q 80360
Triangular paral-
lel channels,
h 55,
n 21,26
D
h
0:129
0.103, L 15
Measured, but
data not reported
Not reported Periodic an-
nular
Periodic annular ow observed
in microchannels. There is a
signicant enhancement of heat
transfer during ow boiling in
microchannels.
392 S.G. Kandlikar / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 26 (2002) 389407
Table 1 (continued)
Author/Year Fluid and ranges
of parameters,
G (kg/m
2
s), q
(kW/m
2
)
Channel size/D
h
(mm), Horiz.
(unless otherwise
stated)
Heat transfer Pressure drop Flow
patterns
Remarks
Kennedy
et al., 2000
[33]
Water, G 800
4500, q 04
MW/m
2
Circular,
D 1:17 and
1.45, L 160
Onset of nucleate
boiling starts in-
stability
Not reported Not studied Heat ux at the Onset of Flow
Instability was 0.9 of the heat
ux required for saturated vapor
at exit, similarly, G at OFI was
1.1 times G for saturated exit
vapor condition.
Lakshmi-
narasimhan
et al., 2000
[41]
R-11, G
604586,
Rectangular,
1 20 357
mm,
Subcooled and
saturated ow
boiling
Not measured Boiling incip-
ience ob-
served
through
LCD
Boiling front observed in laminar
ow, not visible in turbulent ow
due to comparable h before and
after, saturated ow boiling data
correlated by Kandlikar [24]
correlation.
Kandlikar
et al., 2001
[30]
Water, G 80
560 kg/m
2
s
Rectangular,
1 1 60 mm
Subcooled and
saturated ow
boiling
Measured in-
stanta-neous val-
ues of pressure
drop
High-speed
photography
on single and
multiple
channels
Flow oscillations and ow re-
versal linked to the severe pres-
sure drop uctuations, often
leading to ow reversal during
boiling.
Khodaban-
deh and
Palm, 2001
[37]
R134a and
R600a, mass ow
rate not mea-
sured, q 28
424 kW/m
2
Circular tube, 1.5
mm dia.
Heat transfer co-
ecient deter-
mined from
experiments
Not studied Not studied Heat transfer coecients com-
pared with 11 correlations. Mass
ow rate is not measured, it is
assumed to be constant in all
experiments perhaps causing
large discrepancies with correla-
tions at higher h values.
Kim and
Bang, 2001
[36]
R-22, G 384
570, q 210
kW/m
2
Square tube, 1.66
mm dia.
Heat transfer co-
ecient obtained
as a function of
quality 00.8
Not studied Flow pattern
observed in
rectangular
channels of
1:32 1:78
mm c/s
Heat transfer coecint some-
what higher than Shah [60] and
Gungor and Winterton (1987)
correlation predictions. Slug ow
pattern seen as the dominant
ow pattern.
Koo et al.,
2001 [38]
Water, 200 W
heat sink
Parallel rectan-
gular microchan-
nels 50 25lm
2
Thermal simula-
tion of the VLSI
chip with the
heat sink
Two-phase pres-
sure drop using
homo-geneous
ow model
Thermal pro-
le predicted
on the chip
and com-
pared with
experiments
The pressure drop predictions
using homogeneous ow model
were in good agreement with
data. The Kandlikar [24] corre-
lation was used for predicting the
heat transfer rate. Predictions in
good agreement with data.
Lee [43,44] R-113 G
50200, q
315 kW/m
2
Rectangular 0.4
2 mm high, 20
mm wide
Saturated,
x 0:150.75
Measured over
260 mm long
section
Not reported Pressure drop correlated using
MartinelliNelson parameter,
Heat transfer predicted will by
Kandlikar [24] correlation for
lm Re > 200, new correlation
developed using lm ow model
for lm Re < 200.
Serizawa and
Feng, 2001
[59]
Airwater,
j
L
0:00317.52
m/s,
j
G
0:0012
295.3 m/s,Steam
water, ranges not
given
Circular tubes,
diameters of
50 lm for air
water, and 25 lm
for steam-water
Airwater two-
phase ow,
steamwater de-
tails not given
Not studied Flow pat-
terns identi-
ed over the
ranges of
ow rates
studied
Two new ow patterns identied:
liquid ring ow and liquid lump
ow.
Warrier
et al., 2001
[71]
FC-84, G
5571600, q
59.9 kW/m
2
Rectangular, di-
mensions not
available, hy-
draulic
dia. 0.75 mm
Single-phase and
two-phase
Pressure drop
measured over
325.1 mm long
test section
Not studied Overall press. drop and local
heat transfer coecient deter-
mined. A constant value of C
38 used in Eq. (1)., Heat transfer
coecient correlated as a func-
tion of Boiling number alone.
S.G. Kandlikar / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 26 (2002) 389407 393
expanding vapor bubbles, are dissipated across the width
and do not severely aect the upstream ow.
In air-separation applications, where both sides are
undergoing phase change, oset strip ns may be in-
troduced between the plates shown in Fig. 1. In all of
these geometries, the plate spacing is typically on the
order of a few millimeters. These geometries are thus
comparable to the minichannel ow passages being ad-
dressed in this paper.
Fig. 2(a) shows a minichannel conguration in which
the channels are extruded. This geometry is employed in
a plate-n heat exchanger conguration by machining
the grooves (using the electric discharge machining, or
EDM technique) on the face of a plate. Such plates are
stacked together to form alternate rows of the evapo-
rating uid and the heating uid.
Fig. 3 shows three types of microchannel congura-
tions that have been recently investigated. Fig. 3(a)
shows a crossow conguration that is proposed by
Harris et al. [17] for automotive radiator application.
Jiang and Wong [21] proposed the conguration shown
in Fig. 3(b). It has V-grooved aligned on the two faces of
a silicon wafer. Kawano et al. [32] machined channels in
plates to form the microchannel passages as shown in
Fig. 3(c). The arrangements shown in Fig. 3(b) and (c)
are used in microelectronics cooling application. Some
of the microchannels shown in Fig. 3 are used in single-
phase application, although they could be employed in
two-phase application with a few modications in the
inlet and outlet header design.
3. Flow patterns in minichannels
3.1. Previous studies
Visualization of boiling phenomena inside ow
channels provides insight into the heat transfer mecha-
nisms. Bubble formation, coalescence, formation of
slugs or plugs, and local dryout conditions, are all im-
portant in understanding the heat transfer phenomena.
Although some of the heat transfer and pressure drop
Fig. 1. Schematic of refrigerant and airside ow passages in a compact plate-n type evaporator.
Fig. 2. Recent developments in multichannel evaporators: (a) schematic cross-sectional view of a multichannel evaporator with parallel minichannels,
(b) schematic of a multichannel evaporator with parallel mini- or microchannels.
394 S.G. Kandlikar / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 26 (2002) 389407
equations employed in the design of commercial equip-
ment are derived from ow pattern based models, the
major benet of ow pattern information lies in un-
derstanding the causes for premature dryout or CHF
condition in an evaporator. Another major benet is in
the design of the inlet and the outlet manifolds in mul-
tichannel evaporators.
The ow pattern maps available in literature were
rst developed for the petrochemical industry [1] for
ow of oil and gas in large diameter pipes. Subse-
quently, the adiabatic ow pattern maps were developed
as general ow pattern maps (for example, [20] and [63]).
In recent years, a number of ow pattern maps have
been developed for specic conditions such as small di-
ameter tubes, evaporation or condensation, and com-
pact heat exchanger geometries.
Earlier investigators extensively studied ow patterns
for gasliquid ows in channels with small hydraulic
diameters. A representative survey of the ow patterns
was presented by Fukano et al. [16]. They identied
bubbly, plug, slug, and annular ow patterns and
compared the ow pattern transitions with the available
ow pattern maps. Subsequently, a detailed study by
Wambsganss et al. [68] provides a more comprehensive
summary and representation of gas-liquid ow patterns.
The role of surface tension becomes more important in
smaller diameter channels. Triplett et al. [67] explain
that due to the dominance of surface tension, stratied
ow is essentially absent, slug (plug) and churn ow
patterns occur over extensive ranges of parameters, and
the slip velocity under these patterns is small. Stratied
ow can exist at very low ow rates, as observed by
Kasza et al. [31] for a mass ux of 21 kg/m
2
s.
Hewitt [19] gives a comprehensive summary of ow
pattern studies available in literature. For large diameter
tubes, the generalized ow pattern map for an airwater
system, developed by Mandhane et al. [48], was quite
representative of other ow conditions as well. How-
ever, the theoretically based transition criteria presented
by Taitel and Dukler [64] is one of the most widely used
ow pattern maps. Hewitt [19] notes that both evapo-
ration and condensation processes have a signicant
eect on the ow patterns.
The eect of evaporation on the ow pattern transi-
tions was considered to be quite small in large diameter
tubes. This is one of the reasons why the ow pattern
studies from gasliquid systems, such as air and water,
were extended to the case of evaporation. In smaller
diameter tubes, the eect of evaporation could be quite
signicant.
The evaporation of the liquid phase aects the ow in
two ways. Firstly, it alters the pressure drop character-
istics by introducing an acceleration pressure drop
component that can be quite large at higher heat uxes.
Secondly, the tube dimension is quite small, and the
eects of surface tension forces become more important
in dening the two-phase structure.
Table 1 also includes the ow pattern studies for
circular tubes and narrow rectangular channels with
hydraulic diameters on the order of 3 mm or smaller.
Cornwell and Kew [13] conducted experiments with R-
113 owing in 1:2 0:9 mm
2
rectangular channels. The
parallel channels were machined in aluminum and a 6-
mm thick glass plate was used to observe the ow pat-
tern. In the ow ranges investigated, three ow patterns
were observed as shown in Fig. 4. They also observed
a strong link between the ow pattern and the heat
transfer coecient. In the isolated bubble region, h /
q
000:7
, indicating the dominance of nucleate boiling.
When the bubbles occupy the entire channel cross-sec-
tion in the conned bubble region, h dependence on q
Fig. 3. Microchannel geometries employed in electronics cooling ap-
plication: (a) cross ow heat exchanger with microchannels [17], (b)
aligned V-grooves in device and wafer plates resulting in diamond
shaped microchannel [21], and (c) microchannels machined in channel
plate [32].
Fig. 4. Flow patterns observed by Cornwell and Kew [13] in
1:2 0:9 mm
2
parallel rectangular channels.
S.G. Kandlikar / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 26 (2002) 389407 395
decreased. The convection eects were dominant in the
annular-slug region. In a subsequent study, Lin et al.
[45] compared the ow region transitions with those
predicted by Barnea et al. [2] for an evaporating steam
water system in 4 mm diameter tubes, and Mishima and
Hibiki [52] for adiabatic airwater system in 2.05 mm
diameter tube. The results indicate that the ow pattern
maps developed for airwater ow are generally appli-
cable, but the transition boundaries need to be rened
for ow boiling in small diameter tubes and channels.
Moriyama and Inoue [53] conducted experiments in
single narrow rectangular channels with R-113. They
observed (i) attened bubbles, conned by the ow
channel (some of them coalescing), (ii) liquid strips
owing along the wall, and (iii) liquid lm ow.
Mertz et al. [51] investigated single- and multichannel
test sections with water and R-141b owing in rectan-
gular multichannels, 1, 2 and 3 mm wide. They observed
the presence of nucleate boiling, conned bubble ow
and annular ow and discovered that the bubble gen-
eration in the channels was not a continuous process. In
addition, the vapor seemed to stay in the channels
blocking the ow and in some cases, causing a reverse
ow to occur in the channels. In both single-channel and
multichannel cases, large pressure pulsations were no-
ticed.
Kasza et al. [31] present a detailed study on ow vi-
sualization of nucleation activity in a rectangular ow
channel of 2:5 6 mm
2
cross-section. They viewed the
ow using a high speed video camera with a maximum
frame rate of 12,000 frames per second. The mass ux
was 21 kg/m
2
s. They observed nucleate boiling on the
wall, as the individual bubbles nucleated and grew on
the wall. The bubble growth rates were similar to those
in pool boiling case when the bubbles grew without in-
teracting with the wall or any liquid-vapor interface.
Kasza et al., made interesting observations on indi-
vidual bubbles and their interaction with other bubbles
and vapor slugs. The vapor slugs were separated from
the wall by a thin liquid lm with a 0.67-mm average
thickness. Nucleation was observed in this liquid lm.
The bubbles growing in this lm did not easily coalesce
with the vapor in the slug. Bubbles growing under the
liquid slug were attened and covered a larger wall area
compared to those growing in the liquid ow. The heat
transfer in the thin liquid microlayer underneath the
bubbles improved the heat transfer; the bubble fre-
quency and the vapor volume both increased for such
bubbles. Their ndings clearly indicate the occurrence of
nucleate boiling in thin liquid lms that exist in both
slug ow and annular ow conditions.
Bonjour and Lallemand [5] report ow patterns of R-
113 boiling in a narrow space between two vertical
surfaces. The ow patterns observed are similar to those
observed by other investigators: isolated bubbles, co-
alesced bubbles, and partial dryout. Comparing the
bubble dimensions with the channel size is vital in de-
termining whether the small channel size inuences
the bubble growth and leads to the conned bubble
ow pattern. Following the work of Yao and Chang
[72], the Bond number, e r=gq
L
q
G

1=2
, along
with the Boiling number, q=Gh
fg
, provided the basis
for the transition from individual to conned bubble
ow. For smaller Bond number, the channel dimension
is smaller than the departure bubble diameter resulting
in conned bubble ow pattern. For large Bond num-
bers, the channel size does not interfere with the bub-
ble ow. A more detailed treatment of the forces acting
on the bubble is needed to clearly identify this boundary.
Kuznetsov and Shamirzaev [39] studied the ow
patterns during ow boiling of R318C in a 0.9-mm an-
nular gap between two circular tubes. This work was an
extension of previous research on airwater systems by
Kuznetsov and Vitovsky [40]. The isolated bubble re-
gion was called as the small bubble region. It was fol-
lowed by long Taylors bubbles, similar to conned
bubbles (dened by earlier investigators), which were
elongated in the ow direction. These bubbles spread
along the periphery of the annular gap and formed a cell
structure referred to as the cell ow regime. As the vapor
quality increased, the annular ow pattern was estab-
lished with a ripple of waves. Coleman and Garimella
[11] and Wambsganss et al. [69] present further evalua-
tion of transition boundaries between ow patterns in
microchannels.
Lakshminarasimhan et al. [41] studied the ow boil-
ing in a narrow rectangular channel, 1 mm high 20
mm wide 357 mm long. They used LCD crystal dis-
play on the heated wall to observe the nucleation front
and locate the onset of nucleate boiling. The ONB was
clearly identied in the laminar ow region with sub-
cooled R-11 entering the ow channel. As the ow rate
increased to the turbulent region, the ONB could not be
identied through this technique due to the high heat
transfer coecient in the subcooled single phase region.
However, it is possible that the ONB may have occurred
at discrete locations rather than appearing as a clear
identiable front.
3.2. Discussion on ow patterns and ow pattern
transitions in minichannels
The three ow patterns shown earlier in Fig. 1 rep-
resent the characteristic ow patterns associated with
two-phase ow in minichannels. It is clear that discrete
bubbles, resulting from nucleation activity on the wall,
are present in the subcooled boiling and low quality
regions. The presence of nucleation in the small diame-
ter tubes is also evident through the available studies.
The observations of nucleating bubbles in the thin liquid
lms by Kasza et al. [31], shown in Fig. 5, are also very
revealing.
396 S.G. Kandlikar / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 26 (2002) 389407
The experimental conditions employed by Kasza et al.
[31] represent low Reynolds number conditions. With
their hydraulic diameter of 3.53 mm and a mass ux of
21 kg/m
2
s, the single-phase Reynolds number is 262 at
one atmosphere pressure. The shear stress eects under
these conditions are expected to be quite low, and it
should not come as a surprise that the growth rate ex-
ponent for nucleating bubbles reects that under pool
boiling conditions. In general, most of the visual studies
are for low ow rates as the bubble activity cannot be
easily traced at higher mass uxes.
Kandlikar and Stumm [26] and Kandlikar and
Spiesman [27] demonstrated presence of nucleating
bubbles under highly sheared ow conditions in a rect-
angular channel. It was noted that bubble nucleation
occurred when the nucleation criterion for available
cavity sizes was satised. The eect of ow and wall
temperature on bubble characteristics is illustrated by
Kandlikar [28] and is shown in Figs. 6 and 7.
Fig. 6 shows the eect of ow Reynolds number on
the bubble growth rate. As the ow velocity increased,
ow changed from laminar to transition region with an
associated increase in the single phase heat transfer co-
ecient. This caused the bubble to grow much faster,
reaching a departure condition in about 25 ms, at
Re 2280, as opposed to 300 ms at Re 1267. The
departure bubble diameter is also inuenced by the ow.
As the ow velocity increases, the drag forces cause the
bubbles to depart at smaller diameters.
Fig. 7 further illustrates the sensitivity of the wall
temperature conditions on the bubble growth rates. A
higher wall temperature, with a greater associated heat
ux, causes the bubbles to grow rapidly and reach the
departure conditions much sooner. The departure sizes
appear to be more dependent on the ow velocity for the
conditions depicted in these gures.
From the observations above, it may be concluded
that the nucleating bubbles are present in ow boiling
under high shear conditions. Kasza et al. [31] observed
such bubbles in thin lms, shown in Fig. 5(b), con-
rming that nucleation can occur in annular ow as
well. Under these conditions, the nucleating bubble size
decreases, and bubble departure frequency increases.
This further conrms the conclusions made by Kandli-
kar and Stumm [26] that a high speed camera with
suitable magnication is needed to observe the nucle-
ating bubbles (a) under high shear stress conditions, and
(b) at high wall temperatures. In fact, the use of high-
speed photography is essential in clearly observing the
nucleation phenomenon and the ow patterns in small
diameter tubes.
The bubbles departing in the ow can exist as indi-
vidual bubbles unless their size is smaller than the
channel dimension normal to the nucleating surface.
Further growth of these bubbles results in their con-
nement by the channel walls under the conned ow
pattern. In reality, the conned ow pattern is similar to
the early stages of the plug ow pattern seen in the
conventional two-phase ow patterns for larger diameter
Fig. 6. Eect of ow on bubble growth, subcooled ow of water at 1
atmospheric pressure in 3 40 mm
2
rectangular channel, T
wall

108 C, T
bulk
80 C, cavity radius 3.2 mm [28].
Fig. 5. Flow patterns and bubble nucleation in the liquid lm observed
by Kasza et al. [31]: (a) ow patterns, (b) nucleation in the liquid lm
under a vapor slug.
Fig. 7. Eect of wall temperature on bubble growth, subcooled ow of
water at 1 atmospheric pressure in 3 40 mm
2
rectangular channel,
T
wall
108 C, T
bulk
80 C, cavity radius 3:2 lm [28].
S.G. Kandlikar / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 26 (2002) 389407 397
tubes (>3 mm). An annular ow pattern then follows at
higher qualities.
3.3. Flow instabilities
The ow instability is another concern in the design
of evaporators that employ small channels. The ow
instabilities can be reduced considerably by increasing
the upstream pressure drop prior to the ow entering a
channel. However, a large diameter ow section gener-
ally precedes the test section in a number of experi-
mental studies pertaining to the gas liquid ows in small
diameter tubes. In the study conducted by Lin et al. [45],
air was introduced in a large mixing chamber upstream
of the test section to reduce the disturbances resulting
from gas injection. The presence of such low pressure
drop regions (immediately preceding the test section)
leads to signicant ow instabilities that cause large
pressure drop excursions, and occasionally result in a
negative pressure drop with a corresponding ow re-
versal in the channel.
The instability occurs in the negative pressure drop
region of the demand curve plotted as the pressure drop
versus inlet velocity of the subcooled liquid. Kennedy
et al. [33] studied the onset of ow instability and noted
that instability sets in at a slightly lower mass ux than
the onset of signicant void condition.
Cornwell and Kew [13] conducted experiments on
ow boiling of R-113 in parallel microchannels. They
observed that the ow was unstable at lower ow rates.
The pressure drop uctuations were not reported.
Kandlikar et al. [30] viewed the ow boiling of water
in electrically heated multichannel evaporators consist-
ing of six parallel channels. The ow structure was
visualized using high speed video camera up to a max-
imum speed of 1000 frames per second. The typical
bubbly ow, slug ow and annular ow patterns were
observed. Nucleation was also observed in the bulk
liquid as well as in the liquid lm. However, the most
interesting discovery made, in an attempt to understand
the severe pressure uctuations (described later under
Pressure Drop section), was a visual conrmation of
complete ow reversal in some of the channels.
Fig. 8 shows the schematic of the multichannel
evaporator investigated by Kandlikar et al. [30]. The
evaporator was heated electrically from the back wall of
the test section. The front part was covered with a high
temperature resistant glass for ow visualization.
Fig. 9 shows the sequence of the events that lead to
ow reversal in the ow channels. Two adjacent central
channels are shown at 2 ms intervals in frames (a)(e).
Both channels (1) and (2) exhibit slug ow in the visible
section.
Vertical lines (y) and (z) indicate the initial bound-
aries of a vapor slug in channel (2) of Fig. 9(a). Vertical
lines (x) and (w) are reference lines to aid visualization
of slug motion throughout the frames.
In Fig. 9(b), channel (1) has ow in the direction of
bulk ow (left to right). The vapor slug in channel (2)
has expanded in the direction of bulk ow yet the inlet-
side uid/vapor interface has not moved. The uid/va-
por interface on the inlet side of the slug in channel (2) is
still stationary in Fig. 9(c) although the outlet-side in-
terface moves in the bulk ow direction. In Fig. 9(d) the
ow in channel (1) moves along the direction of bulk
ow, but the inlet-side uid/vapor interface of the slug in
channel (2) progresses in the direction counter to the
bulk ow. In Fig. 9(e), the inlet uid/vapor interfaces in
both channels move in the direction counter to bulk
ow. For this particular case, it appears that both of the
channels experience a vapor-clogging condition where
the dierential pressure across the channels increases Fig. 8. Multichannel evaporator investigated by Kandlikar [30].
Fig. 9. Successive frames (a)(e) at 2 ms intervals of two channels in-
teracting G 40 kg/m
2
s, surface temperature 110.6 C, entering
water temperature 24.7 C, outlet water temperature 99.3 C,
x > 0.
398 S.G. Kandlikar / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 26 (2002) 389407
due to vapor generation, the mass ow rate is conse-
quently reduced through these two channels. The reac-
tion to this condition in the other four channels would
be an increased ow rate.
3.4. Concluding remarks on ow patterns
The ow patterns observed in the small channels in-
dicate that the nucleating bubbles play an important
role in small diameter channels. The three predominant
ow patterns are(a) isolated bubbles, (b) conned
bubbles, and (c) annular-slug. Note that the ow pat-
terns under high mass ux conditions (G > 500 kg=m
2
s)
have not been studied in literature due to diculty in
capturing the high-speed movement under these condi-
tions. Further work in this area is recommended.
4. Nucleation and two-phase ow in microchannels
Flow boiling in microchannels is a topic of current
interest with its application to microelectronics cooling.
Peng and Wang [55] suggested that the nucleate boiling
was suppressed and ctitious boiling occurred. Cuta
et al. [14] studied single-phase and ow boiling heat
transfer in 425 lm hydraulic diameter rectangular mi-
crochannels. At lower qualities, they noted very high
heat transfer rates indicative of nucleate boiling.
Jiang et al. [22] studied ow boiling of DI water in V-
grooved microchannels with hydraulic diameters of 40
and 80 lm. They also observed the ow with a regular
CCD camera. At low heat uxes they observed bubbles
nucleating on the wall even in these small channels. At
higher heat uxes, large vapor bubbles were formed in
the inlet manifold blocking the entrance to the channels.
These bubbles were periodically swept through the
channels very rapidly. The 60 frames per second camera
speed was not able to capture the propagation of the
vapor slug through the channels. They did not observe
any bubble activity in the channel at higher heat uxes;
this could very well be due to the low camera speed.
Fig. 10 shows a view of a 1 mm square channel sec-
tion under nucleate boiling with DI water. These ex-
periments were performed in the Thermal Analysis
Laboratory at RIT using a camera speed of 1000 fps.
The smallest bubbles seen in this picture are on the order
of 50 lm. In some of the frames, the bubbles appear in
only one frame indicating the high bubble frequency
under these conditions. This again shows that high op-
tical resolution with a high camera speed is necessary to
detect nucleating bubbles. The small bubbles observed
by Jiang et al. [22] in 40 lm channels shows that bubbles
can nucleate and grow in microchannels. Peng and
Wangs [55] assertion of ctitious boiling seems to be
questionable. Similar observations are made by Stanley
et al. [62].
Hestroni et al. [18] studied the evaporation of water
in multichannel evaporators. The evaporators consisted
of 2126 parallel ow passages with channel hydraulic
diameters of 0.1030.129 mm. They observed periodic
behavior of the ow patterns in these channels. The ow
changed from single-phase ow to annular ow with
some cases of dryout. The dryout, however, did not
result in a sharp increase in the wall temperature. This
clearly indicates that there is still some evaporating
liquid lm on the channel walls that could not be ob-
served in the video images. They also reported the
presence of vapor phase in the inlet plenum.
Serizawa and Feng [59] studied airwater and steam
water ows in 50 and 25 lm diameter transparent tubes.
They found that the ow in microchannels of these di-
mensions is signicantly aected by the surface tension
of the liquid. Two additional ow patterns were ob-
served: liquid lump ow, which is similar to the wavy
stratied ow with liquid lumps occurring intermit-
tently, and liquid ring ow, which is essentially annular
ow with short lengths (on the order of the tube diam-
eter) of thick liquid lm propagating along the ow.
Serizawa and Feng observed the ow patterns adiabatic
ows. It would be interesting to see the eect of heat
transfer during ow boiling in microchannels.
5. Pressure drop in small diameter ow boiling channels
5.1. Single channel
Pressure drop in small diameter tubes has been
studied by a number of investigators. Lazarek and Black
[42] conducted systematic experiments to evaluate the
three components of pressure drop. The desired quality
was generated in the heated inlet section and the fric-
tional pressure drop was measured under adiabatic
conditions in the discharge section. The frictional pres-
sure was correlated using a correlation recommended by
Collier [12] with the Martinelli parameter v
tt
:
Fig. 10. Dierential pressure history for a six channel (1 1 mm
2
)
parallel conguration G 48 kg/m
2
s, DP
max
=L 4688 Pa/m,
DP
min
=L 1793 Pa/m, average surface temperature 125 C, q
00

74:3 kW/m
2
, water inlet and outlet temperatures 25.0 and 90.2 C [30].
S.G. Kandlikar / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 26 (2002) 389407 399
Dp
TP
Dp
LO
1
C
v
tt

1
v
2
tt
1
The subscript TP corresponds to the two-phase value,
while LO corresponds to the value with the total ow in
the liquid phase. Lazarek and Black found that using
a value of C 30 produces results that are in good
agreement with their experimental data. The value of C
recommended by Collier is 20 for large tubes.
The acceleration pressure drop was accurately pre-
dicted using the Martinelli and Nelsons [49] separated
ow model with a multiplier K
sa
Dp
sa
G
2
=2q
L

K
sa
q
L
q
G
x
2
ex
a
ex
"

1 x
2
1 a
ex

q
L
q
G
x
2
in
a
in

1 x
in

2
1 a
in
#
2
Here x is the vapor quality and a is the void fraction. K
sa
is an empirical constant. Lazarek and Black found that a
value of K 2:5 correlated most of their data within
20 percent.
Moriyama and Inoue [53] measured pressure drop of
R-113 boiling in narrow annular gaps of 35110 lm.
Their experimental values for frictional pressure drop
were correlated by slightly modifying Eq. (1). From
their study, it is evident that the separated ow model is
applicable for the narrow gaps typically encountered in
microchannel applications.
On the other hand, Bowers and Mudawar [6] em-
ployed a homogeneous ow model with f
TP
0:003, as
recommended by Collier [12]. Their results for both
minichannels and microchannels were correlated to
within 30% with this model.
Tong et al. [65] present an exhaustive treatment of
pressure drop during subcooled ow boiling in mini-
channels. In addition, they presented a correlation to
predict the two-phase pressure drop. Since the void
fraction was very small, a two-phase friction factor was
applied. They observed a roughness eect on the single-
phase laminar to turbulent transition in these tubes. The
eect of tube diameter to length ratio was also noted to
be quite signicant.
Lee and Lee [43] studied the single- and two-phase
ow pressure drop with adiabatic ow of water and air
in 20 mm wide channels with heights ranging from 0.4 to
2 mm. They found that the standard fully developed
laminar and turbulent ow equations for the single-
phase ow were valid for their channels. The two-phase
results were correlated by Eq. (1) with a modied ex-
pression for the constant C:
C Ak
a
w
b
Re
s
LO
3
where A, a, and b are constants dependent on the lam-
inar or turbulent ow in the two phases. Table 2 lists
their values.
Lee and Lee [44] conducted ow boiling experiments
with R-113 in the same channels as employed by [43] in
their adiabatic studies described in the preceding para-
graph. The mass ux ranged from 50 to 200 kg/m
2
s, and
the heat ux ranged from 315 kW/m
2
. Their frictional
pressure drop data was correlated within 15 percent.
From the studies available in literature, the eect of
channel dimension on two-phase pressure drop is not
clearly established. Although several investigators pro-
vide dierent schemes to correlate their data, they do not
provide a clear indication of the eect of small passage
sizes on pressure drop. The added eect of channel wall
roughness on pressure drop, seen in the single phase
data, is also not incorporated while analyzing the two-
phase pressure drop parameters. These eects will be-
come more important as the channel size decreases from
minichannel to microchannel geometries.
5.2. Multichannels
As the tube diameter decreases, the vapor slugs ll the
tubes. Under two-phase ow conditions, ow instabili-
ties occur when the pressure drop in the upstream sec-
tion is relatively small. Introducing a large pressure drop
through a throttle valve in the liquid line immediately
prior to the test section considerably reduces the insta-
bilities. These instabilities have a signicant eect on
pressure drop and heat transfer under ow boiling
conditions.
Fig. 10 shows the pressure drop uctuations mea-
sured in a multichannel evaporator with six parallel
1 1 mm
2
square microchannels. Similar observations
were made by Kew and Cornwell [34] during ow
boiling of R-141b in 2-mm square channels and in 2.87-
mm diameter circular tubes. The pressure drop uctu-
ations observed by Kandlikar et al. [30] are quite large
and result in ow reversals as discussed earlier under
ow patterns in Section 2 of this paper. The compress-
ibility of the two-phase mixture, in adjacent channels,
Table 2
Constants and exponents in Eq. (3) [43,44]
Flow regime liq/gas A a b s Range of X Range of Re
LO
Lam/Lam 6.833E-8 1.317 0.719 0.527 0.77614.176 1751480
Lam/Turb 6.185E-2 0 0.726 0.3031.426 2931506
Turb/Lam 3.627 0 0.174 3.27679.415 260617642
Turb/Turb 0.408 0 0.451 1.30914.781 267517757
400 S.G. Kandlikar / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 26 (2002) 389407
acts in a manner similar to the negative slope in the
upstream section of a single evaporator tube. The large
pressure drop uctuations lead to instantaneous local-
ized ow reversal in some of the parallel channels. There
are no models currently available that predict the pres-
sure drop uctuations and the ow reversals under ow
boiling conditions. Knowledge of these conditions is
essential for safe operation of evaporators employing
minichannels and microchannels.
6. Heat transfer during ow boiling
6.1. Small diameter tubes and minichannels
Flow boiling in small diameter tubes and compact
heat exchanger passages has been a subject of interest in
automotive, aerospace, air liquefaction, chemical, and
petroleum industries, as well as in electronics cooling
applications. Nakayama and Yabe [54], and Kew and
Cornwell [35] present a good overview of the recent
advances in this area. Table 1 includes some of the re-
cent works on ow boiling heat transfer in minichannels.
Flow boiling heat transfer in 13 mm diameter
channels has been a subject of investigation for a long
time. In one of the earlier papers, Bergles [3] studied the
critical heat ux in 0.584, 1.194, and 2.388 mm diameter
electrically heated tubes. They indicated that when the
bubble diameter approaches the tube diameter, consid-
erable non-equilibrium vapor volume exists in the
evaporator section, and ow oscillations cause a pre-
mature burnout in the small diameter tubes.
Bowers and Mudawar [6] studied ow boiling pres-
sure drop and CHF in a minichannel of 2.54 mm di-
ameter, and a microchannel of 510 lm diameter. Boiling
curves for the two channels were obtained at nearly
equal values of liquid Reynolds number. Their results
are reproduced in Fig. 11. Despite the large variation in
the tube diameter, the two curves overlap in the boiling
region. It is believed that these experiments fall under
the fully developed nucleate boiling regime. The dier-
ences between the two boiling curves are only evident at
low heat ux (near single phase region) and high heat
ux values (approaching CHF condition). This indicates
that in spite of the dierences in the ow characteristics
of the channels, the ow boiling behavior is quite similar
in the two geometries.
The detailed ow boiling data by Lazarek and Black
[42] provides a clear comparison between the ow
boiling characteristics of minichannels and regular tubes
(>3 mm diameter). Fig. 12 shows a comparison of
Lazarek and Blacks ow boiling data in a 3.1 mm di-
ameter tube and Kandlikars [24] ow boiling correla-
tion. The correlation represents the data quite well,
although some dierences exist in the high quality re-
gion. While a detailed study is warranted, as a rst order
approximation, one may use the correlations developed
for the large diameter tubes in order to predict the ow
boiling heat transfer coecient in minichannels.
Cornwell and Kew [13] conducted experiments in two
sets of parallel channel geometries, 1:2 0:9 mm
2
deep,
and 3:25 1:1 mm
2
deep. Their results indicate that the
ow boiling in such small channels exhibits fully devel-
oped nucleate boiling characteristics in the isolated
bubble region at lower qualities. At higher qualities
(when the bubbles ll the entire cross section), and in the
annular ow region, convective eects dominate heat
transfer. These characteristics are similar to those ob-
served for the large diameter tubes. The isolated and
conned bubble regions exhibit the characteristics sim-
ilar to the nucleate boiling dominant region, while the
annular-slug region exhibits the convective dominant
trend seen in large diameter tubes [25].
Another aspect of ow boiling heat transfer in small
channels is the oscillatory nature of the ow. The time-
averaged value between two regions (i.e. between the
conned bubble and the annular regions) would yield a
combination of nucleate boiling dominant and convec-
tive boiling dominant regions. Purely ow pattern based
correlations need to include this averaging eect. Since
the large diameter correlations combine these eects,
Fig. 11. Flow boiling characteristics in minichannel and microchannel
evaporators (Bowers and Mudawar, 1993).
Fig. 12. Comparison of ow boiling heat transfer coecient data by
Lazarek and Black [42] with Kandlikar [24] correlation.
S.G. Kandlikar / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 26 (2002) 389407 401
rather than using distinct boundaries, they are expected
to provide the basis for accurate correlation schemes for
small diameter tubes and channels.
Continuing the work in this area, Lin et al. [46] ob-
tained ow boiling data with R-141b in 1-mm diameter
tubes. Specically, they presented detailed results at
G 500kg=m
2
s with q from 18 to 72 kW/m
2
. Their
results indicate that the heat transfer coecient exhibits
behavior similar to that reported by Cornwell and Kew
[13]. The role played by bubbles is clearly an important
one. At high heat uxes, they observed considerable
uctuations in the wall temperature readings, indicative
of ow oscillations that cause changes in the instanta-
neous values of local saturation temperature and heat
transfer rate.
Wambsganss et al. [70] conducted extensive experi-
ments on ow boiling of R-113 in a 2.92 mm diameter
tube. Their results indicate that the heat transfer coef-
cient was sensitive to both heat ux and mass ux
changes, except for the lowest mass ux result. At the
lowest value, G 50 kg=m
2
s, changing the heat ux
from 8 to 16 kW/m
2
did not have any inuence on the
heat transfer coecient. One possible explanation is that
for this case, the nucleate boiling is in the partial boiling
region at low heat uxes, and the eect of heat ux is
therefore quite small. For their other test conditions, the
mass ux was varied from 100 to 300 kg/m
2
s, and the
heat ux was varied from 16 to 63 kW/m
2
. For these
tests, the heat transfer coecient exhibited a dependence
on both heat ux and mass ux. This indicates the
contributions from both nucleate boiling and convective
boiling mechanisms. They also compared their data with
the available correlations and found that the correla-
tions by Liu and Winterton [47], Shah [60], and Kan-
dlikar [24] predicted their results with a mean deviation
of less than 20 percent. (It may be noted that the chart
correlation by Shah [60] was presented in equation form
by Shah [61].) In particular, Wambsganss et al. found
that the specic correlation developed by Lazarek and
Black [42], who used their own small diameter tube data
with R-113 in the correlation development, predicted the
data with a mean error of 12.7 percent. The Chen [9]
correlation predicted the results with a mean deviation
of 36 percent.
Mertz et al. [51] conducted extensive experiments
with water and R-141b boiling in six dierent mini-
channel congurations. The ow boiling was observed
as oscillatory phenomena in multichannels. It is inter-
esting to note that while the heat transfer coecient
increased with heat ux in almost all cases for single
channels, the trend for water owing in the multichannel
conguration at G 200 kg=m
2
C was dierent. For
all channels in multichannel conguration, the heat
transfer coecient decreased with increasing heat uxes.
It is suspected that the ow oscillations and reversals
observed in the multichannels are responsible for the
degradation in heat transfer. For R-141b boiling in
multichannel conguration, the heat ux eects were
weak and somewhat mixed.
Mertz et al. [51] observed that the heat transfer co-
ecient for both uids in the multichannel conguration
was considerably higher than the corresponding single
channel values under the same operating conditions.
Fig. 13 shows the comparison for water (at 200 kg/m
2
s
in 2 4 mm
2
channels) in single and multichannel con-
gurations under the same operating conditions. The
oscillatory behavior found in the multichannel evapo-
rator is therefore regarded to improve the heat transfer,
although the improvement decreases at higher heat
uxes. Another point to note is that the heat transfer
coecient is lower for the 1 1 mm
2
multichannel
conguration than for its 2 4 mm
2
counterpart as
shown in Fig. 13.
Tran et al. [66] conducted experiments with R-12 in
small circular and rectangular channels both of 2.46 mm
hydraulic diameter. Their results indicated two distinct
regions, convective boiling dominant region at lower
wall superheat values, and nucleate boiling dominant
region at higher wall superheat values. They compared
their data with the Kandlikar [24] correlation and found
that it exhibited similar trends, but underpredicted the
results. One reason for this dierence is the fact that the
single phase heat transfer coecients in small diameter
tubes is generally higher than those predicted by the
DittusBoelter type correlations. It is recommended that
the measured single phase heat transfer coecients be
used in the correlation as recommended by Kandlikar
[25].
It is interesting to note that the heat transfer coe-
cients obtained by Tran et al. at higher qualities exhib-
ited a dependence on heat ux alone. The mass ux had
virtually no inuence on the heat transfer coecient.
Fig. 13. Comparisons of the average heat transfer coecient trend-
lines for water in 2 4 mm
2
single and multichannel congurations,
and 1 1 mm
2
multichannel conguration, G 200 kg/m
2
s, T
SAT

120 C [51].
402 S.G. Kandlikar / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 26 (2002) 389407
These observations are supported by the visual obser-
vations made by Kasza et al. [31] who studied ow
boiling of water in rectangular channels of 2:5 6 mm
2
cross-section. They concluded that the increased bubble
activity at nucleation sites in the thin liquid lm is re-
sponsible for high heat transfer coecient in small hy-
draulic diameter tubes and channels. Kuznetsov and
Shamirzaev [39] conducted experiments with R-318C in
an annular gap of 0.9 mm. They observed that at higher
values of quality, nucleation was seen to be suppressed.
However, their experimental results were in agreement
with the correlation by Tran et al. [66] which was de-
veloped for nucleate boiling dominant region.
Kamidis and Ravigururajan [23] conducted ow
boiling experiments with R-113 in circular tube, 1.59,
2.78, 3.97 and 4.62 mm in diameter. Their results indi-
cate that very high heat transfer coecients on the order
of 10 kW/m
2
C are obtained in the ow boiling region.
Fig. 14 shows a comparison of their data for the 1.59
mm diameter tube with the Kandlikar [24] correlation.
For the Reynolds number of 5720, the agreement is
excellent. For Re 2370, the correlation underpredicts
the data. It is suspected that the Reynolds number is in
the transition region where the turbulent, single-phase
heat transfer correlation is not applicable. Kennedy et al.
[33] studied the instability during ow boiling of water
in circular tubes of 1.17 and 1.45 mm diameter. Based
on their results, they proposed that the instability is
initiated in the tube when the impressed heat ux is 90
percent of the value required to obtain saturated vapor
condition at the exit section.
Lakshminarasimhan et al. [41] conducted experi-
ments with R-11 in 1 20 mm
2
rectangular channels.
They noted that their saturated ow boiling data was
accurately predicted using the large tube correlation by
Kandlikar [24]. They also observed a clear boiling front
with liquid ow in the laminar region. In the turbulent
region, the boiling front could not be clearly viewed due
to the high heat transfer coecient in the single-phase
region prior to nucleation.
Flow boiling in rectangular channels with R-113 was
studied by Lee and Lee [44] with a channel width of 20
mm and channel heights ranging from 0.4 to 2 mm.
They found that their ow boiling data was correlated
well with the Kandlikar [24] correlation (with a mean
deviation of 16 percent). They considered the low liquid
ow rate data separately and developed equations based
on the lm ow model. The data above a lm Reynolds
number of 200 was correlated by the Kandlikar corre-
lation with a mean deviation of 10 percent.
Recently, Khodabandeh and Palm [37], Kim and
Bang [36], and Warrier et al. [71], reported the results of
their experimental studies of ow boiling in 1.5, 1.66 and
0.75 mm hydraulic diameter channels (see Table 1 for
details). The results indicate that the heat transfer co-
ecients in these geometries are of the same order as
predicted by existing ow boiling correlations for large
diameter tubes.
The experimental studies available in literature pro-
vide some preliminary data on ow boiling heat transfer
in small diameter tubes and channels. In the case of
Lazarek and Blacks [42] and Lakshminarasimhan et al.
[41] data, the Kandlikar [24] correlation for large di-
ameter tubes predicted the results satisfactorily. How-
ever, Tran et al. [66] indicated a signicant enhancement
over the large diameter correlations. Recent data by Lee
and Lee [44] indicates that the Kandlikar correlation is
able to predict the ow boiling heat transfer data quite
well. Pressure uctuations and multichannel eects are
not clearly understood for small diameter tube. As noted
by many investigators, including Lin et al. [46] and
Mertz et al. [51], pressure uctuations have a signicant
eect on the ow characteristics and associated heat
transfer performance. The periodic lling of the ow
channel with large vapor plugs, followed by all liquid
ow in the channel, make it very dicult to apply ow
pattern based models to predict the heat transfer rates.
6.2. Microchannels
Another class of ow channels that have received
some attention in literature are those with hydraulic
diameters below 300 lm. These channels are referred
to as microchannels. There are very few quantitative
studies available for the microchannel geometry under
ow boiling conditions. Further eorts are needed in
this area to generate high-quality experimental data in
microchannels under ow boiling conditions. This geo-
metry has been investigated with its potential applica-
tion in microelectronics cooling. Table 1 clearly indicates
that there is very little quantitative data available for
microchannels.
Ravigururajan et al. [58] studied ow boiling in a
microchannel 270 lm wide and 11 mm deep. The
working uid was R-124, and was tested over the
entire quality range. They found that the heat transfer
Fig. 14. Comparison of Kamadis and Ravigururajan [23] data with
Kandlikar correlation (1990) for 1.59 mm diameter tube, R-113.
S.G. Kandlikar / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 26 (2002) 389407 403
coecient decreased from a value of 11 kW/m
2
C at
x 0:01 to about 8 kW/m
2
C at x 0:65. Although no
conclusions were drawn, this behavior may be the results
of the two trends: (a) the nucleate boiling heat transfer
is dominant, leading to its suppression at higher quali-
ties, or (b) the higher vapor fraction leads to ow os-
cillations in multichannels with a consequent increase in
the heat transfer coecient.
A number of investigators (for example, Peng and
Wang [56], Peng et al. [57]) have indicated that the ow
boiling heat transfer in microchannels may be quite
dierent than that of larger diameter tubes. They also
indicated that the regular nucleate boiling phenomenon
does not exist in microchannels.
Peng and Wang [56] conducted experiments with
water, ethanol, and their mixtures in dierent shaped
microchannel geometries (listed in Table 1). They noted
the presence of both nucleate boiling and convective
boiling in various regimes. They did not observe any
bubble activity in the rectangular and triangular pas-
sages with hydraulic diameters between 0.1 and 0.6 mm.
In turn, they called it a ctitious boiling phenomenon.
It is dicult to accept the notion of the ctitious
boiling presented by Peng and Wang [56]. Similar
studies reported by Kandlikar and Stumm [26] and
Kandlikar and Speisman [27] with a channel height of 3
mm indicates that bubbles as small as 10 lm are seen to
depart from the nucleating sites. The key to observing
bubble activity in small channels is to employ high speed
photography along with a high resolution microscope.
The theoretical analysis presented by Peng and Wang
[56] considers a bubble nucleus that completely lls the
tube. The microchannel dimension is on the order of 100
lm, while the cavity sizes for active nucleation are on
the order of a few lm or smaller. It is expected that
the nucleation criterion for ow boiling, established for
large diameter tubes, will hold true unless the tube
diameter approaches the cavity dimensions. Such a con-
dition may exist only in submicron-sized tubes.
The studies reported by Harris et al. [17], Jiang and
Wong [21] and Kawano et al. [32] provide useful infor-
mation on heat transfer in microchannels. The micro-
fabrication technology used in the development of
MEMS devices is yet to be integrated at the manufac-
turing level for microchannel fabrication. However, the
trend is clearly in that direction. Once the potential of
microchannel cooling is clearly established, it is expected
that this geometry will be more widely implemented
especially in microelectronics cooling.
A recent study conducted by Koo et al. [38] investi-
gated microchannel heat exchanger under a VLSI chips.
They utilized rectangular microchannels of 50 70 lm
2
in cross-section with water as the evaporating uid.
They developed a thermal simulation program using the
Kandlikar [24] correlation for predicting the heat
transfer coecient. The experimental results for the
temperature distribution in the chip were in good
agreement with the predicted values. Based on this
comparison, Koo et al. [38] designed a 200 W heat sink
on a 25 25 mm
2
chip.
In summary, ow boiling in microchannels is an area
where further research is needed. The diculty in ob-
serving the bubbles and in the accurate measurement of
heat uxes at the wall make it very dicult to under-
stand the mechanism of ow boiling heat transfer in this
geometry. With the availability of more accurate data,
we may be able to nd some of the answers in the near
future.
7. Conclusions
On the basis of a critical literature review and the
work conducted by the author, the following conclu-
sions can be drawn:
1. Three ow patterns are commonly encountered dur-
ing ow boiling in minichannels: isolated bubble,
conned bubble or plug/slug, and annular. The visual
studies available in literature have been generally
conducted for low mass ux values in tubes of 1-
mm or larger hydraulic diameters.
2. The literature on ow patterns in microchannels is in-
sucient to draw any conclusions at this stage. How-
ever, the eect of surface tension is quite signicant
causing the liquid to form small uniformly spaced
slugs that ll the tube, sometimes forming liquid
rings. Also, the presence of small nucleating bubbles,
as small as 1020 lm. has been conrmed.
3. Large pressure drop uctuations are noted in mul-
tichannel evaporators. Flow pattern observations
revealed a ow reversal in some channels with ex-
panding bubbles pushing the liquidvapor interface
in both upstream and downstream directions.
4. Heat transfer studies in the microchannels indicate
that, as a rst order estimate, heat transfer may be
predicted using the ow boiling correlations devel-
oped for large diameter tubes.
5. The heat transfer rate in multichannel evaporators is
dierent from that in single-channel evaporators un-
der the same set of operating conditions. The eects
of the ow rate uctuations due to ow instabilities
on heat transfer and pressure drop are not clearly un-
derstood at this stage.
6. The severe pressure drop uctuations are not in-
cluded in any pressure drop prediction schemes for
minichannel and microchannel evaporators. Both
separated and homogeneous ow models have been
used with some degree of success by previous investi-
gators.
7. In designing the evaporators with small diameter
channels, the length to diameter ratio depends on
404 S.G. Kandlikar / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 26 (2002) 389407
the heat transfer and pressure drop characteristics.
Larger pressure drops are generally accepted in evap-
orators with small diameter channels.
8. Future research needs
The future research needs are summarized below:
1. Conduct high speed video studies to obtain ow pat-
tern information under high mass ux conditions in
small diameter tubes and channels.
2. Compare the performance of single tube evaporators
and multichannel evaporators under the same operat-
ing conditions and identify the reasons for the dier-
ences in their performance.
3. Study the eects of inlet ow conditions and manifold
design on the performance of the multichannel evap-
orator.
4. Conduct more experiments with microchannel evapo-
rators to obtain accurate ow boiling heat transfer
and pressure drop data as a function of quality, heat
ux, mass ux, and tube/channel hydraulic diameter.
5. Critical heat ux is an important factor in the design
of evaporators. Although not covered in this paper
due to space constraint, there is a need for obtaining
more experimental data for CHF in single and paral-
lel minichannel and microchannels.
References
[1] O. Baker, Simultaneous ow of oil and gas, Oil Gas J. 53 (1954)
185.
[2] D. Barnea, Y. Luninsky, Y. Taitel, Flow pattern in horizontal and
vertical two-phase ow in small diameter pipes, Can. J. Chem.
Eng. 61 (1983) 617620.
[3] A.E. Bergles, Subcooled Burnout in Tubes of Small Diameter,
ASME Paper No. 63-WA-182, 1963.
[4] A.E. Bergles, R.F. Lopina, M.P. Fiori, Critical heat ux and ow
pattern observations for low pressure water owing in tubes, J.
Heat Transfer 89 (1967) 6974.
[5] J. Bonjour, M. Lallemand, Flow patterns during boiling in a
narrow space between two vertical surfaces, Int. J. Multiphase
Flow 24 (1998) 947960.
[6] M.B. Bowers, I. Mudawar, High ux boiling in low ow rate, low
pressure drop mini-channel and micro-channel heat sinks, Int. J.
Heat Mass Transfer 37 (2) (1994) 321334.
[7] Bo Pierre, Varmeovergangen vid Kokande Koldmedier horizon-
tella Ror, Kylteknisk Tidskrift 3 (1957) 129137.
[8] J.M. Chawla, Warmeubergang und Druckabfall in Waagerechten
Rohren bei der Stromung von verdampfenden Kaltemitteln, VDI-
Forschungschefte No. 523, 1966.
[9] J.C. Chen, A correlation for boiling heat transfer to saturated
uids in convective ow, Ind. Eng. Chem. Proc. DD. 5 (3) (1966)
322329.
[10] M. Cohen, V.P. Carey, A comparison of ow boiling performance
characteristics of partially-heated cross-ribbed channels with
dierent rib geometries, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 32 (1989)
24592474.
[11] J.W. Coleman, S. Garimella, Two-phase ow regime transitions in
microchannel tubes: the eect of hydraulic diameter, HTD-Vol.
366-4, Proceedings of the ASME Heat Transfer Division-2000,
Vol. 4, ASME IMECE 2000, pp. 7183.
[12] J.G. Collier, Convective Boiling and Condensation, McGraw-Hill,
London, 1981.
[13] K. Cornwell, P.A. Kew, Boiling in small parallel channels,
Proceedings of CEC Conference on Energy Eciency in Process
Technology, Athens, October 1992, Paper 22, Elsevier Applied
Sciences, 1992, pp. 624638.
[14] J.M. Cuta, C.E. McDonald, A. Shekarriz, Forced convection heat
transfer in parallel channel array microchannel heat exchanger,
ASME PID-Vol. 2/HTD-Vol. 338, Advances in Energy Eciency,
Heat and Mass Transfer Enhancement, 1996, pp. 1722.
[15] R.S. Downing, J. Meinecke, G. Kojasoy, The eects of curvature
on pressure drop for single and two-phase ow in miniature
channels, Proceedings of NHTC2000: 34th National Heat Trans-
fer Conference, Pittsburgh, PA, August 2022, 2000, Paper No.
NHTC2000-12100.
[16] T. Fukano, A. Kariyasaki, M. Kagawa, Flow patterns and
pressure drop in isothermal gasliquid ow in a horizontal
capillary tube, ANS Proceedings, 1989 National Heat Transfer
Conference, ISBN 0-89448-149-5, ANS, Vol. 4, 1989, pp. 153
161.
[17] C. Harris, M. Despa, K. Kevin Kelly, Design and fabrication of a
cross ow microheat exchanger, J. Micromech. Syst. 9 (4) (2000)
502508.
[18] G. Hetsroni, Z. Segal, A. Mosyak, Nonuniform temperature
distribution in electronic devices cooled by ow in parallel
microchannels, Packaging of Electronic and Photonic Devices,
EEP 28 (2000) 19.
[19] G.F. Hewitt, Fluid mechanics aspects of two-phase ow, in: S.G.
Kandlikar, M. Shoji, V.K. Dhir (Eds.), Handbook of Boiling and
Condensation, Taylor and Francis, NY, 2000, Chapter 9.
[20] G.F. Hewitt, D.N. Roberts, Studies of two-phase ow patterns by
simultaneous X-ray and ash photography, UK AEA Report
ASRE-M2159, 1969.
[21] L. Jiang, M. Wong, Phase change in microchannel heat sinks with
integrated temperature sensors, J. Micromech. Syst. 8 (4) (1999)
358365.
[22] L. Jiang, M. Wong, Y. Zohar, Phase change in microchannel heat
sink under forced convection boiling, Proceedings of IEEE
International Conference on MicroElectro Mechanical Systems,
IEEE, 2000, pp. 397402.
[23] D.E. Kamidis, T.S. Ravigururajan, Single and two-phase refrig-
erant ow in mini-channels, Proceedings of NHTC2000: 33rd
National Heat Transfer Conference, Albuquerque, NM, August
2022, 2000, Paper no. NHTC2000-12100, 1999, pp. 18.
[24] S.G. Kandlikar, A general correlation for saturated two-phase
ow boiling heat transfer inside horizontal and vertical tubes,
ASME J. Heat Transfer 112 (1990) 219228.
[25] S.G. Kandlikar, Development of a ow boiling map for saturated
and subcooled ow boiling of dierent uids in circular tubes, J.
Heat Transfer 113 (1991) 190200.
[26] S.G. Kandlikar, B.S. Stumm, A control volume approach to
predict departure bubble diameter in ow boiling, ASME J. Heat
Transfer 117 (1995) 990997.
[27] S.G. Kandlikar, Spiesman, Eect of surface characteristics on ow
boiling heat transfer, Paper presented at the Engineering Foun-
dation conference on Convective and Pool Boiling, Irsee, Ger-
many, May 1825, 1997.
[28] S.G. Kandlikar, Flow boiling in circular tubes, in: S.G. Kandlikar,
M. Shoji, V.K. Dhir (Eds.), Handbook of Boiling and Conden-
sation, Taylor and Francis, NY, 2000, Chapter 15.
[29] S.G. Kandlikar, Two-phase ow patterns, pressure drop and heat
transfer during boiling in minichannel and microchannel ow
passages of compact evaporators, Keynote Lecture presented at
the Engineering Foundation Conference on Compact Heat
Exchangers, Davos, Switzerland, July 16, 2001.
S.G. Kandlikar / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 26 (2002) 389407 405
[30] S.G. Kandlikar, M.E. Steinke, S. Tian, L.A. Campbell, High-
speed photographic observation of ow boiling of water in
parallel minichannels, Paper presented at the ASME National
Heat Transfer Conference, ASME, June 2001.
[31] K.E. Kasza, T. Didascalou, M.W. Wambsganss, Microscale ow
visualization of nucleate boiling in small channels: mechanisms
inuencing heat transfer, in: R.K. Shah (Ed.), Proceedings of
International Conference on Compact Heat Exchanges for the
Process Industries, New York, Begell House Inc., 1997, pp. 343
352.
[32] K. Kawano, K. Minakami, H. Iwasaki, M. Ishizuka, Microchan-
nel heat exchanger for cooling electrical equipment, HTD-Vol.
261/PID-Vol. 3, Proceedings of the ASME HTD 3, 1998, pp. 173
180.
[33] J.E. Kennedy, G.M. Roach Jr., M.F. Dowling, S.I. Abdel-Khalik,
S.M. Ghiaasiaan, S.M. Jeter, Z.H. Quereshi, The onset of ow
instability in uniformly heated horizontal microchannels, ASME
J. Heat Transfer 122 (2000) 118125.
[34] P.A. Kew, K. Cornwell, On pressure drop uctuations during
boiling in narrow channels, in: G.P. Celata, P. Di Marco, A.
Mariani (Eds.), 2nd European Thermal Sciences and 14th UIT
National Heat Transfer Conference, Edizioni ETS, 1996.
[35] P.A. Kew, K. Cornwell, Flow boiling in compact heat exchangers,
in: Handbook of Phase Change: Boiling and Condensation,
Taylor and Francis, 2000, pp. 412427, Chapter 16.2.
[36] J.M. Kim, K.H. Bang, Evaporation heat transfer of refrigerant R-
22 in small diameter tubes, Proceedings of the Fourth Interna-
tional Conference on Multiphase Flow, ASME, New Orleans,
May 27June 1, 2001.
[37] R. Khodabandeh, B. Palm, Heat transfer coecient in the vertical
narrow channels of the evaporator of an advanced thermosyphon
loop, Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on
Multiphase Flow, ASME, New Orleans, May 27June 1, 2001.
[38] J.M. Koo, L. Jiang, L. Zhang, L. Zhou, S.S. Banerjee, T.W.
Kenny, J.G. Santiago, K.E. Goodson, Modeling of two-phase
microchannel heat sinks for VLSI chips, Proceedings of the IEEE
14th International MEMS conference, Interlaken, Switzerland,
January 2001.
[39] V.V. Kuznetsov, A.S. Shamirzaev, Two-phase ow pattern and
ow boiling heat transfer in noncircular channel with a small gap,
Two-Phase Flow Modeling and Experimentation (1999) 249
253.
[40] V.V. Kuznetsov, O.V. Vitovsky, Flow pattern of two-phase ow
in vertical annuli and rectangular channel with narrow gap, in:
G.P. Celata, R.K. Shah (Eds.), Two-Phase Flow Modelling and
Experimentation, Edizioni ETS, 1995.
[41] M.S. Lakshminarasimhan, D.K. Hollingsworth, L.C. Witte,
Boiling incipience in narrow channels, HTD-Vol. 366-4, Proceed-
ings of the ASME Heat Transfer Division 2000, ASME IMECE
2000, Vol. 4, 2000, pp. 5563.
[42] G.M. Lazarek, S.H. Black, Evaporative heat transfer, pressure
drop and critical heat ux in a small diameter vertical tube with R-
113, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 25 (7) (1982) 945960.
[43] H.J. Lee, S.Y. Lee, Pressure drop correlations for two-phase ow
within horizontal rectangular channels with small heights, Int. J.
Multiphase Flow 27 (2001a) 783796.
[44] H.J. Lee, S.Y. Lee, Pressure drop and heat transfer characteristics
of ow boiling in small rectangular horizontal channels, Interna-
tional Conference on Multiphase Flow, ASME Fluid Mechanics
Division, New Orleans, LA, 2001b.
[45] S. Lin, P.A. Kew, K. Cornwell, Two-phase ow regimes and heat
transfer in small tubes and channels, Heat Transfer 1998,
Proceedings of 11th International Heat Transfer Conference,
Kyongju, Korea, vol. 2, 1998, pp. 4550.
[46] S. Lin, P.A. Kew, K. Cornwell, Two-phase evaporation in a 1mm
diameter tube, 6th UK Heat Transfer Conference in Edinburgh,
September 1999.
[47] Z. Liu, R.H.S. Winterton, Wet wall ow boiling correlation with
explicit nuclear term, presented at the 5th Miami Symposium on
Multiphase Transport and Particulate Phenomena, 1988.
[48] J.M. Mandhane, G.A. Gregory, K. Aziz, A ow pattern map for
gasliquid ow in horizontal pipes, Chem. Eng. Prog. 45 (1974)
3948.
[49] R.C. Martinelli, D.B. Nelson, Prediction of pressure drop during
forced convection boiling of water, ASME Trans. 70 (1948) 695
702.
[50] S.S. Mehendale, A.M. Jacobi, R.K. Shah, Heat exchangers at
micro- and meso-scales, in: R.K. Shah (Ed.), Compact Heat
Exchangers and Enhancement Technology for the Process Indus-
tries, Begell House, New York, 1999, pp. 5574.
[51] R. Mertz, A. Wein, Groll, Experimental investigation of ow
boiling heat transfer in narrow channels, Calore Technologia 14
(2) (1996) 4754.
[52] K. Mishima, T. Hibiki, Some characteristics of airwater two-
phase ows in small diameter tubes, Int. J. Multiphase Flow 22 (4)
(1996) 703712.
[53] K. Moriyama, A. Inoue, The thermohydraulic characteristics of
two-phase ow in extremely narrow channels (The frictional
pressure drop and heat transfer of boiling two-phase ow
analytical model), 1992, Heat Transfer-Japanese Res. 21 (8)
(1992) 838856.
[54] W. Nakayama, A. Yabe, Flow boiling in narrow channels for
thermal management of microelectronic equipment, in: Handbook
of Phase Change: Boiling and Condensation, Taylor and Francis,
2000, pp. 403411, Chapter 16.1.
[55] X.F. Peng, B.X. Wang, Forced convection and ow boiling and
heat transfer for liquids owing through microchannels, Int. J.
Heat Mass Transfer 36 (14) (1993) 34213427.
[56] X.F. Peng, B.X. Wang, Forced convection and boiling character-
istics in microchannels, Heat Transfer 1998, Proceedings of 11th
IHTC, August 2328, Kyongju, Korea, vol. 1, 1998, pp. 371390.
[57] X.F. Peng, H.Y. Hu, B.X. Wang, Boiling nucleation during liquid
ow in microchannels, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 41 (1) (1998)
101106.
[58] T.S. Ravigururajan, J. Cuta, C.E. McDonald, M.K. Drost, Eects
of heat ux on two-phase ow characteristics of refrigerant ows
in a microchannel heat exchanger, 1996, HTD-Vol. 329, National
Heat Transfer Conference, ASME, vol. 7, 1996, pp. 167178.
[59] A. Serizawa, Z.P. Feng, Two-phase ow in microchannels,
Proceedings of the Fourth International Conference on Multi-
phase Flow, ASME, New Orleans, May 27June 1, 2001.
[60] M.M. Shah, A new correlation for heat transfer during ow
boiling through pipes, ASHRAE Trans. 82 Part 2 (1976) 6686.
[61] M.M. Shah, Chart correlation for saturated boiling heat transfer:
equations and further study, ASHRAE Trans. 88 (1982) 185
196.
[62] R.S. Stanley, T.A. Ameel, R.O. Warrington, Convective ow
boiling in microgeometries: a review and applications, in: Convec-
tive Flow Boiling: Proceedings of Convective Flow Boiling, An
International Conference organized by Engineering Foundation,
Taylor and Francis, Ban, Canada, 1995, pp. 305310.
[63] Y. Taitel, D. Barnea, A.E. Dukler, Modeling ow pattern
transition for gasliquid transitions for steady upward gasliquid
ow in vertical tubes, AIChE J. 26 (3) (1980) 345354.
[64] Y. Taitel, A.E. Dukler, A model for predicting ow regime
transitions in horizontal and near horizontal gasliquid ow,
AIChE J. 22 (1976) 4755.
[65] Tong, W., Bergles, A.E., Jensen, M.K., 1997, Pressure drop with
highly subcooled ow boiling in small-diameter tubes, Experi-
mental Thermal and Fluid Science, Elsevier Science Inc., Vol. 15,
1997, pp. 202212.
[66] T.N. Tran, M.W. Wambsganss, D.M. France, Small circular- and
rectangular-channel boiling with two refrigerants, Int. J. Multi-
phase Flow 22 (3) (1996) 485498.
406 S.G. Kandlikar / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 26 (2002) 389407
[67] K.A. Triplett, S.M. Ghiaasiaan, S.I. Abdel-Khalik, A. LeMouel,
B.N. McCord, Gasliquid two-phase ow in microchannels Part
II: void fraction and pressure drop, Int. J. Multiphas Flow 25
(1999) 395410.
[68] M.W. Wambsganss, J.A. Jendrzejczyk, D.M. France, Two-phase
ow patterns and transitions in small, horizontal, rectangular
channels, Int. J. Multiphase Flow 17 (3) (1991) 327342.
[69] M.W. Wambsganss, J.A. Jendrzejczyk, D.M. France, Two-phase
ow and pressure drop in ow passages of compact heat
exchangers, SAE Technical Paper 920550, 1992.
[70] M.W. Wambsganss, D.M. France, J.A. Jendrzejczyk, T.N. Tran,
Boiling heat transfer in a small diameter tube, ASME J. Heat
Transfer 115 (4) (1993) 963972.
[71] G.R. Warrier, T. Pan, V.K. Dhir, Heat transfer and pressure drop
in narrow rectangular channels, Proceedings of the Fourth
International Conference on Multiphase Flow, ASME, New
Orleans, May 27June 1, 2001.
[72] S.-C. Yao, Y. Chang, Pool boiling heat transfer in a con-
ned space, Int. J. Heat Mass Transfer 26 (6) (1983) 841
848.
S.G. Kandlikar / Experimental Thermal and Fluid Science 26 (2002) 389407 407

Anda mungkin juga menyukai