Linguistics 136

Of Obligations and Necessities:

A Comparative of Japanese Obligation Modals and
Tagalog Modal Verbs kailangan and dapat










Presented to:
Prof. Mary Ann Bacolod
Linguistics 136|TTh 1:00 2:30


Presented by:
Veronica Almeida
BA Linguistics
2010-10611
Background of the Study
Modality is generally defined as the opinion and attitude of a speaker towards a verb (Lyons in Palmer
1990). It may be expressed by either verbal or non-verbal means or by a combination or combinations of
both. For this reason, it was claimed that There is thus no single place in the clause where modality is
located (Halliday 1970 in Hoye 1997). According to Gould (2011), modal verbs have no meaning and
these lexical items are used to help verbs express a meaning. There are two semantically fundamental
kinds of modality: epistemic and deontic. Epistemic modality is used in relation to the matters of
knowledge or belief on which basis speakers express their judgments about states of affairs, events or
actions. It is said to be used in conveying the speakers subjective view of the world (Hoye 1997) and is
not concerned with objective verifiability in the light of knowledge (Palmer 1990). Deontic modality is
concerned with the possibility and necessity of acts in terms of which the speaker gives permission or lays
an obligation for the action to be realized at some point in the future (Hoye 1997). In this study, deontic
modals shall be referred to as obligation modals.
In Tagalog, modality is often shown through mood which is formally defined as a morphosyntactic
category akin to tense and aspect (Hoye 1997). Tagalog also has modal verbs but are characterized by the
literature as pseudo-verbs (Schachter Otanes 1983), along with maaari and pwede. Schachter and Otanes
(1983) have defined pseudo-verbs as a small class of adjectivals, which have verb-like meanings, which
unlike genuine verbs are incapable of inflection to show variation in aspect. However, in a study of
Sabbagh (2013), dapat is not exactly considered as a modal since it is always found before a verb,
therefore, claiming that this lexical item is a high adverb.
In the Japanese language, auxiliary verbs are divided into modal and non-modal auxiliary verbs (Katou,
2006). These auxiliary verbs have been categorized and summarized by Katou as seen in the table below.


























Categorization of Auxiliary Verbs (Katou, 2006)
Significance of the Study
As Japanese learners, we all know that there are several modals being used in the Japanese language.
These modals are grouped together according to what they imply in sentences when they are in use.
However, this method of summarization has led to a difficult case for a language learner of Japanese, that
is, some of the modals belonging to the same group can no longer be differentiated from each other,
resulting to them only being perceived to be the alternative forms of one another. Another result of the
groupings of modals is that the modals which are known to have multiple functions are being neglected
and left ungrouped. The latter seems to apply to the modals, koto da and mono da. For language learners,
these two grammar patterns are used for the nominalization of verbs, and also for emphasis on a statement.
That is what they usually observe, and that is what they usually apply in their practice of the study. They
do not give as much focus, however, on the other uses of these two patterns.
In grammar textbooks, koto da and mono da had been under the same category as beki da. This implies
that they have similar functions and usages with beki da, and possibly, the expression of obligatory action
is one of those functions that they have a commonality with. This then gives out the question of whether
they really could be considered as auxiliary verbs which express obligatory action in the same way as
they consider beki da to be. This assumption was then backed up by a study by Narrog (2009) regarding
modals when she has categorized these two as obligation (or in her words, deontic modals). This study
aims to explore the usages of koto da and mono da through the contexts in which they are used in order to
attempt to confirm this claim. And in doing so, this study also aims to differentiate these patterns with the
other modals expressing obligation as categorized by Katou (2006), particularly nakereba naranai and
zaru wo enai, in terms of the degree of obligatoriness and instances in which they are used if they really
may be considered as modals expressing obligatory action.
Also, it could be observed that compared to Japanese, there is less number of obligation modals in
Tagalog, namely kailangan and dapat. Since there are only two modals expressing obligation in Tagalog.
It is a wonder how the two are to be likened with those of the Japanese language which are to be studied
in this research, and how these modals are going to be interpreted in Tagalog.
As for practical significance, this may help language learners and translators, and maybe even teachers,
may be able to grasp a better knowledge of the meanings and contexts in which these modals are used.
This study may be able to convey and represent the concepts of the modality.
Objective
This study aims to confirm whether koto da and mono da may or may not be considered as obligation
modals and the restrictions (if theres any) of using them as obligatory modals. In line with this, these two
shall be compared with other obligation modals, beki da, nakereba naranai, and zaru wo enai, to be able
to explain the differences of the obligation modals in terms of function, meaning, and level of obligation.
This study also aims to compare the function and meaning of the Japanese obligation modals to those of
Tagalog to verify whether these modals are parallel with each other. To achieve this, the function,
meaning, and level of obligation in Tagalog modals shall also be explained.
Methodology
Data for this study shall be gathered from textbooks, books and texts readily available online to be able to
analyze the context in which these modals are present. Through the gathered data, their usage, and
differences shall be compared and analyzed to produce a working definition for each modal. The modals
shall be compared through a certain criteria derived from definitions gathered in various studies,
including Katous, Narrogs, and Alfonsos. The Japanese data shall be reinterpreted into Tagalog to be
able to countercheck and deepen the study of the contexts of the sentences with the help of a Japanese
informant capable of speaking Tagalog. The texts acquired shall be compared with the analysis of each
modal. Grammaticality of the translation was not given focus in the informant work, rather, focusing on
how the modals are interpreted from Japanese to Tagalog.
The informant for this study is currently a graduate school (masteral) student of Osaka University
majoring in Foreign Languages, mainly focusing on Tagalog and Ilokano. He has stayed in the
Philippines for 4 months.
List of Abbreviations
abl abilitative form
adn adnominal form ()
caus causative
COMP complementizer (particle)
cond conditional form ()
conj conjunctive form ()
COP copula
DEM demonstratives (1= 2= 3=)
des (modals expressing) desire
DIR direction of action (particle)
DO direct object (particle)
exist existential verb
IDEN identifier (particle)
Imp imperfective
inst instrument (cause) marker
LK linker (particle)
LOC locative particle
neg negative form ()
nom nominalizer (particle)
nonp non-past
oblig obligatory modals
past past form
perf perfective
pred predicative form ()
SE sentence ending particle
SUBJ subject-marking particle
TEMP temporal particle
TOP topic-marking particle
vol volitional form
VP verb phrase
Data and Analysis
I. Japanese Modals Expressing Duty/Obligation
1. Beki da
This modal is one of the terms retained from the Classical Japanese language. Because of this, it adds a
somewhat forceful tone to an obligation (Alfonso, 1966). It is also used more often in literary language
implying that this should be regarded as substantival.
According to Katou (2006), beki may have been derived as the adnominative form () of the
Classical Japanese term besi. It is then attached to the light verb da, which implies that the form of the
modal may be changed through this verb.
Beki da only compounds with verbs in their predicative form (). In Classical Japanese su is the
predicative form of suru, therefore, it is possible to interchange suru beki and su beki without having to
affect the meaning of the sentence (Katou, 2006).
It is said that this is used to express not that of moral obligation but moral expectation, sometimes even
natural expectation (Alfonso, 1966). This modal implies that the action stated to be performed in the
sentence is one which exist in common knowledge and common sense (Katou, 2006).
This modal is negated through conjugating the light verb da into its negative form, ja nai and de ha nai.
(1)
1

uchi-no hito-ni soudan-su.ru beki-dat.ta
in-group-LK person-DIR consult-do.pred oblig.past

(2)
1

sonna tokoro-he ik-u beki-ja-nai
2DEM.LK.like.adn place DIR go.pred oblig.neg.nonp

(3)
1

sonna koto-wo su.ru beki-ja-na-kat.ta
2DEM.like.adn thing-DO do.pred oblig-neg.past

(4)
1

hito-no hanasi-ha yo.ku kik.u beki.da
person-LK talk-TOP good.conj listen.pred oblig.nonp

(5)
1

motto yo.ku junbi-su.ru beki-dat.ta
More good.conj prepare-do.pred oblig.past
From all the examples listed above, it could be noticed that the actions to be performed are those that are
believed by the speaker to be the expectation of society. For example, sentence (4) states that one must
listen to others well which is said to be an individuals obligation, or rather, what is expected of them to
do when interacting with other people according to the speaker. The sentence pattern may also be used to
express what one should have done, such as in (1) wherein the speaker stated that he should have
consulted with his family. We could, therefore, say that this may be perceived as an advice or a
suggestion to the one being spoken to or the one the speaker is referring to. They could be addressed to an
individual as that of a personal advice, however, beki da, for the most part is used as when an advice is
applicable not only to an individual because, as mentioned earlier, this pertains to common knowledge. In
line with this, it is understandable that Makino and Tsutsui (2001) stated that this expression, when
spoken, is not used by someone who is younger or of a lower status than the one being addressed to.
Apart from this particular usage, beki may also be used to modify nouns, and serve as attributes of a
sentence.
(6)
1

wara.u-beki tokoro ja nai zo
laugh.pred -oblig place COP.conj neg SE

(7)
1

kou.iu koto-ha kodomo-ni hanas.u-beki riyuu-ga nai
like this thing.TOP child-DIR talk.pred -oblig reason-IDEN neg.pred.nonp

(8)
1

kore-ha minna-ga kangae.ru-beki mondai de.su
1DEM-TOP everyone-IDEN think.pred -oblig problem COP.nonp
The expression bekarazu is also used in Japanese. It is the negated form of the alternate of beki which is
bekaru. It is also an expression which has been retained from the Classical Japanese expressing that
someone is not permitted to do something. However it is not as commonly used beki da. Unlike beki da
which is still used in speech and texts from time to time, bekarazu is only known to be used on notices
such as picket signs and bulletin boards to inform people of what they are unallowed to do. Bekarazu also
attaches to the predicative form of the verb. (Tomomatsu, 2010)
(9)
8

mukasi-ha koko-ni koko-de oyog.u-bekar.azu to ka-ita tatefuda-ga atta
past-TOP here-LOC here-LOC swim.pred-oblig.neg COMP write.perf notice.IDEN exist.past

(10)
8

you-no nai mono ko-no heya-ni hair.u-bekar.azu
use- SUBJ neg person 1DEM-LK room -LOC enter.pred-oblig.neg

(11)
Maeda-san-no you-na baransu kankaku-no aru hito-ha ko-no kai-ni totte
Maeda-Mr/Ms-LK like-adn balance sense-SUBJ exist.pred person-TOP 1DEM-LK meet-regarding

8

kak.u bekar.azaru sonzai da
lack.pred oblig.neg.conj existence COP.nonp
It could be observed that bekarazu is always at the predicate position. When it is used as an adjective, or
placed before a noun, bekarazaru is used, such as that of (11).
2. Nakereba naranai
This modal is derived from various components: the negation word nai (attached to a verb), the
conditional form of the negation word, -kereba, and one of the chosen few phrases. Some of these phrases
are naranai, ikenai, dame da, mazui, etc. All of which is defined as being unbecoming. They, however,
may express different contexts when they are used. Naranai is the most commonly used out of the set of
words used. It is said to be used when the topic of the sentence is the speaker (Alfonso, 1966), and it also
emphasizes the generality and the inevitability of the necessity (Narrog, 2009). On the other hand, ikenai
is more often used when speaking of the second person (Alfonso, 1966), and it is also more personal since
it leaves open a choice and implies moral responsibility (Narrog, 2009).
In the end, these words are still interchangeable with each other. No matter which of these words one
prefers to use, literally, they mean If (action) is not done, it is unbecoming, (Alfonso, 1966). With this,
it may be assumed that this expression is used as an indirect way of showing obligation.
This modals meaning range is relatively broad. Not only is it used for an act one is expected to act upon
(external necessity) but it may also be used to refer to an act which one needs to do (internal necessity).
This modal covers necessity according to social rules as in (12), necessity according to custom as in
(13) and (16), necessity following a plan as in (15), practical necessity as in (14), technical
necessity as in (17), and necessity following the pressure from a situation as in (18) (Narrog, 2009:82).

(12)
1

hanas.u kotoba-ha teinei-de na.kereba nar.anai
talk.pred word-TOP polite-COP.conj neg.cond become.neg.nonp

(13)
1

nokku-wo si.te hair.ana.kereba ik.e.nai
knock-DO do.conj enter.neg.cond go.abl.neg.nonp

(14)
1

kimi-ha tabako-wo yame.na.kereba nar.anai
you-TOP cigarette-DO stop.neg.cond become.neg.nonp

(15) 9
1

ku.ji-madeni kaet.te ko.na.kereba nar.anai
9:00-TEMP return.conj come.neg.cond become.neg.nonp

(16)
1

ake.ta doa-ha tyanto sime.na.kereba dame-da
open.imp door -TOP properly close.neg.cond bad-COP.nonp

(17)
10

tonneru-to i.u mono-ha anzen-de na.kereba nar.anai
tunnel-COMP say.pred thing -TOP safe-COP.conj neg.cond become.neg.nonp

(18) 21
10

21 seiki-ni tekigou-suru you-ni kaikaku-si.na.kereba nar.anai
21 century-TEMP conform-do.pred like.conj reform-do.neg.cond become.neg.nonp
This modal is usually attached to the negated form of a verbs predicative form, but it may also be
attached to the teiru form of the verb. In using teinakereba naranai (teiru+nakereba naranai), the
sentence implies that the verb is a condition/qualification one must have to be in a certain state like that of
(19). This sentence states that to be able to become an applicant, one must have passed the investigation.
(19)
5

sinseisya-ha chousa-ni goukaku-si.tei.na.kereba nar.anai
applicant-TOP investigation-LOC pass-do.prog.neg.cond become.neg.nonp

3. Zaru wo enai
This modal is only attached to the conjuctive form () of a verb. But when attached to the irregular
verbs suru and kuru, they are said to be conjugated similarly with Classical Japanese; that is they,
respectively, become sezaru and kozaru.
Like nakereba naranai, this modal may refer to a general obligation but it also carries a different meaning.
Looking at the text, this literally means do not obtain not to (Narrog, 2009:73). Meaning, that the
action to be performed is unavoidable, giving out the implication that this action is not something one
voluntarily wants to perform. In short, this modal gives great emphasis on the negative connotation of the
inevitability of the necessity/obligation (Katou, 2006:67).
(20)
5

Tarou-wo fu.goukaku-to se.zaru-wo e.nai
Tarou-DO not.pass. do.conj.neg-DO obtain.neg.nonp

(21)
8

ko-no terebi-ga kore ijou koware-tara atarasii-no-wo kaw.a.zaru-wo e.nai na
1DEM.LK television.SUBJ 1DEM over destroy.cond new.nom.DO buy.conj.neg-DO obtain.neg.nonp SE

(22)
8

zutto gaman-si.te ki.ta ga ko.no joutai-da-to haisha.san-ni ik.a.zaru-wo e.nai
always endure-do.conj come.imp but 1DEM.LK situation-COP.pred-cond dentist.Mr/Ms-DIR go.neg.conj-DO obtain.neg.nonp

(23)
9

haha-ga byouki-de nyuuin-si.ta-node ki.koku-se.zaru-wo e.nai
mother-SUBJ sick-inst hospitalization-do.past-because return.country-do.conj.neg-DO obtain.neg.nonp

(24)
9

mai.ban nemur.e.nai-node ko-no kusuri-wo nom.a.zaru-wo e.nai
every.night sleep.abl.neg-because 1DEM-LK medicine-DO drink.conj.neg-DO obtain.neg.nonp

(25)
minna-de kime.ta kisoku-da-kara mamor.a.zaru-wo e.nai
everyone-inst decide.perf rule-COP-because protect.conj.neg-DO obtain.neg.nonp
In accordance with this, since nakereba naranai also expresses inevitability, it has been stated that it is
possible to change zaru wo enai into nakereba naranai in a sentence. But since nakereba naranai gives
out the context of generality and neutrality, it is not possible for zaru wo enai to replace nakereba
naranai in a sentence.
4. Mono da
Mono is a noun roughly translated as a concrete thing. This is also said to express the idea of in the
nature of things, the way things naturally are, something natural, something
ordinary/normal/usual/regular/general, etc. The noun mono serves a grammatical function in sentences,
but in some cases, its relevance and meaning in the sentence weakens, and the translations of the
sentences shall be the same even if mono has not been used, like that of the example below (Alfonso,
1966). When used as a modal, the light verb da is attached to mono.

7
Money disappears quickly.
This expression is used to state the idea of natural fact and regular happening. In the sentence above,
it could be observed that it is only natural for money to be spent quickly. However, if mono da was
deleted from the sentence, the sentence would still mean the same thing. It is just that the naturality of
the occurrence would not be implied. The naturality of an occurrence is usually implied when the verb
attached to the modal is an involuntary action, or actions which are not done at will, like the example
above and sentence (26) (meaning Babies cry). Both of the actions, naku naru (to disappear) and naku
(to cry) are considered to be involuntary action since both are, for the most part, performed unwillingly.
That is why through the modals, both of these sentences express the naturality of the actions.
(26)
7

akanbou-ha na.ku-mono.da
baby-TOP cry.pred-oblig.nonp

(27)
7

mizu-ha honrai hikuki-ni nagare.ru-mono.desu
water-TOP naturally down-DIR flow.pred-oblig
This expression may also imply that an action is what is generally done. Therefore, similar to that of
beki da, this modal also expresses not just any necessity but those which are known through common
sense. When this modal is attached to the predicative form of verbs expressing voluntary action (actions
which are usually performed at will, such as hasiru (to run), hanasu (to speak), ayamaru (to seek
forgiveness), etc.), this then gives out the implication of an indirect command or correction.
This modal is negated by conjugating the light verb da. Therefore, making it mono de ha nai.
(28)
1

sukosi gaman-su.ru-mono.da
little endure-do.pred-oblig

(29)
1

omiyage-wo morat.tara orei-wo i.u-mono.desu
souvenir-DO receive.cond gratitude-DO say.pred-oblig

(30)
1

toshi tot.ta okaasan-wo sonna-ni hatarak.ase.ru-mono.de.ha.nai
year take.imp mother-DO 2DEM.LK.like-adn. work.caus.pred-oblig.neg

(31)
1

tanin-no ketten-wo sagas.u mono.de.ha.nai
others-LK fault-DO find.pred oblig.neg

(32)
10

sonna-ni hito-no waruguti-wo i.u-mono.de.ha.arimasen yo
2DEM.like.adn-conj person-LK badmouth-DO say.pred-oblig.neg SE

(33)
10

otosiyori-ni.ha motto yasasi.ku-su.ru-mono.da yo
younger-DIR.TOP more gentle.conj-do.pred-oblig SE
In these sentences, it could be observed that unlike beki da, the topic of the sentences cannot point out to
just a single person, but it points out to a certain party/group of people. It also cannot be used in specific
situations only. Another restriction is that it is not used according to a speakers judgment but only used
to express a generic statement. It could then be assumed that this modal is also used for generality, or
rather, to remind people of the social norms, the rules and principles morality, and, possibly, even life.
These may be observed in sentences (28) (33). Although (28) may be perceived as that of a personal
warning or a general advice, it must be noted that this statement is uttered to a group of people. So, this
sentence signifies that people must be able to persevere and be patient when circumstances call for it. (29),
(30) and (31) all signify practices which are supposedly done by people to act appropriately in the eyes of
a society since it is what is expected of them. These statements are what we may consider reminders of
moral obligation/duty.
5. Koto (da)
As a noun, koto, unlike mono, it is interpreted as an abstract thing (Alfonso, 1966). It is also said that it
expresses a fact (Yamagiwa, 1942).
When viewing these sentences as facts, it gives out a feel of strongly obliging one to do a certain action.
However, it is done so indirectly since it also conveys that the action to be performed is merely an
advice/suggestion that something is most likely the best way of achieving a goal. According to Narrog,
this modal expresses strict obligation. This modal always attaches to the predicative form of the verb,
and it is negated by conjugating the verb into its negative predicative form.
This modal is also said to be an imperative, closely related to the phrase site ha naranai (Makino, 2001),
meaning that this modal gives a higher level of obligation compared to that of nakereba naranai as stated
by Alfonso (1966) when he mentioned about obligation through conditionals.
(34)
8

nihongo-ga uma.ku nar.ita.kereba motto benkyou-su.ru-koto.desu
Japanese-SUBJ good.conj become.des.cond more study.do.pred.oblig

(35)
8

nanigoto-mo shippai-wo osore.zu-ni yat.te-mi.ru koto.da
anything failure-DO fear.neg-conj do.conj-try.pred.oblig

(36)
8

okane-wo tame.tai-no-desyou. sorekara mudadukai-wo si.nai-koto.desu
money-DO save.des-nom-COP.vol then wasting (money)-DO do.neg.pred-oblig

(37)
9

tukareta-toki-ha tonikaku haya.ku ne.ru-koto.da
tire.perf-time-TOP at.any.rate early.conj sleep.pred-oblig

(38)
9

yase.tai-nara kansyoku-si.nai-koto.desu yo
lose.weight.des-cond snacking-do.neg.pred-oblig SE

(39)
9

kodomo-ha nobinobi asob.ase.ru-koto.desu
child-TOP carefree play.caus.pred-oblig

In (34) it could be observed that the speaker is telling one to study more if they want to be more proficient
in Japanese. Since it is what the speaker judges as the best way to become better at using the language, it
is, in a way, treated as a command.
Although it is mentioned earlier that this modal expresses advice and suggestion, this modal may express
a command but only through rules and regulations one must follow. It is usually expressed as koto only.
(40)
8

shukudai-no sakubun-ha itutu-madeni Kimura-sensei-ni das-u-koto
homework.LK composition.TOP 5
th
day.TEMP Kimura.teacher.DIR pass.pred.oblig

(41) 11 17 12 JR
8

juuiti-gatu juunana-niti juuni-ji-ni JR tamati-eki-no kaisatuguti-mae-ni shuugou-no-koto
November 17
th
day (Tuesday) 12:00.TEMP JR Tamachi.station.LK ticket gate.front.LOC gather.LK.oblig

(42)
6

saki-ni kanarazu teepu-wo ki.ku-koto
before immediately tape-DO listen.pred-oblig

(43) 15
6

happyou-ha 15fun inai-de okona.u-koto
presentation-TOP 15minutes within-TEMP carry.out.pred-oblig

(44)
6

sigo-ha tutusim.u-koto
whispering-TOP refrain.pred-oblig
In both instances wherein koto is used, it has been said that this modal is used to express that an act is
deemed as something important.
SUMMARY
Form Meaning Sample Sentence
V.pred expresses the speakers
judgment that
someone/something is
expected to do something
or to be in a certain state





V.neg indicates duty, obligation
and necessity





V.neg indicates that there is no
other way but to do
something

V.pred expresses that a group of
people should do
something as duty



V.pred/neg expresses a strict
command, suggest/advice

Table 1. Summary of Japanese Obligatory Modals
Differentiating Japanese Modals
From the definitions of the modals given above, some implications given by the modals discussed are put
into light: imperative, expectation, inevitability, self-focused, individuality, suggestion, and forcefulness.
Through these devised criteria, the differences between these modals may be expressed more clearly.
Imperativeness expresses the power of the modal in being perceived as a command. Expectation refers to
moral expectation, the acts which are said to be of common knowledge in a society when abiding by
social norms. Inevitability, as the name suggests, pertains to the helplessness of one to perform an action
out of obligation. Self pertains to whether the sentence containing the modals discussed may be addressed
to the speaker himself or not. The criteria of being individual implies that the statement being delivered is
one which is uttered only on specific situations to a specific individual rather than one which may be
perceived as being addressed to a particular group of people, if not all. For suggestion, a statement is
being perceived not only as an obligation to be performed but as an advice to the ones being addressed.
Although these modals all express obligation, they still differ in the forcefulness, or rather, the
obligatoriness of an act to be performed.
Imperative Expectation Inevitability Self Individual Advice/
Suggestion
Level of
Obligation


weak (2)

medial (3)


strong (5)


weak (1)

strong (4)
Table 2. The Japanese Obligatory Modals and their features
In viewing this table, it could be observed that as stated in the analysis of modals, mono da may be
perceived as an imperative, although a light one at that since it was also said that this modal only shows
little obligation since it is more focused on reminding the people of what they supposedly know already.
In other words, this modal focuses more on its aspect of naturality and moral expectation than that of an
obligation. Looking at (32) (reiterated below), it was stated that one is not supposed to badmouth others
so much. In this sentence, the addressee shall perceive that the sentence was uttered to correct their wrong
doing (as perceived by society) which is why they will think that this is a command. Thus, this modal is
marked +imperative and +expectation.

10

sonna-ni hito-no waruguti-wo i.u-mono.de.ha.arimasen yo
2DEM.like.adn-conj person-LK badmouth-DO say.pred-oblig.neg SE
When we say that a statement is a command, there is still an option for the addressee to not perform the
action. That is why this modal is marked as inevitability. As stated on the explanation of mono da in
the first part of the research, this modal may only be used when someone advises a group of people to do
something as moral duty. It is also a modal which is not used to tell oneself of what they should do. This
modal is then marked as individual, +advice, and self. As seen in Table 2, mono da has the weakest
level of obligation. It might be because of the fact that this modal merely suggests for a mass of people to
act appropriately to a mass of people, making its level of obligatoriness lessen since this may be viewed
as a division/dispersion of responsibility of the addressee. This then causes a lesser impact to the hearer of
the statements uttered with this modal.
Beki da, like mono da also has a weak obligation. However, this modal may be as both an imperative and
a non-imperative. In sentence (1) (reiterated below), it could be observed that it is a statement uttered by
the speaker to himself making it not only a non-imperative sentence but also a self-focused one. The
statement also gives the meaning that the speaker suggested that he should have done something (in this
case, consulting with someone) so he would have had matched what would have happened with an
expectation. So for this statement alone, it shall be marked +self, +advice, +expectation and imperative.
It shall also be marked as +individual since the statement was addressed to the speaker alone.

1

uchi-no hito-ni soudan-su.ru beki-dat.ta
in-group-LK person-DIR consult-do.pred oblig.past
On the other hand, sentence (2) (reiterated below) shows that the statement is quite ambiguous since it
may have been uttered to either a specific individual or a group of people, but definitely not addressed to
the speaker himself. The statement was expressed to advise/forewarn people that one must not go into a
certain type of place, making it seem like it has been an indirect command like that of mono da. This shall
then be marked as self, +advice, +expectation, +imperative, and individual. Also, like mono da the
command uttered does not force one to do something, therefore, making this inevitability.

1

sonna tokoro-he ik-u beki-ja-nai
2DEM.LK.like.adn place -DIR go.pred oblig.neg.nonp
Through these contexts presented, the characteristics written in Table 2 were derived. According to
Makino and Tsutsui (2001), although beki da is presented to be similar with mono da, beki da has a
higher degree of obligation since this modal does not only cover generic statements.
Nakereba naranai is a modal known to express the neutrality of an obligation. This modal does not have
as much particulars in meanings as compared to the other modals. The words used after the conditionals
are the ones which somehow affect the context of a sentence the most. From the differences of naranai
and ikenai stated in the first part, the following has been derived:
Imperative Expectation Inevitability Self Individual Advice/
Suggestion



+
Table 3. The Two Variations of nakereba naranai and their Features
In (17) (reiterated below), it was stated that a tunnel is expected to be safe. In this sentence, the
characteristic of being safe is a requirement for a tunnel, therefore, making safety an unavoidable
necessity. This statement is also uttered as a general technical necessity, so it can be assumed that this is
not only addressed to a single person, and definitely not addressed to the speaker himself. In this case, we
shall mark the sentence as imperative, +expectation, +inevitability, self, individual and advice.

10

tonneru-to i.u mono-ha anzen-de na.kereba nar.anai
tunnel-COMP say.pred thing -TOP safe-COP.conj neg.cond become.neg.nonp
Example (15) (reiterated below) also shows the inevitability of doing an action since it connotes that there
might be consequences if this action is not performed. Unlike the previous example, this implies that the
speaker is the one who is supposed to perform the action instead of addressing this to anyone else. Since
this is a personal matter, it could also be assumed that this is not a moral expectation because it just
signifies that the speaker must follow his own schedule. Aside from these, the sentence seems to be quite
similar with the example above. Therefore, this shall be marked imperative, expectation,
+inevitability, +self, individual, and advice.
9
1

ku.ji-madeni kaet.te ko.na.kereba nar.anai
9:00-TEMP return.conj come.neg.cond become.neg.nonp
However, if naranai is to be replaced with ikenai in the sentence above, some implications change as well.
9
1

ku.ji-madeni kaet.te ko.na.kereba ik.e.nai
9:00-TEMP return.conj come.neg.cond go.abl.neg.nonp
In the sentence above, instead of having this sentence uttered to oneself, it is perceived to be addressed to
another individual (if not a certain group of people). With that in mind, this may imply that the speaker is
commanding the addressee to perform the action, making the level of obligation slightly lower since the
action to be performed is not at all unavoidable. This shall then be marked +imperative, expectation,
inevitability, self, +individual and advice. Ikenai as part of this modal may also be used when
advising one to do something. In (14) (reiterated below), it was implied that one is obliged/needed to quit
smoking for some reason. But if naranai shall be replaced with ikenai, the implication of inevitability
changes into that of a suggestion/advice for a person.

1

kimi-ha tabako-wo yame.na.kereba nar.anai
you-TOP cigarette-DO stop.neg.cond become.neg.nonp

1

kimi-ha tabako-wo yame.na.kereba ik.e.nai
you-TOP cigarette-DO stop.neg.cond go.abl.neg.nonp
According to Makino and Tsutsui (2001), this modal expresses a higher urgency and degree of obligation
than beki da which is why this was given a level of obligation of 3.
Instances wherein koto da is used show that the sentences uttered with this modal show that they are
perceived to have more urgency because of the imperativeness displayed. With this, it has been stated
earlier on that this modal is usually used reminding one of the rules and regulations, and that is why the
inevitability of acting according to this obligation is quite high. This may be seen in example (37)
(reiterated below). In this sentence, it was said that if one wants to lose weight, they must avoid snacking
or eating in between meal times. It implies that the action to be (or not to be) performed is one of the best
ways to achieve a certain goal according to the speakers judgment. This is why even if this is quite
heavily enforced to the addressee, it is not considered to be an unavoidable obligation. It was also stated
by the informant that this modal, like mono da, cannot be used to pertain to oneself or even to a specific
person. The statements containing this modal are always addressed to a crowd. Therefore, this sentence
shall be marked as +imperative, expectation, inevitability, self, individual, and +advice.

9

yase.tai-nara kansyoku-si.nai-koto.desu yo
lose.weight.des-cond snacking-do.neg.pred-oblig SE
This modal was given a level of obligation of 4 because, as stated above, it may be derived that this modal
has a higher degree of obligation compared to that of nakereba naranai. The characteristics of koto da in
this context does not differ from the other context wherein koto(da) is used.
15
6

happyou-ha 15fun inai-de okona.u-koto
presentation-TOP 15minutes within-TEMP carry.out.pred-oblig
In the example above (sentence (43)), it could be observed that a collective number of people are
commanded to complete their presentation within the duration of 15 minutes. As stated before, it is not
necessary for an imperative to be an unavoidable task since this only implies that if the act is not done,
there may be consequences. The only difference it has with the first function of koto da is that it may not
be perceived as an advice/suggestion since it pertains to a rule that people must follow, therefore, marking
this sentence as advice.
From the definition and the use of the modal itself, it is already expected that zaru wo enai has the highest
degree of obligation when compared to the other modals discussed in this paper. Out of the obligations
that one performs, the obligation expressing the speakers need to perform the action overpowers all other
obligations. It has been established that if one needs to perform an act, they really have to perform it,
regardless of whether they would be willing to do it or not. Also, an obligation being a personal one
seems to be a factor that heightens the level of obligation. Zaru wo enai is the only modal wherein it is
used on personal instances and it has been ranked as the modal which has the highest degree of obligation.
It could be observed that all the example sentences containing zaru wo enai have all been addressed to the
speaker of the sentence himself. The assumption that this modal only focuses on the speakers obligation
was then confirmed by the informant wherein he has stated that using zaru wo enai wherein it is
addressed to another individual gives out the meaning that the one being addressed is in a state of being
pitiful in the eyes of the speaker, showing empathy towards the addressee. That is why this modal is
almost never used when addressing to another individual. These descriptions may be observed in (24)
(reiterated below).

9

mai.ban nemur.e.nai-node ko-no kusuri-wo nom.a.zaru-wo e.nai
every.night sleep.abl.neg-because 1DEM-LK medicine-DO drink.conj.neg-DO obtain.neg.nonp
In this example it has been stated that because the speaker could not sleep every night, he had no choice
but to drink a certain medicine. From this statement the first thing that catches the attention is the
inevitability of performing the action implied in the sentence. This then emphasizes the connotation that
the action to be performed is not of an advise but rather of an internal necessity, meaning that this cannot
be perceived as an imperative statement. Also, this (along with the other examples enumerated in the
description of zaru wo enai) proves that the statement containing the modal zaru wo enai may only be
used when pertaining to the speaker. With these in mind, the contexts of this sentence shall be marked
imperative, expectation, +inevitability, +self, individual and advice.
II. Tagalog Modals Expressing Duty/Obligation/Necessity
1. Kailangan
The word kailangan is a multi-functional word which implies that one is in need of something. Normally,
this word is considered a verb since it usually appears in the slot for predicates. As seen from (45), when
kailangan is in the predicative slot of a simple phrase, the object of the sentence is always marked by ang,
and the actor, by ng.
(45) A. Kailangan ng babae ang pera
B. *Kailangan ang babae ng pera
However, that is not only the case since it is also possible for ng to be the marker of the object of the
sentence. Therefore, the sentence Kailangan ng babae ng pera is considered grammatical. According to
the reference grammar by Schachter and Otanes (2006), the difference between the sentences with ang-
marked object and ng-marked object is the directness of the obligation. It has been stated that an ang-
marked object is considered to be the direct object of the sentence, while the ng-marked object is claimed
to be the indirect object.
(46) A. Kailangan ng lalaki ang kotse.
B. Kailangan ng lalaki ng kotse.
Looking at (46) sentence A suggests that there is a specific car needed by the man, and that certain car is
exactly what he needs. On the other hand, sentence B suggests that the man is not specifically needing a
certain car, therefore, giving more focus on the usage of the car more than the car itself. However, the
directionality of the action is not only limited to this simple sentence. Kailangan, when used as a modal
(or an auxiliary verb), the markers also determine the directness of an obligation. (Asarina Holt, 2005)
(47) A. Kailangang mawala ng lalaki.
B. Kailangang mawala ang lalaki.
In (47), it could be observed that kailangan needs the linker ng to be able to connect itself with a verb,
and the verb must be in its predicative or basic form. The subject of the sentence could be marked by both
ng and ang although they dont seem to have a completely similar meaning. Sentence A could mean that
the man directly receives the obligation, so, it implies that the man himself is obliged to disappear.
Sentence B implies that there is an outside force which is obligated to make the man disappear. Because
of this, it has been claimed that sentences with ng-marked subject are considered to express direct
obligation while those with ang-marked subjects express a non-direct obligation (Asarina Holt, 2005).
Aside from being a pseudo-verb and a modal, the word kailangan could also be used as a noun, just like a
verbal or an adjectival root.
(48) delikado ang panahon, kaya body guard ang kailangan mo.
(49) Sagot lang naman ang kailangan mo.
(50) Diskarte lang ang kailangan.

(51) Makakatulong kung iaayon mo ang lubog ng katawan mo sa mga bagay na kailangan
mong tawirin.
(52) Ang mga katangiang kailangan para sa isang lider
This may also be used in attributing a noun such as those of (51) and (52). Kailangan is usually attached
through the linker na (or ng). In both sentences, kailangan is found after the noun it is modifying,
however, it is possible for the noun and kailangan to interchange.
(53) Ang mga kailangang katangian para sa isang lider
(54) ?Makakatulong kung iaayon mo ang lubog ng katawan mo sa kailangan mong tawiring
mga bagay.
In sentences (53) and (54) the interchange of the noun and kailangan may be observed. The interchange
in (53) is merely between the two words because the phrase para sa isang lider is controlled by the main
clause. On the other hand, kailangan in (54) controls mong tawirin, therefore, attaching them to kailangan
when interchanged. The acceptability of the sentence is quite questionable, although sometimes used in
discourse.
Kailangan may be inflected with some verbal affixes such as in- and in to denote the tense or aspect of
the sentence. It may also undergo a complete reduplication to produce kailangang-kailangan to express
the intensity of need.
It is said that this connotes internal necessity (Schachter Otanes, 2006). This implies that kailangan
mainly focuses and emphasizes on the concept of self when in use. These are possibly some of the
reasons why several sources, such as Tagalog English dictionaries often directly translate this word as
need in English. However, there are also instances that this necessity may be perceived as more of an
obligation inflicted by an outer force as in (55).
(55) Kailangan naming magformation tuwing Martes at Biyernes.

2. Dapat
Dapat is also considered by Schachter and Otanes (1983) as a pseudo-verb but, unlike kailangan, the
environment wherein dapat is used is quite limited. Dapat is also found at the beginning of the sentence
(predicative position), but it is dependent of a verb phrase. This is why this word is also considered as a
high adverb (Sabbagh, 2013). When connecting a verb to dapat, na and ay are both used as linkers
although sentences are still considered grammatical even without them.
(56) dapat ay alisin ang mga sabaw nito.
(57) Dapat na alam ng mga tao sa opisina ang wika ng kanyang diplomasya.
(58) Dapat inuubos mo ang pagkain mo.
Dapat may also be nominalized through the nominal markers of Tagalog but it still is dependent of a verb
phrase, unlike kailangan which can stand alone. In this instance, marapat may occur in its place, while
nararapat may occur anywhere dapat may be placed but is used on more formal occasions.
(59) At sa dami ng iniisip kong dapat dalhin, hindi na rin ako nakalayas.
(60) Ako ang dapat nilang balitaan.
(61) Ang dapat sanay naideposito ay aksidenteng na-withdraw.
This word connotes external necessity or appropriateness (Schachter, 1983). This word (as a modal) is
used whenever an individual is reminded of what they are supposed to do as an upright individual.
Overall, this modal expresses that an act is supposed to be performed out of duty/obligation.

SUMMARY
Meaning Form Function Sample Sentence
Kailangan expresses internal
necessity; a personal
obligation of
performing an act
Kailangan + LK +VP pseudo-
verb
Kailangang mawala ng lalaki.
Ang
ng + kailangan + LK +VP
sa
Noun delikado ang panahon, kaya body
guard ang kailangan mo.
N + LK +kailangan + (VP) adjective Ang mga kailangang katangian para
sa isang lider
Dapat expresses external
necessity and
appropriateness of an
act
dapat+ ay +VP
na
pseudo-
verb
Dapat inuubos mo ang pagkain mo.
Ang
ng + dapat +VP
sa
Noun Ang dapat sanay naideposito ay
aksidenteng na-withdraw.
Table 3. Summary of Tagalog Obligation Pseudo-Verbs

Differentiating the Meaning
Through the same criteria as the one used in comparing the Japanese obligation modals, the two Tagalog
modals shall also be judged in the same way in an attempt to compare them with each other through their
contexts.
Imperative Expectation Inevitability Self Individuality Advice/
Suggestion
Level of
Obligation
Kailangan
Medial
Dapat
Strong
Table 4. The Tagalog Obligation Pseudo-Verbs and their Features
In statements using the word dapat such as (55) (reiterated below), there is an image of the speaker telling
an individual to do what they think is right/appropriate (which is to remove the soup). This then gives out
the feel that the speaker gives out an advice/suggestion (meaning that one still has the option of not
following the statement), as well as being an imperative. In this same sentence, it also possible to interpret
this sentence as either being addressed to a specific person or to a group of people since subject is placed
in the sentence. With these taken into consideration, we could assume that this sentence is +imperative,
+expectation, inevitability, +advice, self and individual.
dapat ay alisin ang sabaw nito.
In using this modal, it seems that this cannot express the inevitability of an action. As seen from (55)-(57),
the sentences imply that there still is a choice for the addressee to not do a certain action even when a
subject is present in the sentence just as in (57).
Dapat inuubos mo ang pagkain mo.
Statements containing kailangan is mainly used to state a certain need for someone/something to do
something or be in a certain state like that of (47). In the example it was stated that the man was needed to
disappear or be in a state of disappearance. However, this is stated as something that the speaker judges as
an action needed to be performed. This may also be seen in the examples listed below.
(62) Kailangan kong yumuko
(63) Kailangang mag-donate ng pintura sa school.
(64) Kailangang maka-graduate para makakuha ng diploma.
In (62), it was stated that the speaker needed to lower his head. This somehow connotes that because of an
occurrence the speaker could not do anything but lower his head, showing that the action was not out of
expectation and unavoidable. Also because of the pronoun ko, it could be observed that this modal may
also be used when pertaining to oneself, and not of anyone else. In line with this, we may then assume
that (62) shall be marked as imperative, expectation, +inevitability, +self, individual and advice.
As for (63), because the speaker states that people are needed/required to donate paint for their school, the
sentence may be considered as an imperative. Also, as seen in (64) this may also give out the context of
inevitability, and suggestion when the phrase containing kailangan is connected to a subordinating clause
which expresses the purpose of the action since it connotes that an action must be done to achieve
something. In line with this connotation, we may assume that this was uttered as an advice/reminder to
the addressee of what is needed to be done in order to obtain a certain goal.
From these observations, although dapat and kailangan appear to be present in almost the same
environments as each other, these two may be presented as separate identities. This may be observed
when their level of obligation is measured. Dapat, known to be a modal expressing obligation, is said to
connote a higher degree of obligation compared to kailangan since the urgency is also expressed in this
modal. However, when it comes to the comparison of the degree of necessity, kailangan connotes a
higher degree of necessity since this modal may connote that the action to be performed is inevitable and
unavoidable.
III. Comparatives of Japanese and Tagalog Modals
1. Beki da
Imperative Expectation Inevitability Self Individual Advice/
Suggestion
Level of
Obligation


Weak
Kailangan
Medial
Dapat
Strong
Table 4. Comparison of the Features of beki da and the Tagalog Obligation Modals
Since the prominent feature of beki da is the context of moral expectation, it is apparent that the Tagalog
modal closer to this modal (definition-wise) is the modal dapat. Since dapat is mainly used for expressing
an obligation, it could be observed that this modal leans more on its context of being an obligation than
that of a necessity. This may also be observed from the informants translation of sentences containing
beki da.
(a)
Dapat tayo makinig nang mabuti sa kuwento ng mga ibang tao.
(b)
Dapat tayo naghanda nang mas mabuti.
(c)
Dapat ka maghintay nang mas matagal.
(d)
Dapat kong itinuloy iyon.
(e)
Hindi ka dapat pumunta sa ganyang lugar.
(f)
Hindi mo dapat ginawa ang katulad niyan.
It could be observed in the translations that dapat was used in all occasions even when negating.
Therefore, this supports the assumption that beki da is represented by dapat in Tagalog.

2. Nakereba naranai
Imperative Expectation Inevitability Self Individual Advice/
Suggestion
Level of
Obligation

Medial
Kailangan
Medial
Dapat
Strong
Table 5. Comparison of the Features of nakereba naranai and the Tagalog Obligation Modals
Looking at Table 5, it seems that because of the generality of the usage of nakereba naranai, it seems that
dapat and kailangan are able to act as counterpart of nakereba naranai when translated into Tagalog. In
(a) and (b) it can be observed that if the sentence is uttered to the speaker himself, there is a high
possibility that nakereba naranai leans more on the implication of an internal necessity which is why
kailangan was preferred over dapat when translated. But, there are also some instances wherein even in
this contextual environment, dapat would be preferred over kailangan just like in (c)
(a)
Kailangan kong umuwi bago mag-alas nwebe.
(b)
Kailangan kong mag-business trip sa Osaka sa susunod na panahon.
(c)
Dapat mas agahan ko pa sa susunod na pagkakataon.

Generally speaking, when nakereba naranai is interpreted in Tagalog, dapat prevails in terms of the
frequency of usage. This just goes to show that nakereba naranai is more focused on its context of having
to perform an obligatory act than that of necessity.

(d)
Dapat maging magalang ang pananalita.
(e)
Dapat sa Brasil ang buto ng kape.
(f) .
Dapat ako pumunta sa Kobe nang mas maaga.

3. Zaru wo enai
Imperative Expectation Inevitability Self Individual Advice/
Suggestion
Level of
Obligation


Strong
Kailangan
Medial
Dapat
Strong
Table 6. Comparison of the Features of zaru wo enai and the Tagalog Obligation Modals
Through this table, we may assume that zaru wo enai closer to kailangan than dapat in terms of context,
mainly because of the criteria expectation, and +inevitability which are some of the contexts
emphasized when using this modal. The translation provided by the informant backed up this assumption
since there were no traces of dapat in any of the sentences translated. However, there are also instances
wherein the phrase walang magawa appears in some sentences particularly in sentences (b), (c), and (d).
This then implies that kailangan may be holding the same degree of inevitability so the informant used
another phrase (in this case, walang magawa) to be able to convey the message as he understood it. In
addition, it could be observed that there are instances wherein kailangan was not used in the sentence (as
in (c), (d), and (f)) showing that although they are quite fitting with each other in terms of meaning and
function, the contexts of kailangan cannot exactly imply the contexts of zaru wo enai, specifically
kailangan does not emphasize on the inevitability of an action as much as it does on necessity of an action.
(a)
Kung masisira pa ang TV na ito, kailangang bumili ng bago.
(b)
Ayaw ko ang pisika pero kailangang kunin ang klaseng ito kaya wala akong magagawa.
(c)
Wala akong magagawa kundi ibagsak si Taro.
(d)
Nakakita ako ng magandang tasa sa Kyoto pero mahal kaya wala akong nagawa kundi sumuko.
(e)
Umakyat ako hanggang sa kalagitnaan ng Mt. Fuji pero kinailangan kong bumalik dahil malakas
ang hangin at ulan.
(f)
Masasabing iresponsable ang pagtigil ng trabahong hindi pa natatapos.

4. Mono da
Imperative Expectation Inevitability Self Individual Advice/
Suggestion
Level of
Obligation


Weak
Kailangan
Medial
Dapat
Strong
Table 7. Comparison of the Features of mono da and the Tagalog Obligation Modals
From this table, it can be assumed that mono da is more similar with dapat since both express duty as
moral obligation. As proof of this assumption, the informant mainly used dapat in the translation of this
modal, implying that this modal is leaning towards the meaning of an act being an obligation than that of
a necessity.
(a)
Hindi mo dapat patrabahuin ang nanay mong matanda nang ganoon kahigpit.
(b)
Dapat magtrabaho nang mabuti habang bata pa.
(c)
Dapat mo pasalamatan ang nagbigay ng pasalubon sa iyo.
However, there seem to also be instances wherein kailangan is used as the counterpart for mono da. Since
this had only occurred once, an analysis on this occurrence cannot be performed.
(d)
Kailangang magtiis ng kaunti.
5. Koto (da)
Imperative Expectation Inevitability Self Individual Advice/
Suggestion
Level of
Obligation

strong
Kailangan
medial
Dapat
strong
Table 8. Comparison of the Features of koto da and the Tagalog Obligation Modals
From the data, it seems that koto (da) is contextually more similar with kailangan than dapat because of
the criteria expectation. Possibly, this observation may be used as a good explanation of what
kailangan implies when expressing an obligation as in (55). However, all translations provided by the
informant show that instead of using either of the two Tagalog modals, the imperative form of the verbs
were preferred in the interpretation of koto da. It may then be assumed that koto da does not have a
Tagalog modal counterpart in terms of function and meaning.
(a)
Kung gusto mong pumasok sa unibersidad, mag-aral ka nang mabuti.
(b)
Kung mukhang sisipunin ka, matulog nang maaga.
(c)
Paulit-ulit kang magsanay para maging mahusay.
(d)
Ang asaynment na sanaysay ay ipasa kay Mr. Kimura bago ang ika-5.
(e) 11 17 12 JR
Magtipon-tipon kayo sa ticket gate ng estasyon ng JR Tamachi ng alas dose ng ika-17 ng
Nobyembre(Martes).
CONCLUSION
Based from the analysis, it can be concluded that Tagalog lexical items, kailangan and dapat, in terms of
function, act similarly with the Japanese modals, beki da, nakereba naranai, zaru wo enai, mono da and
koto da, since all the modals discussed are used as obligation modals but they are not quite parallel with
each other in terms of meaning. Japanese modals are much more particular when it comes to the contexts
in which they are used while the Tagalog modals are treated as entities separate from each other because
they do not imply the same thing. The two modals somehow make the dichotomy between
obligations/duties and necessities more apparent. This is exactly the factor considered when figuring out
which Tagalog modal represent which Japanese modal. Since the modals of Japanese have interlaced
meanings of necessity and obligation, the choosing of the more preferable Tagalog counterpart of the
modal is quite challenging. In finding the counterpart of a Japanese modal, the sentence is judged by
understanding whether the context of the sentence more of an obligation than a necessity, in which case is
represented with dapat, or the opposite, in which case is represented with the modal kailangan. In
addition, because of the neutrality (in meaning) of the two obligation modals of Tagalog, other lexical
items are being used to capture the essence of the modals used in Japanese.
SUMMARY
The findings in this research paper show that the obligation modals do not only express the general
obligation or duty, but each modal has a specific type of obligation it expresses. Generally, these lexical
items are known to have a task of expressing probability, command, duty, and recognition. However, in
some languages, it is probable that modals expressing probability, command, duty, and recognition are
not represented by a single form alone in each category. In the Japanese language, there are three modals
that can express duty or obligation (with the addition of mono da and koto da), making it confusing for
Japanese language learners because they have a hard time identifying which modal is appropriate to use in
which instances involving duty or obligation. This paper aimed to address the said problem, and
specifically identified the circumstances wherein each modal is used. In line with this, the Tagalog
modals have also been analyzed in a similar manner. Having identified the specific type of obligation
these duty auxiliary verbs express, will help the language learners understand in what situations these
duty auxiliary verbs are to be used. Aside from this, this research paper also attempted to find out how a
Tagalog modal counterpart of each Japanese obligation modal is chosen through observing the contexts in
which these modals are present. Lastly, this paper will also contribute new findings in the field of
comparison between the Japanese and Tagalog language, specifically, in the field of modals expressing
duty or obligation.
RECOMMENDATION
This paper is only a preliminary research about the obligation modals of Japanese and Tagalog. Further
study is recommended because there may be better, more appropriate criteria in the differentiation of the
modals to give clearer distinction of the modals, especially those of Tagalog. Also, it is also
recommended that a Filipino fluent in Japanese also translate sentences containing these modals to be
able to compare the perception of the Japanese on Tagalog modals and the perception of the Filipino on
Japanese modals. It would also be better for those who are interested in studying this topic to gather more
data to be able to come up with a more viable conclusion.
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