Texto Turbinas A GAS 2013 001

UMSS FCYT
Maquinas Termicas II
Doc. Ing. Pedro Triveo H.

Issue 2 April 2003 Page 1

GAS TURBINE
ENGINES
CONTENTS
1 FUNDAMENTALS ........................................................................ 1-1
1.1 WORK, POWER & ENERGY ........................................................ 1-1
1.1.1 Work ................................................................................ 1-1
1.1.2 Power .............................................................................. 1-1
1.1.3 Energy ............................................................................. 1-2
1.2 FORCE AND MOTION .................................................................. 1-3
1.2.1 Force ............................................................................... 1-3
1.2.2 Velocity ............................................................................ 1-3
1.2.3 Acceleration .................................................................... 1-4
1.3 PRINCIPLES OF J ET PROPULSION .......................................... 1-4
1.3.1 Thrust Calculation. .......................................................... 1-4
1.4 GAS TURBINES ............................................................................ 1-6
1.5 THE BRAYTON CYCLE ................................................................ 1-7
1.6 CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE AND VELOCITY . 1-9
1.6.1 Temperature and Pressure ............................................. 1-9
1.6.2 Velocity and Pressure ..................................................... 1-10
1.6.3 How The Changes are Obtained. .................................. 1-10
1.7 DUCTS AND NOZZLES ................................................................ 1-10
Continuity equation. ...................................................................... 1-10
1.7.2 Incompressible fluid flow. ................................................ 1-11
1.7.3 Bernoullis Theorem ........................................................ 1-11
1.7.4 Total energy. ................................................................... 1-12
1.8 CONTINUITY EQUATION AND BERNOULLIS THEOREM ....... 1-13
1.8.1 Incompressible fluid. ....................................................... 1-13
1.8.2 Gas Laws ........................................................................ 1-15
1.9 SUBSONIC AIRFLOW THROUGH DIVERGENT AND CONVERGENT DUCTS 1-
16
Divergent Duct ............................................................................... 1-16
1.9.2 Convergent Duct ............................................................. 1-16
SONIC AIRFLOW THOUGH DIVERGENT AND CONVERGENT DUCTS 1-17
1.11 THE WORKING CYCLE ON A PRESSURE VOLUME DIAGRAM 1-18
1.12 ENGINE CONFIGURATIONS. ...................................................... 1-19
1.12.1 Reaction engines ............................................................ 1-19
1.12.2 Power Engines ................................................................ 1-21
2 ENGINE PERFORMANCE ........................................................... 2-1
2.1 METHOD OF CALCULATING THE THRUST FORCES .............. 2-1
2.2 CALCULATING THE THRUST OF THE ENGINE ....................... 2-2
2.2.1 Comparison between thrust and horse-power ............... 2-6
2.3 ENGINE THRUST IN FLIGHT ...................................................... 2-7
2.3.1 Effect of forward speed ................................................... 2-9
2.3.2 Effect of afterburning on engine thrust ........................... 2-11

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2.3.3 Effect of altitude .............................................................. 2-11
2.3.4 Effect of temperature ...................................................... 2-13
2.4 PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY ......................................................... 2-14
2.5 FUEL CONSUMPTION AND POWER TO WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP 2-15
2.6 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION ............................................... 2-16
2.6.1 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION DEFINITION ........ 2-16
2.7 FLAT RATING ............................................................................... 2-16
2.8 PERFORMANCE RATINGS ......................................................... 2-16
3 INLET ............................................................................................ 3-1
3.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 3-1
3.2 RAM COMPRESSION .................................................................. 3-1
3.2.1 Importance of Ram Compression ................................... 3-1
3.3 TYPES OF AIR INTAKES ............................................................. 3-2
3.3.1 PITOT INTAKES ............................................................. 3-2
3.3.2 DIVIDED ENTRANCE DUCT ......................................... 3-3
3.4 IDEAL INTAKE CONDITIONS ...................................................... 3-4
3.5 INTAKE ANTI-ICING ..................................................................... 3-5
3.5.1 Engine Hot Air Anti-icing ................................................. 3-5
3.5.2 Engine Electrical Anti-icing ............................................. 3-7
3.5.3 Oil Anti-ice ....................................................................... 3-8
4 COMPRESSORS .......................................................................... 4-1
4.1 COMPRESSORS GENERAL ....................................................... 4-1
4.2 CENTRIFUGAL FLOW ................................................................. 4-1
4.2.1 Operation ......................................................................... 4-3
4.3 THE AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR ............................................. 4-5
Operation ....................................................................................... 4-6
4.4 COMPRESSOR STALL AND SURGE ......................................... 4-13
4.4.1 Airflow Control System Principles ................................... 4-13
4.4.2 Compressor Characteristics ........................................... 4-17
4.4.3 Effect of Temperature on the Operating Point of the Airflow Control System 4-
18
4.5 AIR FLOW CONTROL SYSTEM OPERATION ........................ 4-20
4.6 AEROFOIL THEORY AND THE AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR (CONTINUED) 4-
25
4.6.1 Speed of Airflow Over Blades ......................................... 4-25
4.6.2 Angle of Attack ................................................................ 4-25
Some Important Points about Angle of Attack .............................. 4-26
4.7 APPLICATION TO THE AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR .............. 4-27
4.7.1 Compressor RPM ............................................................ 4-27
4.7.2 Common Causes of Compressor Stall ........................... 4-27
4.7.3 Stagger Angle and End Bend ......................................... 4-27
4.7.4 Recent innovations ......................................................... 4-27

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4.8 AIRFLOW CONTROL ................................................................... 4-29
4.9 AIR BLEED VALVES (SUMMARY) .............................................. 4-29
4.10 VARIABLE INTAKE GUIDE VANES (SUMMARY) ...................... 4-29
4.11 MULTI-SPOOL COMPRESSORS (SUMMARY) .......................... 4-29
4.12 COMPARING THE FEATURES OF CENTRIFUGAL AND AXIAL FLOW
COMPRESSORS ...................................................................................... 4-30
4.12.1 Centrifugal ....................................................................... 4-30
4.12.2 Axial Flow ........................................................................ 4-30
5 COMBUSTION SECTION ............................................................. 5-1
5.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 5-1
5.2 COMBUSTION PROCESS ........................................................... 5-1
5.3 FUEL SUPPLY .............................................................................. 5-3
5.4 TYPES OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER ....................................... 5-4
5.4.1 Multiple combustion chamber ......................................... 5-4
5.4.2 Tubo-annular combustion chamber ................................ 5-6
(Also known as Can-annular or Cannular.) .................................. 5-6
5.4.3 Annular combustion chamber ......................................... 5-7
5.4.4 Reverse Flow Combustion Chamber .............................. 5-9
5.5 COMBUSTION CHAMBER PERFORMANCE ............................. 5-10
5.5.1 Combustion intensity ....................................................... 5-10
5.6 COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY ....................................................... 5-11
5.7 COMBUSTION STABILITY ........................................................... 5-11
5.8 POLLUTION CONTROL ............................................................... 5-12
5.8.1 Introduction...................................................................... 5-12
5.8.2 Sources of Pollution ........................................................ 5-12
5.9 EMISSIONS .................................................................................. 5-12
5.10 MATERIALS .................................................................................. 5-14
6 TURBINE SECTION ..................................................................... 6-1
6.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 6-1
6.2 ENERGY TRANSFER FROM GAS FLOW TO TURBINE ........... 6-5
6.3 CONSTRUCTION ......................................................................... 6-8
6.3.1 Nozzle guide vanes ......................................................... 6-8
6.3.2 Turbine discs ................................................................... 6-9
6.3.3 Turbine blades ................................................................ 6-9
6.3.4 Dual alloy discs ............................................................... 6-11
6.4 COMPRESSOR-TURBINE MATCHING ...................................... 6-11
6.5 MATERIALS .................................................................................. 6-11
6.5.1 Nozzle guide vanes ......................................................... 6-11
6.5.2 Turbine discs ................................................................... 6-11
6.5.3 Turbine blades ................................................................ 6-12
6.6 DYNAMIC BALANCING PRINCIPLES ......................................... 6-16

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6.6.1 Introduction...................................................................... 6-16
6.6.2 Centrifugal Force ............................................................. 6-17
6.6.3 Causes of Unbalance ...................................................... 6-18
6.6.4 Objective of Balancing .................................................... 6-20
6.6.5 Definition of Unbalance ................................................... 6-20
6.6.6 Fan Balancing ................................................................. 6-23
7 EXHAUST ..................................................................................... 7-1
7.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 7-1
EXHAUST GAS FLOW ............................................................................. 7-3
7.3 CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS ........................................... 7-7
7.4 NOISE REDUCTION ..................................................................... 7-8
7.4.1 Sources of Engine Noise ................................................ 7-8
7.5 THRUST REVERSAL ................................................................... 7-18
7.5.1 Introduction...................................................................... 7-18
7.5.2 Requirement for Thrust Reversal ................................... 7-18
7.5.3 Layout and Operation of Typical Thrust Reversing Systems 7-19
7.5.4 Safety Features ............................................................... 7-22
CFM 56 Thrust Reverser for Boeing 737-300 .............................. 7-22
8 BEARINGS, SEALS AND GEARBOXES ..................................... 8-1
8.1 BEARINGS .................................................................................... 8-1
8.1.1 Introduction...................................................................... 8-1
8.1.2 Ball Bearings ................................................................... 8-1
8.1.3 Roller Bearings ................................................................ 8-1
8.1.4 Other types of bearings ................................................... 8-1
8.2 BEARING CHAMBER OR SUMP ................................................. 8-3
8.2.1 Lubrication ....................................................................... 8-3
8.2.2 Sealing ............................................................................ 8-3
8.2.3 Thread Seals ................................................................... 8-4
8.2.4 Carbon Seal .................................................................... 8-5
8.2.5 Spring Ring Seal ............................................................. 8-5
8.2.6 Hydraulic Seal ................................................................. 8-6
8.3 ACCESSORY DRIVE GEARBOXES ............................................ 8-7
8.3.1 Introduction...................................................................... 8-7
8.3.2 Internal gearbox .............................................................. 8-7
8.3.3 Radial driveshaft ............................................................. 8-10
8.3.4 Direct drive ...................................................................... 8-10
8.3.5 Gear train drive ............................................................... 8-10
8.3.6 Intermediate gearbox ...................................................... 8-10
8.3.7 External gearbox ............................................................. 8-11
8.3.8 Auxiliary gearbox ............................................................. 8-12
8.3.9 Construction and Materials ............................................. 8-14
9 LUBRICANTS AND FUEL ............................................................ 9-1
9.1 GAS TURBINE FUEL PROPERTIES AND SPECIFICATION ..... 9-1

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9.2 FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION ...................................................... 9-1
9.3 PROPERTIES ............................................................................... 9-3
9.3.1 Ease of Flow ................................................................... 9-3
9.3.2 Ease of Starting ............................................................... 9-3
9.3.3 Complete Combustion .................................................... 9-3
9.3.4 Calorific Value ................................................................. 9-4
9.3.5 Corrosive Properties ....................................................... 9-4
9.3.6 Effects of By-Products of Combustion ............................ 9-5
9.3.7 Fire Hazards .................................................................... 9-5
9.3.8 Vapour Pressure ............................................................. 9-6
9.3.9 Fuel Boiling and Evaporation Losses ............................. 9-6
9.3.10 Methods of Reducing or Eliminating Fuel Losses .......... 9-6
9.3.11 Fuel additives .................................................................. 9-8
9.3.12 Safety precautions .......................................................... 9-8
9.4 GAS TURBINE OIL PROPERTIES AND SPECIFICATIONS ...... 9-9
9.4.1 Viscosity .......................................................................... 9-9
9.4.2 Hydro-Dynamics or Fluid Film Lubrication ..................... 9-9
9.4.3 Boundary Lubrication ...................................................... 9-10
9.5 LUBRICATING OILS ..................................................................... 9-10
9.6 TURBINE OILS ............................................................................. 9-11
9.6.1 First Generation Synthetic Oils ....................................... 9-12
9.6.2 Second Generation Synthetic Oils .................................. 9-12
9.6.3 Third Generation Synthetic Oils ...................................... 9-12
9.6.4 Safety Precautions .......................................................... 9-13
10 LUBRICATION SYSTEMS ........................................................... 10-1
10.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 10-1
10.2 BEARINGS .................................................................................... 10-1
10.3 ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEMS ............................................. 10-5
10.3.1 Pressure Relief Valve Re-circulatory System ................. 10-5
10.3.2 Recirculatory Oil System Full Flow Type ..................... 10-8
10.3.3 Advantages of Full Flow Lubrication ............................... 10-8
10.3.4 Expendable System ........................................................ 10-10
10.4 MAIN COMPONENTS .................................................................. 10-11
10.4.1 Oil Tank ........................................................................... 10-11
10.4.2 Oil Pumps ........................................................................ 10-12
10.4.3 oil cooling ........................................................................ 10-14
10.4.4 Pressure Filter ................................................................. 10-15
10.4.5 Last Chance Filter ........................................................... 10-17
10.4.6 Scavenge Oil Strainers ................................................... 10-17
10.4.7 Magnetic Chip Detector .................................................. 10-18
10.4.8 De-aerator ....................................................................... 10-18
10.4.9 Centrifugal Breather ........................................................ 10-19
Pressure Relief Valve .................................................................... 10-19
10.4.11 By-Pass Valve ................................................................. 10-20

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10.5 INDICATIONS AND WARNINGS ................................................. 10-21
10.5.1 Low Pressure Warning Lamp ......................................... 10-21
10.5.2 Oil Pressure, temperature and quantity indication ......... 10-21
10.6 OIL SEALS .................................................................................... 10-21
10.7 SERVICING ................................................................................... 10-21
11 ENGINE FUEL CONTROL SYSTEMS ......................................... 11-1
11.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 11-1
11.2 PURPOSE OF THE ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM ............................. 11-1
11.3 LAYOUT OF TYPICAL SYSTEM COMPONENTS ...................... 11-3
11.3.1 Aircraft Mounted Components ........................................ 11-3
11.3.2 The Engine LP fuel system ............................................. 11-3
11.3.3 The Engine HP Fuel System .......................................... 11-3
11.4 FACTORS GOVERNING FUEL REQUIREMENTS ..................... 11-5
11.5 REQUIREMENTS OF THE ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM ................. 11-5
11.6 ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS ................................... 11-5
11.7 FUEL PUMPS ............................................................................... 11-5
11.7.1 Fuel Pump Requirements ............................................... 11-5
11.7.2 Plunger-type Fuel Pump ................................................. 11-6
11.7.3 Gear-Type Fuel Pump .................................................... 11-7
11.8 FUEL FLOW CONTROL ............................................................... 11-7
11.8.1 Basic Flow Control System ............................................. 11-8
11.9 HYDRO-MECHANICAL CONTROL UNITS ................................. 11-10
11.9.2 Barometric Controls ........................................................ 11-11
11.9.3 Proportional Flow Control. .............................................. 11-13
11.9.4 Acceleration Control Units .............................................. 11-14
11.10 ENGINE PROTECTION DEVICES ............................................... 11-18
11.10.1 Top Temperature Limiter. ............................................... 11-18
11.10.2 Power Limiter. ................................................................. 11-18
11.10.3 Overspeed Governor. ..................................................... 11-19
BURNERS ................................................................................................ 11-21
11.11.1 Atomiser Burners ............................................................ 11-21
11.11.2 Vaporising Burners ......................................................... 11-26
11.11.3 Combustion and Airflow .................................................. 11-28
11.12 ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS ........................... 11-30
11.12.1 Supervisory Electronic Engine Control ........................... 11-30
11.12.2 FUEL CONTROL ............................................................ 11-32
11.12.3 General ............................................................................ 11-32
11.12.4 Full-Authority Digital Electronic Control (FADEC) .......... 11-36
12 AIR SYSTEMS .............................................................................. 12-1
12.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 12-1
12.2 INTERNAL COOLING AIRFLOW ................................................. 12-2
12.2.1 Low Pressure Air ............................................................. 12-2

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12.2.2 Intermediate Pressure Air ............................................... 12-2
12.2.3 High Pressure Air ............................................................ 12-2
12.2.4 Differential Pressure Seals ............................................. 12-3
12.3 SEALING ....................................................................................... 12-3
12.4 COOLING. ..................................................................................... 12-5
12.5 TURBINE CASE COOLING DESCRIPTION AND OPERATION 12-9
12.5.1 Passive Clearance Control System. Figure 12.7. .......... 12-9
12.5.2 Active Clearance Control System. Figure 12.8. ............. 12-10
12.5.3 Low Pressure Turbine Clearance Control Valve ............ 12-11
12.6 EXTERNAL COOLING .................................................................. 12-13
12.6.1 External skin of aero-engine. .......................................... 12-13
12.6.2 Cooling of Accessories ................................................... 12-14
12.7 HP AIR FOR AIRCRAFT SERVICES. .......................................... 12-15
External Air Tappings .................................................................... 12-15
12.8 ANTI-ICING SYSTEMS ................................................................. 12-18
13 STARTING AND IGNITION SYSTEMS ........................................ 13-1
13.1 BASIC PRINCIPLES OF GAS TURBINE ENGINE STARTING SYSTEMS 13-1
13.1.1 Purpose ........................................................................... 13-1
13.1.2 Essential Starting Requirements .................................... 13-1
STARTER MOTORS ................................................................................ 13-2
13.2.1 Electrical Starter Motor ................................................... 13-3
13.2.2 Electric Starter/Generator ............................................... 13-3
13.2.3 Safety Interlocks .............................................................. 13-4
13.2.4 Air Turbo Starters ............................................................ 13-5
13.3 A300 STARTING SYSTEM ........................................................... 13-8
13.3.1 GE 6-50 Starting Procedure ........................................... 13-8
13.4 IGNITION SYSTEMS .................................................................... 13-12
13.4.1 High Energy Ignition Unit ................................................ 13-12
13.4.2 Igniter Plug ...................................................................... 13-14
13.4.3 Servicing the Ignition System ......................................... 13-14
14 ENGINE INDICATION SYSTEMS ................................................ 14-1
14.1 INTRODUCTION. .......................................................................... 14-1
14.2 ENGINE SPEED INDICATORS. ................................................... 14-3
14.3 THRUST INDICATION .................................................................. 14-7
14.3.1 Engine Pressure Ratio.EPR. .......................................... 14-7
14.3.2 Torque indication ............................................................. 14-9
14.3.3 Phase comparison Torquemeter .................................... 14-12
14.4 EXHAUST GAS TEMPERATURE ................................................ 14-13
14.4.1 Thermocouples ............................................................... 14-13
14.5 FUEL FLOW METERING ............................................................. 14-17
14.6 OIL ................................................................................................. 14-20
14.6.1 The Oil Pressure Indicator .............................................. 14-20

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14.6.2 Oil pressure warning light ............................................... 14-21
Oil Temperature. ........................................................................... 14-22
14.6.4 Oil Quantity...................................................................... 14-23
14.7 VIBRATION ................................................................................... 14-24
14.8 WARNING LIGHTS ....................................................................... 14-24
15 THRUST AUGMENTATION ......................................................... 15-1
15.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 15-1
15.2 WATER INJ ECTION ..................................................................... 15-1
15.2.1 Effects on Engine Power ................................................. 15-1
15.2.2 Methods of Applying Water/Methanol ............................. 15-1
15.2.3 Compressor Intake Injection (Turbo Prop) ..................... 15-2
15.2.4 Combustion Chamber Injection System ......................... 15-4
15.3 RE-HEAT (AFTER BURNING) ..................................................... 15-6
15.3.1 Purpose ........................................................................... 15-6
15.3.2 Revision of Thrust ........................................................... 15-6
15.3.3 Re-heat and By-pass Engines ........................................ 15-6
15.3.4 The Advantage of Re-heat .............................................. 15-6
15.3.5 The disadvantages of Re-heat ........................................ 15-7
15.3.6 Propelling Nozzles .......................................................... 15-7
15.3.7 Re-heat Nozzles .............................................................. 15-8
15.3.8 The Re-heat J et Pipe ...................................................... 15-10
16 TURBO-PROP ENGINES ............................................................. 16-1
16.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 16-1
16.2 TYPES OF TURBO-PROP ENGINES .......................................... 16-1
16.2.1 Coupled Power Turbine .................................................. 16-1
16.2.2 Free Power Turbine ........................................................ 16-2
16.2.3 Compounded Engine ...................................................... 16-3
16.3 REDUCTION GEARING ............................................................... 16-3
16.3.1 Simple Spur Epicyclic .................................................... 16-4
16.3.2 Compound Spur Epicyclic ............................................... 16-6
16.3.3 Gear Train/Epicyclic ........................................................ 16-7
16.4 TURBO-PROP PERFORMANCE ................................................. 16-7
16.5 TURBO-PROP ENGINE CONTROL ............................................ 16-7
16.5.1 Integrated Control of RPM and Fuel Flow ...................... 16-8
16.5.2 Direct Control of Fuel Flow ............................................. 16-8
16.5.3 Direct Control of Blade Angle (Beta Control) .................. 16-8
16.6 ENGINE AND PROPELLER CONTROLS .................................... 16-9
16.7 CONTROL OUTSIDE NORMAL FLIGHT RANGE ....................... 16-9
16.8 PROPELLER CONTROL .............................................................. 16-9
16.8.1 Constant Speed Unit ....................................................... 16-10
16.8.2 Manual and Automatic Feathering Controls ................... 16-10
16.8.3 Fixed and Removable Stops ........................................... 16-15
16.9 OVERSPEED SAFETY DEVICES ................................................ 16-16

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17 TURBOSHAFT ENGINES ............................................................ 17-1
17.1 INTRODUCTION. .......................................................................... 17-1
17.2 FUEL CONTROL SYSTEM .......................................................... 17-4
17.3 ARRANGEMENTS ........................................................................ 17-6
17.4 DRIVE SYSTEMS ......................................................................... 17-10
17.5 COUPLINGS ................................................................................. 17-13
18 AUXILLIARY POWER UNITS ...................................................... 18-1
18.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................... 18-1
18.2 GENERAL ARRANGEMENTS AND CONFIGURATION ............. 18-3
18.2.1 Inlet Duct Arrangement ................................................... 18-7
18.2.2 Exhaust Duct Arrangement ............................................. 18-9
18.3 THE APU ENGINE ........................................................................ 18-10
18.4 FUEL CONTROL ........................................................................... 18-12
Mechanical Fuel Control ............................................................... 18-12
18.4.2 Speed Control ................................................................. 18-18
18.4.3 Mechanical Fuel Control Unit Operation ........................ 18-19
18.4.4 Electronic APU Fuel Control ........................................... 18-20
18.4.5 Electro/mechanical Fuel Control (FIGURE 18.26) ......... 18-21
18.5 APU OIL SYSTEM ........................................................................ 18-23
18.6 APU BLEED AIR SYSTEMS ......................................................... 18-25
18.6.1 direct from engine compressor ....................................... 18-25
18.6.2 SEPARATE LOAD COMPRESSOR ............................... 18-27
18.7 BAY COOLING .............................................................................. 18-28
18.7.1 Ram Air Cooling .............................................................. 18-28
18.7.2 Fan Air Cooling ............................................................... 18-28
18.8 APU POWERPLANT INSTALLATION.......................................... 18-32
18.9 APU STARTING SEQUENCE ...................................................... 18-34
19 POWERPLANT INSTALLATION ................................................. 19-1
19.1 NACELLES OR PODS .................................................................. 19-1
19.1.1 Cowlings .......................................................................... 19-1
19.1.2 Firewalls .......................................................................... 19-4
19.1.3 Cooling ............................................................................ 19-6
19.1.4 Acoustic Linings .............................................................. 19-8
19.1.5 Abradable Linings ........................................................... 19-11
19.2 ENGINE MOUNTS ........................................................................ 19-12
19.2.1 Wing Pylon Mounted Engine (Turbofan) ........................ 19-12
19.2.2 Wing Mounted Engine (Turboprop) ................................ 19-14
19.2.3 Rear Fuselage Engine Turbofan.(Figure 19.14/15.) ...... 19-16
19.3 ENGINE DRAINS. ......................................................................... 19-18
19.3.1 Controlled Drains ............................................................ 19-18
19.3.2 Uncontrolled Drains ........................................................ 19-20
19.4 ENGINE CONTROLS ................................................................... 19-22

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19.4.1 Throttle Control Mechanical ............................................ 19-22
19.4.2 Turbofan Engine Controls. .............................................. 19-22
19.4.3 Turboprop Engine Controls ............................................. 19-24
19.5 ENGINE BUILD UNIT ................................................................... 19-29
19.5.1 Turbofan Engine .............................................................. 19-29
19.6 FIRE PREVENTION BAYS OR ZONES .................................... 19-38
19.7 INSTALLING AND REMOVING ENGINES. ................................. 19-40
19.7.1 Removal .......................................................................... 19-40
19.7.2 Fitting ............................................................................... 19-48
19.7.3 Turbo Prop Engine Removal/Fit. .................................... 19-48
19.7.4 Flight Transit ................................................................... 19-48
20 FIRE PROTECTION SYSTEMS ................................................... 20-1
20.1 FIRE DETECTORS ....................................................................... 20-1
20.2 FIRE WIRE SYSTEMS ................................................................. 20-3
20.2.1 Resistance Type ............................................................. 20-3
20.2.2 Capacitance Type ........................................................... 20-3
20.2.3 Gas Operation Fire Wire ................................................. 20-4
20.2.4 Single Loop ..................................................................... 20-5
20.2.5 Dual Loop ........................................................................ 20-5
Dual Loop Systems ....................................................................... 20-6
20.3 FIRE AND LOOP FAULT INDICATION (E.C.A.M.) ...................... 20-8
20.4 FIRE SUPPRESSION ................................................................... 20-9
20.4.1 Types of Fire Suppression System ................................. 20-11
One Shot System .......................................................................... 20-11
20.4.2 Two Shot System (shared extinguishers) ....................... 20-12
20.4.3 Two Shot System (Single Head extinguishers) .............. 20-14
20.5 EXTINGUISHERS ......................................................................... 20-16
20.5.1 Operating Head ............................................................... 20-17
20.5.2 Safety Discharge ............................................................. 20-17
20.5.3 Discharge Tube Configuration ........................................ 20-18
20.5.4 Operating Time ............................................................... 20-19
20.5.5 Extinguishant ................................................................... 20-19
20.6 INDICATIONS OF FIRE DETECTION .......................................... 20-20
20.6.1 Fire T Handle .................................................................. 20-20
20.6.2 Fire Bell ........................................................................... 20-20
20.6.3 Fire Detection Test .......................................................... 20-22
20.7 DISCHARGE INDICATORS ......................................................... 20-23
20.7.1 Mechanical Indicators ..................................................... 20-23
20.7.2 Electrical Indicators ......................................................... 20-23
20.8 CARTRIDGES OR SQUIBS ......................................................... 20-24
20.8.1 Life Control of Squibs ...................................................... 20-24
INTENTIONALLY BLANK ......................................................................... 20-26
21 ENGINE MONITORING AND GROUND OPERATIONS. ............. 21-1

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21.1 PROCEDURES FOR STARTING AND GROUND RUNNING. ... 21-1
21.2 STARTING .................................................................................... 21-3
21.3 UNSATISFACTORY STARTS ...................................................... 21-7
21.4 ENGINE STOPPING. .................................................................... 21-8
21.5 ENGINE FIRES ............................................................................. 21-9
21.6 INTERPRETATION OF ENGINE POWER OUTPUTS AND PARAMETERS. 21-10
21.7 TREND MONITORING. ................................................................ 21-22
21.7.1 On Ground Monitoring .................................................... 21-24
21.7.2 Air Washed Components ................................................ 21-24
21.7.3 Oil Washed Components ................................................ 21-32
21.7.4 Inspections ...................................................................... 21-36
22 ENGINE STORAGE AND PRESERVATION. ............................... 22-1
22.1 STORAGE AND TRANSIT ........................................................... 22-1
22.1.1 Fuel System Inhibiting. ................................................... 22-1
22.1.2 Packing. ........................................................................... 22-2
22.1.3 Storage. ........................................................................... 22-3

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1 FUNDAMENTALS
1.1 WORK, POWER & ENERGY
Work, power, and energy are all interrelated. Work is the amount of movement a
given force causes; energy is the ability to do work, and power is the rate of doing
work.
1.1.1 WORK
In its technical sense, work is the product of force and distance, and work is done
only when a force causes movement. We can see this by the formula:
Work =Force x Distance
We normally measure distance in feet or inches, and force in pounds or ounces.
This allows us to measure work in foot-pounds or inch-ounces.
Example:
To find the amount of work done when a 500 pound load is lifted for a distance of
6 feet, we can use the formula:
Work =Force x Distance
=500 X 6
=3,000 foot-pounds
1.1.2 POWER
The rate of doing work is called power, and it is defined as the work done in unit
time. As a formula, this would be:
power =work done
time taken
Power is expressed in several different units, such as the watt, ergs per second,
and foot-pounds per second. The most common unit of power in general use in
the United States is the horsepower. One horsepower (hp) is equal to 550 ft-lbs
or 33000 ft-1b/min. In the metric system the unit of power is the watt (W) or the
kilowatt (kW). One hp is equal to 746 watts; and 1 kW =1.34 hp.
Example:
To compute the power necessary to raise an elevator containing 10 persons a
distance of 100 ft in 5 s (assuming the loaded elevator weighs 2500 lb), proceed
as follows:
Power =work done =2500 x 100 =50,000 ft-lbs/sec
Time taken 5

Since 1hp =550 ft-lbs/sec then required hp =50,000
550
=90.9 hp (67.81 kw assuming no friction losses)

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1.1.3 ENERGY
The term energy may be defined as the capacity for doing work. There are two
forms of energy: potential energy and kinetic energy.
1.1.3.1 POTENTIAL ENERGY
Potential energy is the stored energy possessed by a system, because of the
relative positions of the components of that system. If work done raises an object
to a certain height, energy will be stored in that object in the form of the
gravitational force. This energy, waiting to be released is called potential energy.
The amount of potential energy a system possesses is equal to the work done on
the system previously.
Potential energy can be found in forms other than weights and height. Electrically
charged components contain potential (electrical) energy because of their position
within an electric field. An explosive substance has chemical potential energy that
is released in the form of light, heat and kinetic energy, when detonated.
Example :
A weight of 50 pounds is raised 5 feet. Using the formula:
Potential Energy =Force x Distance
=50 x 5
=250 ft-lbs.
Note: That energy is expressed in the same units as those used for work and in all
cases energy is the product of force x distance.
1.1.3.2 KINETIC ENERGY
Kinetic energy is the energy possessed by an object, resulting from the motion of
that object. The magnitude of that energy depends on both the mass and speed
of the object. This is demonstrated by the simple equation:
Energy =mv
2
or w v
2

2g
where m =mass, v =velocity (in feet or metres per second), w =weight, g =
gravity (32 ft/sec
2
or 9.81m/sec
2
).
All forms of energy convert into other forms by appropriate processes. In this
process of transformation, either form of energy can be lost or gained but the total
energy must remain the same.
Example:
A weight of 50lbs dropped from a height of 5 ft has kinetic energy of
KE =50 x 25
2 x 32
=19.53 ft-lbs

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1.2 FORCE AND MOTION
1.2.1 FORCE
Force may be defined as a push or a pull upon an object. In the English system
the pound (1b) is used to express the value of a force. For example, we say that a
force of 30 lb is acting upon a hydraulic piston.
A unit of force in the metric system is the newton (N). The newton is the force
required to accelerate a mass of 1 kilogram (kg) 1 meter per second per second
(m/s
2
).
The dyne (dyn) is also employed in the metric system as a unit of force. One dyne
is the force required to accelerate a mass of 1g 1 centimetre per second per
second (cm/s
2
). One newton is equal to 100,000 dynes (0.225 Ib).
1.2.2 VELOCITY
It is common to find people confusing the terms velocity and speed when
describing how fast an object is moving. The difference is that speed is a scalar
quantity, whilst the term velocity refers to both speed and direction of an object.
The full definition of velocity is that it is the rate at which its position changes, over
time, and the direction of the change.
The simple diagram below shows how an aircraft, which flies the irregular path
from 'A' to 'B' in an hour, (a speed of 350 mph), has an actual velocity of 200 mph
in an East-Northeast direction.

A
B
C
N
200 Ml (322 Km)
350 Ml (563 Km)
Path of Aircraft
Diagram Showing Difference Between Velocity and Speed
Figure 1.1.

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1.2.3 ACCELERATION
This term describes the rate at which velocity changes. If an object increases in
speed, it has positive acceleration; if it decreases in speed, it has negative
acceleration. A reference to Newton's Second law of Motion will explain the
principles of acceleration. Acceleration can be in a straight line, which is referred
to a linear acceleration and it can apply to rotating objects whose speed of rotation
is increasing, (or decreasing), when it is called angular acceleration.
1.3 PRINCIPLES OF JET PROPULSION
Newtons Laws of Motion. To understand the basic principles of jet propulsion it is
necessary to understand the practical application of Sir Isaac Newton's Laws of
Motion. There are three laws.
1. The First Law States. A mass will remain stationary until acted upon by a
force. If the mass is already moving at a constant speed in a straight line, it will.
continue to move at that constant speed in a straight line until acted upon by a
force.
2. The Second Law States. When a force acts on a mass the mass will
accelerate in the direction in which the force acts.
3. The Third Law States. To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction.
The function of any propeller or gas turbine engine is to produce THRUST, (or a
propulsion force), by accelerating a mass of air or gas rearwards. If we apply
Newton's Laws of Motion to aircraft propulsion it can be said that:-
- a FORCE must be applied in order to accelerate the mass of air or gas: first
law,
the acceleration of the mass is proportional to the force applied: second law,
- there must be an equal and opposite reaction, in our case this is THRUST, a
forward acting force: third law.
1.3.1 THRUST CALCULATION.
The amount of thrust produced depends upon two things:-
the MASS of air which is moved rearwards in a given time,
- the ACCELERATION imparted to the air.
It can be expressed as:- Thrust =Mass x Acceleration
The MASS is defined as the quantity of matter in a body".
It is expressed as W
g
Where:- W =the weight of the body (in lbs or newtons) and
g =the gravitational constant (taken as 32 ft/sec/sec or 9.81 m/sec
2
)
The ACCELERATION imparted to the air is the difference between its inlet and
outlet velocity.

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If we let: -
V
2
=the air velocity at exit (in ft/sec/sec or 9.81m/sec
2
)
and
V
1
=the air velocity at inlet (in ft/sec/sec or 9.81m/sec
2
)
It may be expressed as V
2
V
1

Taking these expressions for Mass and Acceleration, the thrust produced by an
engine or propeller can be calculated from the following formula:-
THRUST = ( ) 1 2 V - V
g
W

Example 1.
The airflow through a propeller is 256 lbs/sec, Inlet velocity 0 ft/sec, outlet velocity
700 ft/sec.
Thrust developed will be:
THRUST = ( ) 1 2 V - V
g
W

THRUST =256 x (700 0)
32
=5600 lbs
Example 2.
The mass airflow through a gas turbine engine is 128lbs/sec, inlet velocity is 0
ft/sec, outlet velocity is 1400 ft/sec. Using the formula :
THRUST =128 x (1400 0)
32
=5600lbs
By comparing both examples, you can see that the gas turbine produced the same
thrust as the propeller by giving a greater acceleration to a smaller mass. It can
be said that a propeller accelerates a large mass slowly whilst the gas turbine
produces the same thrust by giving a greater acceleration to a smaller mass.
Note that in both of the examples the inlet velocity was zero ft/sec. The aircraft
was stationary so the thrust produced is referred to as STATIC THRUST.

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1.4 GAS TURBINES
A gas turbine engine is essentially a heat engine using a mass of air as a working
fluid to provide thrust. To achieve this, the mass of air passing through the engine
has to be accelerated, which means that the velocity, (or kinetic energy), of the air
is increased. To obtain this increase, the pressure energy is first of all increased,
followed by the addition of heat energy, before final conversion back to kinetic
energy in the form of a high velocity jet efflux.
The simplest form of gas turbine engine is the turbojet engine, which has three
major parts; the compressor, the combustion section and the turbine. A shaft
connects the compressor and the turbine to form a single, rotating unit. These
engines produce thrust in the manner described in the Brayton Cycle.
The simplest turbojet engine is the unit shown below with a single
centrifugal(Double Entry)compressor and a single stage turbine. This type of
engine can still be found in certain special installations but generally, they have
been superseded by engines with axial compressors and multiple stage turbines.
The advantages and disadvantages of the two types of compressor will be
discussed in depth later in this module

Simple Centrifugal Gas Turbine (Derwent)
Figure 1.2.

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1.5 THE BRAYTON CYCLE
The working cycle of the gas turbine engine is similar to that of the four-stroke
piston engine. There is induction, compression, ignition and exhaust in both
cases, although the process is continuous in a gas turbine. Also, the combustion
in a piston engine occurs at a constant volume, whilst in a gas turbine engine it
occurs at a constant pressure.

The cycle, upon which the gas
turbine engine functions, in its
simplest form, is the Brayton
cycle, which is represented by
the pressure/volume diagram,
shown in figure 1.4.

The Working Cycle.
Figure 1.3.
The Brayton Cycle.
Figure 1.4.

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The air entering the engine is compressed.
Heat is added to the air by burning fuel at a constant pressure, thereby
considerably increasing the volume of the resulting gas.
The gases resulting from combustion expand through the turbine, which
converts some of the energy in the expanding gases into mechanical energy
to drive the compressor.
The remainder of the expanding gases are propelled through the turbine and
jet pipe back to the atmosphere where they provide the propulsive jet.
There are three main stages in the engine working cycle during which the changes
discussed occur:
During compression. Work is done on the air. This increases the pressure
and temperature and decreases the volume of air.
During combustion. Fuel is added to the air and then burnt. This increases
the temperature and volume of the gas, whilst the pressure remains almost
constant (the latter being arranged by design in a gas turbine engine).
During expansion. Energy is taken from the gas stream to drive the
compressor via the turbine; this decreases the temperature and pressure,
whilst the volume increases. The rapidly expanding gases are propelled
through the turbine and jet pipe to give a final momentum that is much greater
than the initial momentum; it is this change in momentum which produces the
propulsive jet.

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1.6 CHANGES IN TEMPERATURE, PRESSURE AND VELOCITY .
1.6.1 TEMPERATURE AND PRESSURE
The changes in temperature and pressure of the gases through a gas turbine
engine are illustrated in Figure 1.5 The efficiency with which these changes are
made will determine to what extent the desired relations between pressure,
temperature and velocity are obtained. The more efficient the compressor, the
higher is the pressure generated for a given work input - i.e. for a given
temperature rise of the gas. Conversely, the more efficiently the turbine uses the
expanding gas, the greater is the output of work for a given temperature drop in
gas.
Gas Flow Through an Engine
Figure 1.5

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1.6.2 VELOCITY AND PRESSURE
During the passage of the air (gas) through the engine, aerodynamic and energy
requirements demand changes in its velocity and pressure. For example, during
compression a rise in the pressure of the air is required with no increase in its
velocity. After the air has been heated and its internal energy increased by
combustion, an increase in the velocity of the gases is necessary to cause the
turbine to rotate. Also at the propelling nozzle, a high velocity is required, for it is
the change in momentum of the air that provides the thrust on the aircraft. Local
decelerations of gas flow are also required - for example, in the combustion
chambers to provide a low velocity zone for the flame.
1.6.3 HOW THE CHANGES ARE OBTAINED.
The various changes in temperature, pressure and velocity are effected by means
of the ducts through which the air (gas) passes on its way through the engine.
When a conversion from kinetic energy to pressure energy is required, the ducts
are divergent in shape. Conversely, when it is required to convert the energy
stored in the combustion gases to velocity, a convergent nozzle is used. The
design of the passages and nozzles is of great importance, for upon their good
design depends the efficiency with which the energy changes are effected. Any
interference with the smooth flow of gases creates a loss in efficiency and could
result in component failure because of vibration caused by eddies or turbulence of
the gas flow.
1.7 DUCTS AND NOZZLES
1.7.1 CONTINUITY EQUATION.
If we consider the machine to be an open-ended duct (Fig 1.6.), we find that the
mass flow per second will depend on the density of the fluid and the volume
flowing per sec:
Now volume flow =Area of duct x distance travelled (L)
Time (sec)
Open Ended Duct to Illustrate Continuity Equation
Figure 1.6.

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But the distance travelled per second =Velocity.
Therefore, Mass flow =density x area x velocity.
This is known as the continuity equation and it is true for any steady flow system
regardless of changes in the cross-sectional area of the duct.
1.7.2 INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID FLOW.
Now consider an incompressible fluid as it flows through the duct system shown in
the fig. 1.7. We know that the mass flow is of a constant value and, naturally, as
the fluid enters the larger cross sectional area it will take up the new shape and
the initial volume will now occupy less length in the duct. Therefore, in a given
time, less distance is travelled and the velocity is reduced.
Thus we conclude that if the mass flow is to remain constant, as it must, an
increase in duct area must be accompanied by a reduction in flow velocity, and a
decrease in duct area must bring about an increase in velocity; we can express
this action as velocity varies inversely with changes in duct area.

1.7.3 BERNOULLIS THEOREM
This theorem can be related to the relationship between pressure and velocity
existing in the air flowing through a duct, such as a jet engine. The theorem states
that the total energy per unit mass is constant for a fluid moving inside a duct and
that total energy consists mainly of pressure energy and kinetic energy:
- Pressure energy.
In gas or fluid flow the pressure energy is more often called static pressure and it
can be defined as the pressure that would be felt by a body which was submerged
in the medium (gas or fluid) and moving at the same velocity as the medium.
Duct System
Figure 1.7.

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- Kinetic energy.
This kind of energy is more often called dynamic pressure and this term is used
to define the extra pressure created by the movement of the medium. Dynamic
pressure is proportional to mass x velocity
2
(ie. mv
2
).
When the medium (gas or fluid) is moving, the total energy =static pressure +
dynamic pressure.
Consider a duct which is filled with an incompressible fluid and pressurised from
one end by an external force (Fig 1.8.). The other end of the duct is sealed by a
valve, which can be opened or closed, and a pressure gauge is fitted into the wall
of the duct to indicate the static pressure (PS). With the valve closed, static
pressure and total energy are the same. However, when the valve is opened to
allow a fluid flow, the circumstances changes and, although the total energy must
remain the same, it now consists of static pressure +dynamic pressure. As the
velocity V increases, so dynamic pressure increases and the static pressure is
reduced.

1.7.4 TOTAL ENERGY.
Total energy can be measured as a ram pressure and is usually called the total
head or pitot pressure (PT). It is measured by placing a ram tube in the fluid flow.
The ram tube must be parallel to the flow with its open end facing the flow. A
gauge connected into such a tube always records the total head (pitot) pressure
regardless of the rate of flow, refer to Fig 1.9.
Duct with Flow Control Valve
Figure 1.8.

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In a situation where there is a no fluid flow, the static pressure (PS) gauge, and the
total head pressure (PT) gauge will show the same value, but when there is a fluid
flow, the total pressure reading remains the same although the static pressure
drops.

1.8 CONTINUITY EQUATION AND BERNOULLIS THEOREM
1.8.1 INCOMPRESSIBLE FLUID.
The combined effect of the continuity equation and Bernoullis theorem produces
the effects shown, when a steady flow of incompressible fluid flows through a duct
of varying cross sectional area (Fig 1.10.).
The effects of a steady flow of incompressible fluid flows through a duct of varying
cross sectional area shows:
Illustration of Pitot and Static Pressures
Figure 1.9.
Duct of Varying Cross Sectional Area
Figure 1.10.

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- Mass flow remains constant as cross-sectional area of duct (and velocity)
change.
- Total pressure remains constant, but static pressure (PS) changes as area
(and velocity) change.

1.8.1.1 Compressibility Fluid (Atmosphere).
Compressible fluid flow refers to the air flow through a gas turbine engine and,
because the air is compressible, flow at subsonic speeds causes a change in the
density of the air as it progresses through the engine.
The air entering the duct at section A (Fig 1.11), consists of air at pressure (P1)
and velocity (V1); then as the air enters the increased area of the duct at B it will
spread out to fill the increased area and this will cause the air flow to slow down
(continuity equation) and give a change in velocity to V2. The static pressure of
the air will increase (Bernoullis theorem) to become P2 in the wider section of the
duct and, because air is compressible, the air density will increase as it is
compresses by the rise in pressure in section B of the duct.
Airflow Through a Duct Section
Figure 1.11.

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1.8.1.2 Diffuser action.
The flare, which increases the area of the duct, is known as a diffuser (Fig
1.12.)and its shape determines the rate of compression and the amount by which
the air is compressed. For best results, the airflow must remain smooth and,
because of this, a most important design feature is the angle of divergence. When
air is compressed by this process it is called subsonic diffusion and it is a principle
that is used extensively in jet engine design.

1.8.2 GAS LAWS
In addition to the preceding information, the following gas laws are closely related
to the function of a gas turbine engine:
- Boyles Law. This law is related to temperature and pressure of a gas. It
states that if the temperature T remains constant, the volume V of a given mass
varies inversely as the pressure P exerted upon it (ie. PV =Constant).
- Charles Law. This law states that the volume V of a given mass of gas
increases by 1/273 of its volume at 0C for a rise of 1C when the pressure P of
the gas is kept constant. These laws are now combined in what is called the
ideal gas law. It gives the relationship:
PV =RT where: P =pressure
V =volume
R =a constant
T =absolute temperature in K
Diffuser Section
Figure 1.12.

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1.9 SUBSONIC AIRFLOW THROUGH DIVERGENT AND CONVERGENT
DUCTS
1.9.1 DIVERGENT DUCT
A divergent duct widens out as the airflow progresses through it. At subsonic
speeds the effect of this kind of duct is to decrease the velocity and increase the
pressure and temperature of the air passing through it.

1.9.2 CONVERGENT DUCT
A convergent duct is such that the space inside reduces as the airflow progresses
through it. At subsonic speeds the effect of this kind of duct is to increase the
velocity and decreases the pressure and temperature of the air passing through it.

Divergent Duct.
Figure 1.13.
Convergent Duct.
Figure 1.14.

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1.10 SONIC AIRFLOW THOUGH DIVERGENT AND CONVERGENT DUCTS
When a flow of fluid (i.e. gas) flows at sonic speed through a convergent duct a
shock wave forms at the exit area of the duct - The exit area is said to be choked.
The shock wave forms a restriction to the fluid and pressure will increase,
temperature will increase and velocity will decrease.
When a gas flow reaches sonic velocity in a convergent duct the nozzle will choke
and the pressure will increase. To prevent a pressure rise that would eventually
prevent a 'fluid' flow and completely choke the duct a divergent section is added
making the duct convergent/divergent (Con/DI). The pressure of gas released into
the divergent section of the nozzle causes the velocity of the 'fluid' to increase,
pressure to decrease, and therefore temperature to decrease. Gas pressure acts
on the walls of the divergent section, this pressure gives additional thrust that is
known as pressure thrust.
Airflow Through a Con-Di Nozzle or Venturi.
Figure 1.15.
A Con-Di Nozzle
Figure 1.14.

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1.11 THE WORKING CYCLE ON A PRESSURE VOLUME DIAGRAM
Air is drawn from the atmosphere (Ambient Air) into the compressor. The
compressor raises the pressure of the air (A to B) on diagram. If the pressure of
the air is increased the volume is decreased. The air passes to the combustion
system and heat is added by burning fuel with a proportion of the air. From the
diagram (B to C) it is seen that combustion takes place at constant pressure so the
gas turbine working cycle is known as the constant pressure cycle. In the
combustion system the air expands rearwards and the volume of the gas
increases and the gas kinetic energy increases. The gas flow passes to the
turbine section to drive the turbine (s), energy is extracted and the pressure
decreases. The gas passes via an exhaust unit to the propelling nozzle which
forms a convergent duct. The velocity of the gas increases. The reaction to the
high velocity jet produces thrust (C to D on diagram).
Changes in Temperature, Pressure and Velocity and the Brayton Cycle
Figure 1.16.

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1.12 ENGINE CONFIGURATIONS.
There are two main types of gas turbine engines:
- Reaction engines, which derive their thrust by jet reaction
- Power engines, which provide a mechanical output to drive another device.

1.12.1 REACTION ENGINES
These can be divided into several categories.
a. Turbojet engines. The turbojet was the first type of jet engine developed. In this
engine all the air passes through the core engine (i.e. the compressor,
combustor and turbine). The engine may be single shaft as in the Avon engine,
or twin shafted as in the Olympus 593 fitted to Concorde.
These engines are noisy and are not the most fuel efficient for normal use,
however for high altitude high speed flight they are in a class of their own.

Turbo jet Engines.
Figure 1.17.

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b. Low and Medium By-pass or turbofan engines. These engines will have two or
three shafts. The Low Pressure (LP) shaft drives a larger diameter compressor.
Some of the air produced by-passes the core engine (hence the name) and is
used to provide thrust. The core airflow provides power for the compressors
and thrust. These engine are quieter than turbojets and more fuel efficient. The
Spey and Tay engines fall into this category.
The by-pass ratio is determined by the ratio of the air in flowing through the by-
pass to the air passing through the core of the engine. Low by-pass less than
2:1, medium by-pass 2:1 to 4:1, high by pass greater than 5:1.
c. High by-pass turbofan engines. These engines have very large fans driven by
a relatively small core engine. Often the fan is geared to run at a lower speed
than the LP turbine, which gives the turbine mechanical advantage and also
allows it to run at higher speed where it is more efficient. The ALF 502, RB211
and the Trent engines are all high by-pass
High by-pass engines
are very fuel efficient,
powerful and quiet.
These engines have a
very large diameter
which does give drag
problems, and are not
suitable for high
speed flight as the
blade tips will suffer
compressibility
problems as they
approach the speed
of sound.
Low By-pass Twin Spool Engine (Spey)
Figure 1.17.
A Three Spool High By-pass Engine (RB211)
Figure 1.18.

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1.12.2 POWER ENGINES
Power producing engines come in two main forms Turboprop and turboshaft.
a. Turboprop Engines. Turboprop engines extract most of the energy from the
gas stream and convert it into rotational energy to drive a propeller. The
engines are either single or twin shaft and may be direct drive where the LP or
main shaft drive the propeller through a gearbox, or they may have a separate
power turbine to drive the propeller. Turboprop engines differ from high by-
pass turbofans in that the propeller does not have an intake to slow and
prepare the air before passing through it. The propeller therefore has to meet
the demands of airspeed etc. Examples of turboprops are the Dart, PW125
and Tyne engines.

Turboprop Engines
Figure 1.19.

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b. Turboshaft Engines. These engines are used in helicopters. They share
many of the attributes of turboprop engines, but are usually smaller. They do not
have propeller control systems built into the engine and usually do not have many
accessories attached such as generators etc. as these are driven by the main
rotor gearbox. Modern turboshaft and turbo prop engines run at constant speed
which tends to prolong the life of the engine and also means that they are more
efficient as the engine can run at its optimum speed all the time.

There are other types of engine such as ram jets, pulse jets, turbo-ram jet and
turbo - rockets, but none of these are used commercially if at all.
Turboshaft Engine with Free power Turbine. (Gem)
Figure 1.20.

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2 ENGINE PERFORMANCE
2.1 METHOD OF CALCULATING THE THRUST FORCES
The thrust forces or gas loads can be calculated for the engine, or for any flow
section of the engine, provided that the areas, pressures, velocities and mass flow
are known for both the inlet and outlet of the particular flow section.
The distribution of thrust forces shown in Fig 2.1. can be calculated by considering
each component in turn and applying some simple calculations. The thrust
produced by the engine is mainly the product of the mass of air passing through
the engine and the velocity increase imparted to it (ie. Newtons Second Law of
Motion), however the pressure difference between the inlet to and the outlet from
the particular flow section will have an effect on the overall thrust of the engine and
must be included in the calculation.
To calculate the resultant thrust for a particular flow section it is necessary to
calculate the total thrust at both inlet and outlet, the resultant thrust being the
difference between the two values obtained.

Thrust Distribution of a Typical Single Spool Axial Flow Engine.
Figure 2.1.
TOTAL THRUST 11158 lbs
FORWARD GAS LOAD 57836 lbs REARWARD GAS LOAD 46678 lbs

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Calculation of the thrust is achieved using the following formula:
Thrust =
g
Wv
P A
J
+ ) (
Where A = Area of flow section in sq. in.
P = Pressure in lb. per sq. in.
W = Mass flow in lb. per sec.
V
J
= Velocity of flow in feet per sec.
g = Gravitational constant 32.2 ft. per sec. per sec.
2.2 CALCULATING THE THRUST OF THE ENGINE
When applying the above method to calculate the individual thrust loads on the
various components it is assumed that the engine is static. The effect of aircraft
forward speed on the engine thrust will be dealt with later. In the following
calculations g is taken to be 32 for convenience.
Compressor casing
To obtain the thrust on the compressor casing, it is necessary to calculate the
conditions at the inlet to the compressor and the conditions at the outlet from the
compressor. Since the pressure and the velocity at the inlet to the compressor are
zero, it is only necessary to consider the force at the outlet from the compressor.
Therefore, given that the compressor
OUTLET Area (A) = 182 sq. in.
Pressure (P) = 94 lb. per sq. in. (gauge)
Velocity (v
j
) = 406 ft. per sec.
Mass flow (W) = 153 lb. per sec.
The thrust
= 0 ) ( +
g
Wv
P A
j

= 0
32
406 153
) 94 182 (
+
= 19,049lb. of thrust in a forward direction.

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Total Thrust of the Compressor.
Figure 2.2.

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International Standard Atmosphere
Figure 2.3.

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Choked Nozzle
Considering the formula for thrust under choked nozzle conditions:
Thrust =
0
( P P )A +
g
Wv
J

Where: P = Pressure
P =Ambient Pressure
A =Area
W =Mass Flow
V =Velocity
It can be seen that the thrust can be further affected by a change in the mass flow
rate of air through the engine and by a change in jet velocity. An increase in mass
airflow may be obtained by using water injection to cool the air and increases in jet
velocity by using after-burning.
Changes in ambient pressure and temperature considerably influence the thrust
of the engine. This is because of the way they affect the air density and hence the
mass of air entering the engine for a given engine rotational speed.
Thrust Correction - Turbojet
To enable the performance of similar engines to be compared when operating
under different climatic conditions, or at different altitudes, correction factors must
be applied to the calculations to return the observed values to those which would
be found under I.S.A. conditions. For example, the thrust correction for a turbo-jet
engine is:
Thrust (lb) (corrected) =thrust (lb) (observed) x
O
P
30

- Where P
0
= atmospheric pressure in inches of mercury (in Hg)
(observed)
30 = I.S.A. standard sea level pressure (in Hg)
Shaft Horsepower Correction - Turboprop
The observed performance of the turbo-propeller engine is also corrected to I.S.A.
conditions, but due to the rating being in s.h.p. and not in pounds of thrust the
factors are different. For example, the correction for s.h.p. is:
S.h.p. (corrected) = s.h.p. (observed)
O O
T P +
+

273
15 273 30

Where P
0
= atmospheric pressure (in Hg) (observed)
T
0
= atmospheric temperature in deg. C (observed)
30 = I.S.A. standard sea level pressure (in Hg)
273 +15 = I.S.A. standard sea level temperature in deg. K
273 +T
0
= Atmospheric temperature in deg. K

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Equivalent Shaft Horsepower (EHP)
In practice there is always a certain amount of jet thrust in the total output of the
turbo-propeller engine and this must be added to the s.h.p. The correction for jet
thrust is the same as that specified earlier.
To distinguish between these two aspects of the power output, it is usual to refer
to them as s.h.p. and thrust horse-power (t.h.p.). The total equivalent horse-power
is denoted by t.e.h.p. (sometimes e.h.p.) and is the s.h.p. plus the s.h.p. equivalent
to the net jet thrust. For estimation purposes it is taken that, under sea-level static
conditions, one s.h.p. is equivalent to approximately 2.6 lb. of jet thrust. Therefore:
t.e.h.p. =s.h.p.
6 . 2
. lb thrust jet
+
The ratio of jet thrust to shaft power is influenced by many factors. For instance,
the higher the aircraft operating speed the larger may be the required proportion of
total output in the form of jet thrust. Alternatively, an extra turbine stage may be
required if more than a certain proportion of the total power is to be provided at the
shaft. In general, turbo-propeller aircraft provide one pound of thrust for every 3.5
h.p. to 5 h.p.
2.2.1 COMPARISON BETWEEN THRUST AND HORSE-POWER
Because the turbo-jet engine is rated in thrust and the turbo-propeller engine in
s.h.p., no direct comparison between the two can be made without a power
conversion factor. However, since the turbo-propeller engine receives its thrust
mainly from the propeller, a comparison can be made by converting the horse-
power developed by the engine to thrust or the thrust developed by the turbo-jet
engine to t.h.p.; that is, by converting work to force or force to work. For this
purpose, it is necessary to take into account the speed of the aircraft.
t.h.p. is expressed as
sec . 550 per ft
FV

Where F =lb of thrust
V =aircraft speed (ft. per sec)

Since one horse-power is equal to 550ft.lb. per sec. and 550 ft. per sec. is
equivalent to 375 miles per hour, it can be seen from the above formula that one
lb. of thrust equals one t.h.p. at 375 m.p.h. It is also common to quote the speed
in knots (nautical miles per hour); one knot is equal to 1.1515 m.p.h. or one pound
of thrust is equal to one t.h.p. at 325 knots.
Thus if a turbo-jet engine produces 5,000 lb. of net thrust at an aircraft speed of
600 m.p.h. the t.h.p. would be
000 , 8
375
600 000 , 5
=

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However, if the same thrust was being produced by a turbo-propeller engine with a
propeller efficiency of 55 percent at the same flight speed of 600 m.p.h., then the
t.h.p. would be: 545 , 14
55
100
000 , 8 =
Thus at 600 m.p.h. one lb. of thrust is the equivalent of about 3 t.h.p.
2.3 ENGINE THRUST IN FLIGHT
Since reference will be made to gross thrust, momentum drag and net thrust, it will
be helpful to define these terms:
Gross or total thrust is the product of the mass of air passing through the engine
and the jet velocity at the propelling nozzle, expressed as:

0
( P P )A +
g
Wv
J

The momentum drag is the drag due to the momentum of the air passing into the
engine relative to the aircraft velocity, expressed as
g
WV
where:
W =Mass flow in lb. per sec.
V =Velocity of aircraft in feet per sec.
G = Gravitational constant 32.2 ft. per sec. per sec.
The net thrust or resultant force acting on the aircraft in flight is the difference
between the gross thrust and the momentum drag. From the definitions and
formulae stated earlier under flight conditions, the net thrust of the engine,
simplifying, can be expressed as:( )
( )
g
V V W
A P P
j
o
+
All pressures are total pressures except P which is static pressure at the propelling
nozzle
W = Mass of air passing through engine (lb. Per sec.)
V
J
= J et velocity at propelling nozzle (ft. per sec)
P = Static pressure across propelling nozzle (lb. Per sq. in)
P
O
= Atmospheric pressure (lb. Per sq. in)
A = Propelling nozzle area (sq. in)
V = Aircraft speed (ft. per sec.)
G = Gravitational constant 32.2
= :
= :
+ = : =
A P P Thrust essure
g
WV
Thrust Momentum
g
wv
A P P Thrust Gross
g
WV
Drag Momentum
O
J
J
o
) ( Pr
) (

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The Balance of Forces and Expression for Thrust and Momentum Drag.
Figure 2.4.
Graph of Thrust Against Forward Speed.
Figure 2.5.

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2.3.1 EFFECT OF FORWARD SPEED
Since reference will be made to ram ratio and Mach number, these terms are
defined as follows:
Ram ratio is the ratio of the total air pressure at the engine compressor entry to
the static air pressure at the air intake entry.
Mach number is an additional means of measuring speed and is defined as the
ratio of the speed of a body to the local speed of sound. Mach 1.0 therefore
represents a speed equal to the local speed of sound.
From the thrust equation, it is apparent that if the jet velocity remains constant,
independent of aircraft speed, then as the aircraft speed increases the thrust
would decrease in direct proportion. However, due to the ram ratio effect from
the aircraft forward speed, extra air is taken into the engine so that the mass
airflow and also the jet velocity increase with aircraft speed. The effect of this
tends to offset the extra intake momentum drag due to the forward speed so that
the resultant loss of net thrust is partially recovered as the aircraft speed
increases. A typical curve illustrating this point is shown in the figure 2.5.
Obviously, the ram ratio effect, or the return obtained in terms of pressure rise at
entry to the compressor in exchange for the unavoidable intake drag, is of
considerable importance to the turbo-jet engine, especially at high speeds. Above
speeds of Mach 1.0, as a result of the formation of shock waves at the air intake,
this rate of pressure rise will rapidly decrease unless a suitably designed air intake
is provided; an efficient air intake is necessary to obtain maximum benefit from the
ram ratio effect.
As aircraft speeds increase into the supersonic region, the ram air temperature
rises rapidly consistent with the basic gas laws. This temperature rise affects the
compressor delivery air temperature proportionally and, in consequence, to
maintain the required thrust, the engine must be subjected to higher turbine entry
temperatures. Since the maximum permissible turbine entry temperature is
determined by the temperature limitations of the turbine assembly, the choice of
turbine materials and the design of blades and stators to permit cooling are very
important.
With an increase in forward speed, the increased mass airflow due to the ram
ratio effect must be matched by the fuel flow and the result is an increase in fuel
consumption. Because the net thrust tends to decrease with forward speed, the
end result is an increase in specific fuel consumption (s.f.c.), as shown by the
curves for a typical turbo-jet engine in the figure 2.6.
At high forward speeds at low altitudes, the ram ratio effect causes very high
stresses on the engine and, to prevent over-stressing, the fuel flow is automatically
reduced to limit the engine speed and airflow.

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Effects of speed on Thrust and Fuel Consumption.
Figure 2.6.

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2.3.2 EFFECT OF AFTERBURNING ON ENGINE THRUST
At take-off conditions, the momentum drag of the airflow through the engine is
negligible, so that the gross thrust can be considered to be equal to the net thrust.
If after-burning is selected, an increase in take-off thrust in the order of 30 percent
is possible with the pure jet engine and considerably more with the by-pass
engine. This augmentation of basic thrust, is of greater advantage for certain
specific operating requirements.
Under flight conditions, however, this advantage is even greater, since the
momentum drag is the same with or without after-burning and, due to the ram
effect, better utilisation is made of every pound of air flowing through the engine.
2.3.3 EFFECT OF ALTITUDE
With increasing altitude the ambient air pressure and temperature are reduced.
This affects the engine in two inter-related ways:-
The fall of pressure reduces the air density and hence the mass airflow into the
engine for a given engine speed. This causes the thrust or s.h.p. to fall. The fuel
control system adjusts the fuel pump output to match the reduced mass airflow, so
maintaining a constant engine speed.
The fall in air temperature increases the density of the air, so that the mass of air
entering the compressor for a given engine speed is greater. This causes the
mass airflow to reduce at a lower rate and so compensates to some extent for the
loss of thrust due to the fall in atmospheric pressure. At altitudes above 36,089
feet and up to 65,617 feet, however, the temperature remains constant, and the
thrust or s.h.p. is affected by pressure only.
Graphs showing the typical effect of altitude on thrust and fuel consumption are
illustrated in Figure 2.7.

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Effects of Altitude on Thrust and Fuel Consumption.
Figure 2.7.

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2.3.4 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE
On a cold day the density of the air increases so that the mass of air entering the
compressor for a given engine speed is greater, hence the thrust or s.h.p. is
higher. The denser air does, however, increase the power required to drive the
compressor or compressors; thus the engine will require more fuel to maintain the
same engine speed or will run at a reduced engine speed if no increase in fuel is
available.
On a hot day the density of the air decreases, thus reducing the mass of air
entering the compressor and, consequently, the thrust of the engine for a given
r.p.m. Because less power will be required to drive the compressor, the fuel
control system reduces the fuel flow to maintain a constant engine rotational
speed or turbine entry temperature, as appropriate; however, because of the
decrease in air density, the thrust will be lower. At a temperature of 45C,
depending on the type of engine, a thrust loss of up to 20 percent may be
experienced. This means that some sort of thrust augmentation, such as water
injection, may be required.
The fuel control system, controls the fuel flow so that the maximum fuel supply is
held practically constant at low air temperature conditions, whereupon the engine
speed falls but, because of the increased mass airflow as a result of the increase
in air density, the thrust remains the same. For example, the combined
acceleration and speed control (CASC) fuel system schedules fuel flow to maintain
a constant engine r.p.m., hence thrust increases as air temperature decreases
until, at a predetermined compressor delivery pressure, the fuel flow is
automatically controlled to maintain a constant compressor delivery pressure and,
therefore, thrust, Figure 2.8. illustrates this for a twin-spool engine where the
controlled engine r.p.m. is high pressure compressor speed and the compressor
delivery pressure is expressed as P
3
. It will also be apparent from this graph that
the low pressure compressor speed is always less than its limiting maximum and
that the difference in the two speeds is reduced by a decrease in ambient air
temperature. To prevent the L.P. compressor overspeeding, fuel flow is also
controlled by an L.P. governor which, in this case, takes a passive role.
The Effect of Air
Temperature on
a Typical Twin
Spool Engine
Figure 2.8.

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2.4 PROPULSIVE EFFICIENCY
Performance of the jet engine is not only concerned with the thrust produced, but
also with the efficient conversion of the heat energy of the fuel into kinetic energy,
as represented by the jet velocity, and the best use of this velocity to propel the
aircraft forward, ie. the efficiency of the propulsive system.
The efficiency of conversion of fuel energy to kinetic energy is termed thermal or
internal efficiency and, like all heat engines, is controlled by the cycle pressure
ratio and combustion temperature. Unfortunately this temperature is limited by the
thermal and mechanical stresses that can be tolerated by the turbine. The
development of new materials and techniques to minimise these limitations is
continually being pursued.
The efficiency of conversion of kinetic energy to propulsive work is termed the
propulsive or external efficiency and this is affected by the amount of kinetic
energy wasted by the propelling mechanism. Waste energy dissipated in the jet
wake, which represents a loss, can be expressed as

g
V v W
j
2
) (
2
where (v
J
- V) is the waste velocity.
It is therefore apparent that at the aircraft lower speed range the pure jet stream
wastes considerably more energy than a propeller system and consequently is
less efficient over this range. However, this factor changes as aircraft speed
increases, because although the jet stream continues to issue at a high velocity
from the engine, its velocity relative to the surrounding atmosphere is reduced
and, in consequence, the waste energy loss is reduced.
Efficiency Plots of Differing Types of Engine to Airspeed
Figure 2.9.

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2.5 FUEL CONSUMPTION AND POWER TO WEIGHT RELATIONSHIP
Primary engine design considerations, particularly for commercial transport duty,
are those of low specific fuel consumption and weight. Considerable improvement
has been achieved by use of the by-pass principle and by advanced mechanical
and aerodynamic features and the use of improved materials. With the trend
towards higher by-pass ratios, in the range of 15:1, the triple-spool and contra-
rotating rear fan engines allow the pressure and by-pass ratios to be achieved with
short rotors, using fewer compressor stages, resulting in a lighter and more
compact engine.
S.f.c. is directly related to the thermal and propulsive efficiencies; that is, the
overall efficiency of the engine. Theoretically, high thermal efficiency requires high
pressures which in practice also means high turbine entry temperatures. In a pure
turbo-jet engine this high temperature would result in a high jet velocity and
consequently lower the propulsive efficiency. However, by using the by-pass
principle, high thermal and propulsive efficiencies can be effectively combined by
by-passing a proportion of the L.P. compressor or fan delivery air to lower the
mean jet temperature and velocity. With advanced technology engines of high by-
pass and overall pressure ratios, a further pronounced improvement in s.f.c. is
obtained.
The turbines of pure jet engines are heavy because they deal with the total airflow,
whereas the turbines of by-pass engines deal only with part of the flow; thus the
H.P. compressor, combustion chambers and turbines, can be scaled down. The
increased power per lb. of air at the turbines, to take advantage of their full
capacity, is obtained by the increase in pressure ratio and turbine entry
temperature. It is clear that the by-pass engine is lighter, because not only has the
diameter of the high pressure rotating assemblies been reduced, but the engine is
shorter for a given power output. With a low by-pass ratio engine, the weight
reduction compared with a pure jet engine is in the order of 20 per cent for the
same air mass flow.
With a high by-pass ratio engine of the triple-spool configuration, a further
significant improvement in specific weight is obtained. This is derived mainly from
advanced mechanical and aerodynamic design, which in addition to permitting a
significant reduction in the total number of parts, enables rotating assemblies to be
more effectively matched and to work closer to optimum conditions, thus
minimising the number of compressor and turbine stages for a given duty. The
use of higher strength lightweight materials is also a contributory factor.
For a given mass flow, less thrust is produced by the by-pass engine due to the
lower exit velocity. Thus, to obtain the same thrust, the by-pass engine must be
scaled to pass a larger total mass airflow than the pure turbo-jet engine. The
weight of the engine, however, is still less because of the reduced size of the H.P.
section of the engine. Therefore, in addition to the reduced specific fuel
consumption, an improvement in the power-to-weight ratio is obtained.

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2.6 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION
When comparing engine performance, one of the most important considerations is
how efficiently the power is produced. The amount of fuel consumed to produce a
given horsepower lbs. thrust is known as specific fuel consumption or SFC. A
typical aircraft fuel system measures the volume of fuel consumed. This is
displayed in pounds per hour or PPH. To calculate fuel flow, specific fuel
consumption found on the customer data sheet, is multiplied by the horsepower
lbs. thrust produced.
2.6.1 SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION DEFINITION
SFC =SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION is defined as the lbs of fuel used per
HP/lbs of thrust per hour
2.7 FLAT RATING
Flat rating is used by aircraft manufacturers when they select an engine that has
a capability greater than the requirements of the aircraft. They then limit the power
output of the engine. There are three distinct benefits derived from flat rating.
One is the engine will have the ability to make take-off power at lower turbine
temperatures over a wide range of outside air temperatures and pressure
altitudes. Performance at altitude will be greatly enhanced. These two benefits
result in the third benefit, longer engine life. A fourth benefit available on some
engines is, a reserve of power which can be used to boost performance in an
emergency ie. Loss of an engine during take - off.
2.8 PERFORMANCE RATINGS
In the chart, performance ratings are compared on 1 through 12 engines.
Notice the modifiers on the 1, -5, -6, -8 and 10 engines. These temperatures
represent the effects of flat rating engines. Each engine will make take-off power
below their turbine temperature limits to the ambient temperatures indicated.
Engines that are not flat rated, such as the 3 or 11, would be unable to make
take-off power below their turbine temperature limits when operating in conditions
above 59F outside air temperatures.

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3 INLET
3.1 INTRODUCTION
An air intake should deliver air to the engine compressor with a minimum loss of
energy and at a uniform pressure under all engine operating conditions. The inlet
duct is built in the shape of a subsonic divergent diffuser, so that the kinetic energy
of the rapidly moving air can be converted into a ram pressure rise within the duct.
This condition is referred to as Ram Recovery.
3.2 RAM COMPRESSION
The degree of Ram Compression depends upon the following:-
i. Frictional losses at those surfaces ahead of the intake entry which are
wetted by the intake airflow.
ii. Frictional losses at the intake duct walls.
iii. Turbulence losses due to accessories or structural members located in the
intake.
iv. Aircraft speed.
v. In a turbo-prop, drag and turbulence losses due to the prop blades and
spinner.
Ram compression causes a re-distribution in the forms of energy existing in the
air-stream. As the air in the intake is slowed up in endeavouring to pass into and
through the compressor element against the air of increasing pressure and density
which exists therein so the kinetic energy of the air in the intake decreases. This
is accompanied by a corresponding increase in its pressure and internal energies
and consequently compression of the air-stream is achieved within the intake, thus
converting the unfavourable intake lip conditions into the compressor inlet
requirements.
Although ram compression improves the performance of the engine, it must be
realised that during the process there is a drag force on the engine and hence the
aircraft. This drag must be accepted since it is a penalty inherent in a ram
compression process. (The added thrust more than makes up for this drag).
3.2.1 IMPORTANCE OF RAM COMPRESSION
At subsonic flight speeds, the ram pressure ratio is apparently quite small, say
1.33: 1 at 0.8M. Nevertheless, since the pressure rise due to ram compression is
multiplied by the pressure ratio of the compressor, the ram pressure rise becomes
significant even at subsonic speeds.
Furthermore, the greater the forward speed of the aircraft becomes, the more
significant is the ram compression; e.g. at 1.5M the ram pressure ratio may be
about 3.5 : 1, and at 2.5M about 8 : 1.

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3.3 TYPES OF AIR INTAKES
3.3.1 PITOT INTAKES
This intake is suitable for subsonic or low supersonic speeds. Examples, 707,
747, A300B, Tristar, etc. The intake is usually short and is very efficient because
the duct inlet is located directly ahead of the engine compressor. As the duct
length increases, the risk of small airflow disturbances and pressure drop is
increased. This inlet makes maximum use of ram effect until sonic speed is
approached when efficiency falls due to shock wave formation at the intake lip.
Pitot inlets can however suffer from inlet turbulences at high angles of attack
and/or at low speeds.

Pitot Type Intakes.
Figure 3.1.

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The pitot type intake can be used for engines that are mounted in pods or in the
wings although the latter sometimes requires a departure from the circular cross
section due to the wing thickness.

3.3.2 DIVIDED ENTRANCE DUCT

On a single engine aircraft with fuselage mounted engines, either a wing root inlet
or a side scoop inlet may be used. The wing root inlet presents a problem to
designers in the forming of the curvature necessary to deliver the air to the engine
compressor. The side scoop inlet is placed as far forward of the compressor as
possible to approach the straight line effect of the single inlet. Both types suffer
faults, in a yaw or turn, a loss of ram pressure occurs on one side of the intake and
separated, turbulent boundary layer air is fed to the engine compressor.

Wing Leading Edge Intakes
Figure 3.2
Divided Intakes.
Figure 3.3.

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3.3.3 SUPERSONIC INTAKES
At supersonic speeds, the pitot type of air intake is unsuitable due to the severity
of shock waves which form and progressively reduce the intake efficiency as
speed increases. To overcome this problem the compression intake was
designed.
This type of intake produces a series of mild shock waves without reducing the
intake efficiency, as the aircraft speed increases, so also does the intake
compression ratio. At high mach numbers it becomes necessary to have an air
intake which has a variable thrust area and spill doors to control the column of air.
3.4 IDEAL INTAKE CONDITIONS
For air to flow smoothly through a compressor, its velocity should be about 0.5
mach at the compressor inlet; this includes aircraft flying faster than the speed of
sound. Hence intakes are designed to decelerate the free stream airflow to this
condition over the range of aircraft speeds. Intakes should also convert the kinetic
energy into pressure energy without undue shock or energy loss. This means
that the ideal compressor inlet pressure should be the same as the total head
pressure at the intake lip.
(Total head pressure =stagnation pressure, ie. static and dynamic pressure).

Supersonic Intakes.
Figure 3.4.

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Intake Efficiency
The magnitude of the losses occurring in an intake during ram compression are
measured by means of the intake efficiency. Typical optimum efficiencies of some
common types of intake, at subsonic speeds assuming straight-through flow, are:
a Turbo-jet engine Pitot 99 to 96%
Wing root 95 to 87%
Side 89 to 80%
b Turbo-prop engine Annular 82 to 74% (DART)
In cases where the direction of flow of the air is reversed within the intake, these
values are reduced by about 10%.
3.5 INTAKE ANTI-ICING
Operations of present day aircraft necessitates flying in all weather conditions plus
the fact that high velocity air induced into the intakes means a provision must be
made for ice protection. There are three systems of thermal anti-icing; hot air, hot
oil or electrical There is, however, one disadvantage and that is the loss of
engine power. This loss must be corrected for on ground runs and power checks.
3.5.1 ENGINE HOT AIR ANTI-ICING
The hot air system provides surface heating of the engine and/or power plant
where ice is likely to form. The affected parts are the engine intake, the intake
guide vanes, the nose cone, the leading edge of the nose cowl and, sometimes,
the front stage of the compressor stator blades. The protection of rotor blades is
rarely necessary, because any ice accretions are dispersed by centrifugal action.
The hot air for the anti-icing system is usually taken from the latter stages of the
HP compressor and externally ducted, through pressure regulation valves, to the
parts requiring protection. When the nose cowl requires protection, hot air
exhausting from the air intake manifold may be collected and ducted to the nose
cowl. Exhaust outlets are provided to allow the air to pass into the compressor
intake or vent to atmosphere, thus maintaining a flow of air through the system.

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Hot Air Anti-Icing.
Figure 3.5.

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3.5.2 ENGINE ELECTRICAL ANTI-ICING
There are two methods of electrical anti-icing:
1. Spray mat
2. Heater mats.
3.5.2.1 Spray Mat
The spray mat is so called because the conductor element is sprayed onto the
base insulator to protect the spray mat from damage. An outer coating is sprayed
on, sometimes called Stone Guard or Erocoat.

Spraymat Construction.
Figure 3.6.

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3.5.2.2 Heater Mats

Heater mats differ in design and construction according to their purpose and
environment. The latest mats have elements which are made from a range of
alloys woven in continuous filament glass yarn. Other elements are made from
nickel chrome foil. The insulating material is usually polytetrafluoroethylene
(PTFE) and the electrical control may be continuous or intermittent.

3.5.3 OIL ANTI-ICE
Oil anti-ice supplements the other two systems (hot air/electrical) and will also
assist in cooling the oil system.
Heater Mat Construction.
Figure 3.7.

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Hot Oil Anti-Ice
Figure 3.8.

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Intentionally Blank

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4 COMPRESSORS
4.1 COMPRESSORS GENERAL
Compressors impart energy to the air stream raising its pressure and temperature.
They are designed to operate efficiently over as wide a range of operating
conditions as possible. The two basic types of compressor are:
a Centrifugal flow
b Axial flow
4.2 CENTRIFUGAL FLOW
The figure below illustrates different types of centrifugal compressors.

Types of Centrifugal Impeller.
Figure 4.1.

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A Double Entry Centrifugal Compressor
Figure 4.2.

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4.2.1 OPERATION
The centrifugal impeller is rotated at high speed by the turbine and centrifugal
action causes the air between the impeller vanes to accelerate radially outwards
until it is thrown off at the tip into the diffuser. The radial movement of the air
across the impeller, from eye to tip, causes a drop in air pressure at the eye and
the faster the impeller is turning, the lower the pressure at the eye becomes. The
low pressure existing at the eye of the revolving impeller induces a continuous flow
of air through the engine intake and into the eye of the impeller. The air, in turn, is
accelerated across the impeller and passed into the diffuser. The kinetic energy in
the air is then converted to pressure energy ready to enter the combustion
chamber. The action of the diffuser is illustrated in figure 4.3.

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Centrifugal Compressor Function.
Figure 4.3.
VANELESS
SPACE

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The final volume and mass airflow delivered by the centrifugal compressor is
dependent on:
a Pressure ratio
b Operating RPM
c Diameter of the impeller
NOTE: This is assuming a constant air density at the inlet of the compressor.
4.2.1.1 Pressure Ratio
The ratio of the inlet pressure to outlet pressure of the compressor is called
pressure ratio. The higher the pressure of the air the more efficiently the thrust will
be produced with a corresponding improvement to the fuel economy of the engine.
The maximum pressure ratio normally obtainable from a single stage centrifugal
compressor is approximately 5:1 and from a two stage, approximately 8:1.Design
of the more modern centrifugal compressors sees them approaching pressure
ratios of 15:1.
4.2.1.2 Diameter of Impeller
A large impeller will deliver a greater mass of air than a small impeller, however a
large diameter compressor leads to an increase in the frontal area of the engine
causing excess drag forces on the aircraft.
4.3 THE AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR
The axial flow compressor is by far the most popular type of compressor and,
although it is more difficult to manufacture, it is a more efficient compressor.
Handling a larger mass of air for any given diameter, it produces more power; and
because the compression ratio is high at least 9:1 and, it can be very much
higher it is a more economical engine. The airflow through the engine is parallel
with the axis, hence the name axial flow compressor.
The compressor consists of a single or multi-rotor assembly that carries blades of
aerofoil section; it is mounted in a casing, which also houses the stator blades.
The axial flow compressor increases the pressure of the air gradually (by
approximately 1.2:1 per stage) over a number of stages, each stage comprising
of a row of rotor blades, followed by a row of stator blades. Both the rotor and
stator blades are of aerofoil section and form divergent passageways between
adjacent blades of the same row. Figure 4.4 refers.

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4.3.1 OPERATION
The compressor rotor spool is driven by the turbine. The rotor blades accelerate
the air rearwards, inducing a continuous flow of air into the inlet of the combustion
chamber. The airflow emerges from the rotor stage with an increase in velocity,
due to the rotating action of the blades, and with a rise in pressure and
temperature caused by flowing through the divergent passage formed by the rotor.
Axial Flow Compressor Function.
Figure 4.4.

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The airflow then passes through the divergent passages formed by the stator
blades which convert some of the kinetic energy into pressure energy and directs
the airflow onto the next set of rotors at the correct angle. The airflow emerges
from each stage at approximately the same velocity as it entered, but with an
increase (approximately 1.2:1) in pressure and, an increase in temperature. See
graph below.

To present the airflow onto the first stage rotor blades at a suitable angle, some
engines have inlet guide vanes in the air intake casing. The last row of stator
blades is normally of wider chord than the preceding ones and serve to straighten
the airflow before it enters the combustion system.
In order to maintain the overall axial velocity more or less constant, the
passageway between the stator casing and the compressor rotor forms a
convergent duct in the direction of airflow, with long blades at the low pressure end
and progressively shorter ones towards the high pressure end. (Figure 4.6 refers)

Combined Graph of Airflow Through an Axial Compressor.
Figure 4.5.

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Axial Compressor Layouts.
Figure 4.6.

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The stator vanes are secured into the compressor casing or into stator vane
retaining rings, which are themselves secured to the casing.
The stator vanes are positively locked in such a manner that they will not rotate
around the casing. NOTE: Some stator vanes are variable to give variable airflow
control, but these will be looked at when airflow control is studied.

Axial Compressor Configuration Details.
Figure 4.7.
Compressor Blade Attachment Methods
Figure 4.8

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The engine rotor assembly forms a hollow drum and is supported in ball and
roller bearings and coupled to a turbine shaft. The rotor discs make up the drum
and the rotor blades are attached as shown in the figure. On some smaller
engines it becomes difficult to design a practical fixing, this is overcome by
designing and producing blades integral with the disc and is called a BLISK.
Compressor Blade Attachment
Figure 4.9

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1 Extension Shaft Drive Stub 2 1
st
Stage Disk
3 Balance Weight 4 1
st
Stage Rotor Blades
5 Shroud Rings 6 7
th
Stage Rotor Blades
7 Air Inlet to Rotor Drum 8 1
st
Stage Blade Locking Strips
9 Front Main Bearing Housing
Axial Compressor Rotor Details.
Figure 4.10.

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Axial Compressor Stator Details
Figure 4.11

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The mass and final volume of the airflow delivered by the compressor is
dependent on:
a. Pressure Ratio. Dependent on the number of stages employed. Axial flow
compressors can achieve a much higher value than centrifugal.
b. Diameter. For a similar mass flow capability, the axial flow compressor can be
made smaller in diameter than the centrifugal type.
c. Operating RPM. As with the centrifugal type, the RPM and hence the mass
flow, is controlled by varying the amount of fuel delivered to the combustion
system, but because of the way that the pressure rise takes place, the
maximum pressure ratio in an axial flow compressor is achieved at a lower
RPM, than in a centrifugal compressor.
4.4 COMPRESSOR STALL AND SURGE
Surge can occur in both centrifugal and axial flow compressors and is the
reversal of the airflow in the compressor. It is a very undesirable condition, which
can rapidly cause serious damage to the engine.
In an axial flow compressor, surge is nearly always preceded by stalling of some
of the compressor blades. An aerofoil is said to be in a stalled condition when the
airflow over its surface has broken down and no lift is being produced. If a row of
compressor blades stall, then they will not be able to pass the airflow rearwards to
the next stage and the airflow to the combustion chamber will ultimately stop.
The lack of rearward airflow will allow the air in the combustion chamber to flow
forward into the compressor until it reaches the row of stalled blades. Then a
violent backwards and forwards oscillation of the airflow is likely to occur, which
can rapidly cause extensive damage to the compressor blades and also over-
heating of the combustion and turbine assemblies.
Stalling of the compressor blades can occur for various reasons and to appreciate
how the condition comes about, a review of aerofoil theory and its application to
the compressor is required.
4.4.1 AIRFLOW CONTROL SYSTEM PRINCIPLES
4.4.1.1 Compressor Stall and Surge
For any given engine there is only one set of conditions, mass flow, pressure ratio
and rpm, at which all the compressor components are operating at their optimum
effect. Compressors are designed to be most efficient in the higher rpm range of
operation. The point at which the compressor reaches its maximum efficiency is
known as the DESIGN POINT. Under design conditions the compressor produces
a given compression ratio (ie.
1
2
Volume
Volume
) and the axial velocity (average velocity)
of the gas remains approximately constant from the front to the rear of the
compressor.

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The Angle of Attack of the airflow to the compressor aerofoil blades will be at its
optimum. This is the design condition and the compressor is operating at its
optimum performance. Although compression ratio varies with rpm it is not
proportional to rpm. This fact emerges due to the fixed blade angles, which can
only be correct at the design point. To illustrate this fact, refer to the diagram
showing rpm and compression ratio. Consider a compressor running at 8,000 rpm
and its compression ratio is 10:1. Let us say that the volume of air entering the
compressor is 100cm
3.
The volume of the air passing through the fixed outlet
annulus of the compressor will be 10cm
3
.

Graph of Compression Ratio to RPM.
Figure 4.12.
Compressor R.P.M =8,000 Compressor R.P.M. =4,000
Compression Ratio =10:1 Compression Ration =4:1
Volume of gas (V
1
) =100cm
3
Volume of gas (V
1
) =50cm
3

Volume of gas (V
2
) =10cm
3
Volume of gas (V
2
) =12.5cm
3
C
O
M
P
R
E
S
S
I
O
N

R
A
T
I
O

10:1
4:1
4000 8000
RPM

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Now consider the same compressor operating at 4,000 rpm, the volume of air
entering the compressor will be halved, eg. 50cm
3
there will also be a reduction in
compression ratio to 4:1. Therefore the volume of air passing through the
compressor fixed outlet annulus will be 12.5cm
3
. The following conditions will
occur:
a. Axial velocity will increase as it moves towards the rear stages relative to the
front Low pressure stages.
bSince all stages are rotating at the same speed, there will be a NEGATIVE
angle of attack at the rear high pressure stages and a POSITIVE angle of attack at
the front low pressure stages.

Effect of Velocity on Blade Angle.
Figure 4.13.

Front Rear

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Due to the increased velocity at the rear of the compressor, the outlet of the
compressor will choke as the airflow reaches sonic velocity. At this point there will
be a dramatic reduction in axial velocity resulting in the front compressor blades
stalling. The end result will be compressor surge. To overcome the problem, a
bleed valve is normally fitted in an intermediate stage of the compressor to bleed
off the excess volume of air. This relieves the rear stages of the excess air
causing choking while inducing an increased axial airflow through the early stages
of the compressor, thus establishing conditions which are not conducive of stall
and surge. Unfortunately this bleed valve does not completely cure the problem of
stall as far as the first rotor stages are concerned and stall is still likely to occur.
The blades stall when the angle of attack increases to too large a value. To
overcome this problem, inlet guide vanes are used to pre-swirl the air onto the
rotor blades. The effect of pre-swirling the air alters the angle of attack from a
large value to the correct angle of attack. See figure 4.14.

Effect of Variable Guide Vane on Compressor Stage
Figure 4.14

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4.4.2 COMPRESSOR CHARACTERISTICS
When a compressor is designed it is essential to establish the points at which it is
likely to surge. Tests are carried out to determine the relationship between
pressure ratio and mass flow at speeds covering the whole working range of the
compressor. The results are recorded on a series of curves known as surge lines.
To obtain the curves, the compressor is run at a constant speed, the mass airflow
is gradually decreased and during this test the pressure ratio is carefully
monitored. As the mass airflow reduces, there is an increase in pressure ratio.
Eventually the compressor airflow becomes turbulent and the compressor surges.
When this occurs, there is a rapid drop in pressure. The tests are carried out at
various speeds until the whole working range of the compressor has been
covered. During the test the points at which turbulence occurred at the various
speeds are plotted. The points are then connected by drawing a line, this line is
the surge line of the particular compressor being tested. During normal operation
the engine is never allowed to operate beyond the surge line. A safety margin is
established and the fuel and airflow control systems are adjusted so the engine
will run within the safe limits. Figure 4.15 refers.
SAFETY
MARGIN
UNSTABLE
AREA
SURGE LINE
WORKING LINE
60% 70%
80%
90%
100
CONSTANT
RPM LINES
AIRFLOW - Increasing
P
R
E
S
S
U
R
E

R
A
T
I
O

-

I
n
c
r
e
a
s
i
n
g

Engine working line and surge margin.
Figure 4.15.

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4.4.3 EFFECT OF TEMPERATURE ON THE OPERATING POINT OF THE AIRFLOW
CONTROL SYSTEM
A change in temperature will affect mass airflow, compressor pressure ratio fuel
flow and engine performance. The effect of a reduced temperature on the
compressor at a fixed rpm being that the performance is comparable with that at a
higher rpm at STANDARD TEMPERATURE.
Consider an engine running at 10,000 rpm, the temperature of the day is 2C. If
this is corrected for standard conditions (ISA 15C) the corrected rpm will be
10,235 see below.
Observed rpm = 10,000 rpm
Corrected rpm =
u
N

Where u =
K in ISA
K in ambient T
=
15 273
2 273
+
+

corrected rpm =
288
275
000 , 10

=
977 . 0
000 , 10

Corrected rpm = 10,235
From the above it is clear that temperature has an effect on the compressors mass
flow rate. This is compounded further by the effect that temperature has a direct
effect on the speed of sound and hence when the compressor chokes.
It must be understood that if the engine is running at a fixed rpm and the
temperature of the air is altered, the actual rpm of the compressor will be
unaffected. However, the temperature change will affect the mach number of
mass airflow and it is the speed of the compressor relative to the speed of the
airflow (ie. Mach. Number) which is the critical factor. A decrease in temperature
will raise the mach. Number. The mach. Number is the:

SOUND OF SPEED LOCAL
OBJECT THE OF SPEED

ISAinK

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The speed of the object is the compressor blade, if as previously stated, the mach.
Number is raised with a decrease in temperature, the fixed blade speed relative
to the speed of the air, will be increased. To cater for this situation the operating
point at which the variable inlet guide vanes move will have to be altered for
varying air temperatures. To achieve this the actuator or ram of an airflow control
system is temperature compensated. On a cold day, the variable inlet guide
vanes will operate earlier than on a warm day.

At a temperature of +60F Local speed of sound is Mach 0.9 , no need for the
VIGVs as the compressor out let is not choked.
At a temperature of 40F Local speed of sound is Mach 1.0, the compressor
outlet is choked, the first stages may stall, VIGVs
must start to open.

Variation of Mach Number with Temperature.
Figure 4.16.

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4.5 AIR FLOW CONTROL SYSTEM OPERATION
The stages of the compressor are matched to give the highest efficiency in the
speed range maximum rev/min. To extend the range of smooth operation over
lower engine speeds, variable-incidence intake guide vanes and/or an air bleed
valve are fitted. In the lower speed range the bleed valve opens to allow some of
the air to escape from the rear stages of the compressor, thus restricting the mass
air flow through the later stages and preventing an unstable flow pattern.
When the bleed valve is open, the guide vanes if fitted are partially closed; at
higher engine speeds, when the bleed valve is closed, the guide vanes if fitted
move progressively towards the open position. The vanes are operated by a
hydraulic ram which incorporates its own control mechanism and which receives a
signal of engine speed in terms of hydraulic pressure from the engine speed
governor in the fuel pump.
Combined Bleed Valve and Variable Guide Vane Operating System.
Figure 4.17.

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Intake Guide Vane Ram Setting Curve.
Figure 4.18.

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Intake Guide Vane Ram Setting Curve.
Figure 4.18.
Air Bleed Valve
Figure 4.19.
Variable Guide Vane Hydraulic
Figure 4.20.

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To further improve airflow control, some engines will adopt a system of Variable
Stator Vanes (VSVs) as well as Variable Inlet Guide Vanes (VIGVs) figure 4.21.

Variable IGV and Stator Vanes.
Figure 4.21.

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Inlet Guide Vane and Variable stator Blade Linkwork.
Figure 4.22.

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4.6 AEROFOIL THEORY AND THE AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR
(CONTINUED)
The blades of the axial flow compressor are aerofoils and as such behave in a
similar way to aircraft mainplanes and propeller blades. The airflow across their
surfaces produces lift and the amount of lift produced by an aerofoil depends on:
a Its shape, area and smoothness of its surface.
b the speed of airflow over the aerofoil.
c the angle at which the aerofoil meets the air.
Once manufactured, their area and shape will remain the same unless they are
damaged in any way. Assuming the blades are in good condition, the variables
will be the speed of the airflow and the angle at which the blades meet the air
(angle of attack).
4.6.1 SPEED OF AIRFLOW OVER BLADES
This will vary with the rpm of the compressor rotor. The faster the rotor turns, then
the faster the air flows over the blades. This will result in an increase in the axial
velocity of the airflow through the compressor.
4.6.2 ANGLE OF ATTACK
This will vary with the combination of the rotational velocity of the blades and the
axial velocity of the airflow. In the normal course of events, the angle of attack
(VA) becomes progressively smaller as the compressor moves from a low rpm to a
high rpm.(VT)

V
T V
T
V
T
V
T
V
A
V
A
V
A
V
A
Low R.P.M R.P.M Increasing High R.P.M
High angle
of attack
Angle of attack
decreasing
Low angle
of attack
Change of Angle of Attack Due to Increase in RPM.
Figure 4.23.

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4.6.3 SOME IMPORTANT POINTS ABOUT ANGLE OF ATTACK
An aerofoil can only produce lift between certain limits of angle of attack. 0 -
approx. 15.

At very large angles of attack the airflow breaks down and the aerofoil stalls.
The greater the angle of attack (up to the stalling angle), the greater the lift and,
also, the greater the drag. This means that a greater effort will be required to
move the aerofoil through the air.

All aerofoils have an optimum angle of attack at which they produce most lift for
the least drag. (Lift/drag ratio) [2-4].

At High Angles of Attack the Blade Will Stall.
Figure 4.25
Lift/drag Vectors for Different Angles of Attack.
Figure 4.26.
Airflow Over an Aerofoil
Figure 4.24.

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4.7 APPLICATION TO THE AXIAL FLOW COMPRESSOR
In order for the compressor to deliver a high mass airflow for a minimum effort
required to drive it, it is important that all the compressor blades are operating
close to their optimum angle of attack at the designed optimum rpm of the engine.
This is achieved by setting the blades onto the rotor assembly at a large enough
angle so as to make allowance for the automatic reduction in angle of attack that
will occur with increase in rpm.
4.7.1 COMPRESSOR RPM
An axial flow compressor is designed to operate at maximum speeds in the region
of 8000-10,000 rpm, depending on size. At this rpm the engine will be producing a
large amount of thrust and in order to vary the thrust it is necessary to vary the
compressor rpm.
When the compressor is operating at speeds below its designed rpm range, the
axial velocity of the airflow through the compressor will decrease which will cause
an increase in the angle of attack of the compressor blades. At low rpm, such as
idling, the reduced axial velocity of the airflow may cause the angle of attack of
some of the blades to increase beyond their stalling angle.
A slight amount of LP blade stalling during off design conditions is to be expected
and only becomes a problem if a complete row of blades stall.
4.7.2 COMMON CAUSES OF COMPRESSOR STALL
Compressor stall normally occurs at low rpm and can be induced by:
a disturbance of smooth airflow due to damaged or dirty blades.
b disturbance of smooth airflow caused by damaged aircraft air intake.
c high combustion chamber pressure caused by over-fuelling during engine
acceleration.
4.7.3 STAGGER ANGLE AND END BEND
The rotor blades are of airfoil section and usually designed to give a pressure
gradient along their length to ensure that the air maintains a reasonably uniform
axial velocity. The higher pressure towards the tip balances out the centrifugal
action of the rotor on the airstream. To obtain these conditions, it is necessary to
'twist' the blade from root to tip to give the correct angle of incidence at each point.
Air flowing through a compressor creates two boundary layers of slow to stagnant
air on the inner and outer walls. In order to compensate for the slow air in the
boundary layer a localised increase in blade camber both at the blade tip and root
has been introduced. The blade extremities appear as if formed by bending over
each corner, hence the term 'end-bend' Figure 4.27.
4.7.4 RECENT INNOVATIONS
The latest engines incorporate blades that have been designed and profiled using
3-D design techniques. This produces blades, which are curved in 3 dimensions,
which are more aerodynamically efficient. Figure 4.28.

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3-D Blades
Figure 4. 28.
Stagger Angle and End Bend
Figure 4.27.

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4.8 AIRFLOW CONTROL
The higher the pressure ratio required from a compressor, the greater the number
of compressor stages needed. The more stages there are, the more difficult
becomes the problem of matching all the blades in both size and angle of
attachment to make the compressor operate satisfactorily over a wide range of
rpm.
In order to maintain the airflow stability and reduce the tendency of high pressure
ratio compressors to stall under certain conditions of aircraft flight and engine
handling, methods of airflow control have already been discussed.
4.9 AIR BLEED VALVES (SUMMARY)
The air bleed valve is operated automatically in response to signals of compressor
rpm. It is in the open position below a certain critical rpm and bleeds air away
from the centre stages of the compressor, ducting it overboard to atmosphere.
This has the effect of increasing the axial velocity of the airflow through the early
stages of the compressor, thereby reducing the angle of attack of the blades in
that area. This prevents the early stages of the compressor from passing more air
to the rear stages than can be accommodated in the space available.
Above the critical rpm range the bleed valve is closed and all the air available from
the compressor passes to the combustion system.
4.10 VARIABLE INTAKE GUIDE VANES (SUMMARY)
All intake guide vanes give a certain amount of swirl to the incoming airflow. The
swirl is in the direction of rotation of the compressor and the amount of swirl
determines the angle of attack of the first stage rotor blades. The greater the
degree of swirl imported by the IGVs then the smaller the resultant angle of attack
of the first stage rotor blades.
Variable IGVs present the air onto the first stage rotor blades with a maximum
swirl angle during operation in the critical low rpm range and progressively reduce
the degree of swirl in response to signals of compressor rpm. When operating at
high rpm the airflow enters the compressor more or less axially.
4.11 MULTI-SPOOL COMPRESSORS (SUMMARY)
Pressure ratios in excess of approximately 9:1 are best achieved by splitting the
compressor into two independent sections as shown in the figure 4.29.

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The total number of stages of compression is divided between two spools, each
spool being driven at a different speed by separate turbines. This eases the
problems of compressor blade matching and results in a very powerful, efficient
and flexible engine.
4.12 COMPARING THE FEATURES OF CENTRIFUGAL AND AXIAL FLOW
COMPRESSORS
4.12.1 CENTRIFUGAL
Merits.
- Simplicity, cheaper, lighter, less prone to damage by FOD.
- Not critical to surge and stall.
- Will tolerate icing conditions.
Associated Problems
- Max pressure ratios 4:1 or 5:1. (on early types)
- Capacity limited by tip speed.
- Larger diameter of engine which leads to more drag.
- Severe directional changes of gas flow which leads to friction.
- High specific fuel consumption.
4.12.2 AXIAL FLOW
Merits
- High Pressure Ratio.
- Low specific fuel consumption.
- More capacity for development.
- Greater axial thrust.
Associated Problems
- Complex and expensive to produce.
- Critical to stall/surge.

Twin Spool Engine
Figure 4.29.

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5 COMBUSTION SECTION
5.1 INTRODUCTION
The combustion chamber has the difficult task of burning large quantities of fuel,
supplied through the fuel burners, with extensive volumes of air, supplied by the
compressor, and releasing the heat in such a manner that the air is expanded and
accelerated to give a smooth stream of uniformly heated gas at all conditions
required by the turbine. This task must be accomplished with the minimum loss in
pressure and with the maximum heat release for the limited space available.
The amount of fuel added to the air will depend upon the maximum temperature
rise required and, as this is limited by the materials from which the turbine blades
and nozzles are made, the rise must be in the range of 700 to 1,200 deg.C.
Because the air is already heated by the work done during compression, the
temperature rise required at the combustion chamber may be between 500 and
800 deg.C. Since the gas temperature required at the turbine varies with engine
speed, and in the case of the turbo-prop engine upon the power required, the
combustion chamber must also be capable of maintaining stable and efficient
combustion over a wide range of engine operating conditions.
Efficient combustion has become more and more important because of the rapid
increase in commercial aircraft traffic and the consequent increase in atmospheric
pollution, which is seen by the general public as exhaust smoke.
5.2 COMBUSTION PROCESS
Air from the engine compressor enters the combustion chamber at a velocity up to
500 feet per second, but because at this velocity the air speed is far too high for
combustion, the first thing that the chamber must do is to diffuse it, i.e. decelerate
it and raise its static pressure. Because the speed of burning kerosene at normal
mixture ratios is only a few feet per second, any fuel lit even in the diffused air
stream, which now has a velocity of about 80 feet per second, would be blown
away. A region of low axial velocity has therefore to be created in the chamber, so
that the flame will remain alight throughout the range of engine operating
conditions.

In normal operation, the overall air/fuel ratio of a combustion chamber can vary
between 45:1 and 130:1. Kerosene, however, will only burn efficiently at, or close
to, a ratio of 15:1, so the fuel must be burned with only part of the air entering the
chamber, in what is called a primary combustion zone. This is achieved by means
of a flame tube (combustion liner) that has various devices for metering the airflow
distribution along the chamber.

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Approximately 20 per cent of the air mass flow is taken in by the snout or entry
section. Immediately downstream of the snout are swirl vanes and a perforated
flare, through which air passes into the primary combustion zone. The swirling air
induces a flow upstream of the centre of the flame tube and promotes the desired
recirculation. The air not picked up by the snout flows into the annular space
between the flame tube and the air casing.
Through the wall of the flame tube body, adjacent to the combustion zone, are a
selected number of holes through which a further 20 per cent of the main flow of
air passes into the primary zone. The air from the swirl vanes and that from the
primary air holes interacts and creates a region of low velocity recirculation. This
takes the form of a toroidal vortex similar to a smoke ring, and has the effect of
stabilising and anchoring the flame. The recirculating gases hasten the burning of
freshly injected fuel droplets by rapidly bringing them to ignition temperature.
Typical Combustion Chamber
Figure 5.1.

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It is arranged that the conical fuel spray from the burner intersects the recirculation
vortex at its centre. This action, together with the general turbulence in the
primary zone, greatly assists in breaking up the fuel and mixing it with the
incoming air.
The temperature of the combustion gases released by the combustion zone is
about 1,800 to 2,000 deg.C., which is far too hot for entry to the nozzle guide
vanes of the turbine. The air not used for combustion, which amounts to about 60
per cent of the total airflow, is therefore introduced progressively into the flame
tube. Approximately half of this is used to lower the gas temperature before it
enters the turbine and the other half is used for cooling the walls of the flame tube.
Combustion should be completed before the dilution air enters the flame tube,
otherwise the incoming air will cool the flame and incomplete combustion will
result.
An electric spark from an igniter plug initiates combustion and the flame is then
self-sustaining.
The design of a combustion chamber and the method of adding the fuel may vary
considerably, but the airflow distribution used to effect and maintain combustion is
always very similar to that described.

5.3 FUEL SUPPLY
So far little has been said of the way in which the fuel is supplied to the air stream.
In general, however, two distinct principles are in use, one based on the injection
of a finely atomised spray into a recirculating air stream, and the other based on
the pre-vaporisation of the fuel before it enters the combustion zone.
Although the injection of fuel by atomiser jets is the most common method, some
engines use the fuel vaporising principle. In this instance, the flame tube is of the
same general shape as for atomisation, but has no swirl vanes or flare. The
primary airflow passes through holes in a baffle plate that supports a fuel feed
tube.
Apportioning the Airflow
Figure 5.2

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The fuel is sprayed from the feed tube into vaporising tubes that are positioned
inside the flame tube. These tubes bend through 180 degrees and, as they are
heated by combustion, the fuel vaporises before passing forwards into the flame
tube. The primary airflow passes down the vaporising tubes with the fuel and also
through large (secondary) nozzles, which provide 'fans' of air to sweep the flame
rearwards. Cooling and dilution air is metered into the flame tube in a manner
similar to the atomiser flame tube. Vaporisers require starter spray nozzles to set
the light up process in motion.
5.4 TYPES OF COMBUSTION CHAMBER
There are three main types of combustion chamber at present in use for gas
turbine engines. These are the multiple chamber, the tubo-annular chamber and
the annular chamber.
5.4.1 MULTIPLE COMBUSTION CHAMBER
This type of combustion chamber is used on centrifugal compressor engines and
the earlier types of axial flow compressor engines. It is a direct development of
the early type of Whittle combustion chamber. The major difference is that the
Whittle chamber had a reverse flow as this created a considerable pressure loss,
the straight through multiple chamber was developed by J oseph Lucas Limited.
The chambers are disposed around the engine and compressor delivery air is
directed by ducts to pass into the individual chambers. Each chamber has an
inner flame tube around which there is an air casing. The air passes through the
flame tube snout and also between the tube and the outer casing as already
described.
The separate flame tubes are all interconnected. This allows each tube to operate
at the same pressure and also allows combustion to propagate around the flame
tubes during engine starting.
A Vaporising Combustion Chamber.
Figure 5.3.

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Multiple Combustion Chambers.
Figure 5.4.

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5.4.2 TUBO-ANNULAR COMBUSTION CHAMBER
(ALSO KNOWN AS CAN-ANNULAR OR CANNULAR.)
The tubo-annular combustion chamber is a combination of the multiple and
annular types. A number of flame tubes are fitted inside a common air casing.
The airflow is similar to that already described and this arrangement embodies the
ease of overhaul and testing of the multiple system with the compactness of the
annular system.

Turbo-Annular Combustion System
Figure 5.5.

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5.4.3 ANNULAR COMBUSTION CHAMBER
This type of combustion chamber consists of a single flame tube, completely
annular in form, which is contained in an inner and outer casing. The airflow
through the flame tube is similar to that previously described, the chamber being
open at the front to the compressor and at the rear to the turbine nozzles.
The main advantage of the annular chamber is that, for the same power output,
the length of the chamber is only 75 per cent of that of a tubo-annular system for
an engine of the same diameter, resulting in considerable saving of weight and
production cost. Another advantage is that because interconnectors are not
required, the propagation of combustion is improved.
In comparison with a tubo-annular combustion system, the wall area of a
comparable annular chamber is much less; consequently, the amount of cooling
air required to prevent the burning of the flame tube wall is less, by approximately
15 per cent. This reduction in cooling air raises the combustion efficiency, to
virtually eliminate unburnt fuel, and oxidises the carbon monoxide to non-toxic
carbon dioxide, thus reducing air pollution.
The introduction of the air spray type burner to this type of combustion chamber
also greatly improves the preparation of fuel for combustion by aerating the over-
rich pockets of fuel vapour close to the burner; this results in a large reduction in
initial carbon formation.
A high by-pass ratio engine will also reduce air pollution, since for a given thrust
the engine burns less fuel.
An Air Spray Fuel Nozzle.
Figure 5.6.

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A Spray Nozzle.
Figure 5.6.
Annular Combustion Chamber.
Figure 5.7.

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5.4.4 REVERSE FLOW COMBUSTION CHAMBER
Reverse flow combustion chambers are used where the engine length is critical or
where the thrust of the engine is not being produced by the exhaust of the primary
air. They are often found on APUs, turboprop and turbo-shaft engines or their
derivatives such as the ALF 502 and LF507 engines used in the BAE 146 and RJ
aircraft.
By wrapping the combustion chamber around other components such as turbines
the length of the engine can be significantly reduced. Losses in thrust do occur
due to the changes in airflow and direction of pressure forces. This is not important
in the types of engine where they are used as the majority of the thrust is derived
by other sources.
They are often found on engines with compound compressors, which have a
centrifugal stages as the last stage of compression.

Reverse Flow Combustion Chamber.
Figure 5.8.

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5.5 COMBUSTION CHAMBER PERFORMANCE
A combustion chamber must be capable of allowing fuel to burn efficiently over a
wide range of operating conditions without incurring a large pressure loss. In
addition, if flame extinction occurs, then it must be possible to relight. In
performing these functions, the flame tube and burner atomiser components must
be mechanically reliable.
Because the gas turbine engine operates on a constant pressure cycle, any loss of
pressure during the process of combustion must be kept to a minimum. In
providing adequate turbulence and mixing, a total pressure loss varying from
about 5 to 10 per cent of the air pressure at entry to the chamber is incurred.
5.5.1 COMBUSTION INTENSITY
The heat released by a combustion chamber or any other heat generating unit is
dependent on the volume of the combustion area. Thus, to obtain the required
high power output, a comparatively small and compact gas turbine combustion
chamber must release heat at exceptionally high rates.
For example, a Rolls-Royce Spey engine will consume in its ten flame tubes 7,500
lb. of fuel per hour. The fuel has a calorific value of approximately 18,550 British
Thermal Units per lb., therefore each flame tube releases nearly 232,000 British
Thermal Units per minute. Expressed in another way, this is an expenditure of
potential heat at a rate equivalent to approximately 54,690 horsepower for the
whole engine.
Graph of Combustion Efficiency to Overall Air/Fuel Ratio.
Figure 5.9.

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5.6 COMBUSTION EFFICIENCY
The combustion efficiency of most gas turbine engines at sea-level take-off
conditions is 100 per cent which reduces to 98 per cent at altitude cruise
conditions. The values vary as shown in because of the reducing air pressure,
temperature and fuel/air ratio.
5.7 COMBUSTION STABILITY
Combustion stability means smooth burning and the ability of the flame to remain
alight over a wide operating range.
For any particular type of combustion chamber there is both a rich and a weak limit
to the air/fuel ratio, beyond which the flame is extinguished. An extinction is most
likely to occur in flight during a glide or dive with the engine idling, when there is a
high airflow and only a small fuel flow, i.e. a very weak mixture strength.
The range of air/fuel ratio between the rich and weak limits is reduced with an
increase of air velocity, and if the air mass flow is increased beyond a certain
value, flame extinction occurs. A typical stability loop is illustrated. The operating
range defined by the stability loop must obviously cover the required air/fuel ratios
and mass flow of the combustion chamber.
The ignition process has weak and rich limits similar to those shown for stability.
The ignition loop, however, lies within the stability loop, since it is more difficult to
establish combustion under cold' conditions than to maintain normal burning.

Combustion Stability Limits
Figure 5.10.

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5.8 POLLUTION CONTROL
5.8.1 INTRODUCTION
Pollution of the atmosphere by gas turbine engines falls into two categories; visible
(ie. smoke) and invisible constituents (eg. oxides or nitrogen, unburnt
hydrocarbons, oxides of sulphur and carbon monoxide). The combination of the
traditional types of HP burner (eg. Duplex) with increasing compression ratios has
led to visible smoke during take-off and climb. The very strong public opinion
against pollution of the atmosphere has forced engine manufacturers to develop
methods of reducing smoke and other emissions.
5.8.2 SOURCES OF POLLUTION
Pollution occurs from incomplete combustion. When engines with high
compression ratios (ie. above 15:1) are fitted with the traditional type of atomising
burner, the high temperature, pressure and low turbulence within the combustion
chamber prohibits adequate atomisation of the fuel when the engine is operating
at low altitude, thus causing the formation of carbon particles. This can be
reduced to an acceptable level by improving the airflow inside the combustion
chamber and by introducing burners that are not so susceptible to changes in
pressure
5.9 EMISSIONS
The unwanted pollutants which are found in the exhaust gases are created within
the combustion chamber. There are four main pollutants which are legislatively
controlled; unburnt hydrocarbons (unburnt fuel), smoke (carbon particles), carbon
monoxide and oxides of nitrogen. The principal conditions which affect the
formation of pollutants are pressure, temperature and time.
In the fuel rich regions of the primary zone, the hydrocarbons are converted into
carbon monoxide and smoke. Fresh dilution air can be used to oxidise the carbon
monoxide and smoke into non-toxic carbon dioxide within the dilution zone.
Unburnt hydrocarbons can also be reduced in this zone by continuing the
combustion process to ensure complete combustion.
Oxides of nitrogen are formed under the same conditions as those required for the
suppression of the other pollutants. Therefore it is desirable to cool the flame as
quickly as possible and to reduce the time available for combustion. This conflict
of conditions requires a compromise to be made, but continuing improvements in
combustor design and performance has led to a substantially 'cleaner' combustion
process.

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BMW Rolls Royce are testing an axially staged combustion chamber for the BR715
engine, they claim it will cut the NO
x
by 50% without increasing CO, UHC and smoke
emissions.
Figure 5.12.
Dump
diffuser
Compressor
air
Pilot
stage
Main stage
Exhaust gases to
turbine
Pilot
fuel
Main
fuel
x
Olympus 593 Smoke Results
Figure 5.11.

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5.10 MATERIALS
The containing walls and internal parts of the combustion chamber must be
capable of resisting the very high gas temperature in the primary zone. In
practice, this is achieved by using the best heat resisting materials available, the
use of high heat resistant coatings and by cooling the inner wall of the flame tube
as an insulation from the flame.
The combustion chamber must also withstand corrosion due to the products of the
combustion, creep failure due to temperature gradients and fatigue due to
vibrational stresses.

Methods of Cooling the Flame Tube.
Figure 5.13.

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6 TURBINE SECTION
6.1 INTRODUCTION
The turbine has the task of providing the power to drive the compressor and
accessories and, in the case of engines which do not make use solely of a jet for
propulsion, of providing shaft power for a propeller or rotor. It does this by extracting
energy from the hot gases released from the combustion system and expanding
them to a lower pressure and temperature. High stresses are involved in this
process, and for efficient operation, the turbine blade tips may rotate at speeds over
1,500 feet per second. The continuous flow of gas to which the turbine is exposed
may have an entry temperature between 850 and 1,700 deg.C. and may reach a
velocity of over 2,500 feet per second in parts of the turbine.
A Triple Stage Turbine with a Single Shaft.
Figure 6.1.

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To produce the driving torque, the turbine may consist of Several stages each
employing one row of stationary nozzle guide vanes and one row of moving blades.
The number of stages depends upon the relationship between the power required
from the gas flow, the rotational speed at which it must be produced and the diameter
of turbine permitted.
The number of shafts, and therefore turbines, varies with the type of engine., high
compression ratio engines usually have two shafts, driving high and low pressure
compressors. On high by pass ratio fan engines that feature an intermediate
pressure system, another turbine may be interposed between the high and low
pressure turbines, thus forming triple-spool system. On some engines, driving torque
is derived from a free-power turbine. This method allows the turbine to run at its
optimum speed because it is mechanically independent of other turbine and
compressor shafts.
A Multi Stage Turbine driving Two Shafts.
Figure 6.2.

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The mean blade speed of a turbine has considerable effect on the maximum
efficiency possible for a given stage output. For a given output the gas velocities,
deflections, and hence losses, are reduced in proportion to the square of higher
mean blade speeds. Stress in the turbine disc increases as the square of the speed,
therefore to maintain the same stress level at higher speed the sectional thickness,
hence the weight, must be increased disproportionately. For this reason, the final
design is a compromise between efficiency and weight. Engines operating at higher
turbine inlet temperatures are thermally more efficient and have an improved power
to weight ratio. By-pass engines have a better propulsive efficiency and thus can
have a smaller turbine for a given thrust.

A Multi Stage Turbine Driving Three Shafts.
Figure 6.3.

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The design of the nozzle guide vane and turbine blade passages is based broadly on
A Free Power Turbine.
Figure 6.4.

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aerodynamic considerations, and to obtain optimum efficiency, compatible with
compressor and combustion design, the nozzle guide vanes and turbine blades are
of a basic aerofoil shape. There are three types of turbine; impulse, reaction and a
combination of the two known as impulse-reaction. In the impulse type the total
pressure drop across each stage occurs in the fixed nozzle guide vanes which,
because of their convergent shape, increase the gas velocity whilst reducing the
pressure. The gas is directed onto the turbine blades which experience an impulse
force caused by the impact of the gas on the blades. In the reaction type the fixed
nozzle guide vanes are designed to alter the gas flow direction without changing the
pressure. The converging blade passages experience a reaction force resulting from
the expansion and acceleration of the gas. Normally gas turbine engines do not use
pure impulse or pure reaction turbine blades but the impulse-reaction combination.
The proportion of each principle incorporated in the design of a turbine is largely
dependent on the type of engine in which the turbine is to operate, but in general it is
about 50 per cent impulse and 50 per cent reaction. Impulse-type turbines are used
for cartridge and air starters.

6.2 ENERGY TRANSFER FROM GAS FLOW TO TURBINE
It will be seen that the turbine depends for its operation on the transfer of energy
between the combustion gases and the turbine. This transfer is never 100 per cent
because of thermodynamic and mechanical losses.
Comparison between a Pure Impulse Turbine and an Impulse Reaction Turbine.
Figure 6.5.

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When the gas is expanded by the combustion process, it forces its way into the
discharge nozzles of the turbine where, because of their convergent shape, it is
accelerated to about the speed of sound which, at the gas temperature, is about
2,500 feet per second. At the same time the gas flow is given a 'spin' or 'whirl' in the
direction of rotation of the turbine blades by the nozzle guide vanes. On impact with
the blades and during the subsequent reaction through the blades, energy is
absorbed, causing the turbine to rotate at high speed and so provide the power for
driving the turbine shaft and compressor.

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Twisted Contour of Blades
Figure 6.6.
The torque or turning power applied to the turbine is governed by the rate of gas flow
and the energy change of the gas between the inlet and the outlet of the turbine
blades. The design of the turbine is such that the whirl will be removed from the gas
stream so that the flow at exit from the turbine will be substantially 'straightened out'
to give an axial flow into the exhaust system (Part 6). Excessive residual whirl
reduces the efficiency of the exhaust system and also tends to produce jet pipe
vibration which has a detrimental effect on the exhaust cone supports and struts.
It will be seen that the nozzle guide
vanes and blades of the turbine are
'twisted', the blades having a stagger
angle that is greater at the tip than at
the root. The reason for the twist is to
make the gas flow from the
combustion system do equal work at
all positions along the length of the
blade and to ensure that the flow
enters the exhaust system with a
uniform axial velocity. This results in
certain changes in velocity, pressure
and temperature occurring through the
turbine.
The 'degree of reaction' varies from
root to tip, being least at the root and
highest at the tip, with the mean
section having the chosen value of
about 50 per cent.

Gas Flow Pattern Through a Nozzle and Turbine.
Figure 6.7.

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The losses which prevent the turbine from being 100 per cent efficient are due to a
number of reasons. A typical uncooled three-stage turbine would suffer a 3.5 per
cent loss because of aerodynamic losses in the turbine blades. A further 4.5 per cent
loss would be incurred by aerodynamic losses in the nozzle guide vanes, gas
leakage over the turbine blade tips and exhaust system losses; these losses are of
approximately equal proportions. The total losses result in an overall efficiency of
approximately 92 per cent.
6.3 CONSTRUCTION
The basic components of the turbine are the combustion discharge nozzles, the
nozzle guide vanes, the turbine discs and the turbine blades. The rotating assembly
is carried on bearings mounted in the turbine casing and the turbine shaft may be
common to the compressor shaft or connected to it by a self-aligning coupling.
6.3.1 NOZZLE GUIDE VANES
The nozzle guide vanes are of an aerofoil shape with the passage between adjacent
vanes forming a convergent duct. The vanes are located in the turbine casing in a
manner that allows for expansion.
The nozzle guide vanes are usually of hollow form and may be cooled by passing
compressor delivery air through them to reduce the effects of high thermal
stresses and gas loads.
Typical Nozzle Guide Vane Construction.
Figure 6.8.

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6.3.2 TURBINE DISCS
Turbine discs are usually manufactured from a machined forging with an integral
shaft or with a flange onto which the shaft may be bolted. The disc also has, around
its perimeter, provision for the attachment of the turbine blades.
To limit the effect of heat conduction from the turbine blades to the disc a flow of
cooling air is passed across both sides of each disc.
6.3.3 TURBINE BLADES
The turbine blades are of an aerofoil shape, designed to provide passages between
adjacent blades that give a steady acceleration of the flow up to the 'throat', where
the area is smallest and the velocity reaches that required at exit to produce the
required degree of reaction.
The actual area of each blade cross-section is fixed by the permitted stress in the
material used and by the size of any holes which may be required for cooling
purposes. High efficiency demands thin trailing edges to the sections, but a
compromise has to be made so as to prevent the blades cracking due to the
temperature changes during engine operation.
The method of attaching the blades to the turbine disc is of considerable importance,
since the stress in the disc around the fixing or in the blade root has an important
bearing on the limiting rim speed. The blades on the early Whittle engine were
attached by the de Laval bulb root fixing, but this design was soon superseded by the
'fir-tree' fixing that is now used in the majority of gas turbine engines. This type of
fixing involves very accurate machining to ensure that the loading is shared by all the
serrations. The blade is free in the serrations when the turbine is stationary and is
stiffened in the root by centrifugal loading when the turbine is rotating. Various
methods of blade attachment are shown; however, the B.M.W. hollow blade and the
de Laval bulb root types are not now generally used on gas turbine engines.
Methods of Turbine Blade Attachment.
Figure 6.9.

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A gap exists between the blade tips and casing, which varies in size due to the
different rates of expansion and contraction. To reduce the loss of efficiency through
gas leakage across the blade tips, a shroud is often fitted. This is made up by a
small segment at the tip of each blade which forms a peripheral ring around the blade
tips. An abradable lining in the casing may also be used to reduce gas leakage.
Active Clearance Control (A.C.C.) is a more effective method of maintaining minimum
tip clearance throughout the flight cycle. Air from the compressor is used to cool the
turbine casing and when used with shroudless turbine blades, enables higher
temperatures and speeds to be used.
Active Tip Clearance Control.
Figure 6.10.

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6.3.4 DUAL ALLOY DISCS
Very high stresses are imposed on the
blade root fixing of high work rate turbines,
which make conventional methods of blade
attachment impractical. A dual alloy disc,
or 'blisk' as shown in fig. 6.11., has a ring
of cast turbine blades bonded to the disc.
This type of turbine is suitable for small
high Power helicopter engines.

6.4 COMPRESSOR-TURBINE MATCHING
The flow characteristics of the turbine must be very carefully matched with those of
the compressor to obtain the maximum efficiency and performance of the engine. If,
for example, the nozzle guide vanes allowed too low a maximum flow, then a back
pressure would build up causing the compressor to surge; too high a flow would
cause the compressor to choke. In either condition a loss of efficiency would very
rapidly occur.
6.5 MATERIALS
Among the obstacles in the way of using higher turbine entry temperatures have
always been the effects of these temperatures on the nozzle guide vanes and turbine
blades. The high speed of rotation which imparts tensile stress to the turbine disc
and blades is also a limiting factor.
6.5.1 NOZZLE GUIDE VANES
Due to their static condition, the nozzle guide vanes do not endure the same
rotational stresses as the turbine blades. Therefore, heat resistance is the property
most required. Nickel alloys are used, although cooling is required to prevent
melting. Ceramic coatings can enhance the heat resisting properties and, for the
same set of conditions, reduce the amount of cooling air required, thus improving
engine efficiency.
6.5.2 TURBINE DISCS
A turbine disc has to rotate at high speed in a relatively cool environment and is
subjected to large rotational stresses. The limiting factor which affects the useful disc
life is its resistance to fatigue cracking.
Section Through a Dual Alloy Disc.
Figure 6.11.

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In the past, turbine discs have been made in ferritic and austenitic steels but nickel
based alloys are currently used. Increasing the alloying elements in nickel extend the
life limits of a disc by increasing fatigue resistance. Alternatively, expensive powder
metallurgy discs, which offer an additional 10% in strength, allow faster rotational
speeds to be achieved.
6.5.3 TURBINE BLADES
A brief mention of some of the points to be considered in connection with turbine
blade design will give an idea of the importance of the correct choice of blade
material. The blades, while glowing red-hot, must be strong-enough to carry the
centrifugal loads due to rotation at high speed. A small turbine blade weighing only
two ounces may exert a load of over two tons at top speed and it must withstand the
high bending loads applied by the gas to produce the many thousands of turbine
horsepower necessary to drive the compressor. Turbine blades must also be
resistant to fatigue and thermal shock, so that they will not fail under the influence of
high frequency fluctuations in the gas conditions, and they must also be resistant to
corrosion and oxidisation. In spite of all these demands, the blades must be made in
a material that can be accurately formed and machined by current manufacturing
methods-
From the foregoing, it follows that for a particular blade material and an acceptable
safe life there is an associated maximum permissible turbine entry temperature and a
corresponding maximum engine power. It is not surprising, therefore, that
metallurgists and designers are constantly searching for better turbine blade
materials and improved methods of blade cooling.
Over a period of operational time
the turbine blades slowly grow in
length. This phenomenon is
known as 'creep' and there is a
finite useful life limit before failure
occurs.
Effect of Heat on Creep at Fixed Load.
Figure 6.12.

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The early materials used were high temperature steel forgings, but these were rapidly
replaced by cast nickel base alloys which give better creep and fatigue properties.
Close examination of a conventional turbine blade reveals a myriad of crystals that lie
in all directions (equi-axed). Improved service life can be obtained by aligning the
crystals to form columns along the blade length, produced by a method known as
'Directional Solidification'. A further advance of this technique is to make the blade
out of a single crystal. Each method extends the useful creep life of the blade and in
the case of the single crystal blade, the operating temperature can be substantially
increased.
A non-metal based turbine blade can be manufactured from reinforced ceramics.
Their initial production application is likely to be for small high speed turbines which
have very high turbine entry temperatures.
Effect of Load on Creep at Constant Temperature.
Figure 6.13.

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Various turbine Blade Crystal Structures.
Figure 6.14.

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Comparison of Turbine Blade Life Properties.
Figure 6.15.

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6.6 DYNAMIC BALANCING PRINCIPLES
6.6.1 INTRODUCTION
We must all be familiar with the effects of unbalance in one form or another, but
perhaps the most common effect is that arising from wheel unbalance in motor cars.
At resonance conditions it causes wobble or bounce, the effects of which are
transmitted to the driver through the steering column. This effect may be so violent
as to make the car unsafe or at least uncomfortable to ride in, and the continual
vibratory movements set up, even outside the resonance range will increase the rate
of wear on the various linkages and add to driver and passenger fatigue.
In order to increase passenger comfort, reduce wear and noise levels and also to
increase the life of the engine between overhauls, design effort is put into the various
aspects of minimising vibration in aero-engines. Design features are also included to
permit correction of unbalance forces.
Efforts are made to design engine bearing housings and carcasses with suitable
stiffness to avoid resonance in the engine running range. In addition, precise
balancing instructions are issued to control the rotating forces on the bearings which
could:-
a) be transmitted to other parts of the engine or airframe structure.
b) lead to engine failure in extreme cases.
The loads on the bearings are of three main forms. These are:
a) thrust loads due to the engine doing work.
b) journal loads due to the dead weight of engine parts.
c) unbalance loads.

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6.6.2 CENTRIFUGAL FORCE
Centrifugal force acts on every particle which makes up the mass of the rotating
element impelling each particle outwards and away from the axis, about which it is
rotating, in a radial direction.
If the mass of the rotating element is EVENLY DISTRIBUTED about the axis of
rotation, the part is BALANCED and rotates WITHOUT VIBRATION. However, if
there is a greater mass on one side of the rotor than the other, the centrifugal force
acting on this heavy side exceeds the centrifugal force on the light side and pulls the
entire assembly in the direction of the heavy side.

Centrifugal Forces.
Figure 6.16..
Eccentric Mass.
Figure 6.17.

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The rotor has a heavy mass M on one side. The centrifugal force exerted by M
causes the entire rotor to be pulled in the direction of force F.
6.6.3 CAUSES OF UNBALANCE
Unbalance may be caused by a variety of factors occurring singly or in combination
with others. These factors include:-
a) Eccentricity
Eccentricity exists when the geometric centreline of a part or assembly does not
coincide with its axis of rotation. This may be as a result of locating features (eg.
spigot location, bolt holes, splines, serrations, couplings), being eccentric to the
bearing location.

b) Variation in Wall Thickness

Variation in wall thickness may be as a result of eccentricity between an inner and
outer diameter of a cylindrical type feature, or it may be as a result of a difference in
thickness between a radial section of a disk type feature and the section diametrically
opposite.
Eccentricity.
Figure 6.18.
Variation in Wall Thickness.
Figure 6.19.

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c) Blade Distribution
Unbalance can be caused by an unequal or unsymmetrical arrangement of a set of
blades, either by reference to their mass moments or their dead weights depending
on the size of the blades. This can be as a result of faulty weighting, inaccurate or
illegible recording or assembly errors.
d) Unsymmetrical Features
These may be due to manufacturing processes, such as blow holes in castings or
design features such as offset holes, locating dogs, slots, keyways, etc.

e) Distortion
This can be caused by stress relieving, eg. after welding, or by unequal thermal
growth during running.
f) Fits and Clearances
Clearance between mating parts allows relative movement of the parts and a
consequent shift of the axis of rotation during running (or even during balancing).
J oints incompletely assembled, eg. chamfers fouling radii, abutment faces not pulled
together, may cause a bent rotor or an unsuitable joint, which may cause a shift
during running. It is important to prevent separate locating, or fixing, features from
influencing each other eg. bolt holes, spigot locations, serrations, etc. must be
geometrically controlled to prevent fighting between more than one feature. See
also the section on tooling, adapters, drives, dummy rotors, etc.
Unsymmetrical Features
Figure 6.20.

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g) Swash
Swash is caused by out of squareness of abutment faces relative to the bearing
diameter, abutment faces not being parallel across the component, eg. spacers,
adjusting washers, disks, etc. It is important that the bolted joints are tightened in
sequence and in increments according to the torquing instructions.
h) Miscellaneous
Foreign bodies inside assemblies, oil accumulation, carbon deposits, usually found
when check balancing after running.
6.6.4 OBJECTIVE OF BALANCING
The objective of balancing is to determine how the unbalanced mass of the rotor
must be compensated for in order to keep the bearings free of centrifugal force
loading.
6.6.5 DEFINITION OF UNBALANCE
Unbalance can be defined as that condition which exists in a rotor when vibratory
force or motion is imparted to its bearings as a result of centrifugal forces.
Unbalance will, in general, be distributed throughout the rotor but can be reduced to:-
a) static unbalance
b) couple unbalance
c) dynamic unbalance
Swash.
Figure 6.21.

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Static Unbalance
In a gas turbine engine, static unbalance is primarily associated with thin discs such
as turbine wheels or single compressor discs. It can be corrected by adding mass to
the light side of the rotor. This can be achieved by a single weight DIAMETRICALLY
OPPOSITE to the out of balance or by adding a number of smaller distributed
weights having the same effect as a single weight. (This distribution can be
determined by vectors).

Unbalance in a Long Rotor
If a rotor is checked for static balance using knife edges it is possible to correct an
out of balance condition to one end of the rotor by a correction weight at the other
end of the rotor. Although in static balance, the rotor may now suffer from other kinds
of unbalance. These are couple and dynamic unbalance.
Static Balance.
Figure 6.22.

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Couple Unbalance
This arises when two EQUAL unbalance masses are positioned at opposite ends of a
rotor and spaced at 180 from each other. If placed on knife-edges, the rotor would
be statically balanced. However, when the rotor is rotated, the out of balance
masses will cause a centrifugal force to act at each end and hence each end will
vibrate independently as shown in figure 6.23.

Dynamic Unbalance
This occurs when the unbalanced masses may be either unequal in size or
positioned at some angle other than 180 to each other, or even both of these
conditions. These unbalanced forces now cause the rotor to vibrate.
Couple Unbalance.
Figure 6.23.

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6.6.6 FAN BALANCING
Before we look at fan balancing we must first look at vibration analysis techniques
adopted on modern gas turbines and the reason for doing it. One of the
requirements of an on-condition maintenance policy is that defects can be detected
sufficiently early to permit rectification before secondary damage occurs. The
analysis of engine vibration signatures is becoming an increasingly important tool for
detecting early failure in mechanical components.
A vibration monitoring system begins with a sensor, which may be a velocity
transducer or a peizo electric accelerometer. They both convert the mechanical
vibration of the machine into an electrical signal proportional to the vibrations
produced and together with the associated electrical circuitry feed signals to either
cockpit mounted gauges warning systems or a separate vibration analyser.
Velocity Transducer
This device operates on the principle of a permanent magnet to move within a coil,
inducing voltage. Because of the moving parts with all the inherent disadvantages of
wear, friction, etc. they have been superseded by the peizo electric principle.
Peizo Electric Accelerometer
In this device, vibrating forces are transmitted to a peizo electric disc the resultant
deformation of the disc produces an electrical charge. Accelerometers have a
greater frequency range than velocity transducers and their lack of moving parts
makes them a much more stable and reliable means of collecting the basic vibration
signal.
Many different specifications for accelerometers and transducers are available and
some of the considerations which govern their choice are:-

(1) DYNAMIC RANGE. The amplitude range over which the device is required to
perform.
(2) SENSITIVITY. The severity of the vibration liable to be encountered.
(3) FREQUENCY RESPONSE. The full operating frequency range required.
(4) TEMPERATURE RANGE. The upper and lower temperature extremities to
which the device will be subjected and also any heat soak conditions.

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Peizo Electric Transducer.
Figure 6.24.

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Figure 6.24. shows a schematic diagram of a typical peizo electric accelerometer.
The top nut is torque loaded to give the correct starting datum on the peizo crystal.
When subjected to a force (caused by engine vibration) the piezo electric crystal
produces an electric charge on its opposite faces. The output is fed to a charge
amplifier, which produces the voltage required for the cockpit indicator or frequency
analyser. Most modern transducers employ a synthetic piezo electric such as lead
zirconate in preference to natural quartz crystal because of the higher sensitivity for
the same force. In many cases, however, the choice of transducer will be dictated by
the operating temperature. The maximum allowable temperature for transducers is
typically 260C so they have to be sited on fan casings or in the by-pass ducting.
Transducers may be fitted in more than one plane or more than one location. The
analyser can then be used to select a broadband or overall vibration measurement,
which will give a quick guide to the condition of the engine.
Vibration monitoring varies greatly from aircraft to aircraft. The operators
requirements and the technology of the aircraft will dictate the equipment fitted.
Large commercial aircraft will have fitted a flight deck indication of the vibration levels
of engine spools, N
1
, N
2
, N
3
. Their main function is to warn the crew of a malfunction,
ie. shed blade. The sensitivity of the vibration sensors may not be good enough for
detailed condition monitoring or fan balancing. Extra vibration sensors are fitted to
enable these functions to be carried. There are some modern aircraft, which will
carry as a permanent fixture, eg. equipment that can carry out all vibration analysis
requirement.

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7 EXHAUST
7.1 INTRODUCTION
Aero gas turbine engines have an exhaust system which passes the turbine
discharge gases to atmosphere at a velocity, and in the required direction, to provide
the resultant thrust. The velocity and pressure of the exhaust gases create the thrust
in the turbo-jet engine, but in the turbo-propeller engine only a small amount of thrust
is contributed by the exhaust gases, because most of the energy has been absorbed
by the turbine for driving the propeller. The design of the exhaust system therefore,
exerts a considerable influence on the performance of the engine. The areas of the
jet pipe and propelling or outlet nozzle affect the turbine entry temperature, the mass
airflow and the velocity and pressure of the exhaust jet.
The temperature of the gas entering the exhaust system is between 550 and 850
deg.C. according to the type of engine and with the use of afterburning can be 1,500
deg.C. or higher. Therefore, it is necessary to use materials and a form of
construction that will resist distortion and cracking, and prevent heat conduction to
the aircraft structure.

A basic exhaust system is shown in fig. 7.1. The use of a thrust reverser, noise
suppressor and a two position propelling nozzle entails a more complicated system
as shown in fig. 7.2. The low by-pass engine may also include a mixer unit to
encourage a thorough mixing of the hot and cold gas streams.
A Basic Exhaust System.
Figure 7.1.

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An Exhaust System with a Thrust Reverser and Variable area propelling nozzle.
Figure 7.2.

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7.2 EXHAUST GAS FLOW
Gas from the engine turbine enters the exhaust system at velocities from 750 to
1,200 feet per second but, because velocities of this order produce high friction
losses, the speed of flow is decreased by diffusion. This is accomplished by having
an increasing passage area between the exhaust cone and the outer wall as shown
in fig. 7.3. The cone also prevents the exhaust gases from flowing across the rear
face of the turbine disc. It is usual to hold the velocity at the exhaust unit outlet to a
Mach number of about 0.5, i.e. approximately 950 feet per second. Additional losses
occur due to the residual whirl velocity in the gas stream from the turbine. To reduce
these losses, the turbine rear struts in the exhaust unit are designed to straighten out
the flow before the gases pass into the jet pipe.

The exhaust gases pass to atmosphere through the propelling nozzle, which is a
convergent duct, thus increasing the gas velocity. In a turbo-jet engine, the exit
velocity of the exhaust gases is subsonic at low thrust conditions only. During most
operating conditions, the exit velocity reaches the speed of sound in relation to the
exhaust gas temperature and the propelling nozzle is then said to be 'choked'; that is,
no further increase in velocity can be obtained unless the temperature is increased.
As the upstream total pressure is increased above the value at which the propelling
nozzle becomes choked', the static pressure of the gases at the exit increases above
atmospheric pressure. This pressure difference across the propelling nozzle gives
what is known as 'pressure thrust' and is effective over the nozzle exit area. This is
additional thrust to that obtained due to the momentum change of the gas stream.
Exhaust Cone Detail
Figure 7.3.

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With the convergent type of
nozzle a wastage of energy
occurs, since the gases leaving
the exit do not expand rapidly
enough to immediately achieve
outside air pressure.
Depending on the aircraft flight
plan, some high pressure ratio
engines can with advantage
use a convergent-divergent
nozzle to recover some of the
wasted energy This nozzle
utilises the pressure energy to
obtain a further increase in gas
velocity and, consequently, an
increase in thrust.
From the illustration (fig. 7.4), it will be seen that the convergent section exit now
becomes the throat, with the exit proper now being at the end of the flared divergent
section. When the gas enters the convergent section of the nozzle, the gas velocity
increases with a corresponding fall in static pressure. The gas velocity at the throat
corresponds to the local sonic velocity. As the gas leaves the restriction of the throat
and flows into the divergent section, it progressively increases in velocity towards the
exit. The reaction to this further increase in momentum is a pressure force acting on
the inner wall of the nozzle. A component of this force acting parallel to the
longitudinal axis of the nozzle produces the further increase in thrust.
The propelling nozzle size is extremely important and must be designed to obtain the
correct balance of pressure, temperature and thrust. With a small nozzle these
values increase, but there is a possibility of the engine surging, whereas with a large
nozzle the values obtained are too low.
A fixed area propelling nozzle is only efficient over a narrow range of engine
operating conditions. To increase this range, a variable area nozzle may be used
(Fig. 7.2.). This type of nozzle is usually automatically controlled and is designed to
maintain the correct balance of pressure and temperature at all operating conditions.
In practice, this system is seldom used as the performance gain is offset by the
increase in weight. However, with afterburning a fully variable area nozzle is
necessary.
The by-pass engine has two gas streams to eject to atmosphere, the cool by-pass
airflow and the hot turbine discharge gases.
Gas Flow Through a Convergent Divergent Nozzle
Figure 7.4.

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In a low by-pass ratio engine, the two flows are combined by a mixer unit (fig. 7.5.)
which allows the by-pass air to flow into the turbine exhaust gas flow in a manner that
ensures thorough mixing of the two streams.

Low By-pass Mixer
Figure 7.5.

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In high by-pass ratio engines, the two streams are usually exhausted separately.
The hot and cold nozzles are co-axial and the area of each nozzle is designed to
obtain maximum efficiency. However, an improvement can be made by combining
the two gas flows within a common, or integrated, nozzle assembly. This partially
mixes the gas flows prior to its ejection to atmosphere. An example of both types of
high by-pass exhaust system is shown in fig. 7.6.

High By-pass Engine Exhaust Systems.
Figure 7.6.

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7.3 CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS
The exhaust system must be capable of withstanding the high gas temperatures and
is therefore manufactured from nickel or titanium. It is also necessary to prevent any
heat being transferred to the surrounding aircraft structure. This is achieved by
passing ventilating air around the jet pipe, or by lagging the section of the exhaust
system with an insulating blanket. Each blanket has an inner layer of fibrous
insulating material contained by an outer skin of thin stainless steel, which is dimpled
to increase its strength. in addition, acoustically absorbent materials are sometimes
applied to the exhaust system to reduce engine noise.
When the gas temperature is very high (for example, when afterburning is employed),
the complete jet pipe is usually of double-wall construction with an annular space
between the two walls. The hot gases leaving the propelling nozzle induce, by
ejector action, a flow of air through the annular space of the engine nacelle. This
flow of air cools the inner wall of the jet pipe and acts as an insulating blanket by
reducing the transfer of heat from the inner to the outer wall.
The cone and streamline fairings in the exhaust unit are subjected to the pressure of
the exhaust gases; therefore, to prevent any distortion, vent holes are provided to
obtain a pressure balance.
The mixer unit used in low by-pass ratio engines consists of a number of chutes
through which the by-pass air flows into the exhaust gases. A bonded honeycomb
structure is used for the integrated nozzle assembly of high by-pass ratio engines to
give lightweight strength to this large component.
Due to the wide variations of temperature to which the exhaust system is subjected, it
must be mounted and have its sections joined together in such a manner as to allow
for expansion and contraction without distortion or damage.

An Insulation Blanket
Figure 7.7

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7.4 NOISE REDUCTION
The problem of engine noise has always been associated with aircraft. Increases in
engine power have given rise to increases in noise and the indications are that the
increasing power trend will continue even more rapidly in future. High noise levels
are responsible for psychological and physiological damage to humans and can also
cause structural damage to aircraft; this has led to limits being set on maximum noise
levels of aircraft by airport authorities and it appears that these limitations will be
even more severe in future. The unit that is commonly used for measuring the noise
annoyance level is the perceived noise decibel (PNdB). A PNdB is a measure of
noise annoyance that take into account the pitch as well as the pressure (decibel) of
a sound.
The figure compares the noise level bands of various jet engine types (a busy
restaurant will be 75-80 PNdB).

7.4.1 SOURCES OF ENGINE NOISE
To understand the problem of engine noise suppression, it is necessary to have a
working knowledge of the noise sources and their relative importance. The noise
from the jet engine mainly originates from three sources:

a) Exhaust jet
b) Turbine
c) Compressor and/or front fan.

Comparative Noise Levels of Various Engine Types.
Figure 7.8.

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Exhaust Jet
J et noise is an externally generated source, which radiates in a rearward direction. It
is caused by the mixing process of the high-speed exhaust gases with the
surrounding air. In the mixing regions, a severe gradient of velocity exists normal to
the jet and due to the viscosity of the air, this gradient produces vortices and shear
forces which, in turn, produce quadrupole noise sources.

The noise produced by such a source will be proportional to p
2
V
je
8
, where p is the air
density and V
je
is the jet efflux velocity.
Noise Production in Sub & Super Sonic Air Flows.
Figure 7.9

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Turbine Noise
Noise from the turbine is made up from two sources:
a. White Noise. White, random or background noise is caused by the reaction of
each blade to the passage of air over its surface. There will always be noise from
eddy shedding in the blade wake reacting back on the blade and causing random
fluctuations over the blade surface (this source of noise may be likened to that
produced by opening the quarter-light window on a car). Random noise will also
be caused by turbulence in the air stream, which is sensed by the blade as a
change in incidence with corresponding lift fluctuations and hence noise.
b. Discrete Noise. Discrete noise is produced by the regular passage of rotating
blades through the wakes from the preceding stationary vanes. If the space
between vanes and blades is small, there is a cyclic interaction between pressure
field. This can be overcome to some extent by design, ie. increasing the space.
An additional source of discrete tones is caused by the rotating stage sensing
changes of incidence and hence lift pressure, passing through the wakes of the
upstream vanes.
Compressor and Fan Noise
Compressor noise whilst significant, was relatively small compared with the exhaust
noise generated by turbojet and low by-pass engines. However as fans have got
larger and by-pass ratios have increased the noise generated by the fan and
compressor may well exceed that produced by the exhaust.
Typical Quadrupole Noise Sources.
Figure 7.10.

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Resultant Engine Noise
Noise from an engine is the combination of noises produced by the compressor, the
turbine and the nozzle. With the low by-pass engine, the exhaust noise level drops
as the velocity of the exhaust gases is reduced and the turbine noise level drops as
LP turbine mass flows and velocities are relatively reduced; but LP compressor noise
becomes significant over a wider range of thrust. As the by-pass ratio is increased,
the exhaust jet and turbine noise levels continue to drop and the LP compressor (fan)
noise level continues to rise. This trend continues until the exhaust jet noise level is
less than the turbine noise level and the fan noise reaches a level comparable with
exhaust jet of a pure jet engine. There will be no such increase in the fan noise if a
single-stage fan without IGVs is aerodynamically suitable; instead, a significant
decrease to a level comparable to the turbine noise will occur, as illustrated in the
figure 7.12. This is because the more powerful elements of discrete tone and
background noise are obviated.

Noise Suppression
It has been seen that the first step towards noise suppression is at the design stage
of the rotating and static parts of the engine. Thereafter, further reduction in the
noise level emanating from a particular engine may be achieved by the incorporation
of special materials and innovations during its construction. These additional
methods of noise suppression are briefly described as:
a) Absorption by acoustic linings.
b) Turbine, compressor and fan noise alleviated by control of nozzle area and
shape.
Comparison of Noise Sources of Low and High By-pass Engines.
Figure 7.12.

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c) Reduction of exhaust jet noise by mixing.
d) Fan duct cowling design
Acoustic Linings
One method of suppressing the noise from the fan stage of a high by-pass ratio
engine is to incorporate a noise absorbent liner around the inside wall of the by-pass
duct. The lining comprises a porous face-sheet, which acts as a resistor to the
motion of the sound waves and is placed in a position such that it senses the
maximum particle displacement in the progression of the wave. The depth of the
cavity between absorber and solid backing is the tuning device, which suppresses
the appropriate part of the noise spectrum. The figure shows two types of noise
absorbent line; the figure shows the location of a liner to suppress fan noise from a
high by-pass ratio engine and also the use of a liner to suppress the noise from the
engine core. The disadvantage of using liners for reducing noise are the addition of
weight and the increase in specific fuel consumption caused by increasing the friction
of the duct walls.

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Noise Absorbing Materials and Location.
Figure 7.13

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Nozzle Area and Shape Control
In a high by-pass ratio engine with a single-stage fan without inlet guide vanes, the
predominant sources governing the overall noise level are the fan and turbine. If the
fan speed can be reduced without loss of thrust, then the engine noise level would be
reduced. At conditions below maximum thrust, the multi-spool engine enables this to
be accomplished by using a variable area nozzle to mechanically reduce the area of
the hot stream final nozzle. This causes the speed of the LP turbine and its
associated compressor spool to be reduced, producing a corresponding reduction in
fan and turbine noise levels. However, the velocity of the hot stream will increase,
producing a corresponding rise in exhaust jet noise. If the final nozzle area is
reduced until the noise level of the fan, turbine and exhaust are of the same order,
the optimum mean noise level for the engine will have been achieved. This normally
occurs when the area of the hot stream final nozzle is reduced by approx. 50%. At
the optimum nozzle area, the noise radiated towards the ground can be further
reduced by a change in the geometrical shape of the nozzle.

Variable Area Nozzle
Figure 7.14.

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7.4.1.1 Exhaust Jet Mixing
Figure 7.12. shows that the noise from the exhaust jet is the main contributor to the
total noise generated by a low by-pass ratio turbo-fan. For a turbo-jet the noise from
the exhaust is an even greater contributor to the whole. Fortunately it is
comparatively easy to reduce the noise by increasing the mixture rate of the exhaust
gases with the atmosphere. This can be achieved by increasing the contact area of
the atmosphere with the gas stream by incorporating a corrugated or lobe-type
suppresser in the propelling nozzle.

The addition of a corrugate nozzle
gives the effect shown in figure 7.16.
In the corrugated nozzle, atmospheric
air flows down the outside corrugations
and into the exhaust jet to promote
rapid mixing. In the lobe-type nozzle,
the exhaust gases are divided to flow
through the lobes and a small central
nozzle. This forms a number of
separate exhaust jets which rapidly mix
with the air entrained by the
suppresser lobes. Deep corrugations
or lobes give a greater noise reduction,
but the penalties incurred limit the size
of the suppressers, eg. to achieve the
required nozzle area, the overall
diameter of the suppresser may have
to be so large that excessive drag
results.
A nozzle may be designed to give a
large reduction in noise level, but this
could incur a considerable weight
penalty due to the additional
strengthening required. A compromise
that gives a noticeable reduction in
noise level with the minimum sacrifice
of engine thrust or increase in weight
is, therefore, the designers aim.

Type of Noise Suppressor.
Figure 7.15.

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7.4.1.2 Recent Developments in Fan noise suppression
Rolls-Royce and GE are presently developing modified Trent and CF6 engines,
respectively, which aim to reduce noise by incorporating chevron/saw tooth profiles to
trailing edges of the fan and exhaust ducts. The manufacturers are also
implementing extended areas of acoustic nacelle lining. In the case of the Trent
proof of-concept study, the acoustic liner area is increased by 30 per cent to 95 sq ft.
Improved Mixing by Corrugated Nozzle.
Figure 7.16.

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The Rolls-Royce programme, in conjunction with Boeing, is already commencing test
flights of a modified Trent 800-powered B777-200ER as part of an overall effort to
comply with ICAO Stage IV and QC2 noise levels - a pressing requirement necessary
for future operations out of London's Heathrow airport. To this end, Rolls-Royce's
new technology may be applicable to B747s either on a retrofit or new-build basis,
and the team expects jet noise reductions of at least 3 EPNdB at ground level.
Moreover, the modified fan case is expected to confer fan-noise reductions of 1.2
EPNdB and 7 EPNdB from inside the cabin - particularly regarding the frequencies
which cause a "fan-buzz" signature. GE meanwhile, is also targeting future Airbus
and Boeing aircraft operations with its modified CF6 engine. This has been statically
tested in the autumn of 2002, with modified ducts and a new nozzle centrebody, for
applicability to existing A300/A310s.
According to GE, a peak jet noise reduction of 3.5dB is anticipated, while perceived
reductions are in the order of ldB. GE intends to implement the new configuration
into all its new-build CF6 engines from 2003. Like Rolls-Royce, GE is also targeting
its big-fan modifications in conjunction with Boeing to facilitate ICAO Stage IV/QC2
compliant B747 operations in the near future.

These serrated ducts will improve flow mixing and reduce noise on the Trent 800.
Figure 7.17.

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7.5 THRUST REVERSAL
7.5.1 INTRODUCTION
Thrust reversal is a means of reducing the landing run of an aircraft without
excessive use of wheel brakes or the use of braking parachutes. On a propeller
driven aircraft (piston and turbo prop), reverse thrust can be obtained by reversing
the pitch of the propellers. On a pure turbo-jet this is not possible and the only simple
and effective way of slowing the aircraft down quickly is to reverse the power as a
deceleration force. This method is much safer than wheel brakes when landing on
ice or snow covered runways. It can on some aircraft also be used to reduce speed
in flight thus allowing a rapid rate of descent without an air brake system. The
difference in landing distances between the same aircraft without reverse thrust and
using reverse, is shown.

7.5.2 REQUIREMENT FOR THRUST REVERSAL
To obtain reverse thrust, the jet efflux must be given a forward component of velocity.
The mechanism to achieve this should fulfil the following requirements:
a. A reasonable amount of thrust (50% of take-off thrust would be adequate) should
be available in the reverse direction.
b. The reverser should not affect the normal working of the engine and there should
be no appreciable loss of thrust or increase in specific fuel consumption (SFC).
c. When in use, the reverser should not cause debris or excessive amounts of hot
air to enter the intake.
d. The discharged hot gases should not impinge on parts of the aircraft (eg.
nacelles, tyres, landing flaps, cabin windows, etc.). Impingement of the turbulent
gas stream may cause damage by vibration as well as by heating.
e. Fire hazards must be avoided. Hydraulic and lubricating systems should not be
fitted near the jet pipe.
f. Weight, complexity and cost must be kept to a minimum.

Effect of Thrust Reverse on Landing Run
Figure 7.18.

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g. The reverser must not operate until required to do so. It is necessary to ensure
that:
1. Accidental selection of reverse thrust is impossible.
2. No single failure in the operating system selects reverse thrust.
3. The thrust changing elements are biased away from the reverse thrust
position.
7.5.3 LAYOUT AND OPERATION OF TYPICAL THRUST REVERSING SYSTEMS
Clamshell door system
The clamshell door system is a pneumatically operated system, as shown in detail in
fig. 7.19. Normal engine operation is not affected by the system, because the ducts
through which the exhaust gases are deflected remain closed by the doors until
reverse thrust is selected by the pilot.
On the selection of reverse thrust, the doors rotate to uncover the ducts and close the
normal gas stream exit. Cascade vanes then direct the gas stream in a forward
direction so that the jet thrust opposes the aircraft motion.
The clamshell doors are operated by pneumatic rams through levers that give the
maximum load to the doors in the forward thrust position; this ensures effective
sealing at the door edges, so preventing gas leakage. The door bearings and
operating linkage operate without lubrication at temperatures of up to 600 deg.C.

Bucket target system
The bucket target system is hydraulically actuated and uses bucket-type doors to
reverse the hot gas stream. The thrust reverser doors are actuated by means of a
conventional pushrod system. A single hydraulic powered actuator is connected to a
drive idler, actuating the doors through a pair of pushrods (one for each door).
The reverser doors are kept in through the drive idler. The hydraulic actuator
incorporates a mechanical lock in the stowed (actuator extended) position.
Clamshell Doors.
Figure 7.19.

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In the forward thrust mode (stowed) the thrust reverser doors form the convergent-
divergent final nozzle for the engine.

Cold stream reverser system
The cold stream reverser system can be actuated by an air motor, the output of
which is converted to mechanical movement by a series of flexible drives, gearboxes
and screwjacks, or by a system incorporating hydraulic rams.
When the engine is operating in forward thrust, the cold stream final nozzle is 'open'
because the cascade vanes are internally covered by the blocker doors (flaps) and
externally by the movable (translating) cowl; the latter item also serves to reduce
drag.
On selection of reverse thrust, the actuation system moves the translating cowl
rearwards and at the same time folds the blocker doors to blank off the cold stream
final nozzle, thus diverting the airflow through the cascade vanes.
Bucket Type Thrust Reverser.
Figure 7.20.

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7.5.3.1 Combination Reversers
Some engines are equipped with both cold and hot stream reversers, these have the
some benefits of both types as well as some of the disadvantages.

Cold Stream Reverser.
Figure 7.21.
Hot and Cold StreamReverser.
Figure 7.22.

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7.5.4 SAFETY FEATURES
Reverse thrust systems will have some of the following safety features incorporated:
a. Reverse thrust cannot be selected until the engine throttle is brought back
to idle.
b. A mechanical lock prevents doors moving from the forward thrust position
until reverse thrust is selected.
c. Acceleration in forward thrust can only be obtained when the reverse
thrust lever is de-selected and the doors are in the open position.
d. Acceleration in reverse thrust can only be obtained when the reverse
thrust lever is selected and the doors are in the closed position.
e. The aircraft has to be on the ground or very close to it before reverse
thrust selection is allowed (this does not apply to aircraft that use reverse
thrust as an airbrake in flight).
On the cold stream reverser/hot stream spoiler system, a mechanical interlock
prevents reverse thrust being selected except when the throttle lever is at the idle
position. After selection, acceleration of the engine to give reverse thrust is
prevented until the translating cowl has moved rearwards. When the cowl has
moved into position, a mechanical feedback from the cowl screw-jack unlocks the
throttle control.
7.5.5 CFM 56 THRUST REVERSER FOR BOEING 737-300
The 737-300 is equipped with electrically controlled, hydraulically powered, fan only
thrust reversers. The thrust reversers are interchangeable between the two engines
except for the cascade basket assemblies and the strikers which deflect the Krueger
flaps when the fan cowl translates aft.
Boeing 737-300 Thrust Reverser in Stowed and Deployed Positions.
Figure 7.23

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Reverser actuation is controlled by a control valve module, located on the forward
bulkhead of each air-conditioning bay. This module contains two control valves
(isolation and direction) and a manually operated (pinnable) maintenance shut-off
valve. The control valves are operated by solenoids which are actuated by the thrust
lever switches.
Operation of the Blocker Doors.
Figure 7. 24.
Reverser Control Valve Module.
Figure 7.25.

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The thrust reverser hydraulic system is only pressurised when thrust reverser
actuation is required, or when required to resist motion from the stow commanded
position.

Application of hydraulic power to the reversers by operation of the reverse thrust
levers is prevented unless the aeroplane is within 10 feet of the ground (radio
altimeter 1 or 2), or is on the ground (right-hand main gear oleo compressed). Pulling
an engine fire handle prevents the isolation valve from opening, or closes it if it is
already open. A high idle is maintained for 4 seconds after activation of the weight
on wheels switch in order to improve engine spool-up time in reverse.
Each thrust reverser is powered by a separate hydraulic system, with a standby
system available as an alternate source with a reduced deployment rate.
An automatic restow system activates an actuator stow force anytime the reverser is
sensed to be out of the stowed position during forward thrust operation.
Location of T/R Actuators and Synchronisation System.
Figure 7.26.

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Thrust Reverser Schematic.
Figure 7.27.

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A throttle interlock system restricts application of engine thrust when the reverser is
not in its commanded position and automatically reduces engine thrust if
uncommanded reverser translation occurs.
Amber lights on the centre panel identify when the reversers are in the unlocked
position.
A "fault light" for each reverser is located in the Engine Module on the aft overhead
panel. When this fault light is illuminated, the Master Caution is triggered after 12
seconds to indicate that a subsequent failure in the reverser system may cause
uncommanded reverser motion.

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Thrust Reverser Controls.
Figure 7.28.
A
B

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8 BEARINGS, SEALS AND GEARBOXES
8.1 BEARINGS
8.1.1 INTRODUCTION
A bearing is any surface that supports or is supported by another surface. Bearings
are designed to produce a minimum of friction and a maximum of wear resistance.
Bearings must reduce the friction of moving parts and also take thrust loads or a
combination of thrust and radial loads. Those which are designed primarily for
thrust loads are called thrust bearings. The ball bearings are used to provide the
thrust bearing as they can take both thrust and radial loads, and roller bearings are
used to support the shaft whilst allowing axial movement. They are sometimes
called expansion bearings.
8.1.2 BALL BEARINGS
A ball bearing consists of an inner race, an outer race and one or more sets of balls,
and a ball retainer or cage. The purpose of the retainer or cage is to prevent the
balls touching one another. Ball bearings are used for radial and thrust loads; a ball
bearing specially designed for thrust loads would have very deep grooves in the
races or be of the angular bearing type, these must always be fitted the correct way
round!
8.1.3 ROLLER BEARINGS
These bearings are manufactured in various shapes and sizes and will withstand
greater radial loads than ball bearings because of greater contact area. They allow
axial movement of the shaft, this is very useful in a gas turbine due to expansion of
the engine due to the heat it produces.
8.1.4 OTHER TYPES OF BEARINGS
It is rare to find taper roller or needle bearings used in gas turbine engines, however
some APUs use plain bearings to support the turbine end of the main shaft.

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Plain Roller Bearing
Figure 8.1.
Examples of Bearing Types.
Figure 8.2.

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8.2 BEARING CHAMBER OR SUMP
One or more bearings are contained within a bearing chamber or sump. The
chamber is sealed to prevent oil escaping into the engine and to prevent excessive
air getting into the oil.
8.2.1 LUBRICATION
The bearing chamber will have an oil feed which is sprayed on to the bearing to
lubricate and cool it.
On some engines, to minimise the effect of the dynamic loads transmitted from the
rotating assemblies to the bearing housings, a squeeze film' type of bearing is
used. They have a small clearance between the outer race of the bearing and
housing with the clearance being filled with pressurised oil. The oil film dampens
the radial motion of the rotating assembly and the dynamic loads transmitted to the
bearing housing thus reducing the vibration level of the engine and the possibility of
damage by fatigue.
The oil will return to the oil system from the bottom of the bearing chamber, either
by gravity or by suction from a scavenge pump.
8.2.2 SEALING
Bearing chambers are usually sealed using air. The internal cooling air within the
engine provides the air. Typical seals used are labyrinth, screw back and carbon
types. . All of these seals need a differential pressure between inside and outside
the bearing housing . Where pressure is available it is used, if the differential is too
low, it can be boosted by suction from a scavenge pump. Carbon seals require the
oil to be in contact with them to provide cooling for the seal.
To prevent excess pressure building up within the bearing chamber, it is usually
vented. This vent on some engines is taken to the oil tank to ensure that the whole
system is working against the same pressure, or it goes to the oil pressure regulator
to ensure that there is a constant pressure drop across the spray jets in the bearing
housings.
8.2.2.1 Labyrinth Seals
Labyrinth seals are constructed of metal non-rotating lands, which are secured to
various parts of the engine case and a series of cylindrical rotating knife-edge steps
that mate with the lands. With this type of seal, there are no contacting parts. A
precise clearance is designed into the seals to control the pressure, as the
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The labyrinth seal may be used in conjunction with an abradable coating on the
stationary member as shown in the figure 8.3.
8.2.3 THREAD SEALS
Thread seals or screw back seals work in the same way as labyrinth seals, with a
screw thread instead of the rings of a labyrinth seal. This means that any oil leakage
towards the air will be driven back by the thread. This type of seal is used with
other types of seal to reduce migration of oil to those seals.

Thread Seal
Figure 8.4.
Labyrinth Seal
Figure 8.3.

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8.2.4 CARBON SEAL
Another method of air sealing is achieved by using a carbon seal arrangement.
They are used on the rotating assembly of a gas turbine and protection of engine
drive components in accessory gearboxes.
Carbon seals are manufactured of a mixture of carbon and graphite powder,
bonded together with a viscous substance, such as coal tar. The carbon seal is
fixed and held against the rotating seal by springs. Both the rotating seal and the
carbon seals are machine ground and precision lapped to a micro finish.

8.2.5 SPRING RING SEAL
This type of seal would normally be used around a main bearing assembly within
the engine. It may be used in conjunction with a labyrinth or screw back type of
seal.

The ring seal is similar to a large stepped piston
ring; it is located on a rotating shaft. When the
shaft is stationary, the seal clamps tightly to the
shaft. As the shaft rotates, the spring ring can
expand slightly, under centrifugal force, when it
then forms an effective seal with the adjacent
stationary housing.

Carbon Seal.
Figure 8.5.
Ring Seal
Figure 8.6.

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8.2.6 HYDRAULIC SEAL
This type of seal may also be found protecting the bearings on the main rotating
assembly of an engine. It is fitted between the rotating shafts on a twin or triple
spool engine. A hydraulic seal would be used in conjunction with another type of
seal, as shown in figure 8.7.
The seal consists of a circular baffle ring mounted on a rotating shaft; the rim of this
ring sits in the centre of a circular depression in an outer rotating shaft. Oil from the
bearing will fill this depression and be held there by centrifugal force. This oil
reservoir will form a liquid seal with the rim of the rotating baffle ring. Any tendency
for the oil to leak across this seal will be counteracted by air leakage across a back-
up seal.

Hydraulic Seal
Figure 8.7.

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8.3 ACCESSORY DRIVE GEARBOXES
8.3.1 INTRODUCTION
Gearboxes provide the power for aircraft hydraulic, pneumatic and electrical
systems in addition to providing various pumps and control systems for efficient
engine operation. The high level of dependence upon these units requires an
extremely reliable drive system.
The drive for the gearbox is typically taken from a rotating engine shaft usually the
HP shaft, via an internal gearbox, to an external gearbox that provides a mount for
the accessories and distributes the appropriate geared drive to each accessory. A
starter may also be fitted to provide an input torque to the engine. An accessory
drive system on a high by-pass engine takes between 400 and 500 horsepower
from the engine.
8.3.2 INTERNAL GEARBOX
The location of the internal gearbox within the core of an engine is dictated by the
difficulties of bringing a driveshaft radially outwards and the space available within
the engine core.
Mechanical Arrangements of Accessory Drive Gearboxes.
Figure 8.8.

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Thermal fatigue and a reduction in engine performance, due to the radial driveshaft
disturbing the gasfiow, create greater problems within the turbine area than the
compressor area. For any given engine, which incorporates an axial-flow
compressor, the turbine area is smaller than that containing the compressor and
therefore makes it physically easier to mount the gearbox within the compressor
section. Centrifugal compressor engines can have limited available space, so the
internal gearbox may be located within a static nose cone or, in the case of a turbo-
propeller engine, behind the propeller reduction gear as shown in fig.8.8.
On multi-shaft engines, the choice of which
compressor shaft is used to drive the
internal gearbox is primarily dependent
upon the ease of engine starting. This is
achieved by rotating the compressor shaft,
usually via an input torque from the external
gearbox. In practice the high pressure
system is invariably rotated in order to
generate an airflow through the engine and
the high pressure compressor shaft is
therefore coupled to the internal gearbox.
To minimise unwanted movement between
the compressor shaft bevel gear and radial
driveshaft bevel gear, caused by axial
movement of the compressor shaft, the
drive is taken by one of three basic
methods (fig. 8.9.). The least number of
components is used when the compressor
shaft bevel gear is mounted as close to the
compressor shaft location bearing as
possible, but a small amount of movement
has to be accommodated within the
meshing of the bevel gears. Alternatively,
the compressor shaft bevel gear may be
mounted on a stub shaft that has its own
location bearing. The stub shaft is splined
onto the compressor shaft that allows axial
movement without affecting the bevel gear
mesh. A more complex system utilises an
idler gear that meshes with the compressor
shaft via straight spur gears,
accommodating the axial movement, and
drives the radial driveshaft via a bevel gear
arrangement. The latter method was widely
employed on early engines to overcome
gear engagement difficulties at high speed.
Types of Internal Gearbox
Figure 8.9.

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To spread the load of driving accessory units, some engines take a second drive
from the slower rotating low pressure shaft to a second external gearbox (fig.8.8.).
This also has the advantage of locating the accessory units in two groups, thus
overcoming the possibility of limited external space on the engine. When this
method is used, an attempt is made to group the accessory units specific to the
engine onto the high pressure system, since that is the first shaft to rotate, and the
aircraft accessory units are driven by the low pressure system. A typical internal
gearbox showing how both drives are taken is shown in fig.8.10. This method may
also be used to drive speed sensors and governors for the low pressure shaft.
An Internal Gearbox With an LP and HP Output.
Figure 8.10.

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8.3.3 RADIAL DRIVESHAFT
The purpose of a radial driveshaft is to transmit the drive from the internal gearbox
to an accessory unit or the external gearbox. It also serves to transmit the high
torque from the starter to rotate the high pressure system for engine starting
purposes. The driveshaft may be direct drive or via an intermediate gearbox.
To minimise the effect of the driveshaft passing through the compressor duct and
disrupting the airflow, it is housed within the compressor support structure. On by-
pass engines, the driveshaft is either housed in the outlet guide vanes or in a hollow
streamlined radial fairing across the low pressure compressor duct.
To reduce airflow disruption it is desirable to have the smallest driveshaft diameter
as possible. The smaller the diameter, the faster the shaft must rotate to provide
the same power. However, this raises the internal stress and gives greater dynamic
problems, which result in vibration. A long radial driveshaft usually requires a roller
bearing situated halfway along its length to give smooth running. This allows a
rotational speed of approximately 25,000 r.p.m. to be achieved with a shaft diameter
of less than 1.5 inch without encountering serious vibration problems.
8.3.4 DIRECT DRIVE
In some early engines, a radial driveshaft was used to drive each, or in some
instances a pair, of accessory units. Although this allowed each accessory unit to
be located in any desirable location around the engine and decreased the power
transmitted through individual gears, it necessitated a large internal gearbox.
Additionally, numerous radial driveshafts had to be incorporated within the design.
This led to an excessive amount of time required for disassembly and assembly of
the engine for maintenance purposes.
In some instances the direct drive method may be used in conjunction with the
external gearbox system when it is impractical to take a drive from a particular area
of the engine to the external gearbox. For example, figure8.8. shows a turbo-
propeller engine which requires accessories specific to the propeller reduction drive,
but has the external gearbox located away from this area to receive the drive from
the compressor shaft.

8.3.5 GEAR TRAIN DRIVE
When space permits, the drive may be taken to the external gearbox via a gear train
(fig.8.8). This involves the use of spur gears, sometimes incorporating a centrifugal
breather. However, it is rare to find this type of drive system in current use.
8.3.6 INTERMEDIATE GEARBOX
Intermediate gearboxes are employed when it is not possible to directly align the
radial driveshaft with the external gearbox. To overcome this problem an
intermediate gearbox is mounted on the high pressure compressor case and re-
directs the drive, through bevel gears, to the external gearbox. An example of this
layout is shown in fig.8.8.

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8.3.7 EXTERNAL GEARBOX
The external gearbox contains the drives for the accessories, the drive from the
starter and provides a mounting face for each accessory unit. Provision is also
made for hand turning the engine, via the gearbox, for maintenance purposes.
Fig.8.11. shows the accessory units that are typically found on an external gearbox.
An External Gearbox.
Figure 8.11.

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The overall layout of an external gearbox is dictated by a number of factors. To
reduce drag it is important to present a low frontal area to the airflow. Therefore the
gearbox is 'wrapped' around the engine. For maintenance purposes the gearbox is
generally located on the underside of the engine to allow ground crew to gain
access. However, helicopter installation design usually requires the gearbox to be
located on the top of the engine for ease of access.
The starter/driven gearshaft (fig.8.11.) roughly divides the external gearbox into two
sections. One section provides the drive for the accessories which require low
power whilst the other drives the high power accessories. This allows the small and
large gears to be grouped together independently and is an efficient method of
distributing the drive for the minimum weight.
If any accessory unit fails, and is prevented from rotating, it could cause further
failure in the external gearbox by shearing the teeth of the gear train. To prevent
secondary failure occurring a weak section is machined into the driveshafts, known
as a shear-neck', which is designed to fail and thus protect the other drives. This
feature is not included for primary engine accessory units, such as the oil pumps,
because these units are vital to the running of the engine and any failure would
necessitate immediate shutdown of the engine.
Since the starter provides the highest torque that the drive system encounters, it is
the basis of design. The starter is usually positioned to give the shortest drive line
to the engine core. This eliminates the necessity of strengthening the entire gear
train, which would increase the gearbox weight. However, when an auxiliary
gearbox is fitted the starter is moved along the gear train to allow the heavily loaded
auxiliary gearbox drive to pass through the external gearbox. This requires the spur
gears between the starter and starter/driven gearshaft to have a larger face width to
carry the load applied by the starter (fig.8.12.).
When drive is taken from two compressor shafts, two separate gearboxes are
required. These are mounted either side of the compressor case and are generally
known as the 'low speed' and 'high speed' external gearboxes.
8.3.8 AUXILIARY GEARBOX
An auxiliary gearbox is a convenient method of providing additional accessory
drives when the configuration of an engine and airframe does not allow enough
space to mount all of the accessory units on a single external gearbox.
A drive is taken from the external gearbox (fig.8.12.) to power the auxiliary gearbox,
which distributes the appropriate gear ratio drive to the accessories in the same
manner as the external gearbox.

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An External Gearbox with an Auxiliary Gearbox Drive.
Figure 8.12.

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8.3.9 CONSTRUCTION AND MATERIALS
Gears
The spur gears of the external or auxiliary gearbox gear train (figs.8.11. and 8.12.)
are mounted between bearings supported by the front and rear casings which are
bolted together. They transmit the drive to each accessory unit, which is normally
between 5000 and 6000 r.p.m. for the accessory units and approximately 20,000
r.p.m. for the centrifugal breather.
All gear meshes are designed with 'hunting tooth' ratios which ensure that each
tooth of a gear does not engage between the same set of opposing teeth on each
revolution. This spreads any wear evenly across all teeth.
Spiral (helical) bevel gears are used for the connection of shafts whose axes are at
an angle to one another but in the same plane. The majority of gears within a gear
train are of the straight spur gear type, those with the widest face carry the greatest
loads. For smoother running, helical gears are used but the resultant end thrust
caused by this gear tooth pattern must be catered for within the mounting of the
gear.
Gearbox sealing
Sealing of the accessory drive system is primarily concerned with preventing oil
loss. The internal gearbox has labyrinth seals where the static casing mates with
the rotating compressor shaft. For some of the accessories mounted on the
external gearbox, an air blown pressurised labyrinth seal is employed. This
prevents oil from the gearbox entering the accessory unit and also prevents
contamination of the gearbox, and hence engine, in the event of an accessory
failure. The use of an air blown seal results in a gearbox pressure of about 3 lbs.
per sq. in. above atmospheric pressure. To supplement a labyrinth seal, an 'oil
thrower ring' may be used. This involves the leakage oil running down the driving
shaft and being flung outwards by a flange on the rotating shaft. The oil is then
collected and returned to the gearbox.
Materials
To reduce weight, the lightest materials possible are used. The internal gearbox
casing is cast from aluminium but the low environmental temperatures that an
external gearbox is subjected to allows the use of magnesium castings which are
lighter still, The gears are manufactured from non-corrosion resistant steels for
strength and toughness. They are case hardened to give a very hard wear resistant
skin and feature accurately ground teeth for smooth gear meshing.

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9 LUBRICANTS AND FUEL
9.1 GAS TURBINE FUEL PROPERTIES AND SPECIFICATION
Introduction
In the earliest days of the gas turbine engine, kerosene was regarded as the most
suitable fuel. It commended itself on the grounds of availability, cost, calorific value,
burning characteristics and low fire hazard.
Other types of petroleum fuels are not suitable for use in gas turbines because of
the wide range of temperature and pressure over which combustion must occur and
the necessity of keeping the weight and volume to a minimum.
General Requirements
A gas turbine fuel should have the following qualities:
a) Ease of flow under all operating conditions.
b) Quick starting of the engine.
c) Complete combustion under all conditions.
d) A high calorific value.
e) Non-corrosive.
f) The by-products of combustion should have no harmful effect on the flame
tubes, turbine blades, etc.
g) Minimum fire hazards.
h) Provide lubrication of the moving parts of the fuel system.
i) The by-products of combustion should have minimal harmful effect on the
environment
9.2 FRACTIONAL DISTILLATION
This process is carried out in a fractionating column, which has a series of trays as
shown in the figure. The effect of the superheated steam on the heated crude
petroleum is to cause the lighter fractions to rise up the column. When rising, the
vapour cools and a certain amount condenses on each tray until the tray is full of
liquid to the overflow. Thus, each tray is a little cooler than the one below it, and
therefore, lighter and lighter fractions will be present on each tray, as the vapours
pass up the column. The temperature is controlled at the bottom of the column by
the temperature of the crude oil, and at the top of the column by taking a certain
amount of the product as it leaves, condensing it and pumping it back into the top of
the column. This is known as the reflux.
A certain amount of material will condense, which has a lower boiling point than the
bulk of the liquid on a particular tray. To enable separation of these fractions, the
liquid from a selected tray is drawn into a smaller auxiliary column, called a side-
stripper. Here it is treated with steam that causes the lightest fractions to vaporise
and pass along with the steam into the main column.

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Fractioning Tower.
Figure 9.1.

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The use of these side-strippers enables kerosene and gas oil to be obtained direct
from the plant. Lubricating oil distillate, if such is present, can usually be drawn
direct from a tray without the use of a side-stripper, while gasoline leaves the top of
the column as a vapour and must be cooled to condense it to liquid gasoline.
9.3 PROPERTIES
9.3.1 EASE OF FLOW
The ease of flow of a fuel is mainly a question of viscosity, but impurities such as
ice, dust, wax, etc., may cause blockages in filters and in the fuel system generally.
Most liquid petroleum fuels dissolve small quantities of water and if the temperature
of the fuel is reduced enough, water or ice crystals are deposited from the fuel.
Adequate filtration is therefore necessary in the fuel system. The filters may have to
be heated, or a fuel de-icing system fitted, to prevent ice crystals blocking the filters.
Solids may also be deposited from the fuel itself due to the solidification of waxes or
other high molecular weight hydrocarbons. Distillates heavier than kerosene, such
as gas oil, generally have a pour point temperature too high for use in aircraft
operating in low temperatures. If these fuels were to be used, some form of heating
in the aircrafts tanks and fuel system would be necessary. Such heating would
obviously be an unreasonable complication.
9.3.2 EASE OF STARTING
The speed and ease of starting of gas turbines depends on the ease of ignition of
an atomised spray of fuel. This ease of ignition depends on the quality of the fuel in
two ways:
a) The volatility of the fuel at starting temperatures.
b) The degree of atomisation, which depends on the viscosity of the fuel as well
as the design of the atomiser.
The viscosity of fuel is important because of its effect on the pattern of the liquid
spray from the burner orifice and because it has an important effect on the starting
process. Since the engine should be capable of starting readily under all conditions
of service, the atomised spray of fuel must be readily ignitable at low temperatures.
Ease of starting also depends on volatility, but in practice the viscosity is found to be
the more critical requirement. In general, the lower the viscosity and the higher the
volatility, the easier it is to achieve efficient atomisation.
9.3.3 COMPLETE COMBUSTION
The exact proportion of air to fuel required for complete combustion is called the
theoretical mixture and is expressed by weight. There are only small differences in
ignition limits for hydrocarbons, the rich limit in fuels of the kerosene range being
5:1 air/fuel ratio by weight and the weak limit about 25:1 by weight.
Flammable air/fuel ratios each have a characteristic rate of travel for the flame
which depends on the temperature, pressure and the shape of the combustion
chamber. Flame speeds of hydrocarbon fuels are very low and range from 0.3
0.6 m/sec. These low values necessitate the provision of a region of low air velocity
within the flame tube, in which a stable flame and continuous burning are ensured.

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Flame temperature does not appear to be directly influenced by the type of fuel,
except in a secondary manner as a result of carbon formation, or of poor
atomisation resulting from a localised over-rich mixture. The maximum flame
temperature for hydrocarbon fuels is roughly 2,000C. This temperature occurs at a
mixture strength slightly richer than the theoretical, owing to dissociation of the
molecular products of combustion, which occurs at the theoretical mixture.
Dissociation occurs above about 1,400C and reduces the energy available for
temperature rise.
The problem of the flame becoming extinguished in flight is not perfectly
understood, but it appears that the type of fuel is of relatively minor importance.
However, wide cut gasolines are more resistant to extinction than kerosene and
engines are easier to relight using wide cut fuel. This is due to the higher vapour
pressure of these fuels.
9.3.4 CALORIFIC VALUE
The calorific value is a measure of the heat potential of a fuel. It is of great
importance in the choice of fuel, because the primary purpose of the combustion
system is to provide the maximum amount of heat with the minimum expenditure of
fuel. The calorific value of liquid fuels is usually expressed in megajoules (MJ ) per
litre. When considering calorific value, it should be noted that there are two values
which can be quoted for every fuel, the gross value and the net value. The gross
value includes the latent heat of vaporisation and the net value excludes it. The net
value is the quantity generally used. The calorific value of petroleum fuels is related
to their specific gravity. With increasing specific gravity (heavier fuels) there is an
increase in calorific value per litre but a reduction in calorific value per kilogram.
Thus, for a given volume of fuel, kerosene gives an increased aircraft range when
compared with gasoline, but weighs more. If the limiting factor is the volume of the
fuel tank capacity, a high calorific value by volume is the more important.
9.3.5 CORROSIVE PROPERTIES
The tendency of a turbine fuel to corrode the aircrafts fuel system depends on two
factors:-
a) Water.
b) Other corrosive substances, notably sulphur compounds.
The water which causes corrosion is dissolved water. It leads to corrosion of the
fuel system, which is particularly important with regard to the sticking of sliding
parts, especially those with small clearances and only small or occasional
movement.
Corrosion can also be caused by secondary effects, such as biological corrosion
caused by plant spores, which are not killed off by the cracking process. Kerosene
and diesel suffer from this form of contamination.

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9.3.6 EFFECTS OF BY-PRODUCTS OF COMBUSTION
Carbon deposition in the combustion system indicates imperfect combustion and
may lead to:-
a) A lowering of the surface temperature on which it is deposited, resulting in
buckled flame tubes because of the thermal stresses set up by the
temperature differences.
b) Damage to turbine blades caused by lumps of carbon breaking off and striking
them.
c) Disruption of airflow through the turbine, creating turbulence, back-pressure
and possible choking of the turbine, resulting in loss of efficiency.
It appears that carbon deposition depends on the design of the combustion
chamber and the aromatic content of the fuel. (Aromatics are a series of
hydrocarbons based on the benzene ring). The higher the aromatic content, the
greater the carbon deposits.
Sulphur will affect the turbine. Every effort is made to keep the sulphur content as
low as possible in aviation turbine fuels. Unfortunately, removal of the sulphur
involves increased refining costs and decreased supplies and so some sulphur is
therefore permitted.
9.3.7 FIRE HAZARDS
There are three main sources of fire hazard; these arise from:-
a) Fuel spillage with subsequent ignition of the vapour from a spark, etc.
b) Fuel spillage on to a hot surface causing self-ignition.
c) The existence of inflammable or explosive mixtures in the aircraft fuel tanks.
The first hazard depends on the volatility of the fuel. The lower the flash point, the
greater the chance of fire through this cause. It is more difficult to ignite kerosene
than to ignite gasoline or wide cut fuel in this way.
The second hazard depends on the spontaneous ignition temperature of the fuel. In
this respect, gasoline has a slightly higher spontaneous ignition temperature than
kerosene, but if a fire does occur, the rate of spread is much slower in kerosene
owing to its lower volatility.
The third hazard depends upon the temperature and pressure in the tank and the
volatility of the fuel. For any fuel there are definite temperature limits within which a
flammable fuel vapour/air mixture will exist. If the temperature falls below the lower
limit, the mixture will be too weak to burn, while if the temperature rises above the
upper limit, the mixture is too rich to burn. At ground level the comparative
temperature limits of flammability for gasoline and kerosene is as follows:
a) Gasoline. Upper limit -10C. Lower limit -42C.
b) Kerosene. Upper limit +90C. Lower limit +43C.

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At higher altitudes the temperatures are somewhat lower. This information
indicates that explosive conditions in the vapour space will occur with the low
volatility turbine fuel under extremely hot weather conditions and with gasoline
under extremely low temperature conditions.
9.3.8 VAPOUR PRESSURE
The vapour pressure of a liquid is a measure of its tendency to evaporate. The
saturated vapour pressure (SVP) of a liquid (ie. the pressure exerted by vapour in
contact with the surface of the liquid) increases with increasing temperature. When
the SVP equals the pressure acting on the surface of the liquid, the liquid boils.
Thus, the boiling point of a liquid depends on a combination of SVP, the pressure
acting on its surface and its temperature.
9.3.9 FUEL BOILING AND EVAPORATION LOSSES
At high rates of climb, fuel boiling and evaporation is a problem which is not easily
overcome. A low rate of climb permits the fuel in the tanks to cool and thus reduce
its vapour pressure as the atmospheric pressure falls off. However, the rate of
climb of many aircraft is so high that the fuel retains its ground temperatures, so that
on reaching a certain altitude the fuel begins to boil. In practice this boiling has
proved to be so violent that the loss is not confined to vapour alone. Layers of
bubbles form and are swept through the tank vents with the vapour stream. This
loss is analogous to a saucepan boiling over and is sometimes referred to as
slugging.
The amount of fuel lost from evaporation depends on several factors:
a) Vapour pressure of the fuel.
b) Fuel temperature on take-off.
c) Rate of climb.
d) Final altitude of the aircraft.
Fuel losses as high as 20% of the tank contents have been recorded through boiling
and evaporation.
9.3.10 METHODS OF REDUCING OR ELIMINATING FUEL LOSSES
Possible methods of reducing or eliminating losses by evaporation are:
a. Reduction of the rate of climb.
b. Ground cooling of the fuel.
c. Flight cooling of the fuel.
d. Recovery of liquid fuel and vapour in flight.
e. Re-design of the fuel tank vent system.
f. Pressurisation of the fuel tanks.

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Reduction of the Rate of Climb
Reducing the rate of climb imposes an unacceptable restriction on the aircraft and
does not solve the problem of evaporation loss. This method is, therefore, not
used.
Ground Cooling of the Fuel
This is not considered a practical solution, but in hot climates every effort should be
made to shade refuelling vehicles and the tanks of parked aircraft.
Flight Cooling of the Fuel
The use of a heat exchanger, through which the fuel is circulated to reduce the
temperature sufficiently to prevent boiling, is possible. High rates of climb, however,
would not allow enough time to cool the fuel without the aid of heavy or bulky
equipment. At a high true airspeed speeds TAS, the rise in airframe temperature
due to skin friction increases the difficulty of using this method. On small high-
speed aircraft the weight and bulk of the coolers becomes prohibitive.
Recovery of Liquid Fuel in Flight
This method would probably entail bulky equipment and therefore is unacceptable.
Another method would be to convey the vapour to the engines and burn it to
produce thrust, but the complications of so doing would entail severe problems.
Redesign of the Fuel Tank Vent System
The loss of liquid fuel could be largely eliminated by redesigning the vents, but the
evaporative losses would remain. However, improved venting systems may well
provide a more complete solution to the problem.
Pressurisation of the Fuel Tanks
There are two ways in which fuel tanks can be pressurised:
a. Complete Pressurisation. Keeping the absolute pressure in the tanks greater
than the vapour pressure at the maximum fuel temperature likely to be
encountered eliminates all losses. However, this means that with gasoline type
fuels, a pressure of about 8 psi absolute would have to be maintained at altitude
and the tank would be subjected to a pressure differential of 6.5 psi at 50,000
feet. The disadvantage is that this would involve stronger and heavier tanks
and a strengthened structure to hold the tanks.
b. Partial Pressurisation. This prevents all liquid loss and reduces the evaporative
loss. It involves strengthening the tanks and structure and the fitting of relief
valves.

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9.3.11 FUEL ADDITIVES
Additives are added to fuel to improve its characteristics.
Lubricity Additive. This is added to the fuel to reduce wear in fuel pumps, FCUs
etc. when the fuel does not have sufficient lubricating properties of its own.
Ice Inhibitor. Added to fuel to reduce/prevent ice crystals forming in the fuel and
subsequently blocking fuel filters. This additive may also have biocide properties.
Biocide. This is added to the fuel to prevent microbiological growth at the margins
of free water within the aircraft fuel tanks. It can also be used as a shock treatment
if contamination is suspected or as a preventative measure.

9.3.12 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
All fuel will burn!
Wide cut fuel is easier to ignite than kerosene.
Strict No Smoking areas should be established around aircraft when any fuel
system components are removed or fuel tanks are opened. This is important during
refuelling and tank venting as fuel vapour present in the vent gasses produce an
extremely explosive mixture.
Fuel produces a very high static charge when flowing through pipes and meticulous
care must be taken with bonding or grounding of pipes etc. The charge built up is
dependant on flow rate, which is exceptionally high during refuel. Care must be
taken when draining fuel from a component, as there is a chance of a static
discharge occurring. Fuel soaked clothing is a great fire risk as the vapours given
off are combustible.
Fuel can also cause serious damage to the body. It degreases the skin which can
cause dermatitis; the additives can increase the damage. Fuel also attacks sensitive
areas of skin causing fuel burns (chemical burn) which can be extremely
uncomfortable and may require hospitalisation. The chance of fuel burns to the skin
is also increased if clothing becomes soaked, because of the proximity and rubbing
action. Wash hands prior to going to the toilet. Eye protection may be required when
entering systems that may contain fuel or fuel vapours. Avoid touching around your
eyes if fuel is on your hands, you will only do it once!
Fuel can be harmful if ingested, therefore hands should be thoroughly washed prior
to eating.
Spilt fuel on the floor or aircraft skin is very slippery and can even melt the soles of
some types of shoe. Spills should be mopped up and disposed of in accordance
with company procedures. Fuel spills should not be washed into domestic drains or
sewers Spills to grass areas where as there is a chance of the fuel entering and
polluting the water table below ground must be reported.

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9.4 GAS TURBINE OIL PROPERTIES AND SPECIFICATIONS
Introduction
There are two basic types of lubrication, they are Hydrodynamic (or film) lubrication,
where the surfaces concerned are separated by a substantial quantity of oil, and
Boundary lubrication, where the oil film may be only a few molecules thick. Before
describing the types of lubrication in depth, it is necessary to explain viscosity.
9.4.1 VISCOSITY
The coefficient of viscosity, also known as dynamic viscosity, is a measure of the
internal resistance of a fluid to relative movement, ie. its thickness, or film strength.
Viscosity decreases with increase of temperature, the rate depending on the
particular fluid considered. It is important for a lubricating oil that this rate of change
of viscosity is predictable and is as small as possible. The viscosity index (VI) is an
empirical number devised to indicate this change of viscosity with temperature, so
than an oil with a high VI is preferable to one with a low VI.
9.4.2 HYDRO-DYNAMICS OR FLUID FILM LUBRICATION
Fluid film lubrication is the most common form of lubrication. It occurs when the
rubbing surfaces are copiously supplied with oil and there is a relatively thick layer
of oil between the surfaces (may be up to 100,000 oil molecules thick). The oil has
the effect of keeping the two surfaces apart. Under these conditions the coefficient
of friction is very small and may be as low as 0.001.
The lubrication of a simple bearing (such as supports a rotating shaft) is a good
example of fluid film lubrication (see figure 9.2.). The rotating shaft carries oil
around with it by adhesion and successive layers of oil are carried along by fluid
friction. As the shaft rotates it moves off-centre resulting in a narrow wedge of oil
within which the pressure increases as the wedge narrows. For efficient lubrication
this wedge, and the resulting increase of pressure, is essential as this keeps the
surfaces apart. If this steady pressure increase breaks down, efficient film
lubrication ceases and boundary lubrication occurs.
Lubrication of a Simple Bearing.
Figure 9.2.

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In film lubrication, viscosity is the important factor because it controls the ability of
the oil to keep the surfaces apart. A shaft revolving at high speed in a bearing must
be free to carry oil round with it, with as little drag as possible. The rapid movement
of one layer of oil slipping over another, with minimum drag, can only be achieved
with a low viscosity oil. As the rotational speed decreases, the rate of deformation
of the oil decreases, therefore the drag decreases and consequently an oil of higher
viscosity may be needed if it is to be successfully carried round the bearing.
The running temperature of the bearing is equally as important as the speed of
rotation, as it controls the viscosity of the oil to be used. Bearing temperatures may
vary, hence the need for oils with high VIs.
9.4.3 BOUNDARY LUBRICATION
If a shaft carries an appreciable load and rotates very slowly it will not carry round
sufficient oil to give a continuous film and boundary lubrication will occur in which
the friction is many times greater than in fluid film lubrication.
Boundary lubrication is said to exist when the oil film is exceedingly thin and may
only consist of a very few layers of molecules. It occurs due to high bearing loads,
inadequate viscosity (possibly due to excessive bearing temperatures), oil
starvation or loss of oil pressure. The friction is independent of the viscosity of the
oil, but depends on the load and the oiliness of the lubricant. When a lubricating
oil reduces the friction in a bearing to a lower value than that given by another
lubricant of the same viscosity at the same bearing temperature, it is said to have a
greater oiliness. It is thought that the reduction in friction is achieved by the fatty
acids in the oil combining chemically with the bearing metal to form a soap which
gives a boundary layer between the thin oil film and the bearing material to protect
the metals from welding together.
Boundary lubrication is not a desirable phase of lubrication as rupture of the thin film
means wear, a very high surface temperature and possible seizure; therefore
lubrication is designed to be hydro-dynamic if possible. However, boundary
lubrication often occurs during starting conditions and may occur in piston engines
at the end of reciprocating strokes. There is no precise division between boundary
and fluid film lubrication although each is quite distinct in the way in which
lubrication is achieved. In practice both forms occur at some time giving mixed film
lubrication.
9.5 LUBRICATING OILS
General
Viscosity and VI are the factors which decide the lubricant for a particular purpose.
The desirable viscosity for a given purpose is decided by bearing loads and
clearances, sliding speeds, oil pump capacity, operating temperatures, etc.
Therefore, in a lubricating oil specification, the desired viscosity is specified,
together with VI and other safeguards to prevent the use of oil, which would
deteriorate excessively or corrode the engine. Special engine tests are also carried
out in test engines for each main batch of lubricating oil.

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Extreme Pressure Lubricants
Extreme pressure lubricants are designed to work under boundary lubrication
conditions. Certain chemicals known as extreme pressure (EP) additives (eg.
sulphur, chlorine) give the lubricant the necessary quality. They appear to work in
the same way as fatty acids, in that they combine chemically with the surface of the
bearing metals.
Additives
Additives are substances added in small quantities to a lubricating oil to give it more
desirable properties.
Additives to lubricating oils are of the following main types:-
h. Extreme Pressure, as discussed. They are not in general use except in certain
helicopter applications.
i. Anti-corrosion, which is used to protect some part of the engine.
j. Detergents, which are used in piston engine oils to keep the engine clean.
k. Viscosity Index improvers, which make the VI as large as possible.
l. Pour Point Depressants, that permit oils to flow at lower temperatures than they
were previously able.
m. Anti-foaming additives, that minimise foaming by increasing the surface tension
of the oil.
n. Anti-oxidants, which may be used to reduce the breakdown of the oil due to
oxidation.
9.6 TURBINE OILS
Introduction
For lubrication of a high-speed turbine shaft running in contact bearings, an oil with
good boundary lubrication properties and low viscosity is required. Because of the
small amount of oil in circulation and the high bearing temperatures, good
resistance to oxidation is essential.
The earliest gas turbine engines were developed using straight mineral oils, but the
operational requirements for low temperatures either on the ground or at a high
altitude, led to the development of a range of straight mineral oils with viscositys far
lower than those of conventional aircraft engine oil of that time. Mineral turbine oils
are very rarely used now.

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9.6.1 FIRST GENERATION SYNTHETIC OILS
With the progressive development of the gas turbine engine to provide a higher
thrust and compression ratio, mineral oils were found to lack stability and to suffer
from excessive volatility and thermal degradation at the higher temperatures to
which they were subjected. At this stage, a revolutionary rather than evolutionary
oil development took place concurrently with engine development; lubricating oils
derived by synthesis from naturally occurring organic products found an application
in gas turbine engines. The first generation of synthetic oils were based on the
esters of sebacic acid, principally dioctyl sebacate. As a class these materials
exhibited outstanding properties which made them very suitable as the basis for gas
turbine lubricants.
Unlike straight mineral oils, the synthetic oils relied on additives (and in later
formulations on multi-component additive packages) to raise their performance.
This was particularly necessary to improve resistance to oxidation and thermal
degradation (important properties which govern long term engine cleanliness).
9.6.2 SECOND GENERATION SYNTHETIC OILS
The introduction of the by-pass or turbo-fan engine raised further problems; in this
engine the by-pass air acts as an insulating blanket and increases heat rejection to
the lubricant. Therefore the requirement arose for an oil with an even greater
resistance to thermal and oxidative stress. Several synthetic oils which meet this
requirement have been developed. Known as Type 2 lubricants, they are blended
from more complex esters and an additive package consisting of anti-oxidants,
load-carrying additives, corrosion inhibitors, metal deactivators and foam inhibitors.
9.6.3 THIRD GENERATION SYNTHETIC OILS
Sustained flight at speeds in excess of Mach 1 aggravates the lubricant problem still
further as the kinetic heating of the fuel reduces the effectiveness of fuel-cooled oil
coolers. At Mach 2, oil temperatures may reach 260 - 316C, at which level
standard ester-based oils degrade rapidly. In some military aircraft, Type 1 and
Type 2 ester oils are still used under these conditions, but at greatly increased oil
change frequencies. This procedure is expensive to operate as ideally the oil
should remain in the engine for full engine life, with only periodic replenishment.
More complex chemicals have been discovered which are more thermally stable
than esters. However, they have various deficiencies such as poor low temperature
properties or poor steel-on-steel lubricity. All are more expensive than esters.
High temperature lubricants blended from specially developed ester oils, with new
additives to limit oxidation degradation and corrosiveness and of increased load
carrying ability, appear to offer the most practical solution for lubricating the jet
engines in commercial supersonic transport (SST) aircraft. Many firms have been
active in developing lubricants of this type and, after many submissions, two
lubricants have been adopted for the Olympus 593 engines which power the BAC-
Aerospatiale Concorde.

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9.6.4 SAFETY PRECAUTIONS
There is much less risk of fire with oil, however it will burn if the conditions are right.
The main risk with oil is to the body; prolonged contact with oil can cause dermatitis
and/or cancer. The use of barrier cream and gloves cannot be overstated. Washing
of hands before going to the toilet or eating is important, as is the reapplication of
protection afterwards.
Oil spills should be cleaned up as soon as possible and waste disposed of in
accordance with company procedures.

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Intentionally Blank

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10 LUBRICATION SYSTEMS
10.1 INTRODUCTION
There is always friction when two surfaces are in contact and moving, for even
apparently smooth surfaces have small undulations, minute projections and
depressions and actually touch at only a comparatively few points. Motion makes
the small projections catch on each other and, even at low speeds when the surface
as a whole is cool, intense local heat may develop leading to localised welding and
subsequent damage as the two surfaces are torn apart. At higher speeds and over
longer periods, intense heat may develop and cause expansion and subsequent
deformation of the entire surface; in extreme cases large areas may be melted by
the heat, causing the metal surfaces to weld together.
The gas turbine engine is designed to function over a wider environment and under
different operating conditions from its piston engine equivalent and therefore special
lubricants have been developed to cope with the following main problems:
a. High rpm compared with piston engines.
b. Cold starting in winter can mean initial bearing temperatures of -54C which
rapidly increases after starting to 232C. Therefore a good viscosity index and
adequate cooling are required.
On the other hand, the following advantages can be claimed for the gas turbine:
a. There are fewer bearings and gear trains.
b. Oil does not lubricate any parts directly heated by combustion and therefore oil
consumption is low.
c. There are no reciprocating loads.
d. Bearings are generally of the rolling contact type and therefore only low oil
pressures are needed (40 psi is normal).
Turbo-prop engine lubrication requirements are more severe than those of a turbo-
jet engine because of the heavily loaded reduction gears and the need for a high-
pressure oil supply to operate the propeller pitch control mechanisms. (For
example, a twin relief valve in the Dart provides 35 psi for engine lubrication and 70
psi, which is fed to the propeller controller and boosted by a further pump to a
pressure of 600 psi).
10.2 BEARINGS
The early gas turbines employed pressure lubricated plain bearings but it was soon
realised that friction losses were too high and that the provision of adequate
lubrication of these bearings over the wide range of temperatures and loads
encountered was more difficult than for piston engine bearings.
As a result, plain bearings were abandoned in favour of the rolling contact type as
the latter offered the following advantages:
a Lower friction at starting and low rpm.
b Less susceptibility to momentary cessation of oil flow.

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c The cooling problem is eased because less heat is generated at high rpm.
d The rotor can be easily aligned.
e The bearings can be made fairly small and compact.
f The bearings are relatively lightly loaded because of the absence of power
impulses.
g Oil of low viscosity may be used to maintain flow under a wide range of
conditions and no oil dilution or pre-heating is necessary.
The main bearings are those which support the turbine and compressor assemblies.
In the simplest case (a single spool engine), these usually consist of a roller bearing
at the front of the compressor and another in front of the turbine assembly, with a
ball bearing behind the compressor to take the axial thrust on the main shaft.
Squeeze film main bearings have been introduced to reduce transfer of rotor
vibration to the aircraft. In this type of bearing pressure oil is fed to a small annular
space between the bearing outer track and the housing. Figure 10.1. shows that the
bearing will therefore float in pressure oil, which will damp out much of the
vibration. Squeeze film bearings are fitted to the Spey and all subsequent aero
engines produced by Rolls-Royce (1971) Ltd. They have also been fitted
retrospectively to existing engines. In addition to the main bearings, lubrication will
also be required for the wheelcase, tacho-generator, CSDU, alternator, starter and
fuel pump drives.

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Squeeze Film Bearing.
Figure 10.1.

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Single Spool
Twin Spool Turboprop Engine.
Bearing Location Comparison.
Figure 10.2.

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10.3 ENGINE LUBRICATION SYSTEMS
There are basically two types of lubrication system at present in use in gas turbine
engines:-
a) Recirculatory. In this system, oil is distributed and returned to the oil tank by
pumps. There are two types of recirculatory system:-
(i) Pressure relief valve system.
(ii) Full flow system.
b) Expendable. The expendable or total loss system is used on some small
turbo-jet engines, eg. RB 162 in which the oil is spilled overboard after
lubricating the engine.
10.3.1 PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE RE-CIRCULATORY SYSTEM
In the pressure relief valve type of recirculatory lubrication system the flow of oil to
the various bearings is controlled by a relief valve which limits the maximum
pressure in the feed line. As the oil pump is directly driven by the engine (by the HP
spool in the case of a multi-spool engine), the pressure will rise with spool speed.
Above a pre-determined speed the feed oil pressure opens the system relief valve
allowing excess oil to spill back to the tank, thus ensuring a constant oil pressure at
the higher engine speeds.
A typical relief valve type of recirculatory lubrication is shown in the figure 10.3.
The oil system for a typical turbo-prop engine is similar but, as it supplies the
propeller control system, it is more complicated. The oil supply is usually contained
in a combined tank and sump formed as part of the external wheelcase. Oil passes
via the suction filter to the pressure pump, which pumps it through the air-cooled oil
cooler to the pressure filter. A pressure regulating valve upstream of the filter
controls the oil pressure. Both oil pressure and temperature indications are
transmitted to the cockpit. The oil flows through pipes and passages to lubricate the
main shaft bearings and wheelcases. The main shaft bearings are normally
lubricated by oil jets and some of the heavier loaded gears in the wheelcases are
also provided with oil jets, while the remaining gears and bearings receive splash
lubrication.
An additional relief valve is fitted across the pump in the lubrication system of some
engines to return oil to pump inlet if the system becomes blocked.

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A Pressure Relief Valve Lubrication System for a Two Shaft Turbojet.
Figure 10.3.

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A Turboprop Full Flow Oil System.
Figure 10.4.

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10.3.2 RECIRCULATORY OIL SYSTEM FULL FLOW TYPE
The full flow lubrication system is an alternative to the pressure relief valve oil
system and full flow systems are in use as a means of lubricating many modern
high power gas turbine engines.
The full flow system is similar in many ways to the pressure relief system just
discussed i.e. oil is drawn from a tank by a pump and delivered, via a pressure
filter, to various parts of the engine; the oil is then returned by scavenge pumps, via
the oil cooler to the tank; also, air is separated from the oil by a de-aerator and
centrifugal breather.
The major differences from the pressure relief type of recirculatory system are as
follows:-
- The flow of oil to the bearings is determined by the speed of the pressure pump,
the size of the oil jets and the pressure in each of the bearing housings.
- A metered spill of feed oils is fed back to the tank. This spill is calibrated to
match the pump output to ensure that the oil flow to the bearings, via the oil jets,
is the same at all engine speeds.
- The relief valve in this system is set to prevent excessive oil pressure in the feed
side of the system.
- A filter by-pass is not normally fitted. The pressure drop across the filter is
sensed by a differential pressure switch, any increase in the pressure difference
being indicated to give advance warning of a blocked filter.
10.3.3 ADVANTAGES OF FULL FLOW LUBRICATION
The advantages of full flow lubrication are those of suitable oil flow and oil pressure
at all engine speeds. A study of the graph will reveal a difference in oil pressure
between the pressure relief system and the full flow system and, it will also show
that the pressure difference continues throughout the speed range of the engines,
with a crossover point at cruising speed. The relief valve system provides too much
oil pressure at idle rev/min, but because of the relief valve, the oil pressure is below
optimum at maximum engine speed. In contrast the pressure provided by the oil
pump of a full flow system rises progressively with increased engine speed and is
nearer to the optimum value throughout the rev/min range of the engine.
Comparison of Full Flow and Relief Valve Systems. Figure 10.5.

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Full Flow Oil System ( RR Gem).
Figure 10.6.

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10.3.4 EXPENDABLE SYSTEM
An expendable system is generally used on small engines running for periods of
short duration. The advantage of this system is that it is simple, cheap and offers
an appreciable saving in weight as it requires no oil cooler, scavenge pumps or
filters. Oil can be fed to the bearing either by a pump or tank pressurisation. After
lubrication the oil can either be vented overboard through dump pipes or leaked
from the centre bearing to the rear bearing after which it is flung onto the turbine
and burnt.

An Expendable Oil System.
Figure 10.7.

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10.4 MAIN COMPONENTS
In any aircraft oil system, we have a number of components that may be thought of
as the main components and we have some that are incorporated to safeguard the
system (ie. to act as safety devices). The main components, on which the operation
of the system depends, include the oil tank, the oil pump and the oil cooler; these
are considered in the paragraphs immediately following. The safety devices, which
include the various valves and filters, are considered later.
10.4.1 OIL TANK
The oil tank is usually mounted on the engine; it may be a separate unit or part of
an external gearbox called the sump. It has provision to allow the system to be
filled and drained and a sightglass or dipstick to allow the oil contents to be
checked. Usually, the oil level sightglass on the side of the tank is graduated in
half-pint or in litre increments, between LOW and FULL marks. The tank is
replenished either by pressure or by gravity feed. The pressure filler connection
contains a non-return valve and a bayonet adapter to which the oil replenishment
trolley pipe is connected.

A de-aerator tray is mounted
in the top half of the tank and
receives the return oil from
the scavenge pumps. The
oil in its passage through the
system will become aerated
and steps must be taken to
remove the air. As the oil/air
mixture flows over the tray,
the oil separates and drains
down into the sump, whilst
the air is vented to
atmosphere.
Typical Oil Tank.
Figure 10.8.
Typical Oil Tank
Figure 10.8

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10.4.2 OIL PUMPS
The oil pumps fitted in a recirculatory system are normally gear-type or Gerotor type
pumps. The pumps are usually mounted in a pack containing one pressure pump
and several scavenge pumps. They are driven by a common shaft through the
engine gear train.
Gear type pumps (Fig.10.10. ) require suitable machining of the gear teeth, or the
provision of a milled slot in the casting (adjacent to the delivery side of each pump),
to prevent pressure locking of the gears.
Gerotor type pumps (Fig.10.11.) use an inner and outer rotor, where the inner rotor
is driven by the engine, and the outer rotor which has an extra gear tooth rotates
with it. The inner rotor is eccentric to the outer and it is the stepping of the teeth that
pumps the oil. The pump also requires kidney shaped slots as inlet and outlet ports.
The scavenge pumps have a greater capacity than the pressure pump to ensure
complete scavenging of the bearings in a dry sump system. Furthermore, air tends
to leak into the bearing housings from the air pressurised seals and this aeration of
the oil means that the scavenge pumps have to pump an increased oil/air volume.
As we saw in the previous paragraph the air is subsequently removed by the de-
aerator.
Typical Gear Type Oil Pump.
Figure 10.9.

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Gear Type Pump.
Figure 10.10.
Gerotor Type Pump.
Figure 10.11.

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10.4.3 OIL COOLING
All engines transfer heat to the oil by friction, churning and windage within a bearing
chamber or gearbox. It is therefore common practice to fit an oil cooler in
recirculatory oil systems. The cooling medium may be fuel or air and, in some
instances, both fuel-cooled and air-cooled coolers are used.
Some engines which utilise both types of cooler may incorporate an electronic
monitoring system which switches in the air-cooled oil cooler (ACOC) only when it is
necessary. This maintains the ideal oil temperature and improves the overall
thermal efficiency.
The fuel-cooled oil cooler (FCOC) has a matrix which is divided into sections by
baffle plates. A large number of tubes convey the fuel through the matrix, the oil
being directed by the baffle plates in a series of passes across the tubes. Heat is
transferred from the oil to the fuel, thus lowering the oil temperature.
The fuel-cooled oil cooler incorporates a bypass valve fitted across the oil inlet and
outlet. The valve operates at a pre-set pressure difference across the cooler and
thus prevents engine oil starvation in the event of a blockage. A pressure
maintaining valve is usually located in the feed line of the cooler which ensures that
the oil pressure is always higher than the fuel pressure. In the event of a cooler
internal fault developing, the oil will leak into the fuel system rather than the
potentially dangerous leakage of fuel into the oil system.
Typical Fuel Cooled Oil Cooler.
Figure 10.12.

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The air-cooled oil cooler is similar to the fuel-cooled type both in construction and in
operation except, of course, that air replaces the fuel as the cooling agent. On
some engines, the airflow through the matrix is controlled by a flap valve, which is
automatically operated when the temperature of the return oil rises to a pre-
determined value. A turbo-propeller engine may be fitted with an oil cooler that
utilises the external airflow as a cooling medium. This type of cooler incurs a large
drag factor and, as kinetic heating of the air occurs at high forward speeds, it is
unsuitable for turbo-jet engines.
10.4.4 PRESSURE FILTER
The pressure oil filter housing contains a wire-wound or mesh, Paper or felt
elements and incorporates a by-pass valve. The filter housing can be drained
independently of the main oil system. This is done through a drain valve in the
housing base. When drained, the filter can be removed for examination, servicing,
or replacement, as necessary, without disturbing the rest of the system. Typical
pressure filters are illustrated in figure 10.13.
Wire Wound and Paper Type Oil Filters.
Figure 10.13.

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Filters are usually fitted with an impending by-pass indicator. This is usually a red
pop out indicator which will pop out and stay out it the differential pressure across
the filter element exceeds a predetermined value. This value will be less than the
by-pass valve value, to allow the filter to be replaced before the filter goes into by-
pass. The pop out usually has a thermal lock on it, which prevents the pop out
extending when the oil is cold and thick.

Filter Bowl with Pop Out Indicator.
Figure 10.14.

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10.4.5 LAST CHANCE FILTER
Some of the gears in the gearboxes and also the main bearing of the engine are
lubricated through oil jets. These jets are usually protected by thread-type oil filters.
These are often referred to as last chance filters. You may also find small mesh
filters doing this job.

10.4.6 SCAVENGE OIL STRAINERS
When the oil has been distributed to all parts of the engine and has done its job, it is
returned to the oil tank by either gravity or pressure from the scavenge pumps.
Each pump returns the oil from a particular part of the engine and is protected by a
coarse filter (or strainer) in the return line. This arrangement protects the pump
gears. It also gives an indication of impending component failure if the strainers are
examined for metal particles during periodical inspection.
Thread Type Last Chance Filter
Figure 10.15.

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10.4.7 MAGNETIC CHIP DETECTOR
Magnetic detectors may be fitted into the oil system at various points to collect and
hold ferrous debris. They are normally fitted in gearboxes and in the scavenge
pump return lines to the tank. The collection of ferrous particles on the chip
detector provides a warning of impending (or incipient) failure of a component.
Some detectors are designed so that they can be removed for periodical
examination without having to drain the oil system; others may be checked
externally by connecting a suitable test circuit to the plug; finally, some are
connected to a cockpit warning system to give an in-flight indication of failure. The
chip detector (see figure10.15.) fits into a self-sealing housing and has a bayonet-
type fitting for easy removal.

10.4.8 DE-AERATOR
We have already noted that air from the bearing sealing system mixes with the oil
and causes frothing. If the air is allowed to remain in the oil it may cause a
lubrication failure. To prevent this, a de-aerating device may be installed; this
removes air from the oil before the oil is re-circulated round the engine by the
pressure pump; the air can be vented to atmosphere via the centrifugal breather.
De-aerators are usually tray types fitted in the oil tank or centrifugal type as a
separate item.
Magnetic Chip Detector.
Figure 10.16.

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Centrifugal Breather.
Figure 10.17.

10.4.9 CENTRIFUGAL BREATHER
When the oil/air mixture returns to the tank the air is separated by the de-aerator
tray and passes through to the gearbox via a vent line. It carries some of the oil with
it in the form of a fine mist. The oil/air mist in the gearbox can then pass to the
centrifugal breather (see figure 10.17). As the vanes of the centrifugal breather
rotate, the oil in the mixture is caught in the vanes and thrown back into the
gearbox; the air being vented to atmosphere.

10.4.10 PRESSURE RELIEF VALVE
The pressure relief valve shown in the
figure 10.18. controls the oil pressure at
the pre-set value demanded by the system.
The valve is normally integral with the
pump assembly and protects the system
from excessive pressure. It is usually a
spring-loaded plate-type valve, and can on
some engines provide adjustment of
pressure setting.
Simple Pressure Relief Valve
Figure 10.18.

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It is more usual to find a pressure relief valve that varies the pressure with engine
speed or breather pressure. These valves are usually adjustable but usually only
effect the max speed oil pressure see Figure 10.19.

This type of valve uses the oil system breather pressure and an adjustable spring to
balance the oil pressure in the main oil feed line to the engine bearings.
Consider Fig. 10.19. With the engine running, the breather pressure plus the spring
push the sliding valve to the left and restrict the pump spill back to return. This is
balanced by the pressure from the main feed line trying to move the slide valve to
the right. Should the pressure in the main feed line fall, the breather pressure and
spring will move the slide valve further to the left and restrict the oil spill still further.
This will allow more oil to flow to the system, and the oil pressure in the main feed
line will increase. The slide valve will then move to the right, and the oil spill to the
return will be controlled by the main feed line pressure balancing the spring and
breather pressure.
10.4.11 BY-PASS VALVE
This is similar in construction to the normal pressure relief valve just discussed. It is
connected in the system in such a way that, should the oil cooler or the pressure
filter become blocked (so that the oil flow is restricted), the appropriate by-pass
valve will operate to re-route the oil. Although the cooling or the filtering has now
been by-passed, oil starvation of the oil bearings is prevented. Popout indicators
are used to warn of an impending by-pass.
Pressure Relief Valve That Uses Breather Pressure to Vary Pressure.
Figure 10.19

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The oil cooler will usually have a thermal by-pass valve which will by-pass the
cooler when the oil is cold, thus ensuring that the oil gets up to running temperature
quickly.
10.5 INDICATIONS AND WARNINGS
Indications and warnings vary from aircraft to aircraft, in both the warnings given
and the priority that they are given.

10.5.1 LOW PRESSURE WARNING LAMP
If the oil pressure drops below the safe operating value for the particular system, a
pressure-sensing switch will initiate a visual warning; the warning usually consists of
a red or amber lamp switching on in the cockpit accompanied by an audio warning.
The sensing switch may be a differential pressure switch which senses the pressure
difference between the feed oil pressure and the return oil pressure or a simple
pressure switch. When the pressure or difference falls below a pre-determined
level, the switch operates to activate the warning circuit. To reduce the cockpit noise
during taxiing, the audio warning may be inhibited, as engines are often shut down
before reaching the stand.
Although this system is simple, its warning factor may not be quick enough to
prevent serious damage to the engine. This is due to the fact that the warning
pressure must be below the normal oil pressure at idle RPM. This means that the
engine could be running for some time with a low oil pressure before the warning
occurs. To overcome this problem multiple pressure switches are used and
activated at differing engine RPMs. For instance, above 85% RPM the low oil
pressure warning will come ON at 50 psi, below 85% the warning will come on at
20psi.
This is a serious warning and the engine must be shut down as soon as possible.
10.5.2 OIL PRESSURE, TEMPERATURE AND QUANTITY INDICATION
See section 14 engine indications for details of these systems.

10.6 OIL SEALS
Oil seals have been covered in section 8.
10.7 SERVICING
The engine oil level is usually checked after flight or after an engine run. It is not
checked straight after shut-down, as entrained air will give a false reading. It cannot
be checked accurately if left too long as the oil may run out of the tank into the
gearbox. So it is normally checked between 20 minutes and 2 hours or as defined in
the aircraft maintenance manual.
The oil system magnetic chip detectors will be checked at the periodicity defined in
the maintenance schedule. Spectrometric Oil Analysis Program (SOAP) samples of
the oil may be taken when required.

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Filters are replaced when required by the maintenance schedule or if the pop out
indicator is out.

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11 ENGINE FUEL CONTROL SYSTEMS
11.1 INTRODUCTION
The thrust of a turbo jet is controlled by varying the amount of fuel that is burnt in
the combustion system and in order to operate the safe temperature limits, the
amount of fuel that is burnt must be governed by the amount of air that is available
at the time. The air supply is dependent upon the RPM of the compressor and the
density of the air at its inlet, so under a constant set of atmospheric conditions, the
RPM of the compressor is an indication of the engine thrust. The pilot has control of
the fuel flow to the combustion system and is able to select any compressor RPM,
between ground idling and the maximum permissible which is required for take off
conditions, by the operation of a cockpit lever.
In the normal operational environment of an aircraft engine, atmospheric conditions
can vary over a wide range of air temperatures and pressures resulting in changes
of air density at the compressor inlet. A reduction in air density will cause a
reduction in the amount of air delivered to the combustion system at a selected
RPM, with a consequent increase in the combustion chamber temperature. If the
fuel flow is not reduced, a rise in compressor RPM will occur accompanied with
overheating of the combustion and turbine assemblies. An increase in air density
will result in an increase in the amount of air delivered to the combustion system at
a selected RPM and unless the fuel flow is increased, a reduction in RPM will occur.
Changes in air density at the compressor inlet are caused by:-
a) Altitude. The density of the air gets progressively less as the altitude is
increased, therefore less fuel will be required in order to maintain the
selected RPM.
b) Forward Speed. The faster the aircraft flies then the faster the air is forced
into the aircraft intake. A well designed aircraft intake will slow down this
airflow, converting its kinetic energy into pressure energy, so that it arrives at
the compressor inlet at an optimum velocity (0.5Mach) with an increase in
pressure and hence density. This is known as Ram Effect and plays an
important part in the performance of a turbo-jet. Within certain limits the
greater the ram effect, the greater the air mass flow and more fuel can be
burnt at the selected RPM, producing more thrust.
11.2 PURPOSE OF THE ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM
The purpose of the engine fuel system is to deliver to the combustion system, in a
readily combustible form, the correct amount of fuel over the whole operating range
of the engine, under the control of the pilot.

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Block Diagram of a Fuel Control.(J T9D)
Figure 11.1.

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11.3 LAYOUT OF TYPICAL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
The figure 11.1. illustrates the layout of components of a representative fuel system.
11.3.1 AIRCRAFT MOUNTED COMPONENTS
a) Fuel Tanks. Stores sufficient fuel for the aircrafts designed flight duration.
b) Booster Pump. Ensures a constant supply of fuel at low pressure to the inlet
of the engine driven HP Fuel Pump.
c) Low Pressure Cock. Isolates the engine fuel system from the aircraft fuel
system in the event of engine fire or for maintenance.
NOTE: These aircraft mounted components will be dealt with in greater detail during
the Aircraft Systems Phase.
11.3.2 THE ENGINE LP FUEL SYSTEM
LP Fuel Pump.
Form the LP Cock fuel passes to an engine driven LP Fuel Pump which serves two
purposes:
a. To boost pressure of the fuel to prevent cavitation of the HP pump.
b. To provide means of drawing fuel from the fuel tanks in the event of
failure of the fuel boost pump in the tank.
These are normally centrifugal type pumps which will boost pressure in the region of
5-10 psi.
Fuel/air heat exchanger.
To reduce the possibility of low temperatures forming ice, in the fuel heating is
applied . Fuel heating is achieved by passing the fuel through a form of radiator
which uses hot air (or hot oil) to control and maintain fuel temperature above
freezing.
LP Fuel Filter.
The filter element may be made of felt, paper or in some cases wire wound. Its
purpose is to prevent foreign particles from entering the engine fuel system. An
indication of the filter clogged may be provided on the flightdeck. Not withstanding
this a by-pass will be incorporated to ensure that the fuel supply , albeit possibly
contaminated is still available.
11.3.3 THE ENGINE HP FUEL SYSTEM
HP Pump.
Fuel from the LP Fuel filter passes to the HP pump depending on RPM and FCU in
the region of 600-800 psi. This HP fuel is then fed to the fuel control unit (FCU).

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Fuel Control Unit.
The FCU will meter the engines fuel requirements based upon a given set of
conditions at any given time:
a. Throttle position.
b. Ambient pressure (P
amb
)
c. Ambient temperature (T
12
)
d. HP compressor RPM (N
2
)
e. Compressor discharge pressure (CDP)
Fuel in excess of that required is returned to the inlet side of the HP pump. Metered
fuel is then fed to the flowmeter via a throttles and HP cock.
Throttle and HP cock.
The fuel control operating levers can be a combined throttle and HP cock lever or
separate levers. The position of the throttle lever determines the power required, the
HP shutoff cock controls the supply of fuel from the FCU to the burners, when
closed the engine will be shut down, when open fuel will be available to the burners.
Fuel Flowmeter.
The fuel flowmeter will measure the amount of fuel being fed to the burners and
relay this information to the flightdeck. A gauge calibrated in either pounds or
kilograms will indicate to the operator how much fuel is being consumed an hour. A
second window within this gauge may also indicate how much fuel the engine has
consumed by the engine during the flight.
Fuel/oil Heat Exchanger
Similar to the heat exchanger used to heat the fuel, this heat exchanger will use the
HP fuel supply to cool the engine oil.
Pressurising and Dump Valve.
From the fuel/oil heat exchanger HP metered fuel passes to the pressurising and
dump valve. It function is to:
b. Prevent fuel flowing to the burners during the starting phase until such
time as fuel pressure is sufficient to give good atomisation of the fuel thus
ensuring good light-up.
c. Allow sufficient pressure to build up within the Fuel Control Unit (FCU)
servo/hydraulic control systems ensuring correct metering of fuel supply
is achieved during starting.
d. Enable a rapid dump of fuel remaining in the pipelines to the burners on
shutdown.

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Burners.
The type of burners employed will vary with design. Two basic types are in common
use, atomisers and vaporisers, and their common purpose is to supply fuel in a
readily combustible form over the whole operating range of the engine.
11.4 FACTORS GOVERNING FUEL REQUIREMENTS
The factors that determine the quantity of fuel that constitutes the correct amount
to be delivered to the combustion system at any one time are:-
a) The RPM selected.
b) The density of the air at the compressor inlet.
c) The rate at which the engine can accept the fuel into the combustion system
under conditions of engine acceleration.
11.5 REQUIREMENTS OF THE ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM
a) The selection of the RPM must be under the control of the pilot and the system
must ensure that the maximum permissible RPM is not exceeded.
b) The fuel must be introduced into the combustion system in a readily
combustible form and the system must be able to automatically adjust the
fuel flow to match the air available in order to maintain the selected RPM
under all operating conditions.
11.6 ENGINE FUEL SYSTEM COMPONENTS
In order to achieve its purpose, the engine fuel system will incorporate the following
components:-
a) High pressure fuel pump.
b) Fuel flow-controlling devices.
c) Burners.
11.7 FUEL PUMPS
The type of fuel pump used may vary from one engine type to another and their
common purpose is to supply the correct amount of fuel to the burners at a
sufficient rate of flow to ensure operation over the whole range of engine operation.
The pump is driven by the engine via a suitable gear train.
11.7.1 FUEL PUMP REQUIREMENTS
Because the fuel flow requirements of an engine running at a constant RPM will
vary with changing atmospheric conditions, the fuel pump must be capable of
delivering fuel at flow rates in excess of the maximum engine demand at any
particular RPM, eg. its output must be variable independently of its speed of
rotation.
The output of the engine driven fuel pump is dependent on engine RPM and
controlling signals from various fuel flow controlling devices.

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There are two basic types of fuel pump, the plunger-type pump and the constant
delivery gear-type pump; both of these are positive displacement pumps. Where
lower pressures are required at the burners (spray nozzles), the gear-type pump is
preferred because of its lightness.

11.7.2 PLUNGER-TYPE FUEL PUMP
The pump shown in the figure 11.2. is of the single-unit, variable-stroke, plunger
type; similar pumps may be used as double units depending upon the engine fuel
flow requirements.
The fuel pump is driven by the engine gear train and its output depends upon its
rotational speed and the stroke of the plungers. A single-unit fuel pump can deliver
fuel at the rate of 100 to 2,000 gallons per hour at a maximum pressure of about
2,000 lb/in
2
.
The fuel pump consists of a rotor assembly fitted with several plungers, the ends of
which project from their bores and bear on to a non-rotating camplate or
swashplate. Due to the inclination of the camplate, movement of the rotor imparts a
reciprocating motion to the plungers, thus producing a pumping action. The stroke
of the plungers is determined by the angle of inclination of the camplate. The
degree of inclination is varied by the movement of a servo piston that is
mechanically linked to the camplate and is biased by springs to give the full stroke
position of the plungers. The piston is subjected to servo pressure on the spring
side and on the other side to pump delivery pressure; thus, variations in the
pressure difference across the servo piston cause it to move with corresponding
variations of the camplate angle and, therefore, pump stroke.
Plunger Type Fuel Pump or Swash Plate Pump.
Figure 11.2.

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11.7.3 GEAR-TYPE FUEL PUMP
The gear-type fuel pump (see figure11.3.) is driven from the engine and its output is
directly proportional to its speed. The fuel flow to the spray nozzles is controlled by
re-circulating excess fuel delivery back to inlet. A spill valve, sensitive to the
pressure drop across the controlling units in the system, opens and closes as
necessary to increase or decrease the spill.

11.8 FUEL FLOW CONTROL
Control of the fuel flow to the burners is by two main methods:-
a) Manual control by the pilot.
b) Automatic adjustment of fuel flow to correct for basic engine requirements.
(i) Changes in intake pressure.
(ii) Excessive fuel to air ratio during engine acceleration.
(iii) Additional controlling devices as determined by specific engine
requirements.
Gear Type Fuel Pump System.
Figure 11.3.

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11.8.1 BASIC FLOW CONTROL SYSTEM
Principle of Fuel Metering
The flow of a fluid through an orifice (jet) depends on the area of the orifice and the
square root of the pressure drop across it, ie:-
Fuel Flow = Orifice Area x \Pressure Drop
Thus it is possible to vary fuel flow by changing orifice area or the pressure drop
across the orifice. In a fuel system the orifice is variable and is in fact the throttle
valve.
11.8.1.1 Application to Flow Control System
In the flow control system the fuel flow required to give a selected RPM is selected
by throttle area under the control of the pilot (manual control). Compensation for
air density variation is superimposed on this selection by the altitude sensing control
unit (pressure drop control unit) varying the pressure difference across the throttle
valve.
11.8.1.2 Control Principle
The controlling principle of a flow control system is that a constant throttle pressure
drop is maintained irrespective of throttle area (position) for a given height and
speed.
Principle of Fuel Metering Valve.
Figure 11.4.

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11.8.1.3 Principle of Flow Control System (See Figure11.6.)
If however, height and speed change, then the altitude sensing unit will vary the
pump output and fuel flow (thus throttle pressure drop) by changing the pump
output at constant throttle setting.

Constant Pressure Drop.
Figure 11.5.
Principle of Barometric Flow Control.
Figure 11.6.

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11.9 HYDRO-MECHANICAL CONTROL UNITS
In hydro-mechanically operated flow control units (FCUs), the method of control is
to use servo fuel as a hydraulic fluid to vary fuel flow (eg. by varying pump swash-
plate angle). The pressure of the servo fuel is varied by controlling the rate of flow
out of an orifice at the end of the servo line; the higher the outflow, the lower will be
servo pressure and vice versa. There are two types of variable orifice: the half-ball
valve and the kinetic valve.

11.9.1.1 The Half-Ball Valve.
In this arrangement, a half-ball on the end of a pivot arm is suspended above the
fixed outlet orifice (see figure). Up and down movement of the valve varies servo
fuel outflow and thus servo pressure and pump output.
11.9.1.2 The Kinetic Valve. Figure 11.8.
A line containing pump output fuel is so placed as to discharge on to the face of the
servo outflow orifice and the kinetic energy so produced restricts servo fuel bleed.
A blade can be moved downwards to interrupt the high-pressure flow; this reduces
the impact onto the servo orifice, thus causing a greater outflow and a reduction in
servo pressure (see figure). The kinetic valve is less prone to dirt blockage than the
half-ball type, although it is more complex.
Half Ball Valve System.
Figure 11.7.

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Condition 1. With the kinetic
valve in the open position, the
blade separates the opposing
flows from pump delivery and
the servo cylinder. As there is
no opposition to the servo flow,
the volume of servo fluid
reduces and the piston moves
against the spring under the
influence of pump delivery
pressure. The movement of the
piston reduces the pump stroke
and therefore its output.

Condition 2. With the valve
fully closed, the kinetic energy
of the pump delivery fuel
prevents leakage from the
servo chamber. Servo fuel
pressure therefore increases
and, with the assistance of the
spring, overcomes the pump
delivery pressure, thus moving
the piston to increase the pump
stroke and output.

Condition 3. Under steady
running conditions, the valve
assumes an intermediate
position such that the servo fuel
and spring pressure exactly
balances the pump delivery
pressure.

11.9.2 BAROMETRIC CONTROLS
The function of the barometric control is to alter fuel flow to the burners with
changes in intake total pressure (P
1
) and pilots throttle movement. Several
different types of hydro-mechanical barometric control are available. Three of the
most common types are described. For simplicity, the description and operation of
each type of flow control is related to the half-ball valve method of controlling servo
fuel pressure.
Kinetic Valve
Figure 11.8.

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Simple Flow Control.
The Simple Flow Control Unit (see figure 11.9.) comprises a half-ball valve acting
on servo fuel bleed, whose position is determined by the action of an evacuated
capsule (immersed in P
1
air) and a piston subjected to the same pressure drop as
the throttle valve. Fuel from the pump passes at pressure P pump through the
throttle, where it experiences a pressure drop to burner pressure P burner. The
response to P
1
and throttle variations can now be examined.
Throttle Variations.
If the pilot opens the throttle, the throttle orifice area increases, throttle pressure
drop reduces and therefore P
PUMP
falls, P
BURNER
rises and the piston moves down,
allowing the spring to lower the half-ball valve against the capsule force, increasing
servo pressure and pump output. The increased fuel flow increases the throttle
pressure drop to its original value, returning the half-ball valve to its sensitive
position.
P1 Variations.
If the aircraft climbs, P
1
will fall, causing the capsule to expand and raise the half-
ball valve against the spring force. Servo pressure will fall, swashplate angle will
reduce and fuel pump output will reduce. The reduced flow will cause a reduced
throttle pressure drop.
Thus Simple Flow Control keeps the throttle pressure drop constant, regardless of
throttle position. At very high altitude the system becomes insensitive and it is not
used on large turbo-jets. Nevertheless, it is fitted on the Adour and Dart and has
proved to be a reliable and fairly accurate control unit.

Simple Flow Control.
Figure 11.9.

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11.9.3 PROPORTIONAL FLOW CONTROL.
The Proportional Flow Control Unit (see figure 11.10.) was designed for use on
large engines with a wide range of fuel flow. The problem of accurate control over
this wide range was overcome by operating the controlling elements on a proportion
of the main flow. The proportion varies over the flow range, so that at low flows a
high proportion is used for control and at high flows, a smaller proportion. Fuel
passes into the controlling (or secondary) line through a fixed secondary orifice and
flows out through another orifice to the LP side of the pump. Secondary flow is
controlled via the proportioning valve and sensing valve, which maintains an equal
pressure drop across the throttle valve and secondary orifice. Servo pressure is
controlled by a half-ball valve operated by P
1
and by secondary pressure.

Throttle Variations.
If the throttle is opened, its pressure drop is reduced and the proportioning valve
closes until the pressures across the diaphragm are equalised. Thus secondary
flow and pressure are reduced, the piston drops, the half-ball valve closes and
pump stroke increases. The increased fuel flow increases secondary pressure until
the half-ball valve resumes its sensitive position, but the proportioning valve
remains more closed than previously, taking a small proportion of the increased
flow.

Proportional Flow Control.
Figure 11.10.

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P1 Variations.
Variations in P
1
will cause the capsule to expand or contract, thus altering the
position of the half-ball valve and altering fuel flow. This tends to cause rapid
changes in secondary pressure with resultant instability; damping is provided by the
sensing valve, which adjusts to control the outflow to LP, thus damping secondary
pressure fluctuations. The valve is contoured to operate only over a small range of
pressure drops so that during throttle movements it acts as a fixed orifice.

11.9.4 ACCELERATION CONTROL UNITS
The function of the Acceleration Control Unit (ACU) is to provide surge-free
acceleration during rapid throttle openings. There are two main types of hydro-
mechanical ACU in service.
The Flow Type ACU.
With the flow type ACU (see figure 11.11.) all the fuel from the pump passes
through the unit, which compares fuel flow with compressor outlet pressure (P
3
),
which is proportional to engine speed.
The fuel from the pump passes through an orifice containing a contoured plunger;
the pressure drop across the orifice is also sensed across a diaphragm.
When the throttle is opened, the pump moves towards maximum stroke and fuel
flow increases. The increased flow through the ACU orifice increases the pressure
drop across it and the diaphragm moves to the right, raising the half ball valve and
restricting pump stroke. The engine now speeds up in response to the limited over-
fuelling and P
3
rises, compressing the capsule. The plunger servo pressure drops
and the plunger falls until arrested by the increased spring force. The orifice size
increases, pressure drop reduces and the diaphragm moves to the left, closing the
half-ball valve and increasing fuel flow. Fuel flow will increase in direct proportion to
the increase in P
3
.

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Acceleration Control Using Compressor Discharge Pressure.
Figure 11.11.

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The Air Switch.
In order to keep the acceleration line close to the surge line, it is necessary to
control on Split P
3
air (a mix of P3/P1) initially and then on full P
3
at higher engine
speeds. This is achieved by the air switch (or P
1
/P
3
switch) shown in the figure
11.12. At low speeds, P
3
passes through a plate valve to P
1
and the control
capsule is operated by reduced, or split P
3
until P
3
becomes large enough to close
the plate valve and control is then on full P
3
.
Air Switch.
Figure 11.12.
Air Switch
Figure 11.12.

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The dashpot Type ACU.
The dashpot ACU uses two co-axially mounted throttle valves, The inner one is
moved by the pilot, the outer (main) throttle valve will move but is controlled by a
dashpot which slows the valve movement down to limit the acceleration fuel flow.
When closing the throttle the pilot pushes both sleeves in together.

LP
HP
THROTTLOUTLET
THROTTLE CONTROL
THROTTLE SERVO
STEADY
CLOSED INITIAL
FINAL
Dashpot Throttle
Figure 11.13.

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11.10 ENGINE PROTECTION DEVICES
Described below are typical protection devices that will override any excessive
demands made on the engine by the pilot or by the control units.
11.10.1 TOP TEMPERATURE LIMITER.
Turbine gas temperature is measured by thermocouples in the jet pipe. When
maximum temperature is reached, these pass a signal to an amplifier, which limits
pump stroke by reducing pump servo pressure or moves the throttle valve in series
with the pilot.
11.10.2 POWER LIMITER.
A power limiter is fitted to some engines to prevent over-stressing due to excessive
compressor outlet pressure during high-speed, low altitude running. The limiter
(see figure 11.14) takes the form of a half-ball valve which is opened against a
spring force when compressor outlet press (P
3
) reaches its maximum value. The
half-ball valve bleeds off air pressure to the ACU control capsule, thus causing the
ACU to reduce pump stroke.
Power Limiter.
Figure 11.14.

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11.10.3 OVERSPEED GOVERNOR.
The engine is protected against over-speeding by a governor, which, in hydro-
mechanical systems, is usually fitted on the fuel pump and acts by bleeding off
pump servo fuel when the governed speed is reached. On two-spool engines, the
pump is driven from the HP shaft and the LP shaft is protected by either a
mechanical governor or an electro-mechanical device, again acting through the
hydro-mechanical control system. There are two types of pump-driven governors:
11.10.3.1 Centrifugal Governor.
The centrifugal type of governor uses the centrifugal pressure of fuel in radial
drillings in the fuel pump rotor to deflect a diaphragm at maximum speed. The
diaphragm operates on a half-ball valve to reduce pump servo pressure and thus
pump stroke. The disadvantage of this type is that it needs to be reset if fuel
specific gravity changes. It is seldom used on modern engines.
Centrifugal Governor
Figure 11.15.

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Centrifugal governors using bob weights are used as LP shaft governors on
some engines. They will return fuel to low pressure when the LP shaft
overspeeds see figure 11.16.

11.10.3.2 Hydro-mechanical Governor.
In the hydro-mechanical governor the pump drive shaft rotates a rotor
containing a half-ball valve on a lever arm (shown in the figure 11.17.). As
engine speed increases, centrifugal force closes the valve, increasing the
pressure of fuel in the governor housing (governor pressure) by restricting its
flow to LP. When the maximum speed is reached, governor pressure is high
enough to deflect a diaphragm, which opens the half-ball valve acting on
pump servo. A hydro-mechanical governor does not require adjustment for
changes in fuel specific gravity.
Centrifugal LP
Figure 11.16.

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11.11 BURNERS
11.11.1 ATOMISER BURNERS
This type of burner presents the fuel in a finely atomised spray by forcing the fuel to
pass through a small orifice. The size of the orifice is critical because it must
atomise the fuel effectively over a wide range of fuel flows, from idling to take off
RPM.
Some engines have such a wide range of fuel flow requirements that a single orifice
is unable to perform the task effectively unless extremely high fuel pressures are
used and to combat this a burner with two different sized orifices are used. During
low fuel flow requirements, only the small or primary orifice is supplied with fuel and
at higher flow rates both primary and secondary orifices are in operation.
HP Hydro Mechanical Governor.
Figure 11.17.
FUEL
PUMP
HP SHAFT
GOVERNOR
ROTATING
SPILL VALVE
LP FUEL IN
HP FUEL OUT
SERVO FUEL
LP FUEL
LP FUEL
GOVERNOR FUEL
SERVO FUEL
HP FUEL
HP Hydro-Mechanical Governor.
Figure 11.17.

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Both types of atomiser burners incorporate an air shroud, which directs some of the
primary air into the burner to assist atomisation and to cool the burner head to
prevent the formation of carbon.
The usual method of atomising the fuel is to pass it through a swirl chamber where
tangentially disposed holes or slots impart swirl to the fuel by converging its
pressure energy to kinetic energy. In this state, the fuel passes through the
discharge orifice where the swirl motion is removed as the fuel atomises to form a
cone-shaped spray. The shape of the spray is an important indication of the degree
of atomisation; thus, the rate of swirl and therefore the pressure of the fuel at the
burner are important factors in good atomisation.
Simplex Burner Nozzle Detail.
Figure 11.18.

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The simplex burner

The Simplex burner shown in the figure 11.19. was first used on early jet engines. It
consists of a chamber, which induces a swirl into the fuel and a fixed area atomising
orifice. This burner gave good atomisation at the higher fuel flows, that is at the
higher burner pressures, but was very unsatisfactory at the low pressures required
at low engine speeds and especially at high altitudes. The reason for this is that the
Simplex burner was by the nature of its design a square law burner, that is the
flow through the burner is proportional to the square of the pressure drop across it.
This meant that if the minimum pressure for effective atomisation was 30 lbf/in
2
, the
pressure needed to give maximum flow would be about 3,000 lb/in
2
.
A Simplex Burner.
Figure 11.19.

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The Duplex burner.
The Duplex burner or Duple burner
require a primary and a main fuel
manifold and have two independent
orifices, one much smaller than the
other. The smaller orifice handles
the lower flows and the larger orifice
deals with the higher flows as the
burner pressure increases. A
pressurising valve may be employed
with this type of burner to apportion
the fuel to the manifolds (see figure
11.20.). As the fuel flow and
pressure increase, the pressurising
valve moves to progressively admit
fuel to the main manifold and the
main orifices. This gives combined
flow down both manifolds. In this
way, the Duplex and the Duple
burner are able to give effective
atomisation over a wider flow range
than the Simplex burner for the same
maximum burner pressure. Also,
efficient atomisation is obtained at
the low flows that may be required at
high altitude. In the combined
acceleration and speed control
system the fuel flow to the burners is
apportioned in the FFR.
A Duple or Duplex Nozzle.
Figure 11.20.
A Duple or Duplex Burner.
Figure 11.20.

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11.11.1.1 The Spray nozzle.
The spray nozzle (see figure11.21.) carried a proportion of the primary combustion
air with the injected fuel. By aerating the spray, the local fuel-rich concentrations
produced by other types of burner are avoided, thus giving a reduction in both
carbon formation and exhaust smoke. An additional advantage of the spray nozzle
is that the low pressures required for atomisation of the fuel permits the use of the
comparatively lighter gear-type pump.
A Spray Nozzle.
Figure 11.21.

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11.11.2 VAPORISING BURNERS
This type of burner presents the fuel in the combustion system in the form of a rich
fuel vapour or gas. This is achieved by delivering the metered flow of fuel to J
shaped vaporising tubes, which protrude into the combustion chamber. The fuel
passes down the vaporising tubes in a coarse spray and mixes with the primary air
that enters concentrically to the fuel supply pipe. The fuel and air is mixed
thoroughly by pins that protrude into the primary airflow and the heat of the flame
surrounding the tube causes the mixture to vaporise before it emerges in the
combustion chamber.
The introduction of the primary air into the vaporising tubes aids the process of
vaporisation and also helps to cool the tubes to prevent the formation of carbon.
With this type of burner, the flame points towards the incoming airflow and this
helps to stabilise the flame in the vaporising tubes, preventing it being blown away
by the secondary air, thus allowing a relatively short combustion system.

The advantages of this type are:-
a) Pre-vaporising gives complete combustion within a short length of flame tube.
b) A complete ring of flame around the annular chamber.
c) Even pressure and temperature around the chamber.
A Vaporising Combustion Chamber.
Figure 11.22.

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Start Nozzle System for a Vaporiser Combustion System.
Figure 11.23.

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Starting Fuel Solenoid Valve
This solenoid valve is fitted on the starting fuel feed line. It is a two-position valve
spring loaded to the closed position. During starting, the solenoid is energised and
the valve opens. The flow is directed to the check valve. During the starting cycle
the solenoid is de-energised and the spring force closes the valve and the fuel flow
to check valve is stopped.
Check Valve
A check is fitted in the starter jet line downstream of the Priming Solenoid Valve to
prevent fuel dribbling into the combustion chamber on shut down.
It is a spring-loaded valve, which is closed at rest and opens when fuel pressure
reaches a pre-determined value.
Starter Jets
As vaporisers do not atomise the fuel sufficiently for combustion until they become
heated, for starting purposes initial heating during start is provided by four jets, two
of which are combined with High Energy Igniters. The starter jets ensure that, even
at the low flows encountered during start, the fuel is atomised as required for light
up.
Pressurising Valve
A pressurising valve is fitted in the main gallery feed line. It is spring-loaded which
functions to build up and stabilise the metering system servo pressures before any
flow to the main gallery. Thereby it ensures the correct delivery of fuel to the
vaporisers during start.
Main Gallery and Vaporisers
The main gallery connects with delivery tubes, each feeding one vaporiser head
through a distribution orifice. The delivery tubes are fitted in pairs on the
combustion chamber outer case.
Fuel is mixed with air in the vaporiser tubes. As the mixture passes through the
heated tube, the fuel becomes vaporised so that it is delivered in combustible form.
A single unit houses the check and pressurising valves. A purge flow tapped
upstream the pressurising valve is connected to the check valve via a purge
restrictor. This ensures a continued fuel flow through the starter jets to avoid
formation of carbon in this area.
11.11.3 COMBUSTION AND AIRFLOW
The addition of fuel to compressor air and the resulting continuous combustion
gives a release of heat and an increase in volume, which is converted to an
increase in velocity. In the combustion chamber the heat release (combustion
efficiency) may be as high as 99%.

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More power and efficiency result from rich mixtures, but these are limited by
maximum turbine temperatures. Therefore fuel supplies must be limited so that an
overall air/fuel ratio of about 60:1 at maximum rpm is achieved. At other rpm the
ratio will change due to changing efficiencies of turbine and compressor. The
correct mixture strength is 15:1 hence only about a quarter of the air passing
through the engine is used for combustion. (15% - 25% is the typical range).
In the flame area the ratio is about 13:1 and around the flame centre a weaker ratio
of 18:1 is used to ensure complete combustion with no carbon formation.
The flame rate at an atomising burner is 2-10 ft/sec and at a vaporiser, 60 ft/sec.
Both figures are low compared with the air velocity through the combustion zone,
hence the requirement for a low velocity zone at the burner to (a) aid ignition and (b)
maintain the flame at the burner.
Theoretically, combustion in a gas turbine is at constant pressure, ie. the pressure
along the combustion chamber does not change due to combustion but could alter
due to changes in rpm and air intake pressure.
In practice the combustion chamber shape affects the pressure and they are
designed to minimise this and a drop of 4% along its length is usual.
Flame temperature is high; a constant 2,000C at the centre. Flame size, however,
can change and the bigger the flame becomes the higher goes Turbine Entry
Temperature and J et Pipe Temperature (TET and J PT).
Over-fuelling gives a larger flame and Under-fuelling a smaller; the significance
of these will be seen in a later note.

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11.12 ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONTROL SYSTEMS
Advances in gas turbine technology have demanded more precise control of engine
parameters than can be provided by hydromechanical fuel controls alone. These
demands are met by electronic engine controls, or EEC, of which there are two
types: supervisory and full-authority.
11.12.1 SUPERVISORY ELECTRONIC ENGINE CONTROL
The first type of EEC is a supervisory control that works with a proven
hydromechanical fuel control.
The major components in the supervisory control system include the electronic
control itself, the hydromechanical fuel control on the engine, and the bleed air and
variable stator vane control. The hydromechanical element controls the basic
operation of the engine including starting, acceleration, deceleration, and
shutdown. High-pressure rotor speed (N
2
), compressor stator vane angles, and
engine bleed system are also controlled hydromechanically. The EEC, acting in a
supervisory capacity, modulates the engine fuel flow to maintain the designated
thrust. The pilot simply moves the throttle lever to a desired thrust setting position
such as full takeoff thrust, or maximum climb. The EEC adjusts the fuel flow as
required to maintain the thrust compensating for changes in flight and
environmental conditions. The EEC control also limits engine operating speed and
temperature, ensuring safe operation throughout the flight envelope.
If a problem develops, control automatically reverts to the hydromechanical system,
with no discontinuity in thrust. A warning signal is displayed in the cockpit, but no
immediate action is required by the pilot. The pilot can also revert to the
hydromechanical control at any time.
Electronic Engine Control
A typical example of an EEC system is that used in many of the Pratt and Whitney
100 series engines currently in service. A brief explanation of how the system
works, both in automatic and manual modes follows.

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Pratt & Whitney 100 Series Fuel Control System Schematic.
Figure 20.24.

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Automatic Operation (EEC mode)
The EEC receives signals from various sources:
a. Power Management Switch, enabling take off thrust, maximum continuous
thrust, climb thrust or cruise thrust settings to be selected.
b. Engine inlet pressure and temperature.
c. Ambient pressure.
d. Air data computer inputs. (a computer that senses pitot pressure, static pressure
and total air temperature)
e. Engine RPMs N
1
and N
2
.
f. Power lever position. (via a potentiometer)
g. Failure signals.
Based on these input signals the EEC will output command signals to adjust and
control:
a. The Hydromechanical Fuel Control Unit via a stepper motor which adjusts the
throttle metering valve.
b. Ignition circuits.
c. Bleed valves
d. Torque gauge
11.12.2 FUEL CONTROL
11.12.3 GENERAL
The fuel control is provided by the hydro-mechanical unit (HMU) The HMU is
supplied by the HP fuel pump and provides the required fuel quantity to the
nozzles.
In normal operation the fuel control is managed by the Electronic Engine
Control (EEC). This enables accelerations and decelerations without engine surge
or flame out whatever the displacement sequence of the power lever. The HMU is
also mechanically connected to the power lever thus ensuring fuel control in case
of failure of the EEC.
Hydro-mechanical Unit (HMU)
The HMU comprises:
A stepper motor controlled by the EEC.
A lever which controls fuel shutoff.
A lever which controls the fuel flow.

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PW100 Series Fuel System Auto/Normal
Figure 20.25.

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Operation
The fuel flow supplied to the nozzles is mainly obtained through two valves:
a bypass valve
a metering valve.
The fuel enters the HMU from pump outlet with a constant flow. This flow is split by
the bypass valve into two flows, one for the nozzles (via the metering valve) and one
bypass return flow to the pump. The position of the bypass valve is a function of the
loss of fuel pressure caused by the metering valve. The metering valve is
pneumatically actuated. In the pneumatic servo block, the reference pressure is the
HP compressor outlet pressure, P
3
. A controlled reduction of the P
3
pressure results
in a variable P
y
pressure which when opposed to a bellows device, moves the piston
of the metering valve.
The pneumatic servo block is managed:
in normal operation by the EEC
in manual operation, by the power input lever.
Normal Operation (EEC Mode)
According to the input data (pressures, temperatures, speeds) and to the
commanded power (power lever), the EEC controls a stepper motor located in the
HMU.
The stepper motor regulates P
y
pressure thus modulating the fuel flow as
requested. A governor acts on the P
y
pressure, thus setting an N
H
speed limit
function of the compression of a spring by a cam (EEC cam) connected to the
power lever.
Manual Operation (Manual Mode)
P
y
pressure is not regulated by the stepper motor but by the simultaneous
actions of the NH speed governor and the spring, compressed by a second cam
(manual cam) connected to the power lever.
Transfer from the EEC Mode to the Manual Mode.
In normal operation the EEC manages the fuel regulation. The manual
operation is automatically connected when the operation in the EEC mode is
switched off. A solenoid in the HMU selects the manual cam instead of the EEC
cam and cancels the regulation control through the stepper motor.
Operation of the HMU in the fail mode
In case of failure of the EEC, the position of the stepper motor is "frozen".
Whatever the increase of power through the power lever, the last N
H
speed
remains unchanged (the load applied by the spring on the N
H
speed governor
increases).For any power reduction through the power lever, the N
H
speed
decreases according to the curve of the EEC cam (decreasing spring load).

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PW 100 Series Fuel System in Manual Mode.
Figure 11.26.

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11.12.4 FULL-AUTHORITY DIGITAL ELECTRONIC CONTROL (FADEC)
The supervisory control was a step toward the full-authority, fully redundant EEC. It
controls all engine functions and eliminates the need for the backup
hydromechanical control used in the supervisory system. The modern full authority
EEC is a digital electronic device called a full-authority digital electronic control, or
FADEC.
One of the basic purposes of the FADEC is to reduce flight crew workload. This is
achieved by the FADEC's control logic, which simplifies power settings for all
engine operating conditions. The throttle position is used to achieve consistent
engine settings regardless of flight or environmental conditions.
The FADEC establishes engine power through direct closed-loop control of the
engine ratio thrust-rating parameter. The required thrust is calculated as a
function of throttle lever angle, altitude, Mach number, and total air temperature.
The air data computer supplies altitude, Mach number, and total air temperature
information, and sensors provide measurements of engine temperatures,
pressures, and speeds. This data is used to provide automatic thrust control,
engine limit protection, transient control, and engine starting.
FADEC uses a pre-programmed schedule to obtain the correct thrust for the
various throttle lever angles, and it provides the correct thrust for any chosen angle
during changing flight or environmental conditions.
To get the desired thrust, the pilot has only to set the throttle lever to a position
which aligns the thrust command from the control with the reference indicator from
the aircraft thrust management computer. The control system automatically
accelerates or decelerates the engine to the desired level without the pilot having
to continually monitor the thrust gauge. Once a power setting has been selected,
the FADEC maintains it until the throttle lever position is changed.
A constant throttle lever angle setting can be used for takeoff and climb. In
addition, since the pilot sets engine thrust , and the system controls the thrust by
using a given throttle lever angle, the same thrust rating will be obtained on each
engine at the same throttle position. This eliminates throttle stagger.
The FADEC has many advantages over both the hydromechanical and supervisory
EEC. Some of these are:
- It requires no engine trimming
- It ensures improved engine starts
- It provides a constant idle speed with changes in atmospheric conditions and
changing service bleed air requirements
- It saves fuel by providing improved engine bleed air management
- It fully modulates the active clearance control (ACC) system (if fitted)
- It ensures more repeatable engine transients due to the higher precision of its
digital computer

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- It provides engine limit protection by automatically limiting critical engine
pressures and speeds
A typical FADEC system is that used in some of the Pratt and Whitney 4000 series
engines currently in service. A brief explanation of how the system works follows.
Fuel Distribution and Control Components (Figure 11.27.)
Components controlling and distributing the fuel to the burners include:
- FADEC/EEC
- Fuel/oil cooler and by pass valve
- Fuel metering unit
- Fuel distribution valve
- Fuel injector supply manifolds
- Fuel injectors
Fuel Distribution System of a FADEC Engine
Figure 11.27.

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Fuel Distribution
During operation, fuel flows from the aircraft fuel tank to the fuel-pump boost-stage
inlet. The pressurised fuel from the boost stage of the engine-driven fuel pump then
leaves the pump and is delivered to the fuel/oil cooler, whose purpose is to keep the
fuel sufficiently warm to prevent ice from forming in the fuel, and at the same time,
keep the maximum temperature of the oil within the correct limits. This engine is
also equipped with an air/oil heat exchanger, which uses fan air and 2.5 bleed air to
prevent the fuel from getting too hot.
From the fuel/oil cooler, the fuel is returned to the fuel pump, where it is filtered and
sent to the main pump stage to be further pressurised before it is sent to the fuel-
metering unit, which actually does the metering on the basis of information it
receives from the FADEC. The fuel-metering unit sends fuel to the fuel-flow
transmitter, and then to the fuel distribution valve. (Servo fuel, used as an actuation
pressure to some interface components, also comes from the fuel-metering unit.)
Bypass fuel not sent to the fuel distribution valve or servo supply is returned to
pump interstage flow. From the fuel distribution valve, the metered fuel flows
through the fuel manifolds to the fuel injectors.
The FADEC is the primary interface between the engine and the aircraft. The
FADEC contains two channels that are called "A" channel and "B" channel. Each
time the engine starts, alternate channels will automatically be selected. The
channels are linked together by an internal mating connector for crosstalk data
transmission. Much more is accomplished by this control than simply sending a
signal to the fuel-metering unit to establish a fuel flow to the nozzles.

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Interface with Aircraft
The FADEC receives several refereed (a validated reference used to confirm
correct input) inputs and delivers several outputs. Inputs to the FADEC come from
the following:
1. The power levers. Two analogue signals come from each power-lever resolver.
(The resolver is an electromechanical device to measure angular movement.)
2. The air-data computers (ADC) in the form of
a. Total pressure
b. Pressure altitude
c. Total air temperature
3. The flight-control computer (FCC) for adjusting the engine pressure ratio (EPR)
for all engines as a part of the engine thrust trim system (ETTS). The ETTS
logic starts when the engine pressure ratio (EPR) on any two engines is above
1.2.
4. Seven discrete (electrical signals) inputs:
a. Pt
2
/Tt
2
probe heat
b. Fire
c. Alternate mode select
c. External reset (fuel-control switch)
FADEC Interface with the Aircraft.
Figure 11.28.

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d. Bump rate selector
e. Maintenance (data retrieval)
f. Engine location identification
5. Two sources of 28 VDC power (DC bus and ground test power)
Out puts from the FADEC are as follows:
- Engine pressure ratio (EPR)
- Low-speed spool (N
I
). There is a backup N
1
speed output from channel "B."
- Exhaust gas temperature (EGT)
- High-speed spool (N
2
)
Flap/slat position and weight-on-wheels status is also sent to the FADEC. The
flight-control computer (FCC) acts as a backup for the air-data computer (ADC).
FADEC Interface with Engine
All data input to the FADEC is validated through a series
of comparisons and checks .For example, compressor rotor speeds are compared
to each other and checked to ensure the proper range (0 -120 percent).
Inputs to the FADEC from the engine are as follows:
- N
2
rpm, Power comes from the FADEC alternator and is used for limiting,
scheduling systems, and setting engine speeds.
- N
1
rpm, which comes from the FADEC speed transducer (a transducer is a
device used to transform a pneumatic signal to an electrical one) and is used for
limiting and scheduling systems. It is also used as an alternate mode.
- Compressor-exit temperature (Tt
3
), which comes from the diffuser case, is used
to calculate starting fuel flow. Exhaust-gas temperature (Tt
4.95
), which comes
from the exhaust case, is used for indication.
- Fuel temperature (T
fuel
), which comes from the fuel pump, is used to schedule
the fuel heat-management system.
- Oil temperature (T
oil
),

which comes from the main gearbox, is used to schedule
the fuel heat-management system and to schedule the integrated drive generator
(IDG) oil-cooling system.
- Inlet total temperature (Tt
2
), which comes from the inlet cowl on the wing
engines and the bellmouth on the tail engine. It is used to calculate fuel flow and
rotor speed.
- Inlet total pressure (Pt
2
), which comes from the same sources as Tt
2
, is used to
calculate EPR.
- Exhaust gas pressure (Pt
4.95
),

which comes from the exhaust case, is also used
to calculate EPR.

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- The engine electronic control (EEC) programming plug is used to determine the
engine thrust rating and EPR correction.
- Burner pressure (P
b
), which comes from the diffuser case, is used for limiting and
surge detection. Ambient pressure (P
amb
), which comes from the inlet cowl, is
used to validate altitude and Pt
2
.

Based on information received from its various sources the FADEC will:
1. Monitor, control and protect:
- Anti surge bleed valves/variable stator vanes
- Cooling airflows
- Engine oil cooling and IDG oil cooling
- Nacelle cooling
- Fuel heating
- Starting
- Idle speed
- Acceleration/Deceleration
FADEC Interface With Engine.
Figure 11.29.

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- Stabilised engine operation
- Thrust control including overboost
- Critical speeds and pressures

2. Improve reliability of the engine by:
- A two channel system of control
- An automatic fault detection and logic system
- An automatic fault and compensation system
3. Make maintenance easier by:
- Engine monitoring
- Self test
- Fault isolation
Control Modes
The FADEC has two modes for setting the power of the engine. The EPR mode is
the rated or normal mode, while the N
1
mode is the alternate or fault mode.
Normal Mode. When a thrust-level request is made through the thrust lever, the
throttle-resolver angle (TRA), input causes an EPR command. The FADEC will then
adjust fuel flow so that EPR actual equals EPR command.
The normal or rated power levels are
- Maximum power available (takeoff or maximum continuous)
- Maximum climb
At approximately 78 degrees TRA maximum power available is calculated by the
FADEC. If the altitude is less than approximately 14,100 ft, the FADEC calculates a
takeoff power rating. But if the altitude is greater than 14,100 ft, the FADEC
calculates a rating for maximum continuous power. At approximately 68 degrees
TRA, the FADEC calculates the maximum climb-power rating. To get all other power
levels, except idle, it is necessary to set the thrust lever.
Alternate or N1 Mode.
If the FADEC cannot control in the EPR, or normal mode, it will go to the N
1
mode
and a fault is enunciated . In the N
1
mode, the FADEC schedules fuel flow as a
function of the thrust-lever position, and the TRA input will cause the FADEC to
calculate an N
1
command biased by Mach number, altitude, and Tt
2
. In reverse
thrust, the FADEC goes to the N
1
mode, and N1 is biased by Tt
2
.
Control in the N
1
mode is similar to that of a hydromechanical fuel-control system.
Moving the thrust lever fully forward will cause an overboost of the engine.
N1 mode may be manually selected, but the logic that keeps the thrust at the same
level as it would be in the EPR mode is removed.

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Faul t s
The FADEC has dual electronic channels, each with its own processor, power
supply, program memory, selected input sensors, and output actuators. Power to
each electronic control channel is provided by a dedicated, engine gearbox-driven
alternator. This redundancy provides high operational reliability. No single electronic
malfunction will cause an engine operational problem. Each control channel
incorporates fault identification, isolation, and accommodation logic.
Parameters Sensed and Controls Actuated by an Electronic Engine Control.
Figure 11.30.

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While electronic controls are highly reliable, malfunctions can occur. A hierarchy of
fault-tolerance logic will take care of any single or multiple faults. The logic also
identifies the controlling channel, and if computational capability is lost in the primary
channel, the FADEC automatically switches to the secondary channel. If a sensor is
lost in the primary channel, the secondary channel will supply the information. If data
from the secondary channel is lost, the FADEC will produce usable synthesised
information from the parameters that are available. If there is not enough data
available for synthesising, the control modes switch. For example, if EPR is lost, the
engine will be run on its N
1
ratings.
In the unlikely event both channels of electronic control are lost, the torque motors
are spring-loaded to their fail-safe positions. The fuel flow will go to minimum flow,
the stator vanes will move to fully open, the air-oil cooler will open wide, and the
ACC will shut off.
The FADEC includes extensive self-test routines which are continuously actuated.
BITE, or built-in test equipment, can detect and isolate faults within the EEC and its
input and output devices. The fault words of the control are decoded into English
messages by a maintenance monitor, and they identify the faulty line-replaceable
unit (LRU). In-flight fault data is recorded so it can be recalled during shop repair.
The FADEC is able to isolate problems and indicate whether the fault is within itself
or in a sensor or actuator. In the shop, computer-aided troubleshooting can identify
a fault at the circuit-board level.
EEC Programmi ng Pl ug
The EEC programming plug located on the FADEC "A" channel housing, selects the
applicable schedules within the FADEC for the following:
- Engine thrust rating
- EPR modification data
- Engine performance package
- Variable-stator-vane schedule
- 2.9 bleed-valve thermocouple selection
The EEC programming plug data is input to the FADEC "A" channel, while the "B"
channel EEC programming-plug input is crosswired and crosstalked from the "A"
channel. During test-cell operation, the EPR/thrust relationship is compared, and the
engine gets a correct EEC programming plug. If the FADEC must be replaced, the
EEC programming plug must remain with the engine.
If the engine is started without the EEC programming plug installed, the FADEC
goes to the N
1
mode. But nothing will happen with the FADEC operation if the EEC
programming plug disconnects in flight.

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EEC Programming Plug.
Figure 11.31.

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Pneumati c and El ectri cal Connectors
As shown in Figs:11.32. there are several pneumatic and electrical connectors to
the FADEC. The four pneumatic inputs are as follows:
1. Pt
4.95
This input comes from two combination Pt4.95/Tt4.95 probes, located on
the turbine exhaust case, and goes to FADEC port "P
5
." For all pressure inputs a
transducer in the FADEC changes the pressure signal into an electric signal and
sends this signal to both channels.
2. Pt
2
This input comes from the Pt
2
/Tt
2
probe located in the inlet duct.
3. P
b
This input comes from a static pressure port in the diffuser case to measure
burner pressure.
4. P
am-
This input comes from two screened static pressure ports located on the inlet
cowl outer surface.
FADEC Electrical and Pneumatic Connections.
Figure 11.32.

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Alternator.
The alternator provides the FADEC with power and an N
2
speed signal. It also
sends N
2
information to the flight deck.

FADEC Alternator
Figure 11.33.

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Speed Transducer. The speed transducer supplies the FADEC "A" and "B" channels
with the N
1
signal by sensing the frequency at which the 60 teeth on the low-
pressure compressor/low-pressure turbine (LPC/LPT) coupling pass by them.

Temperature Probes.
A dual-element, alumel-chromel thermocouple, located on the top right side of the
fuel pump, provides the FADEC with information relating to fuel heating and engine
oil cooling. Oil Temperature Probes. Two other similar devices inform the FADEC
about scavenge oil temperature and No. 3 bearing-oil temperature, and provide
input for engine oil cooling-system control, oil-temperature warning indication, and
IDG oil-cooling override.
Tt
3
Temperature Probe.
This dual-element probe is located on the diffuser case and provides the FADEC
with information for heat-soaked engine start logic.

FADEC Speed Transducer
Figure 11.34.

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Tt14
.95
Temperature Probes.
Four thermocouples measure EGT and send their signal to the thermocouple
junction box and then to the FADEC. The temperature sense is used only for input
to the indication system. There is no EGT limiting function in the FADEC.

Exhaust Gas Pressure Probes.
The two probes measure Pt
14.95
pressure, are manifolded together, and send their
averaged pressure to the FADEC.
FADEC Fuel and Oil Temperature Thermocouples.
Figure 20.35.

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FADEC Exhaust Gas Temperature and Pressure Probes.
Figure 11.37.
FADEC T
6
Probe and Exhaust Gas Temperature J unction Box
Figure 11.36.

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Pt
2
/Tt
2
Probe. The inlet pressure/temperature probe supplies the FADEC with
engine-inlet pressure and temperature information. The pressure sensor is a total
pressure probe that sends its signal to both FADEC channels. The temperature
sensor is a dual-element resistance type. One element sends its signal to the "A"
channel, while the other sends its signal to the "B" channel. The probe is
continuously electrically heated.
Pt
2
/Tt
2
Probe.
Figure 11.38.

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Automatic Turbine Rotor Clearance Control System
The automatic turbine rotor clearance control system also known as the turbine case
cooling system, controls and distributes fan air to cool and shrink the HPT and LPT
cases. This process increases efficiency by reducing turbine tip clearance for
takeoff, climb, and cruise operation. The FADEC commands the system operation to
a schedule determined by altitude and N
2
.

Turbi ne Vane and Bl ade Cool i ng System
The turbine vane and blade cooling system (TVBCS) optimises engine performance
during cruise by controlling 12th-stage cooling airflow to the HPT and LPT areas.
This system is also controlled by the FADEC as a function of altitude and N
2
.
Additionally, the FADEC receives a feedback signal from the TVBCS right valve.
Turbine Case Cooling System.
Figure 11.39.

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FADEC Controlled Active Tip Clearance System
Figure 11.40.

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Turbine Vane and Blade Cooling System.
Figure 11.41.

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A Pressure Control System for a Turbo Prop Engine (Dart)
Figure 11.42

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Figure 11.43.
A Pressure Control System for a Turbo-J et Engine (Adour).

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A Proportional Flow Control System (Avon).
Figure 11.44.

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Combined Acceleration and
Speed Control.(Spey & Tay).
Figure 11.45.

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Combined Speed and Acceleration Control with Air Bleed Control. ( ALF502.)
Figure 11.46.

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Figure 11.47.

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