Mathematics 17 1

st
Sem AY 2014-2015
Handout 1: Sets and Real Numbers LHBMonterde, 2014
I. SET THEORY
Def. A set is a well-dened collection of objects. These objects are called the elements of the set. The cardinality of
a set A, denoted |A| or n(A), is the number of elements of A. A set is finite if it is possible to list all its elements.
Otherwise, it is infinite.
Specifying Sets:
1. Roster Method - elements of a set are enumerated and identical elements are counted once.
2. Rule Method - elements of a set are described.
Notations:
1. A, . . . , Z - Capital Letters signify names of sets
2. a, . . . , z - Denotes elements of a set
3. {. . .} - Specifying a set
4. ; / - Element; Not an element
Def. The null set or empty set, denoted or {}, is the set containing no elements.
Def. A universal set U for a set A is the set consisting of all elements under consideration wrt the set A. Sometimes,
this is called a reference set.
A. SET RELATIONS
Let A, B be arbitrary sets, be the empty set and U be a universal set for A.
1. A is a subset of B, denoted A B, if and only if all elements of A are in B
2. A is a proper subset of B, denoted A B, if A B and A = B.
3. The power set of A, denoted by P(A) or 2
A
, is the set of all the subsets of A, i.e., P(A) = { X | X A }.
4. Sets A and B are equal, denoted A = B, if have the same elements. Otherwise, A = B.
5. Two sets A and B are equivalent, denoted A

= B, if and only if they can be put into a one-to-one correspondence.
6. Two sets A and B are disjoint if and only if they have no common elements. Sets A
1
, A
2
, . . ., A
n
are
pairwise/mutually disjoint if every pair of sets A
i
and A
j
are disjoint, i = j.
B. SET OPERATIONS
Let A and B be two sets.
1. The union of A and B, denoted A B, is the combination of all elements of A and B. Using rule method, we
have A B = { x | x A or x B }.
2. The intersection of A and B, denoted A B, is the set of all common elements of A and B. Using rule method,
we have A B = { x | x A and x B }.
3. The difference of set A from set B, denoted A B, is the set of elements in A which are not in B. By rule
method, AB = { x | x A and x / B }.
4. For a given universal set U for a set A, the complement of A, denoted A
c
or A

, is the set of all objects in U which

are not in A. Using rule method, we have A
c
= { x | x U and x / A }.
5. The Cartesian Product of nonempty sets A and B, denoted A B, is the set of ordered pairs (x, y) such that
x A and y B. Using rule method, A B = { (x, y) | x A and y B }. One trivial example of a cartesian
product is R
2
= R R or the cartesian coordinate plane.
6. De Morgan

s Laws
1. (A B)
c
= A
c
B
c
2. (A B)
c
= A
c
B
c
3. (A
1
A
2
. . . A
n
)
c
= A
c
1
A
c
2
. . . A
c
n
4. (A
1
A
2
. . . A
n
)
c
= A
c
1
A
c
2
. . . A
c
n
II. The Real Number System
Subsets of R
1. The set of rational numbers, denoted Q, is the set of numbers that can be expressed as a quotient of two integers
with nonzero divisor. Using rule method, we have Q = {
a
b
| a, b Z, b = 0 }.
2. The set of irrational numbers, denoted Q

, is the complement of Q in R. Two of the most special irrational

numbers are = 3.1416... and e = 2.718....
3. The Set of Real Numbers, denoted R, is the set R = QQ

. This is geometrically represented by the straight line

called the real line which can be viewed as a continuum of real numbers.
Axioms on R
1. (Closure on + and *) If a, b R, then a + b R and ab R.
2. (Comutativity of + and *) If a, b R, then a + b = b + a and ab = ba.
3. (Associativity of + and *) If a, b, c R, then (a + b) + c = a + (b + c) and a(bc) = (ab)c.
4. (DPMS) If a, b, c R, then a(b + c) = ab + ac.
5. (Existence of Identity Elements (Additive and Multiplicative). The numbers 0, 1 R are the additive and multi-
plicative identities of R)
6. (Existence of Inverse Elements under + and *) For every real number a, a is its additive inverse. Also, for every
nonzero real number a,
1
a
is its multiplicative inverse.
Properties of Equality
1. (Reexivity) For every real number a, a = a.
2. (Symmetry) For all real numbers a, b, if a = b, then b = a.
3. (Transitivity) For all real numbers a, b, c, if a = b and b = c, then a = b = c.
4. (Addition Property of Equality) For all real numbers a, b, c, if a = b, then a + c = b + c.
5. (Multiplication Property of Equality) For all real numbers a, b, c, if a = b, then ac = bc.
Axioms on the Ordering of R
Geometrically, if a < b, then a is on the left of b or b is on the right of a on the real line.
1. (Trichotomy Property) For any two real numbers a, b, only one of the following is true: a > b, a = b or a < b.
2. (Transitivity) For any real numbers a, b, c, if a < b and b < c then a < c
3. (Addition Property of Inequality) For any real numbers a, b, c, if a < b then a + c < b + c.
4. (Multiplication Property of Inequality) Suppose a, b, c are real numbers such that a < b. If c > 0 then ac < bc. If
c < 0 then ac > bc.
We are what we repeatedly do. Excellence, then, is not an act, but a habit.
- Aristotle