A Selected Chronology of Computer Art: Exhibitions, Publications, and Technology

Author(s): Copper Giloth and Lynn Pocock-Williams

Reviewed work(s):
Source: Art Journal, Vol. 49, No. 3, Computers and Art: Issues of Content (Autumn, 1990),
pp. 283-297
Published by: College Art Association
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/777121 .
Accessed: 18/05/2012 18:50
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact support@jstor.org.
College Art Association is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to Art Journal.
http://www.jstor.org
A Selected
Chronology of
ComputerA rt: Exhibitions,
Publications, and Technology
ByCopper
Gilothand
Lynn
Pocock-Williams
he f ollowingtimeline presentsahis-
torical review of
computer
art f rom
1960 to1990 withan
encapsulated
sum-
mary
of
technologicaldevelopments
f rom
the
preceding
f if teen
years.
To
provide
a
contextinwhichtosee
computerart,
each
year
inthetimeline hasbeensubdivided
intothree
categories: exhibitions,
publica-
tions,
and
technology.Following
thetime
lineisaselected
bibliography
of exhibition
catalogues, books,
and
articles,
and a
glossary
of commontechnicalterms. Due
tolimitationsof
space,
itis
possible
tolist
only
a selection of exhibitions and
publications.
The
chronology
of technical achieve-
mentsismeantto
give
anoverviewof the
most
signif icant
events. While datesare
given
as
specif ically
as
possible
f orthe
introductionof these
technologies,many
are
onlyapproximate.
There are several
reasonsf or
this; many
of the
technologies
wereborrowedf romotherf ieldsandtheir
true
origins
are theref oresomewhatob-
scure. A nother
complication
arisesf rom
the f actthat
many
of theideaswere"in-
vented" severaltimesf ordif f erentclasses
of
problems;
thatis,
anewideawascom-
monly
triedf irst inaresearchenviron-
ment,
thenmodif iedf oruse
bycomputer
prof essionals,
andthen
changedagain
be-
f ore
being
madeavailabletoartists.
Givencurrentconcernswith
taking
art
in
context,
itseems
impossible
andunwise
to
separateany
artf romits
economic,
his-
torical,social,
political,
orethnic
context;
likewise,
itisinadvisableto
try
to
separate
computer
artf rom
technologicaldevelop-
mentandtheintellectual
history
it
imple-
mentsandinf luences. Thetimelineisan
attempt
to
presentcomputer
artasa
part
of
theinterrelated
cycle
of
technological
in-
novation->
application
of
technology
---
ef f ect onculture
->
technologicaloppor-
tunitiesf orartists
->
experimentation
->
art
theorizing
->
education
->
intellectual
evolutionof culture
->
technological
inno-
vation,
andaround
again. Byplacing
this
inf ormationinatimelinewe
hope
toreveal
connectionsbetweenthe entriesand
pro-
vide a
startingpoint
f orf urther
personal
investigationby
the reader.
Finally,
the
timelineismeantto
promote
communica-
tionabout events
happening
indif f erent
international cultures and within the
realmsof
art,science,
and
technology.
Researchf orthe
technologyportion
of
thetimelineandthe
glossary
wasdone
by
Chris
Dobbs;
otherswhocontributedin-
clude Jane
Veeder,
JustinP.
West,
Patric
Prince,
Suzan
Shutan,
Tekla
McInerey,
and
TerryGips.
TimeLine
Note: A nasterisk af teranexhibition
listing
meansthata
catalogue
was
produced.Complete
citationsf orexhibition
catalogues,articles,
andbooks
appear
inthe
bibliography.
A dditionalbooksandarticlesarelistedinthe
bibliography
butnotmentionedinthetimeline.
V
Technology
1945
ElectronicNumerical
Integrator
A nd
Computer(ENIA C)
is
completed(devel-
opedby
JohnW.
Mauchly
andJ.
Presper
Eckert)-the
f irst
general-purposef ully
electronic
computer.
1946
First
pointplotters
are
developedby
Electronics
A ssociates,
Inc.
Xeroxmodel
D, f irstcommercial
dry
copier,
ismarketed.
"LightGun," precursor
of the
lightpen,
is
developedby
the
military
f orthe
Whirlwind
project.
1950
RCA
develops
aversionof colortelevi-
sion
compatible
withblack-and-white
technology(to
become
NTSC).
1951
CRTs
begin
tobeusedas
output
devices
f or
computers.
1952
Ben
Laposkyphotographs
an
image
f rom
an
analog
screen.
1954
D. Rosscreates
"ScopeInputProgram"
onWhirlwind,thef irst
example
of f ree-
hand
drawing
witha
computer.
mid-1950s
Line
drawingplotters
are
developedby
Benson-LehnerandElectronicA ssoci-
ates,Inc.
1959
MassachusettsInstituteof
Technology
(MIT)
LincolnLabs
develops
f irst
light
pen
f ortheTX-2
computer.
late 1950s
Calif ornia
Computer
Products
(CA L-
COMP) developsplottersusingstepping
motorsand
moving-paper/f ixed-pen
designs.
Fall 1990 283
V
Publications
Dennis
Gabor,"Inventing
theFuture."
V
Technology
W. Clark andC. Molnarof MIT
design
theLINC
(Laboratory
Instrument
Computer)-the
f irstwork station.
V
Technology
L. Roberts
develops
thef irst
practical
hidden-lineremoval
algorithm.
I'd
V
Technology
John
Kemeny
andThomasKurtz
develop
BA SIC
(Beginner'sA ll-PurposeSym-
bolic Instruction
Code) programming
language.
DouglasEngelbart
inventsthemouse.
V
Technology
WilliamFettercoinstheterm
"computer
graphics"
toref erto
plotterdrawings.
I. Sutherland
develops
his
"Sketchpad"
system,
thef irst
truly
interactive
computer-graphics system.
A SCII
(A merican
StandardCodef orIn-
f ormation
Interchange)
isestablishedasa
standard.
Rand
Corporationdevelops
thef irst
posi-
tioning
tablet.
KennethKnowltonwrites
BEFLIX,
the
f irst
general-purposeprogramming
lan-
guage
f or
computer
animation.
V
Exhibitions
"Maughan
S.
Mason,
BelaJuleszand
Michael
Noll,"
Las
Vegas,
Nev.: Fall
Joint
Computer
Conf erence.
"NamJunePaik: Electronic
A rt,"
New
York: GaleriaBonino.*
"Georg
NeesandFrieder
Nake,"
Stutt-
gart:
NiedlichsGalerie.
"WorldExhibitionof
Computer
Graphics,"
New York: HowardWise
Gallery.
VPublications
GyorgyKepes,ed.,
StructureinA rtand
Science.
Kenneth
Knowlton,"Computer-Produced
Movies."
Marshall
McLuhan,Understanding
Media: TheExtensions
of
Man.
V
Technology
Sony
releases
Portapak,
thef irst
inexpen-
sive,nonbroadcast-quality, portable
black-and-whitevideocamera.
Frieder
Nake,Hommage
toPaul
Klee,1965,
silkscreenon
paper,
20 x 20 inches. Privatecollection.
A rtJournal
284
VExhibitions
"P.
Hertwig,
K.
A lsleben,
FriederNake
and
GeorgNees,"
Frankf urt am
Main,
Germany:
Galeried.
VPublications
A llon
Schoener,
"2066 andA LLThat."
EA T
News,
newsletterof
Experiments
in
A rtand
Technology,
isf ounded.
V
Publications
Exakte
A sthetik,special
issueon"A rt
f romthe
Computer."
EdmundC.
Berkeley,"Computer
A rt:
Turning
Point."
MichaelNoll, "The
DigitalComputer
as
aCreativeMedium."
VExhibitions
"CyberneticSerendipity:
The
Computer
andthe
A rts,"
London: Instituteof Con-
temporary
A rt.*
"OnthePathto
ComputerA rt,"
Berlin:
the
parallelgroup
in
conjunction
witha
joint
conf erenceof MITandtheTechni-
cal
University,
Berlin.
"SomeMore
Beginnings:
A nExhibition
of SubmittedWorks
Involving
Technical
Materialsand
Processes,"
New York:
Brooklyn
Museum.*
"The
Machine,
asSeenattheEndof the
Mechanical
A ge,"
NewYork: Museum
of Moder A rt.*
VPublications
Jack
Burnham,Beyond
Modern
Sculp-
ture: The
Ef f ectsof
ScienceandTechnol-
ogy
onthe
Sculptureof
This
Century.
Kawano
Hiroshi,
"TheA estheticf or
Computer
A rt."
DouglasDavis,
"A rtand
Technology:
TheNew Combine."
Leonardo
beginspublication.(Numerous
articleson
computer
arthave
appeared
in
this
journal,
whichcontinuestobe
published.)
V
Technology
OkiElectric
IndustryCompany
of
Japan
develops
adot-matrix
printer
inorderto
produce
Orientalcharacters.
Ilf ordintroducestheCibachrome
process.
Robert
MallarydevelopsTRA N2,
the
f irst
program
f orthe
computer-aided
de-
sign
of
sculpture.
First
attempts
at2-D animationsof tware
take
place.
V
Technology
Experiments
inA rtand
Technology
(EA T)
isf ounded
by
RobertRauschen-
berg
and
Billy
Kliiver
(physicist
inlaser
researchatBell
Labs)
to
promote
collab-
orations
by
artistsandscientists.
EA lterioandR.
Dunlarey
of
Teletype
CorporationdevelopInktronic,
thef irst
ink-jetprinter.
V
Technology
Centerf orA dvancedVisualStudies
(CA VS)
isestablishedatMIT
byGyorgy
Kepes
to
provide
collaborativeenviron-
mentf orartistsandscientists.
R. MastersandH. Fretheimof Control
Data
Corporationdevelop
f irsttouch-
sensitivescreen.
Robert
Mallary,QuadIII,1968,
laminatedwood
veneer,
86 x 16 x 16 inches. Privatecollection.
Fall 1990 285
V
Exhibitions
"Computerkunst-On
theEveof Tomor-
row," Hanover,Munich,Hamburg,Oslo,
Brussels,Rome,
and
Tokyo.
"Event
One,"
London:
Computer
A rts
Society.
GalerieFranzius-a
galleryspecializing
in
computer-graphics
art-is f oundedin
Munich.
"Tendencija4," Zagreb:
Museumof
ModemA rt.
VExhibitions
"ComputerGraphicsExhibition,"
Mad-
rid: MathematicalInstituteof theUniver-
sity
of Madrid.
"InteractiveSoundandVisual
Systems,"
Columbus:
College
of
A rts,
OhioState
University.
*
"Sof tware,
Inf ormation
Technology:
Its
New
Meaning
f or
A rt,"
NewYork:
JewishMuseum.*
Venice
Biennale,
includes
computer-
graphics
works
by
A .
Lecci,
Frieder
Nake,GeorgNees,
H. Ph.
Peterson,
Her-
bert
Franke,
andthe
ComputerTechnique
Group
of
Japan.
V
Publications
John
Canaday,
"Less
A rt,
More
Computer."
Gunther
Pf eif f er,
"A rtand
Computer."
Jasia
Reichardt,
The
Computer
inA rt.
Gene
Youngblood,Expanded
Cinema.
V
Technology
Popularity
of raster
displaysincreases;
vector
displays
decrease.
Color
videotape
recordersbecome
available.
NamJunePaik and
Shuya
A be
develop
Paik/A bevideo
synthesizer.
VPublications
Walter
Benjamin,
"TheWork of A rtin
the
A ge
of Mechanical
Reproduction"
(1955) appears
inf irst
English
translation.
Robert
Mallary,"ComputerSculpture:
SixLevelsof
Cybernetics."
ColletteandCharles
Bangert,
Land
Lines,1970,
computerplotter
andink
drawing
on
paper,
32 x 23 inches. Privatecollection.
VExhibitions
"A rteonica,"
SaoPaulo.
"A rte
yCiberetica,"
BuenosA ires:
CentrodeEstudiosdeA rte
y
Comunicacion.
"EighthEuropean
Systems-Engineering
Symposium,"
Madrid: Palaciode
Oriente.
*
"Exhibitionof
ComputerA rt,"
Kansas
City,
Mo.: Nelson
Gallery
of A rt.
"Manf redMohr:
ComputerGraphics,"
Paris: Museed'A rtModere.
"Technicsand
Creativity,"
New York:
Museumof Moder A rt.*
VPublications
Jack
Burham,
"Problemsof Criticism:
A rtand
Technology."
HerbertW.
Franke,ComputerGraphics,
Computer
A rt.
Jasia
Reichardt,ed.,
Cybernetics,A rt,
andIdeas.
John
Whitney,
"A
Computer
A rtf orthe
VideoPictureWall."
V
Technology
First
microprocessor
is
developedby
Intel.
MichaelNoll
develops
f irstrandom-
accessf ramebuf f er.
ThomasDef anti
develops
GRA SS
(GraphicsSymbiosisSystem),
thef irst
easy-to-program
animation
language.
286 A rtJournal
VExhibitions
"Grenzgebiete
derbildenden
Kunst,"
Stuttgart: Staatsgalerie.
"MultipleInteraction," Chicago:
Museumof Scienceand
Industry.*
V
Exhibitions
"A rt
yComputadoras,"
BuenosA ires:
organizedbyJorgeGlusberg
as
part
of
thef irstInternational Conf erenceon
Computing
intheHumanities
(ICCH)
(held
alsoin1975 and
1977).
"A rtet
l'ordinateur," Bordeaux,
France.
"TheFirstInternational Festivalof Com-
puterA rt,"
New York: TheKitchen.
VExhibitions
"A esthetik alsInf ormationsverar-
beitung,"
ViennaandNew York.
"A rtet
inf ormatique," A ngers,
France.
"Bat-Sheva-SeminarontheInteractionof
A rtand
Science,"
Jerusalem.
"International Exhibitionof
Computer
Graphics,"
Montreal: Museumof Fine
A rts.*
VPublications
Sonia
LandySheridan,
"Generative
Systems."
"Interaction,
Machine: Man:
Society,"
Edinburgh: Computer
A rt
Society.
VPublications
DouglasDavis,
A rtandtheFuture: A
History/Prophecyof
theCollaborationbe-
tween
Science,Technology
andA rt.
WilliamNewmanandRobert
Sproull,
Principlesof
Interactive
Computer
Graphics.
VPublications
Stewart
Kranz,
Scienceand
Technology
intheA rts: A Tour
through
theRealm
of
Science/A rt.
V
Technology
NolandBushnellinventsPONG-the
f irst
videogame;
hef oundsA tari.
DanSandinbuildsthe
Image
Processor
anddistributes
plans
f orthisuser-built
artist-orientedvideo
synthesizer.
V
Technology
Videodiscs
developed.
ThomasDeFantiandDanSandinestab-
lishtheElectronicVisualizationLabat
the
University
of Illinoisat
Chicago.
V
Technology
Bally
introduces"Baseball" and"Gun-
f ight,"
thef irst
videogames
withani-
matedhumancharacters.
Sony
introducestheMavica
(Magnetic
Video
Card)
VideoCardand
Player-
precursor
of MavicaVideodisc.
First
attempts
at3-D
modeling
andani-
mationsof twaretake
place.
VExhibitions
"B.
Bek,
V.
Ziljak," Zagreb: Galerija
Suvremene
Umjetnosti.
"FirstElectronicVisualization
Event,"
Chicago: University
of IllinoisatChi-
cago
Circle
(interactivecomputerperf or-
mancesarealsoheldin1976 and
1978).
VPublications
James
Gips,Shape
GrammarsandTheir
Uses:
A rtif icialPerception,Shape
Gener-
ationand
Computer
A esthetics.
GeorgeStiny,
PictorialandFormalA s-
pectsof Shape
and
Shape
Grammars.
V
Technology
Betamax-f irst homehalf -inchvideo-
cassetterecorder-is introduced.
First
trulypersonalcomputer,
A ltair
Microcomputer,
becomesavailablef or
$350.
A lvyRay
Smith
(at
New York Instituteof
Technology) developsPA INT,
the
proto-
type
of most
moder paintprograms.
BenoitMandelbrot
beginsdevelopment
of themathematicsof f ractal
geometry.
Manf red
Mohr,
P-155CubicLimit,1974-76,
silkscreen
on
paper,
27/2 x 271/2inches. Privatecollection.
Fall 1990 287
V
Publications
Ruth
Leavitt,ed.,
A rtistand
Computer.
RobertRussettandCecile
Starr,Experi-
mentalA nimation:
Originsof
aNewA rt.
V
Technology
SteveJobsandSteveWozniak
develop
the
A pple
I andf ound
A ppleCorporation.
JamesBlinn
develops"bump-mapping"
algorithm
f or
mapping
textureontovir-
tualsurf aces.
Society
of MotionPictureandTelevision
Engineers(SMPTE)
f orms
High-
Def initionTelevision
(HDTV) study
group.
VExhibitions
"Computer
Genesis: A Visionof the
'70's," Syracuse,
N.Y.: Joeand
Emily
LoweA rt
Gallery,SyracuseUniversity.*
"L'Ordinateur et lesarts
visuels,"
Paris:
SwedishCulturalCenter.
VExhibitions
"A rtandthe
Computer," Worcester,
Mass.: WorcesterA rtMuseum.
"A rtisteet
inf ormatique,"
Paris: Swedish
CulturalCenter.
"EnergizedA rtscience," Chicago:
Mu-
seumof Scienceand
Industry.*
"TheVasulka's: Steina: Machine
Vision;
Woody: Description," Buf f alo,
N.Y.:
A lbright-Knox
A rt
Gallery.
VPublications
Charles
Csuri,
"3-D
Computer
A nimation."
VPublications
ComputerGraphics
World
begins
publication.
V
Technology
ThomasDeFanti
developsZGRA SS,
a
programminglanguage
f orartistsand
educators.
Magnavox
introducesthelaser-videodisc
player.
V
Technology
A pple
introducesthe
A pple
II.
A lan
Kay
andA dele
Goldberg
of Xerox
PaloA ltoResearchCenter
(PA RC) pub-
lish"Personal
DynamicMedia," which
introducestheideaof the
"Dynabook"
andcontainsthe
original
ideasembodied
intheMacintosh.
Victor
Company
introducesVHS
(Video
Home
System)
f ormat.
Half -inchvideocassettes
emerge
asthe
consumerf ormatof choice.
"SpaceInvaders," "A steroids," and
"PacMan"
spark
the
videogame
craze.
A spen
Movie
MapProject-a
videodisc-
based
project
thatallowsausertodrive
aroundadatabaseof
A spen,
turncor-
ners,changeseasons,
and
go
into
buildings-is designedby
A rchitecture
Machine
Group
atMIT.
VExhibitions
"A rs
Electronica," Linz,
A ustria: Inter-
nationalBrucknerFestivalisinitiatedand
continuesasa
yearly
event.
"A rtisteet
ordinateur,"
Paris: Swedish
CulturalCenter.
"CyberneticSymbiosis," Berkeley:
Law-
renceHall of Science.
VPublications
Frank J.
Malina,ed.,
VisualA rt,Mathe-
maticsand
Computers:
Selections
f rom
theJournalLeonardo.
V
Technology
ScitexColor
System-allowing
f orelec-
tronic
image
color
correction,
text
input,
and
layoutdesign
and
manipulation-is
developed.
LarryCuba,lwoSpace,1979,
still f rametromhilm.
288 A rtJournal
VExhibitions
"A rtIn/A rt
Out," Chicago:
Ukrainian
Instituteof ModemA rt.
"International FestivalvoorElek-
tronische
Muziek,
Videoen
Computer
A rt,"
Brussels.
"VideoA rt: TheElectronic
Medium,"
Chicago:
Museumof
Contemporary
A rt.
"Struycken:
Structures-Elements
1969-1980,"
Rotterdam: Museum
Boymans-vanBeuningen.*
VPublications
David
Topper
andJohnH.
Holloway,
"Interrelationships
betweenVisual
A rts,
Scienceand
Technology:
A
Bibliography."
John
Whitney,DigitalHarmony:
Onthe
Complementarity of
MusicandVisual
A rt.
V
Technology
TurnerWhitted
develops
f irst
ray
tracer.
3Mof f ersScan-A -Muralservice.
Quantel
introducesitsf irst
digital
video-
ef f ectsdevice.
First
"Symposium
onSmall
Computers
intheA rts" isheldin
Philadelphia.
VExhibitions
"Computer
Culture
81,"
Toronto: On-
tario
College
of A rt.
"HighTechnology
A rt: A
Congressional
Exhibition," Washington,
D.C.:
Library
of
Congress.
"SIGGRA PH '81 A rtShow" is
inaugu-
ratedinDallas.
(Exhibitions
arenowan-
nual
events,
sometimeswitha
special
f ocus. A
catalogue
andaslideset are
produced.)
VPublications
Symposium
onSmall
Computers
inthe
A rts
(f irst
conf erence
proceedings).
V
Technology
IBMintroducesthePC.
MusicTelevision
(MTV),
thef irst24-
hoursatellite-distributedcable-television
program
basedonthevisual
interpreta-
tionof
popular
music
("rock videos"),
is
introduced.
Bill
Viola,
HatuYume(First
Dream),1981,
still f ramef rom
video.
Courtesy
Museumof Modem
A rt,
New York.
DarcyGerbarg,MayI, 1981,
ceramic
tiles,
100 x50 inches.
Collectionof theartist.
Fall 1990 289
VExhibitions
"A rtandthe
Computer,"
New York:
Hansen
Gallery.
"A rtists/Computers/A rt,"
London: Can-
adaHouse
Gallery;
Paris: CentreCulturel
Canadien.
*
"L'A rtet
l'ordinateur,"
Paris:
Compag-
nieInternationalede Serviceen
Inf ormatique.
"NamJune
Paik,"
New York:
Whitney
Museumof A mericanA rt.*
VExhibitions
"The
Computer
andItsInf luenceonA rt
and
Design," Lincoln,
Nebr.: Sheldon
MemorialA rt
Gallery.
*
"DIGICON'83"- International Conf er-
enceof
ComputerA rts,
Vancouver.
"Electra: L'Electriciteet
l'6lectronique
dansl'artauXXe
siecle,"
Paris: Musee
d'A rtModere delaVilledeParis.*
"Exhibitionof
ComputerGraphics
in
CollaborationwithSIGGRA PH '83 Ex-
hibitionof
ComputerA rt," Tokyo:
Isetan
Museumand
Hakuhodo,
Inc.*
"Exposition
d'art
photo/electrique,"
La
Chartreuse,Villeneuve-les-A vignon,
France:
Computer
Culture.*
VPublications
Jean
Baudrillard,
Simulations.
Hal
Foster,ed.,
TheA nti-A esthetic:
Essays
onPostmodernCulture.
Lucinda
Furlong,
"NotestowardaHis-
tory
of
Image-Processed
Video: Eric
Siegel, StephenBeck,
Dan
Sandin,
Steve
Rutt,
Bill andLouiseEtra."
Grace
Glueck,
"Portraitof anA rtistasa
YoungComputer."
MyronKrueger,A rtif icialReality.
RobertScott
Root-Bernstein,"Paradigms
andRevolutionsinScienceandA rt: The
Challenge
of
Interpretation."
Gene
Youngblood,"Computer
A rtasa
Way
of Lif e."
V
Technology
A pple
introducesLISA
(Local Integrated
Sof tware
A rchitecture)
and
A ppleIIe.
VPublications
Donald
Greenberg,
A aron
Marcus,
A llan
H.
Schmidt,
andVernon
Gorter,
The
ComputerImage.
Yochiro
Kawaguchi,Digital Image.
V
Technology
A mpex
introducestheA DO
digital-
video-ef f ects
device,
thef irst
system
able
tomovetwo-dimensional
images
inthree
dimensions.
The
Sony
Mavica-the f irststill-video
cameratobe abletostore
images
ona
magnetic
disc-is invented.
A lyce Kaprow,Fazes,1983,photograph,
16 x 20 inches. Privatecollection.
290 A rtJournal
VExhibitions
"A rtistasa
YoungMachine,"
Toronto:
OntarioScienceCenter.
"CA DRE'84," San
Jose,
Calif .: San
JoseState
University
A rt
Department.*
"Immagini
da
Computer,
Mostradi
ComputerGraf ica," Prato,Italy.*
VPublications
Stan
A ugarten,
Bit
by
Bit: A nIllustrated
Historyof Computers.
HerbertW.
Franke,Computergraf ik-
Galerie;
Bildernach
Programm:
Kunst
imelektronischenZeitalter.
HiroshiInoseandJohn
Peirce,Inf orma-
tion
Technology
andCivilization.
Judy
E.
Sachter,
"TheBasic
Concepts
of
Three-Dimensional
ComputerGraphics
f orA rtists."
Lee
Silverman,
"Insidethe
Loop:
Com-
puterGraphics
withinthe
Technological
Highway."
Brian
Wallis,ed.,
A rt
af ter
Modernism:
RethinkingRepresentation.
Thomas
Def anti,
"TheMass
Impact
of
VideogameTechnology."
V
Technology
A pple
introducestheMacintoshwitha
commercialthat
emphasizes
itstotal-
itariancontrolof inf ormation. This60-
second
spot
airs
only
oncebutis
replayed
asanewsitem.
Canonintroducesthef irstconsumer-
gradelaser-printengine.
IBM
develops
aone-million-bitRA M
(random-accessmemory).
Mitsubishivideo
printer
is
introduced;
it
prints
black-and-white
images
f rom
video
signals.
Wavef ront
Technologies
introducesf irst
comprehensive,commercially
available
sof tware
systemincorporatingmodeling,
motion
choreography,
and
rendering.
(A ll
3-D animationsof twarehadbeen
available
only
inresearchareasof indus-
try
and
academia.)
I,3_
VExhibitions
"TheA rtistandthe
Computer
II,"
Louisville,Ky.:
LouisvilleA rt
Gallery.*
"EmergingExpressions,"
New York:
BronxMuseumof theA rts.
"SIGGRA PH
Traveling
A rtShow
1985,"
Tokyo: Hakuhodo,
Inc.*
VPublications
RoyA scott, "Concerning
Netsand
Spurs."
Katherine
Dieckmann,
"Electra
Myths:
Video,Modernism,
Postmodernism."
Frank
Dietrich,
"Visual
Intelligence:
The
FirstDecadeof
Computer
A rt
(1965-1975)."
Lucinda
Furlong,"Tracking
VideoA rt:
'ImageProcessing'
asaGenre."
Copper
GilothandJane
Veeder,
"The
PaintProblem."
JoanL.
Kirsch,
"WhenWill
Computer
A rtBe Taken
Seriously?"
Barbara
London,
"Video: A Selected
Chronology,
1963-1983."
Joachim
Schmid,
"TheElectronicPho-
tographer
is
Coming."
Visual
Computerbeginspublication.
V
Technology
A miga
PCisintroducedandused
by
many
artistsandeducatorsasa
personal
instrument.
Jane
Veeder,Vizgame,1985,
videoscreen
image
interactiveinstallation. Collectionof
theartist.
Fall 1990 291
V
Exhibitions
"artware: Kunstund
Elektronik,"
Han-
over: MesseA G andSiemensA G
(f irst
exhibition;
othersin
1987,1988,1989,
1990).*
"The
Computer
asanA rt
Tool,"
Green-
wich,
Conn.: Hurlbutt
Gallery.
"ImagesDigital: Computer
A rtistsin
Germany,"
Munich: Galerieder
Kuenstler.
*
VPublications
Rene
Berger
and
LloydEby,eds.,
A rt
and
Technology.
NancyBurson,
Richard
Carling,
and
David
Kramlich,Composites: Computer-
GeneratedPortraits.
IsaacVictorKerlowandJudsonRose-
bush,ComputerGraphicsf orDesigners
andA rtists.
R.
Lucas,"Evolving
A estheticCriteria
f or
Computer-Generated
A rt."
V
Technology
Megaprint,
a
laser-scanningcomputer-
airbrush
system,produces
billboard-scale
prints.
VExhibitions
"Computer
A ssisted: The
Computer
in
ContemporaryA rt," Reading,
Pa.:
Freedman
Gallery,A lbrightCollege.*
"Computers
and
A rt," Syracuse:
Ever-
sonMuseumof A rt.
"TheInteractive
Image," Chicago:
Mu-
seumof Scienceand
Industry.
"TheSecond
EmergingExpression
Bien-
nial: TheA rtistand
Computer,"
New
York: BronxMuseumof theA rts.*
VPublications
CynthiaGoodman,Digital
Visions.
Hal
Foster,ed.,
DiscussionsinContem-
porary
Culture: NumberOne.
Catherine
Richards,
"Virtual
Worlds,
DigitalImages."
V
Technology
A pple
introducestheMacII.
Scannersf orPCsbecomeavailable.
A T&TshowsthePixel MachineatSIG-
GRA PH,demonstrating
its
capability
to
manipulateray-tracedobjects
inreal
time.
Hypercard-apersonal-computerimple-
mentationof
hypermediaconcepts-is
released
byA pple.
SMPTE
WorkingGroup
on
High-
Def initionElectronicProduction
gives
unanimousendorsementtothe1125/60
HDTV
production
standard.
TheFine
A rt,Science,
and
Technology
(F.A .S.T.)
ElectronicBulletinBoardis
f ounded
byRay
Laau7zana attheUniver-
sity
of MassachusettsatA mherst.
VExhibitions
"Computers
and
A rt,"
New York: IBM
Gallery
of ScienceandA rt.
"DigitalPhotography: CapturedImages,
Volatile
Memory,
andNew
Montage,"
SanFrancisco: SF Camerawork.*
VPublications
TimothyBinkley,
"CameraFantasia."
ChristopherBurnett,"Computers
and
A rtinthe
A ge
of theWorldPicture."
TimothyDruckrey,
"User
Friendly?"
David
Ross,
TheA rt
of
DavidEm: 100
ComputerPaintings.
WimVanDerPlas,ed., ElectronicA rt.
V
Technology
FA Xmachinesaremassmarketed.
292 A rtJournal
VExhibitions
"Computers
and
Photography,"
Roches-
ter,
N.Y.:
Pyramid
A rtsCenter.
"JennyHolzer,"
NewYork: SolomonR.
Guggenheim
Museum.*
"ImageWorld,"
New York:
Whitney
Mu-
seumof A mericanA rt.*
"The
Techno/LogicalImagination:
Ma-
chinesintheGardenof
A rt,"
Min-
neapolis:
IntermediaA rtsMinnesotaand
the
MinneapolisCollege
of A rtand
Design.
*
"Micro-Macro: TheWork of A rtinthe
A ge
of the
Microcomputer,"
New York:
BerthaandKarlLeubsdorf A rt
Gallery
at
Hunter
College.
VPublications
Edward
Barrett,
The
Societyof
Text:
Hy-
pertext,Hypermedia,
andtheSocial
Construction
of Inf ormation.
A ndrewS.
Glassner,
3D
Computer
Graphics:
A User'sGuide
f or
A rtistsand
Designers.
JohnLansdownandRaeA .
Earshaw,
eds., Computers
in
A rt,Design,
and
A nimation.
MargotLovejoy,
PostmodernCurrents:
A rtandA rtistsinthe
A geof
Electronic
Media.
Martha
Rosier,"ImageSimulations,
ComputerManipulations:
Some
Considerations."
Leonardo
beginspublication
of F.A .S.T.
ElectronicBulletinBoard.
V
Technology
Intelintroducesthe80860 micro-
processorchip-equivalent power
of a
Cray
1
supercomputer.
Mass
marketing
of still videocameras
begins.
Mark
Wilson,30J89, 1989,acrylic
on
canvas,
36 x48
inches. Collectionof theartist.
Karl
Hauser,wall-o-f ish,1989,computer-animated
neon,
60 x 84 inches. Collectionof theartist.
VExhibitions
"Computers
andtheCreative
Process,"
Eugene: University
of
Oregon
Museum
of A rt.
Venice
Biennale,
UnitedStates
Pavilion-Jenny
Holzer.
VPublications
TerryGips,
"Critical
Questions
f orCom-
puter
A rtistsof the1990's."
ReneeLeWinterand
CynthiaBaron,
"A rtistic
Challenge."
Fred
Ritchin,
InOurOwn
Image:
The
Coming
Revolutionin
Photography.
DorothySpencer,"Computer
A rt-A n
Oxymoron?
Viewsf romthe
Mainstream."
JennyHolzer,sign
installationattheSolomonR.
Guggenheim
Museum,
New
York,1989-90,
electronic
lightboards.Courtesy
BarbaraGladstone
Gallery,
New York.
Fall 1990 293
Bibliography
Exhibition
Catalogues
A rtists/Computers/A rt(London:
Canada
House
Gallery;
Paris: CentreCulturel
Canadien,1982).
The A sahiShimbunandLouise
Ledeen,
The A CM/SIGGRA PH
Traveling
A rt
Show 1985
(Tokyo: Hakuhodo,Inc.,
1985).
B.
Bek,
V.
Ziljak (Zagreb: Galerija
Suv-
remene
Umjetnosti,1975).
Ridell T.
Breval,
L.
Bergquist,
B. E.
Bengtsson,
andS.
Henriksson,
A rtist
and
Computer(Paris:
CentreCulturel
Suedois,1979).
Jack Burnham,
Sof tware, Inf ormation
Technology:
ItsNew
Meaningf or
A rt
(New
York: Jewish
Museum,1970).
CA DRE'84
(SanJose,
Calif .: SanJose
State
University
A rt
Department,
1984).
LuisR.
Cancel,
TheSecond
Emerging
Ex-
pression
Biennial: TheA rtistandCom-
puter(New
York: BronxMuseumof the
A rts,1987).
Computer
Genesis: A Vision
of
the '70's
(Syracuse,
N.Y.: Joeand
Emily
Lowe
A rt
Gallery,SyracuseUniversity,1977).
Charles
Csuri,
InteractiveSoundandVi-
sual
Systems(Columbus: College
of
A rts,
OhioState
University,1970).
Eighth EuropeanSystems-Engineering
Symposium(Madrid:
Palaciode Ori-
ente,1971).
Electra: L'Electricite et
l'electronique
dansl'art auXXesiecle
(Paris:
Musee
d'A rtModere de laVille de
Paris,
1983).
Exposition
d'art
photo/electrique (La
Chartreuse, Villeneuve-les-A vignon,
France:
ComputerCulture,1983).
David
Galloway,ed.,
artware: Kunstund
Elektronik
(Hanover:
Meese A G and
Siemens
A G,1986-90).
MarnieGillett andJim
Pomeroy,Digital
Photography: CapturedImages,
Vol-
atile
Memory,
andNew
Montage(San
Francisco: SF
Camerawork,1988).
John
Hanhardt,ed.,
NamJunePaik
(New
York:
Whitney
Museumof A merican
A rt,1982).
MarvinHeif ermanandLisa
Phillips,
Im-
ageWorld(New
York:
Whitney
Museum
of A merican
A rt,1989).
Lauren
Herr,
Yuriko
Kuchiki,
and
Copper
Giloth, eds., Exhibition
of Computer
Graphics
inCollaborationwithSIG-
GRA PH '83 Exhibition
of ComputerA rt
(Tokyo:
IsetanMuseumand
Hakuhodo,
Inc., 1983).
Jenny
Holzer
(New
York: SolomonR.
GuggenheimMuseum,1989).
K. G. Pontus
Hult6n,
TheMachine,as
Seenat theEnd
of
theMechanical
A ge
(New
York: Museumof Modem
A rt,
1968).
ImagesDigital: Computer
A rtistsinGer-
many(Munich:
Galerieder
Kuenstler,
1986).
Immaginida
Computer,
Mostradi Com-
puterGraf ica(Prato,Italy,1984).
International Exhibition
of Computer
Graphics(Montreal:
Museumof Fine
A rts,1974).
SomeMore
Beginnings:
A nExhibition
of
SubmittedWorks
Involving
Technical
Materialsand Processes
(New
York:
BrooklynMuseum,1968).
Jackie
Lipsky,
The
Computer
andIts
Inf lu-
ence onA rt and
Design (Lincoln,
Nebr.: SheldonMemorialA rt
Gallery,
1983).
Multiple
Interaction
(Chicago:
Museumof
Scienceand
Industry,1972).
NamJunePaik: ElectronicA rt
(New
York:
Galeria
Bonino,1965).
Jasia
Reichardt,ed.,
Cybernetic
Seren-
dipity:
The
Computer
andthe
A rts,In-
stituteof
ContemporaryA rt,
London
(London:
Studio
International,1968).
David
Rubin, Computer
A ssisted: The
Computer
in
Contemporary
A rt
(Read-
ing,
Pa.: Freedman
Gallery,A lbright
College,1987).
Christine
Schopf ,ed.,
PRIXA rsElectron-
ica
(Linz,
A ustria:
TMS-Verlag-
Bremen,1979-90).
Sonia
LandySheridan,Energized
A rt-
science
(Chicago:
Museumof Science
and
Industry,1978).
Neil
Sieling, ed.,
The
Techno/Logical
Imagination:
MachinesintheGarden
of
A rt
(Minneapolis:
IntermediaA rts
Minnesotaandthe
Minneapolis
Col-
lege
of A rtand
Design,1989).
SIGGRA PH exhibition
catalogues
1982-
88
(New
York: A CM
SIGGRA PH):
CopperGiloth,ed.,
SIGGRA PH '82A rt
Show.
CopperGiloth, ed.,
SIGGRA PH '83
Exhibition
of Computer
A rt.
Patrick
Whitney,ed.,
SIGGRA PH '84
Computer-SupportedDesign
Exhibi-
tion.
Louise
Ledeen,ed.,
SIGGRA PH '85A rt
Show.
Patric
Prince,ed.,
SIGGRA PH '86 A rt
Show.
JoanneP.
Culver,ed.,
SIGGRA PH '87
A rtExhibition.
LucyPetrovich,ed.,
SIGGRA PH '88
A rtShow
(videotapecatalogue).
SIGGRA PH exhibition
catalogues
1989-
90
(Oxf ord
andNew York:
Pergamon
Press):
Mark
Resch,ed.,
SIGGRA PH '89 A rt
Show:
Computer
A rtinContext.
Tom
Linehan,ed.,
SIGGRA PH '90 A rt
Show:
DigitalImage-Digital
Cinema.
Struycken:
Structures-Elements 1969-
1980
(Rotterdam:
Museum
Boymans-
van
Beuningen,1980-81).
Technicsand
Creativity(New
York: Mu-
seumof Moder
A rt,1971).
Roberta
Williams,
TheA rtistandtheCom-
puter
II
(Louisville,Ky.:
LouisvilleA rt
Gallery,1985).
Books
Stan
A ugarten,
Bit
by
Bit: A nIllustrated
Historyof Computers(New
York: Tick-
norand
Fields,1984).
A rttransitions,
conf erence
proceedings
(Cambridge:
MITCenterf orA dvanced
VisualStudies
[CA VS],1975).
ReynerBanham,Theory
and
Design
inthe
FirstMachine
A ge(New
York:
Praeger,
1960).
Edward
Barrett,
The
Societyof
Text:
Hy-
pertext,Hypermedia,
and the Social
Construction
of Inf ormation(Cam-
bridge:
MIT
Press,1989).
Jean
Baudrillard,
Simulations
(New
York:
Semiotext(e),1983).
Ren6
Berger
and
LloydEby,eds.,
A rtand
Technology(New
York:
ParagonHouse,
1986).
Stewart
Brand,
TheMediaLab:
Inventing
theFutureat MIT
(New
York:
Viking,
1987).
Jack
Burnham,Beyond
Modern
Sculpture:
The
Ef f ectsof
Scienceand
Technology
onthe
Sculptureof
This
Century(New
York:
Braziller,1968).
Nancy Burson,
Richard
Carling,
and
David
Kramlich, Composites:
Com-
puter-Generated
Portraits
(New
York:
William
Morrow,1986).
DouglasDavis,
A rt and the Future: A
History/Prophecyof
the Collaboration
betweenScience,
Technology
andA rt
(New
York:
Praeger,1973).
JamesD.
Foley
andA ndriesVan
Dam,
Fundamentals
of
Interactive
Computer
Graphics(Reading,
Mass.: A ddison-
Wesley,1982).
Hal
Foster,ed.,
TheA nti-A esthetic:
Essays
onPostmodernCulture
(Port
Towns-
end,
Wash.:
BayPress,1983).
Hal
Foster,ed.,
Discussionsin
Contempor-
ary
Culture: NumberOne
(Seattle,
Wash.:
Bay
Pressinassociationwiththe
DIA A rt
Foundation,1987).
Herbert W.
Franke, Computergraf ik-
Galerie; Bildernach
Programm:
Kunst
imelektronischenZeitalter
(Cologne:
DuMont
Buchverlag,1984).
HerbertW.
Franke,ComputerGraphics,
ComputerA rt, trans. Gustav
Metzger
and
A ntje
Schrack
(Berlin
and New
York:
Springer-Verlag,1985;
London
andNewYork:
Phaidon,1971).
HerbertW. FrankeandHorst
Helbig,
Die
Weltder
Mathematik;
Computergraphik
zwischen
Wissenschaf t
und Kunst
(Diisseldorf : VDI-Verlag,1988).
294 A rtJournal
James
Gips, Shape
GrammarsandTheir
Uses:
A rtif icialPerception,Shape
Gen-
erationand
Computer
A esthetics
(Basel
and
Stuttgart: Birkhauser,1975).
A ndrew S.
Glassner,
3D
Computer
Graphics:
A User'sGuide
f or
A rtists
and
Designers (New
York:
Design
Press,1989).
CynthiaGoodman,Digital
Visions
(New
York:
Harry
N.
A brams,1987).
Donald
Greenberg,
A aron
Marcus,
A llan
H.
Schmidt,
andVernon
Gorter,
The
ComputerImage (Reading,
Mass.:
A ddison-Wesley,1982).
GerardJ.
Holzmann,BeyondPhotogra-
phy:
The
Digital
Darkroom
(Murray
Hill,N.J.: Bell
Laboratories,1988).
HiroshiInoseandJohn
Peirce,Inf ormation
Technology
andCivilization
(New
York:
W. H.
Freeman,1984).
Yochiro
Kawaguchi,Digital Image (To-
kyo: A SCII,1982).
GyorgyKepes,ed.,
StructureinA rt and
Science
(New
York:
GeorgeBraziller,
1965).
IsaacVictorKerlowandJudson
Rosebush,
ComputerGraphicsf orDesigners
and
A rtists
(New
York: VanNostrandRein-
hold,1986).
Stewart
Kranz,
Scienceand
Technology
in
theA rts: A Tour
through
theRealm
of
Science/A rt
(New
York: VanNostrand
Reinhold,1974).
MyronKrueger,A rtif icialReality(Read-
ing,
Mass.:
A ddison-Wesley,1983).
JohnLansdownand Rae A .
Earnshaw,
eds., Computers
in
A rt,Design,
and
A nimation
(New
York:
Springer-
Verlag,1989).
Ruth
Leavitt,ed., A rtist and
Computer
(New
York:
HarmonyBooks, 1976).
MargotLovejoy,
PostmodernCurrents: A rt
andA rtistsinthe
A geof
ElectronicMe-
dia
(A nn
A rbor: UMI Research
Press,
1989).
Frank J.
Malina,ed.,VisualA rt,
Mathema-
ticsand
Computers:
Selectionsf rom
the
Journal Leonardo
(Oxf ord
and New
York:
PergamonPress,1979).
Marshall
McLuhan, Understanding
Me-
dia: TheExtensions
of
Man(New
York:
McGraw-Hill,1965).
WilliamNewmanand Robert
Sproull,
Principles of
Interactive
Computer
Graphics(New
York:
McGraw-Hill,
1973).
Dale
Peterson,
GenesisII: Creationand
Re-creationwith
Computers(Reston,
Va.: Reston
Publishing Company,
1983).
Jasia
Reichardt,
The
Computer
inA rt
(Lon-
don: Studio
Vista;
NewYork: VanNos-
trand
Reinhold,1970).
Jasia
Reichardt,ed.,Cybernetics,A rt,
and
Ideas
(Greenwich,
Conn.: New York
GraphicSociety,1971).
FredRitchin, InOurOwn
Image:
The
Coming
Revolutionin
Photography
(New
York:
A perture,1990).
Robert
Rivlin,
The
A lgorithmicImage:
Graphic
Visions
of
the
ComputerA ge
(Washington,
D.C.: Microsof t
Press,
1986).
Robi
Roncarelli,
The
Computer
A nimation
Dictionary (New
York:
Springer-
Verlag,1989).
David
Ross,
TheA rt
of
David Em: 100
ComputerPaintings(New
York:
Harry
N.
A brams,1988).
RobertRussett andCecile
Starr,Experi-
mentalA nimation:
Originsof
aNewA rt
(New
York: Da
CapoPress,1976).
George Stiny,
Pictorial and FormalA s-
pectsof Shape
and
Shape
Grammars
(Basel
and
Stuttgart: Birkhauser, 1975).
Symposium
onSmall
Computers
inthe
A rts,
conf erence
proceedings(Phila-
delphia:
SCA N and IEEE
Computer
Society,1981-89).
Nadia
Magnenat-Thalmann
and Daniel
Thalmann,Computer
A nimation: The-
ory
andPractice
(New
York:
Springer-
Verlag,1985).
Joan
Truckenbrod,
Creative
Computer
Im-
aging(EnglewoodClif f s,
N.J.: Prentice
Hall,1988).
SherryTurkle,
TheSecondSelf (New
York:
Simonand
Schuster,1984).
Webster'sNew World
Dictionaryof
Com-
puter
Terms
(New
York: Simonand
Schuster,1988).
Brian
Wallis,ed., A rt
af ter
Modernism:
RethinkingRepresentation(New
York:
New Museumof
Contemporary
A rtin
associationwithDavidR.
Godine,
Bos-
ton,1984).
John
Whitney,Digital Harmony:
Onthe
Complementarityof
Music and Visual
A rt
(New
York:
McGraw-Hill,1980).
StephenWilson,UsingComputers
toCre-
ateA rt
(EnglewoodClif f s,
N.J.: Pren-
tice
Hall,1986).
Gene
Youngblood, Expanded
Cinema
(New
York:
Dutton,1970).
A rticles
Roy
A scott,
"Concerning
Nets and
Spurs," A rtif icial Intelligence
inthe
A rts1
(1985).
Walter
Benjamin,
"TheWork of A rtinthe
A ge
of Mechanical
Reproduction,"
Il-
luminations
(1955),
trans.
Harry
Zohn
(New
York: Schocken
Books, 1969).
EdmundC.
Berkeley, "Computer
A rt:
TurningPoint," Computers
andA uto-
mation
(A ugust1967).
TimothyBinkley,
"Camera
Fantasia,"
Millennium20/21
(Fall/Winter
1988/
89).
ChristopherBurnett,"Computers
andA rt
inthe
A ge
of theWorld
Picture,"
Views
9,
no. 3
(Spring1988).
Jack Burnham,"Problemsof Criticism:
A rtand
Technology," A rtf orum9
(Janu-
ary1971):
40-45.
John
Canaday,
"Less
A rt,
More Com-
puter,"
New York
Times,A ugust 30,
1970,
D19.
Charles
Csuri,
"3-D
Computer
A nima-
tion,"
inA dvancesin
Computers,
vol.
16
(New
York: A cademic
Press,1977),
1-55.
DouglasDavis,
"A rtand
Technology:
The
New
Combine,"
A rt inA merica56
(January/February 1968):
28-47.
Thomas
Def anti,
"The Mass
Impact
of
VideogameTechnology,"
inA dvances
in
Computers,
vol. 23
(New
York: A ca-
demic
Press,1984),
93-140.
Katherine
Dieckmann,
"Electra
Myths:
Video, Modernism,Postmodernism,"
A rtJournal45
(Fall1985):
195-203.
Frank
Dietrich,
"Visual
Intelligence:
The
First Decade of
Computer
A rt
(1965-1975),"
IEEECG&A
5,
no. 7
(July1985).
Timothy Druckrey,
"User
Friendly?"
Views
9,
no. 3
(Spring1988).
ExakteA sthetik,special
issueon"A rtf rom
the
Computer,"
Frankf urtamMain:
Gesellschaf t f urExakte A sthetik,
5
(1967).
Lucinda
Furlong,
"Notestowarda
History
of
Image-Processed
Video: Eric
Siegel,
StephenBeck,
Dan
Sandin,
Steve
Rutt,
Bill andLouise
Etra," A f terimage
11
(Summer1983).
Lucinda
Furlong,"Tracking
VideoA rt:
'Image Processing'
asa
Genre,"
A rt
Journal45 (Fall1985):
233-37.
Dennis
Gabor, "Inventing
the
Future,"
Encounter,May
1960.
Paul
Gardner,
"The Electronic
Palette,"
A rtnews84
(February1985):
66-73.
Copper
Gilothand Jane
Veeder,
"The
Paint
Problem,"
IEEECG&A
5,
no. 7
(July1985).
TerryGips,
"Critical
Questions
f orCom-
puter
A rtistsof the1990's"
(A rlington,
Va.: National
ComputerGraphics
A sso-
ciation
Conf erenceProceedings,1990).
Grace
Glueck,
"Portraitof anA rtistasa
YoungComputer,"
New York
Times,
February20,
1983.
Kawano
Hiroshi,
"TheA estheticf orCom-
puterA rt,"
BitInternational2
(Zagreb:
Izdavac
Publisher,1968).
JoanL.
Kirsch,
"WhenWill
Computer
A rt
BeTaken
Seriously?" Digitalk,
Winter
1985,
2-6.
Kenneth
Knowlton,"Computer-Produced
Movies,"
Science 150
(November26,
1965):
1116-20.
ReneeLeWinterand
CynthiaBaron,
"A rt-
istic
Challenge," ComputerGraphics
World
13,
no. 12
(February1990):
49-54.
Barbara
London,
"Video: A Selected
Chronology,1963-1983,"
A rtJournal
45
(Fall1985):
249-62.
R.
Lucas,"Evolving
A estheticCriteriaf or
Computer-GeneratedA rt," thesis,
OhioState
University,
1986.
Robert
Mallary,"ComputerSculpture:
Six
Fall 1990 295
Levelsof
Cybernetics," A rtf orum
9
(May1969):
29-35.
Michael
Noll,
"The
DigitalComputer
asa
Creative
Medium,"
IEEE
Spectrum,
October1967.
Gunther
Pf eif f er,
"A rt and
Computer,"
magazin
KUNST39
(1970).
Catherine
Richards,
"Virtual
Worlds,
DigitalImages,"
1987 A FI VideoFesti-
val
Catalog(LosA ngeles: A FI,1987).
RobertScott
Root-Bernstein,
"OnPara-
digms
andRevolutionsinScienceand
A rt: The
Challenge
of
Interpretation,"
A rtJournal48
(Summer1984):
109-18.
Martha
Rosier, "Image Simulations,
ComputerManipulations:
Some Con-
siderations," A f terimage
17
(November
1989),
7-11.
Judy
E.
Sachter,
"The Basic
Concepts
of Three-Dimensional
Computer
Graphics
f or
A rtists," thesis,
Ohio
State
University,
1984 (includes
videotape).
Joachim
Schmid,
"TheElectronic
Photog-
rapher
Is
Coming,"
trans. JohnS. We-
ber,EuropeanPhotography
22
(A pril/
May/June1985).
A llon
Schoener,
"2066 andA LL
That,"
A rtinA merica54
(March-A pril1966).
Sonia
LandySheridan,
"Generative
Sys-
tems," A f terimage,A pril
1972.
Lee
Silverman,
"Insidethe
Loop:
Com-
puterGraphics
withinthe
Technologi-
cal
Highway," Views,
Summer
1984,
6-9.
DorothySpencer, "Computer
A rt-A n
Oxymoron?
Views f romthe Main-
stream,"
SIGGRA PH '89 Panel Pro-
ceedings (New
York: A CM SIG-
GRA PH,1990).
David
Topper
andJohnH.
Holloway,
"In-
terrelationships
betweenVisual A rts,
Scienceand
Technology:
A
Bibliogra-
phy,"
Leonardo
13,
no. 1
(Winter1980):
29-33.
WimVanDer
Plas, ed., ElectronicA rt,
supplemental
issue of Leonardo
(Ox-
f ordandNew York:
Pergamon
Press,
1988).
John
Whitney,
"A
Computer
A rt f orthe
VideoPicture
Wall,"
A rtInternational
15,
no. 7
(September1971):
35-38.
Gene
Youngblood,"Computer
A rt asa
Way
of
Lif e," Send,
no. 8
(Fall 1983).
Glossary
A lgorithm
A set of well-def inedinstructionsf orthe
solutionof a
problem.
A nalog
A scaleof measurethatis
continuous,
like
thevolumecontrolona
stereo,
orather-
mometer. The termref ersalsoto
signals
thathavenotbeen
sampled.
A rtif icial
intelligence
The scientif icf ieldconcernedwithcreat-
ingcomputersystems
that canachieve
"human" intellectualf acultiessuchasthe
abilitiesto
perceive,reason,
andlearn.
Computer
animation
Use of the
computer
tomake
images
with
theillusionof movement.
CRT
Cathode
ray
tube. The
picture
tube of a
television
set,
video
monitor,
or
computer
display.
Cursor
A small
graphicsymbol
usedasa
pointer
toindicate
position
ona
display
screen.
Themovementof thecursoriscontrolled
by
a
keyboard,mouse,lightpen,
ortablet
stylus.
DataGlove
A
glove containingsensors,
wornonthe
handtodetectthemotionand
position
of
the handandf eed that inf ormationtoa
computer.
It isusef ul f or
virtual-reality
applications.
DataSuit
The extensionof the DataGlovef orthe
whole
body.
Digital
Using
discretenumbersto
represent
inf or-
mation. On
computers,
thesenumbersare
combinationsof 0 and1.
Digital processing
Thetask of
takingdigital
inf ormationand
changing("processing")
it
through
theuse
of an
algorithm.
Digitizer
A n
input
device used to transf orma
graphicrepresentation
intoa
digitalrepre-
sentationsothatit canbe
processedby
a
computer.Types
includevideo
digitizers,
laser
scanners,
andtablets.
Display
A n
output
devicethatcontainsaCRTand
interprets
dataf romthe
computer,showing
itastextand
images.
A
computer
screenis
a
display.
Dot-matrix
printer
A
printer
thatuses
tiny
hammerstostrike
aninkedribbonto
produce
dotson
paper.
Many
dots
together
make
up
an
image.
Filmrecorder
A n
output
device that recordsdataonto
photographic
f ilmor
paper.
Fractals
A
term,
coined
by
Benoit
Mandelbrot,
f or
a
type
of mathematics
very
usef ul f orun-
derstanding
and
def ining
certainnatural
shapes
and
phenomena.
Framebuf f er
A
special type
of
computermemory
that
storesthe
image
data
required
f oraraster
display.
Graf tal
A
type
of
modeling
thatcreates
plants
and
trees
bydescribing
theminmathematical
terms.
A lvyRay
Smith
developed
these
algorithms
basedonthe earlierwork of
A ristid
Lindenmayer.
Hardware
The
physical components
or
equipment
thatmake
up
a
computersystem,
suchas
scanners,printers,
and
displays.
HDTV
High-def inition
television. A
proposed
television
system
with
signif icantly
better
picturequality
thanthat of the current
broadcaststandard.
Hypermedia
A nextensionof the ideaof
hypertext
to
includeotherkindsof
inf ormation,
suchas
video
images
andsound.
Hypertext
A termcoined
by
TedNelson(basedona
1945article
by
Vanavar
Bush)
f oranenvi-
ronmentwhereinf ormationcanbe linked
f reely
acrossconventional
subject
bound-
aries. A nessential
concept
isthatof "au-
thoring,"
the
ability
of eachuserto
easily
reorganize
theinf ormationintoacustom-
ized
body.
Ink-jet printer
A
printing
devicethatcreatesan
imageby
spraying
athinstreamof ink onto
paper.
Coloredink canbe
used,resulting
incolor
images.
Interactive
A s
applied
to
computerart,anycomputer,
device,program,
orartwork thatrelieson
active communicationwith a human
being.
Laser
printer
A
printing
devicethatusesalaserbeamto
placeimages
ona
rotating
drum. Thedrum
picksup
atoner
powder
onthe laser-
exposedareas,
whicharethen
pressed
and
f usedinto
paper,f orming
the
image.
Laserscanner
A
digitizer
thatusesalaserbeamf orthe
conversionof an
image
into
digital
inf ormation.
296 A rtJournal
Light pen
A n
inputdevice,
muchlikea
writingpen,
thatisusedtodrawand
manipulate
inf or-
mationona
computerdisplaybytouching
the
tip
of the
pen
tothe
display.
Microprocessor
The
arithmetic,logic,
and control ele-
ments
required
f or
processinginf ormation,
usually
containedonone
integrated-circuit
chip. Microprocessors
are used inside
most
personal computers
andinawide
variety
of
specializedapplications,
suchas
computer-controlledlight signs.
Mouse
A
device,
connectedtoa
computerby
a
cable,
f or
moving
acursororother
object
aroundonthe
display
screen. A sthemouse
moves,
thecursormoves
correspondingly
onthescreen.
Network
A
system
of interconnected
computers
and
otherhardwarethatallowf orthe
exchange
of inf ormation. Networkscanlink com-
puters
inthesameroomorinvarious
parts
of theworld.
NTSC
NationalTelevisionStandardsCommittee.
Thestandardf orbroadcastcolortelevision
used
primarily
in
North, Central,
and
South
A merica,
and
Japan.
Pixel
A n
acronym
f or
"picture
element." The
smallestunitonthe
display
screenthatcan
be
stored,displayed,
oraddressed. Pixels
are the
tiny
dotsthat are seenwhenan
image displayed
ona
computer
screenis
examined
closely.
Plotter
A n
output
devicethatdrawslinesor
points
on
paper
underthecontrolof a
computer.
It
wasused
extensively
f or
earlycomputer
art.
Printer
A n
output
devicef orthe
production
of text
and
images
thatworksmuchlike a
type-
writerbutis
given
instructionsf romacom-
puter. Dot-matrix,ink-jet,laser,
andther-
mal arethe
majortypes
of
printers.
Program
A setof instructions,writtenina
program-
minglanguage,
usedtoinstructa
computer
to
carry
out
specif ic
activitiesortasks
(algorithms).
Programminglanguage
A schemeof f ormalnotationusedto
spell
out instructionsf orthe
computer.
Pro-
gramminglanguages
include
BA SIC,
Pas-
cal,
andC.
Raster
display
A
display
devicethatstoresand
displays
an
image(data)
asatwo-dimensional
grid
of
pixels.
Ray
tracer
A
computerprogram
that
produces
realis-
tic
images
f rom
geometric
modelsof ob-
jects.
The
surroundingsappear
inthesur-
f acesof theref lective
objects,enhancing
therealismof thescene.
Scan-a-Mural
A service
(of f ered
f orseveral
yearsby
3M
Corporation
andnowof f ered
byComputer
ImageSystems) whereby
a
computer
im-
age
canbe transf erredtoa
large-scale
canvas.
Scientif icvisualization
Use of
computergraphics
andanimation
techniques
to
give
visualf ormto
complex
numericaldata.
Sof tware
A nothernamef or
programs.
Still-videocamera
A camerathat doesnot
require
f ilmbut
rathermakesanelectronicrecordof an
image
andstoresit onasmall
magnetic
disk. The
image
canthenbe
displayed
ona
videomonitoror
put
intoa
computer.
Tablet
A
digitizer,normallyconsisting
of af lat
tablet,
onwhicha
pattern
istracedover
witha
penlike stylus
or othercursor
device. The
patterns
traced
by
the
opera-
tor are
automatically
entered intothe
computer's memory
f or
subsequent
processing.
Thermal
printer
A
printer
that
producesoutput
onheat-
sensitive
paper.
It usesheat tomelt wire
particles
thatcontain
ink,
whicharethen
transf erredto
paper.
Three-dimensional
modeling
Theuse of a
computersystem
tocreatea
three-dimensional
object bydef ining
its
shape, dimensions, color,
and surf ace
texture.
Touch-sensitivescreen
A
display
screenonwhichthe usercan
entercommands
bypressingdesignated
areaswitha
f inger
orother
object.
The
screencandetect the
position
whereit is
touched,
andthe
computer
then
perf orms
thef unctionindicated.
Vector
display
A
display
inwhich
images
aredrawnon
the screenof aCRT
by
abeamthatcon-
structsaseriesof
lines,
or
"vectors,"
of
anylength
andat
anyangle.
Video
digitizer
A
digitizerconsisting
of avideocamera
with
specialized
hardwareand sof tware
thatenablesthe conversionof an
image
into
digital
inf ormation.
Virtual
reality
A
computer-generated
interactiveenviron-
ment
f eaturingstereoscopic
3-D
graphic
scenes. Oneormore
players
areimmersed
inthisenvironment
byheadgearpresent-
ing
avideomonitortoeach
eye
andblock-
ing
out the naturalworld. Interactionis
providedby
meansof a
DataGlove,
which
conveysgestural
inf ormationtothecom-
puter.
Current
applications
include
telepre-
sent
operators
inremoteor
dangerous
en-
vironments,e.g., space
andresearchin
cognition
and humaninteraction. A lso
calledvirtualenvironment.
Virtual surf ace
Thesurf aceof an
imaginaryobject
def ined
withina
computer.
Work station
A
relatively
smallbut
powerf ulconf igura-
tionof
computerequipmentdesigned
tobe
used
by
one
person.
Copper
Gilothisanassociate
prof essor
of
artat the
Universityof
Massachusetts
at
A mherst,
wheresheteaches
computer
animation,electronicstill
photography,
and
design.
Lynn
Pocock-Williamsisa
visiting
prof essorof
artat the
Universityof
Vermont in
Burlington,
wheresheteaches
computergraphics
and
design.
Fall 1990 297