CONCRETE & CEMENTS

Dr. Ir. Sotya Astutiningsih, M.Eng

Departemen Teknik Metalurgi & Material
Fakultas Teknik
Universitas Indonesia
Concrete
is a construction material composed of
cement (commonly Portland cement) as well
as other cementitious materials such as fly
ash and slag cement, aggregate (generally a
coarse aggregate such as gravel, limestone,
or granite, plus a fine aggregate such as
sand), water, and chemical admixtures.
The word concrete comes from the Latin
word "concretus", which means "hardened"
or "hard".
Hardening of
concrete/cements
Concrete solidifies and hardens after mixing with
water and placement due to a chemical process
known as hydration.
The water reacts with the cement, which bonds
the other components together, eventually
creating a stone-like material.
Concrete is used to make pavements,
architectural structures, foundations,
motorways/roads, bridges/overpasses, parking
structures, brick/block walls and footings for
gates, fences and poles.
Utilization
Concrete is used more than any other man-made
material in the world.
[1]
As of 2006, about 7.5
cubic kilometres of concrete are made each
yearmore than one cubic metre for every
person on Earth.
[2]
Concrete powers a US $35-
billion industry which employs more than two
million workers in the United States alone.
[citation
needed]
More than 55,000 miles (89,000 km) of
highways in America are paved with this
material. The People's Republic of China
currently consumes 40% of the world's
cement/concrete production.
The Baths of Caracalla, in 2003
Aqueduct of Segovia
The secret of concrete was lost for 13
centuries until 1756, when the British
engineer John Smeaton pioneered the use of
hydraulic lime in concrete, using pebbles and
powdered brick as aggregate. Portland
cement was first used in concrete in the early
1840s. This version of history has been
challenged however, as the Canal du Midi was
constructed using concrete in 1670.
[3]

Environmental issues
Recently, the use of recycled materials as concrete
ingredients is gaining popularity because of
increasingly stringent environmental legislation. The
most conspicuous of these is fly ash, a by-product of
coal-fired power plants. This has a significant impact
by reducing the amount of quarrying and landfill
space required, and, as it acts as a cement
replacement, reduces the amount of cement
required to produce a solid concrete. As cement
production creates massive quantities of carbon
dioxide, cement-replacement technology such as
this will play an important role in future attempts to
cut carbon dioxide emissions.
Concrete additives have been used since Roman
and Egyptian times, when it was discovered that
adding volcanic ash to the mix allowed it to set
under water. Similarly, the Romans knew that
adding horse hair made concrete less liable to
crack while it hardened, and adding blood made
it more frost-resistant
[4]
.
In modern times, researchers have experimented
with the addition of other materials to create
concrete with improved properties, such as
higher strength or electrical conductivity.

Composition

There are many types
of concrete available,
created by varying the
proportions of the main
ingredients below.
The mix design depends
on the type of structure
being built, how the
concrete will be mixed
and delivered, and how
it will be placed to form
this structure

Cement
Portland cement is the most common type of cement in
general usage. It is a basic ingredient of concrete, mortar,
and plaster. English engineer Joseph Aspdin patented
Portland cement in 1824; it was named because of its
similarity in colour to Portland limestone, quarried from the
English Isle of Portland and used extensively in London
architecture. It consists of a mixture of oxides of calcium,
silicon and aluminium. Portland cement and similar
materials are made by heating limestone (a source of
calcium) with clay, and grinding this product (called clinker)
with a source of sulfate (most commonly gypsum). The
manufacturing of Portland cement creates about 5 percent
of human CO
2
emissions.
[5]


Water

Combining water with a cementitious material
forms a cement paste by the process of
hydration. The cement paste glues the
aggregate together, fills voids within it, and
allows it to flow more easily.
Less water in the cement paste will yield a
stronger, more durable concrete; more water will
give an easier-flowing concrete with a higher
slump.
[6]

Impure water used to make concrete can cause
problems, when setting, or in causing premature
failure of the structure.
Reaction:

Cement chemist notation:
C
3
S + H
2
O CSH(gel) + CaOH
Standard notation:
Ca
3
SiO
5
+ H
2
O (CaO)(SiO
2
)(H
2
O)(gel) +
Ca(OH)
2
Balanced:
2Ca
3
SiO
5
+ 7H
2
O 3(CaO)2(SiO
2
)4(H
2
O)(gel)
+ 3Ca(OH)
2


Aggregates

Fine and coarse aggregates make up the bulk of a concrete
mixture. Sand, natural gravel and crushed stone are mainly
used for this purpose. Recycled aggregates (from
construction, demolition and excavation waste) are
increasingly used as partial replacements of natural
aggregates, while a number of manufactured aggregates,
including air-cooled blast furnace slag and bottom ash are
also permitted.
Decorative stones such as quartzite, small river stones or
crushed glass are sometimes added to the surface of
concrete for a decorative "exposed aggregate" finish,
popular among landscape designers.

Reinforcement
Concrete is strong in
compression, as the
aggregate efficiently
carries the compression
load. However, it is
weak in tension as the
cement holding the
aggregate in place can
crack, allowing the
structure to fail.
Reinforced concrete
solves these problems
by adding either metal
reinforcing bars, glass
fiber, or plastic fiber to
carry tensile loads.

Chemical admixtures

Chemical admixtures are materials in the form
of powder or fluids that are added to the
concrete to give it certain characteristics not
obtainable with plain concrete mixes. In
normal use, admixture dosages are less than
5% by mass of cement, and are added to the
concrete at the time of batching/mixing.
[7]

The most common types of admixtures
[8]

are:

Accelerators
Retarders
Air entrainments
Plasticizers
Pigments
Corrosion inhibitors
The most common types of
admixtures
[8]
are:
Accelerators
Ordinary PC will achieves its optimum
strength in 28 days
Certain application, especially in repair,
requires rapid hardening
speed up the hydration (hardening) of the
concrete. Typical materials used are CaCl
2
and
NaCl.
Disadvantages: induce corrosion to metal
reinforcement
Retarders
slow the hydration of concrete, and are used
in large or difficult pours where partial setting
before the pour is complete is undesirable. A
typical retarder is sugar (C
6
H
12
O
6
).
Air entrainments
add and distribute tiny air bubbles in the
concrete, which will reduce damage during
freeze-thaw cycles thereby increasing the
concrete's durability. However, entrained air
is a trade-off with strength, as each 1% of air
may result in 5% decrease in compressive
strength.
Plasticizers
Plasticizers (water-reducing admixtures)
increase the workability of plastic or "fresh"
concrete, allowing it be placed more easily, with
less consolidating effort. Superplasticizers (high-
range water-reducing admixtures) are a class of
plasticizers which have fewer deleterious effects
when used to significantly increase workability.
Alternatively, plasticizers can be used to reduce
the water content of a concrete (and have been
called water reducers due to this application)
while maintaining workability. This improves its
strength and durability characteristics.
others
Pigments can be used to change the color of
concrete, for aesthetics.
Corrosion inhibitors are used to minimize the
corrosion of steel and steel bars in concrete.
Bonding agents are used to create a bond
between old and new concrete. Pumping aids
improve pumpability, thicken the paste, and
reduce dewatering the tendency for the
water to separate out of the paste
Mineral admixtures and
blended cements

There are inorganic materials that also have
pozzolanic or latent hydraulic properties.
These very fine-grained materials are added
to the concrete mix to improve the properties
of concrete (mineral admixtures),
[7]
or as a
replacement for Portland cement (blended
cements).
[9]

Fly ash
: A by product of coal fired electric generating
plants, it is used to partially replace Portland
cement (by up to 60% by mass). The
properties of fly ash depend on the type of
coal burnt. In general, silicious fly ash is
pozzolanic, while calcareous fly ash has latent
hydraulic properties.
[10]

Ground granulated blast
furnace slag
(GGBFS or GGBS): A by product of steel
production, is used to partially replace
Portland cement (by up to 80% by mass). It
has latent hydraulic properties.
[11]

Silica fume
A by-product of the production of silicon and
ferrosilicon alloys. Silica fume is similar to fly
ash, but has a particle size 100 times smaller.
This results in a higher surface to volume
ratio and a much faster pozzolanic reaction.
Silica fume is used to increase strength and
durability of concrete, but generally requires
the use of superplasticizers for workability.
[12]

High Reactivity Metakaolin
(HRM):
Metakaolin produces concrete with strength
and durability similar to concrete made with
silica fume. While silica fume is usually dark
gray or black in color, high reactivity
metakaolin is usually bright white in color,
making it the preferred choice for
architectural concrete where appearance is
important.
CEMENTITIOUS MATERIALS FOR
CONCRETE

American Concrete Institute (ACI)
Committee E-701 Materials for Concrete Construction
Introduction
Cement hydraulic cement
Portland cement: The most common
hydraulic cement used in construction
Hydraulic cement, definition
A cement that sets and hardens by chemical
reaction with water and is capable of doing so
underwater.
Manufacture of Portland
cement
Bricklayer Joseph Aspdin of Leeds, England first
made portland cement early in the 19th century
by burning powdered limestone and clay in his
kitchen stove. By this crude method he laid the
foundation for an industry which annually
processes literally mountains of limestone, clay,
cement rock, and other materials into a powder
so fine it will pass through a sieve capable of
holding water. Cement is so fine that one pound
of cement contains 150 billion grains.
Portland cement, the
basic ingredient of
concrete, is a closely
controlled chemical
combination of calcium,
silicon, aluminum, iron
and small amounts of
other ingredients to
which gypsum is added in
the final grinding process
to regulate the setting
time of the concrete.
Lime and silica make up
about 85% of the mass.
Common among the
materials used in its
manufacture are
limestone, shells, and
chalk or marl combined
with shale, clay, slate or
blast furnace slag, silica
sand, and iron ore.

P
Manufacture of Portland
cement
Raw materials:
CaCO3 (calcareous materials) from chalk or
limestone
Aluminosilicates (argillaceous materials) from
clays, some volcanic rocks or ash
Crushing & mixing in ball mils
Heating to ~1500C in rotary kiln

Two Manufacturing Processes
Wet process; the raw mat are ground and
mixed with water and the resultant slurry is
fed into the kiln
Dry process;The raw mat are fed into the kiln
in dry powder form
Virtual cement plant tour:
http://www.cement.org/basic/images/flashto
ur.html
crushing
When rock is the
principal raw material,
the first step after
quarrying in both
processes is the primary
crushing. Mountains of
rock are fed through
crushers capable of
handling pieces as large
as an oil drum. The first
crushing reduces the
rock to a maximum size
of about 6 inches. The
rock then goes to
secondary crushers or
hammer mills for
reduction to about 3
inches or smaller.

crushing
When rock is the principal raw material, the first
step after quarrying in both processes is the
primary crushing. Mountains of rock are fed
through crushers capable of handling pieces
as large as an oil drum. The first crushing
reduces the rock to a maximum size of about
6 inches. The rock then goes to secondary
crushers or hammer mills for reduction to
about 3 inches or smaller.
Wet process
In the wet process, the raw materials, properly
proportioned, are then ground with water,
thoroughly mixed and fed into the kiln in the
form of a "slurry" (containing enough water
to make it fluid). In the dry process, raw
materials are ground, mixed, and fed to the
kiln in a dry state. In other aspects, the two
processes are essentially alike.
rotary kilns
The raw material is heated to about
2,700 degrees F in huge cylindrical
steel lined with special firebrick.
Kilns are frequently as much as 12
feet in diameter - large enough to
accommodate an automobile and
longer in many instances than the
height of a 40-story building. Kilns
are mounted with the axis inclined
slightly from the horizontal. The
finely ground raw material or the
slurry is fed into the higher end. At
the lower end is a roaring blast of
flame, produced by precisely
controlled burning of powdered
coal, oil or gas under forced draft.
clinker
As the material moves through the
kiln, certain elements are driven off
in the form of gases. The remaining
elements unite to form a new
substance with new physical and
chemical characteristics. The new
substance, called clinker, is formed
in pieces about the size of marbles.
Clinker is discharged red-hot from the
lower end of the kiln and generally is
brought down to handling
temperature in various types of
coolers. The heated air from the
coolers is returned to the kilns, a
process that saves fuel and increases
burning efficiency.
Phases in Portland cement
clinker
Tricalcium silicate C3S
Dicalcium silicate C2S
Tricalcium aluminate C3A
Calcium alumino ferrite C4AF
Hydration of cement clinker
Hydration involves many different reactions, often
occurring at the same time. As the reactions
proceed, the products of the cement hydration
process gradually bond together the individual sand
and gravel particles, and other components of the
concrete, to form a solid mass.
Reaction:
Cement chemist notation: C
3
S + H
2
O CSH(gel) + CaOH
Standard notation: Ca
3
SiO
5
+ H
2
O
(CaO)(SiO
2
)(H
2
O)(gel) + Ca(OH)
2

Balanced: 2Ca
3
SiO
5
+ 7H
2
O 3(CaO)2(SiO
2
)4(H
2
O)(gel) +
3Ca(OH)
2


Types of Portland Cement
ASTM C 150
PC consists of mainly C3S + C2S ~75% --
Calcium-silicate based cements

Type I
Type II
Type III
Type IV
Type V
Type I
General purpose, used for most types of
constructions; pavements, bridges,
reinforced concretes, masonry, water pipes

Type II
Moderate sulfate resistance
For drainage and environmental structures
Moderate heat of hydration; mass concrete,
dams, large pies
Type III
High early strength; precast concrete
Faster rate of heat of hydration ; for cold
weather; faster strength development
Type IV
Minimum heat of hydration; for massive
structures (to minimize thermal crack)
Slow rate of strength development
Other method of controlling temp: Type II +
pozzolans or slag, and remove heat with
coolants
Type V
High sulfate resistance
Strength development slower compared to
Type I
Blended cements
ASTM C 595 and C 1157
Portland blast furnace slag cement (Type IS)
Portland pozzolan cement (Type II and Type
P)
Pozzolan-modified portland cement (Type I
(PM)
Slag cement (Type S)
Slag-modified portland (Type I (SM))
CONCRETE PRODUCTION

The processes used vary dramatically, from hand tools to heavy industry,
but result in the concrete being placed where it cures into a final form.
Mixing concrete

Thorough mixing is essential for the production of uniform, high quality
concrete. Therefore, equipment and methods should be capable of
effectively mixing concrete materials containing the largest specified
aggregate to produce uniform mixtures of the lowest slump practical for
the work. Separate paste mixing has shown that the mixing of cement
and water into a paste before combining these materials with
aggregates can increase the compressive strength of the resulting
concrete.
[13]
The paste is generally mixed in a high-speed, shear-type
mixer at a w/cm (water to cement ratio) of 0.30 to 0.45 by mass. The
cement paste premix may include admixtures, e.g. accelerators or
retarders, plasticizers, pigments, or fumed silica. The latter is added to
fill the gaps between the cement particles. This reduces the particle
distance and leads to a higher final compressive strength and a higher
water impermeability.
[14]
The premixed paste is then blended with
aggregates and any remaining batch water, and final mixing is
completed in conventional concrete mixing equipment.
[15]

Mixing concrete
Workability

Workability is the ability of a fresh (plastic) concrete mix to
fill the form/mold properly with the desired work (vibration)
and without reducing the concrete's quality. Workability
depends on water content, aggregate (shape and size
distribution), cementitious content and age (level of
hydration), and can be modified by adding chemical
admixtures. Raising the water content or adding chemical
admixtures will increase concrete workability. Excessive
water will lead to increased bleeding (surface water) and/or
segregation of aggregates (when the cement and
aggregates start to separate), with the resulting concrete
having reduced quality. The use of an aggregate with an
undesirable gradation can result in a very harsh mix design
with a very low slump, which cannot be readily made more
workable by addition of reasonable amounts of water.
Pouring a concrete floor for a commercial building, (slab-on-grade)
Curing

In all but the least critical applications, care
needs to be taken to properly cure concrete, and
achieve best strength and hardness. This
happens after the concrete has been placed.
Cement requires a moist, controlled
environment to gain strength and harden fully.
The cement paste hardens over time, initially
setting and becoming rigid though very weak,
and gaining in strength in the days and weeks
following. In around 3 weeks, over 90% of the
final strength is typically reached though it may
continue to strengthen for decades.
[17]

Hydration and hardening of concrete during the first
three days is critical. Abnormally fast drying and
shrinkage due to factors such as evaporation from
wind during placement may lead to increased tensile
stresses at a time when it has not yet gained
significant strength, resulting in greater shrinkage
cracking. The early strength of the concrete can be
increased by keeping it damp for a longer period
during the curing process. Minimizing stress prior to
curing minimizes cracking. High early-strength
concrete is designed to hydrate faster, often by
increased use of cement which increases shrinkage
and cracking
During this period
concrete needs to be in
conditions with a
controlled temperature
and humid atmosphere.
In practice, this is
achieved by spraying or
ponding the concrete
surface with water,
thereby protecting
concrete mass from ill
effects of ambient
conditions. The pictures
to the right show two of
many ways to achieve
this, ponding
submerging setting
concrete in water, and
wrapping in plastic to
contain the water in the
mix.
Properly curing concrete
leads to increased
strength and lower
permeability, and avoids
cracking where the
surface dries out
prematurely. Care must
also be taken to avoid
freezing, or overheating
due to the exothermic
setting of cement (the
Hoover Dam used pipes
carrying coolant during
setting to avoid
damaging overheating).
Improper curing can
cause scaling, reduced
strength, poor abrasion
resistance and cracking.
Properties

Strength
Concrete has relatively high compressive strength,
but significantly lower tensile strength. It is fair
to assume that a concrete samples tensile
strength is about 10%-15% of its compressive
strength.
[18]
As a result, without compensating,
concrete would almost always fail from tensile
stresses even when loaded in compression. The
practical implication of this is that concrete
elements subjected to tensile stresses must be
reinforced with materials that are strong in
tension.

Reinforced concrete is the most common form of
concrete. The reinforcement is often steel, rebar
(mesh, spiral, bars and other forms). Structural
fibers of various materials are available.
Concrete can also be prestressed (reducing
tensile stress) using internal steel cables
(tendons), allowing for beams or slabs with a
longer span than is practical with reinforced
concrete alone. Inspection of concrete structures
can be non-destructive if carried out with
equipment such as a Schmidt hammer, which is
used to estimate concrete strength.

Elasticity

The modulus of elasticity of concrete is a
function of the modulus of elasticity of the
aggregates and the cement matrix and their
relative proportions. The modulus of elasticity of
concrete is relatively constant at low stress levels
but starts decreasing at higher stress levels as
matrix cracking develops. The elastic modulus of
the hardened paste may be in the order of 10-30
GPa and aggregates about 45 to 85 GPa. The
concrete composite is then in the range of 30 to
50 GPa.
Expansion and shrinkage

Concrete has a very low coefficient of thermal expansion.
However, if no provision is made for expansion, very large forces
can be created, causing cracks in parts of the structure not
capable of withstanding the force or the repeated cycles of
expansion and contraction.
As concrete matures it continues to shrink, due to the ongoing
reaction taking place in the material, although the rate of
shrinkage falls relatively quickly and keeps reducing over time
(for all practical purposes concrete is usually considered to not
shrink due to hydration any further after 30 years). The relative
shrinkage and expansion of concrete and brickwork require
careful accommodation when the two forms of construction
interface.
Because concrete is continuously shrinking for years after it is
initially placed, it is generally accepted that under thermal
loading it will never expand to its originally placed volume.

Cracking

Concrete cracks due to tensile stress induced by
shrinkage or stresses occurring during setting or
use. Various means are used to overcome this.
Fiber reinforced concrete uses fine fibers
distributed throughout the mix or larger metal or
other reinforcement elements to limit the size
and extent of cracks. In many large structures
joints or concealed saw-cuts are placed in the
concrete as it sets to make the inevitable cracks
occur where they can be managed and out of
sight. Water tanks and highways are examples of
structures requiring crack control.
Shrinkage cracking

Shrinkage cracks occur when concrete members undergo
restrained volumetric changes (shrinkage) as a result of either
drying, autogenous shrinkage or thermal effects. Restraint is
provided either externally (i.e. supports, walls, and other
boundary conditions) or internally (differential drying shrinkage,
reinforcement). Once the tensile strength of the concrete is
exceeded, a crack will develop. The number and width of
shrinkage cracks that develop are influenced by the amount of
shrinkage that occurs, the amount of restraint present and the
amount and spacing of reinforcement provided.
Plastic-shrinkage cracks are immediately apparent, visible within
0 to 2 days of placement, while drying-shrinkage cracks develop
over time. Autogenous shrinkage also occurs when the concrete
is quite young and results from the volume reduction resulting
from the chemical reaction of the portland cement.

Tension cracking

Concrete members may be put into tension by applied
loads. This is most common in concrete beams where a
transversely applied load will put one surface into
compression and the opposite surface into tension due to
induced bending. The portion of the beam that is in tension
may crack. The size and length of cracks is dependent on
the magnitude of the bending moment and the design of
the reinforcing in the beam at the point under
consideration. Reinforced concrete beams are designed to
crack in tension rather than in compression. This is achieved
by providing reinforcing steel which yields before failure of
the concrete in compression occurs and allowing
remediation, repair, or if necessary, evacuation of an unsafe
area.
Creep

Creep is the term used to describe the
permanent movement or deformation of a
material in order to relieve stresses within the
material. Concrete which is subjected to long-
duration forces is prone to creep. Short-duration
forces (such as wind or earthquakes) do not
cause creep. Creep can sometimes reduce the
amount of cracking that occurs in a concrete
structure or element, but it also must be
controlled. The amount of primary and
secondary reinforcing in concrete structures
contributes to a reduction in the amount of
shrinkage, creep and cracking.
Damage modes

Fire
Aggregate expansion
Sea water effects
Bacterial corrosion
Chemical damage

Fire

Due to its low thermal conductivity, a layer of concrete is frequently used for fireproofing of steel
structures. However, concrete itself may be damaged by fire.
Up to about 300 C, the concrete undergoes normal thermal expansion. Above that temperature,
shrinkage occurs due to water loss; however, the aggregate continues expanding, which causes
internal stresses. Up to about 500 C, the major structural changes are carbonation and
coarsening of pores. At 573 C, quartz undergoes rapid expansion due to Phase transition, and at
900 C calcite starts shrinking due to decomposition. At 450-550 C the cement hydrate
decomposes, yielding calcium oxide. Calcium carbonate decomposes at about 600 C.
Rehydration of the calcium oxide on cooling of the structure causes expansion, which can cause
damage to material which withstood fire without falling apart. Concrete in buildings that
experienced a fire and were left standing for several years shows extensive degree of carbonation.
Concrete exposed to up to 100 C is normally considered as healthy. The parts of a concrete
structure that is exposed to temperatures above approximately 300 C (dependent of
water/cement ratio) will most likely get a pink color. Over approximately 600 C the concrete will
turn light grey, and over approximately 1000 C it turns yellow-brown.
[22]
One rule of thumb is to
consider all pink colored concrete as damaged that should be removed.
Fire will expose the concrete to gases and liquids that can be harmful to the concrete, among
other salts and acids that occur when gasses produced by fire come into contact with water.
Aggregate expansion

Various types of aggregate undergo chemical reactions in concrete,
leading to damaging expansive phenomena. The most common are
those containing reactive silica, that can react (in the presence of water)
with the alkalis in concrete (K
2
O and Na
2
O, coming principally from
cement). Among the more reactive mineral components of some
aggregates are opal, chalcedony, flint and strained quartz. Following the
reaction (Alkali Silica Reaction or ASR), an expansive gel forms, that
creates extensive cracks and damage on structural members. On the
surface of concrete pavements the ASR can cause pop-outs, i.e. the
expulsion of small cones (up to 3 cm about in diameter) in
correspondence of aggregate particles. When some aggregates
containing dolomite are used, a dedolomitization reaction occurs where
the magnesium carbonate compound reacts with hydroxyl ions and
yields magnesium hydroxide and a carbonate ion. The resulting
expansion may cause destruction of the material. Far less common are
pop-outs caused by the presence of pyrite, an iron sulfide that generates
expansion by forming iron oxide and ettringite. Other reactions and
recrystallizations, e.g. hydration of clay minerals in some aggregates,
may lead to destructive expansion as well.
Sea water effects

Concrete exposed to sea water is susceptible to its corrosive
effects. The effects are more pronounced above the tidal zone
than where the concrete is permanently submerged. In the
submerged zone, magnesium and hydrogen carbonate ions
precipitate a layer of brucite, about 30 micrometers thick, on
which a slower deposition of calcium carbonate as aragonite
occurs. These layers somewhat protect the concrete from other
processes, which include attack by magnesium, chloride and
sulfate ions and carbonation. Above the water surface,
mechanical damage may occur by erosion by waves themselves
or sand and gravel they carry, and by crystallization of salts from
water soaking into the concrete pores and then drying up.
Pozzolanic cements and cements using more than 60% of slag as
aggregate are more resistant to sea water than pure Portland
cement.
Bacterial corrosion

Bacteria themselves do not have noticeable effect
on concrete. However, anaerobic bacteria
(Thiobacillus) in untreated sewage tend to produce
hydrogen sulfide, which is then oxidized by aerobic
bacteria present in biofilm on the concrete surface
above the water level to sulfuric acid which dissolves
the carbonates in the cured cement and causes
strength loss. Concrete floors lying on ground that
contains pyrite are also at risk. Using limestone as
the aggregate makes the concrete more resistant to
acids, and the sewage may be pretreated by ways
increasing pH or oxidizing or precipitating the
sulfides in order to inhibit the activity of sulfide
utilizing bacteria.
Chemical damage

Carbonation
Chlorides
Sulphates
Distillate Water

Carbonation

Carbon dioxide from air can react with the calcium hydroxide in
concrete to form calcium carbonate. This process is called
carbonation, which is essentially the reversal of the chemical
process of calcination of lime taking place in a cement kiln.
Carbonation of concrete is a slow and continuous process
progressing from the outer surface inward, but slows down with
increasing diffusion depth. Carbonation has two effects: it
increases mechanical strength of concrete, but it also decreases
alkalinity, which is essential for corrosion prevention of the
reinforcement steel. Below a pH of 10, the steel's thin layer of
surface passivation dissolves and corrosion is promoted. For the
latter reason, carbonation is an unwanted process in concrete
chemistry. Carbonation can be tested by applying
Phenolphthalein solution, a pH indicator, over a fresh fracture
surface, which indicates non-carbonated and thus alkaline areas
with a violet color.
Chlorides

Chlorides, particularly calcium chloride, have
been used to shorten the setting time of
concrete.
[23]
However, calcium chloride and
(to a lesser extent) sodium chloride have
been shown to leach calcium hydroxide and
cause chemical changes in Portland cement,
leading to loss of strength,
[24]
as well as
attacking the steel reinforcement present in
most concrete.
Sulphates & Distillate Water


Sulphates in solution in contact with concrete
can cause chemical changes to the cement,
which can cause significant microstructural
effects leading to the weakening of the
cement binder.
Distillate water can wash out calcium content
in concrete, leaving the concrete in brittle
condition. Source of distillate water such as
steam or hot water.
Types of concrete

Regular concrete
High-strength concrete
Stamped concrete
High-performance
concrete
Self-consolidating
concretes
Vacuum concretes
Shotcrete
Pervious concrete
Cellular concrete
Cork-cement composites


Roller-compacted
concrete
Glass concrete
Asphalt concrete
Rapid strength concrete
Rubberized concrete
Polymer concrete
Geopolymer or green
concrete
Limecrete
Refractory Cement
Innovative mixtures



references
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