Background.

Incusve educaton/manstreamng s a key pocy ob|ectve for the educaton of chdren

and young peope wth speca educatona needs (SEN) and dsabtes.
Ams. Ths paper revews the terature on the ehectveness of ncusve educaton/manstreamng. The
focus s on evdence for ehects n terms of chd outcomes wth examnaton aso of evdence on
processes that support ehectveness.
Sampes. The revew covers a range of SEN and chdren from pre-schoo to the end of compusory
educaton.
Method. Foowng an hstorca revew of evdence on ncusve educaton/manstreamng, the core of the
paper s a detaed examnaton of a the papers pubshed n eght |ournas from the ed of speca
educaton pubshed 2001-2005 (N 1373): |ourna of Speca Educaton, Exceptona Chdren, Learnng
Dsabtes Research and Practce, |ourna of Learnng Dsabtes, Remeda and Speca Educaton,
Brtsh |ourna of Speca Educaton, European |ourna of Speca Needs Educaton, and the Internatona
|ourna of Incusve Educaton. The derved categores were: comparatve studes of outcomes: other
outcome studes; non-comparatve quatatve studes ncudng non-expermenta case studes; teacher
practce and deveopment; teacher atttudes; and the use of teachng assstants.
Resuts. Ony 14 papers (1.0%) were dented as comparatve outcome studes of chdren wth some
form of SEN. Measures used vared but ncuded soca as we as educatona outcomes. Other papers
ncuded quatatve studes of ncusve practce, some of whch used a non-comparatve case study desgn
whe others were based on respondents |udgements, or expored process factors ncudng teacher
atttudes and the use of teachng assstants.
Concusons. Incusve educaton/manstreamng has been promoted on two bases: the rghts of chdren
to be ncuded n manstream educaton and the proposton that ncusve educaton s more ehectve.
Ths revew focuses on the atter ssue.
The evdence from ths revew does not provde a cear endorsement for the postve ehects of ncuson.
There s a ack of evdence from approprate studes and, where evdence does exst, the baance was
ony margnay postve. It s argued that the pocy has been drven by a concern for chdrens rghts.
The mportant task now s to research more thoroughy the medators and moderators that support the
optma educaton for chdren wth SEN and dsabtes and, as a consequence, deveop an evdence-
based approach to these chdrens educaton.
Incusve educaton/manstreamng s a key pocy n a number of countres, ncudng the UK and US. In
the UK, the New Labour Government addressed the ssue through ts Green Paper (Department for
Educaton and Empoyment, 1997) wthn months of takng omce. Pocy deveopments have taken pace
wth ncuson at ther centre n Engand and Waes and wthn the separate egsatve framework for
Scotand (Department for Educaton and Sks (DfES) 2001a, 2001b; Speca Educaton Needs and
Dsabty Act 2001; Standards n Scotands Schoos Act 2000) and n the US (The Educaton for A
Handcapped Pups Act (PL-94-142) and Indvduas wth Dsabtes Educaton Act (PL99-457)). A ma|or
drver has been concern that chdrens rghts are compromsed by speca educaton, segregated from
typcay deveopng peers and the manstream currcuum and educatona practces. Ths poston
concernng rghts and the vaues that undere them s mportant but prmary sets out what proponents
beeve shoud be the case. A separate ssue concerns the reatve ehectveness of dherent educatona
approaches. Ths rests on emprca evdence rather than vaues and deooges, athough t s
acknowedged that these ssues nteract. It s not argued that educatona psychoogy s vaue free but
rather that t s mportant to separate dscusson of rghts and vaues from that of ehectveness.
Gven the very cear nternatona pocy mperatve, t s reasonabe to ask: to what extent s the
deveopment of ncusve educaton evdence-based? Educatona psychoogy can contrbute to the
conceptuazaton of the nature, approprateness and ehectveness of educaton for chdren wth
dsabtes and speca educatona needs (SEN). The present paper focuses on the atter and the roe of
educatona psychoogy n provdng evdence regardng educatona practce wth partcuar reference to
ncusve educaton/manstreamng.
It s mportant to recognze that research evdence s ony one factor n pocy formuaton. Potcs s
aso about vaues and deoogy, and ndeed about expedency and the art of the possbe. Vaues provde
a second par aong wth research evdence that mght reasonaby be consdered to support poces
concernng the educaton of chdren and young peope wth dsabtes and SEN. Hence both evdence for
dherenta ehectveness of processes and outcomes, and compance wth the vaues and aspratons of
socety are factors n pocy deveopment, ncudng the determnaton of chdrens rghts (Lndsay, 2003).
Evdence from many wrters n favour of ncuson, however, suggests ther nterest s ony n terms of
the rghts poston and that research evdence s consdered at best not centra to such consderatons or
even rreevant (Booth, 1996; Rustemer, 2002). Research evdence to the contrary, perhaps showng
negatve ehects of ncuson, may be re|ected not as a scentc argument but because such evdence
cannot be used as the bass for what ought to be. Poor outcomes may be found but, t s argued, these
shoud drve us to greater ehorts to dscover how to mpement a pocy seen as nherenty correct. For a
trenchant crtcsm of deoogcay drven postons see Kavae and Mostert (2003). The focus of ths paper
s not pocy anayss rather an examnaton of the evdence for the ehectveness of ncusve educaton.
However, the tensons between rghts- and evdence-based poces w be consdered.
Methodoogca ssues
The evauaton of the ehectveness of ncuson presents the researcher wth substanta chaenges. It s
comparabe n scae and potenta mpact to the very arge educatona nterventons noted by Pressey,
Graham, and Harrs (2006), whch comprse thousands of smaer nterventons many of whch are
prerequste to ater nterventons. Ths s a ratona approach to ma|or educatona nterventons.
However, ths magntude of scae s assocated wth dversty of approach and so examnaton of studes
of the ehectveness of ncusve educaton requres consderaton of a number of methodoogca ssues
ncudng termnoogy, the nature of nterventons and research methods.
Termnoogy
The varaton n termnoogy across tme and countres poses a chaenge for exporng comparabty of
studes whereas from a medca perspectve the ICD-10 and DSM-IV casscatory systems provde
standardzed dagnostc crtera, whch reduce varaton. In ths paper, UK termnoogy w be generay
used. The generc term SEN has been wdey used n the UK for neary 30 years to cover a chdren who
have deveopmenta dmcutes that ahect: ther earnng; ther behavoura, emotona and soca
deveopment; ther communcaton; and ther abty to care for themseves and gan ndependence. It was
ntended to repace dsabty categores (Department for Educaton and Scence, 1978) but these have
contnued to be used, even f they have changed. The 11 categores of the 1945 Reguatons have been
reduced to four categores n the SEN Code of Practce (DfES, 2001a) athough a arger set of 12
categores (pus Other) s aso used by the DfES n coectng data for the Pup Leve Annua Schoo
Census (PLASC). There s nconsstency over tme (e.g. educatona subnormaty was not used after the
1970s, to a arge extent repaced by moderate earnng dmcutes); between consttuent countes n the
UK (e.g. Engand: Behavoura, emotona and soca dmcutes, BESD; Scotand: Soca, emotona and
behavoura dmcutes, SEBD); between educaton and heath servces (e.g. earnng dmcutes or
earnng dsabtes); between practtoners (e.g. specc anguage mparment or specc speech and
anguage dmcutes: Dockre, Lndsay, Macke, & Letchford, 2006); and between the UK and the US and
other countres (e.g. the US term specc earnng dsabtes s comparabe to the UK specc earnng
dmcutes). Whe some of these dmcutes may be mnor, others reect dherent senstvtes, e.g. the
term subnorma, or conceptua frameworks. For exampe, the earer extensve use of measures of
cogntve abty (e.g. IO) has reduced n the UK as exemped by the SEN Code of Practce crtera for
dentfyng earnng and cognton needs, athough they contnue to be used by oca authortes n the SEN
dentcaton procedures (Norwch & Key, 2005).
The terms ncuson or ncusve educaton have argey repaced ntegraton and are ntended to
represent a dherent concept; ntegraton maybe seen as a chd adaptng to a host settng (typcay a
schoo) whe ncuson may refer to the host adaptng n order to meet the needs of actua (and
potenta) pups. However, ths dstncton s not aways cear n practce. Some argue that the change n
termnoogy reects a shft from a needs-based to a rghts-based agenda, or that ntegraton may be seen
as potcay neutra and a form of servce devery whe ncuson has a strong deoogca eement (Prre,
Head, & Brna, 2006). The term manstreamng has contnued to be used by others, especay n the US,
athough ncuson s becomng more common nternatonay. Each of these terms s used to refer to a
range of practces.
Interventons
There are dmcutes n denng nterventons wth respect to ocaton. Much of the debate on ncuson
concerns the dherence(s) between manstream compared wth speca schoos, or manstream casses
versus speca casses. Manstream schoos are not homogeneous; they vary greaty n ther soca mx,
eves ofachevement and behavoura ethos (Omce of Her Ma|estys Chef Inspector, 2005). Wthn both
the US and the UK, for exampe, there has been a broadenng of types of ndvdua manstream schoos
(e.g. US: Charter schoos; UK: Academes and specast schoos) wth dherent poces on admssons
even wthn a broad concept of comprehensve schoong. Groupng of schoos budng upon earer
networks and custers to form partnershps and federatons has aso occurred. These arrangements may
be soft, argey by agreements that are reatvey nforma, through to hard federatons whch may have
dherent forms of governance and management, such as a snge governng body and/or an executve
head teacher for more than one schoo (Lndsay et a., n press). Wth a focus on SEN, schoos mght
ndvduay or as a group, deveop specast, enhanced provson for pups wth SEN. These have varyng
names ncudng Unts, Integrated Resources and Desgnated Speca Provson, and more mportanty may
operate n dherent ways, for exampe stamng numbers and expertse, nature of pups and severty of
SEN. The dmcuty n denng a manstream schoo s therefore sgncant (Prre et a., 2006).
Research methods and anayss
The ast varabe to be consdered here concerns the nature of the evauatve research. There has been
substanta and often trenchant crtcsm of educatona research n the UK (Hage, Pearson, Anderson, &
Tamkn, 1998; Tooey & Darby, 1998). These crtques addressed both pocy reevance and the quaty of
studes. Athough the atter n partcuar was tsef sub|ect to crtca commentary from the research
communty, the pont here s that both were funded by government agences (the DfES and Ofsted,
respectvey) because of concerns about the nature and usefuness of educatona research. The debate
has aso been strong n the US, wth promoton of the need for better research (Natona Research Counc,
2002) and promoton of expermenta research and the use of Randomzed Contro Tras (RCT) (Gersten et
a., 2005). In addton to debate about educaton research n genera there has been partcuar dscusson
of research n speca educaton (Graham, 2005).
These concerns reect a number of debates but the focus here s on approprate methods to enabe
evauaton of the ehectveness of nterventons. RCTs are often proposed as a god standard as random
aocaton, expermenta manpuaton and vad comparsons of treatments provde the best evdence of
causa reatonshps between nterventon and outcome (Natona Research Counc, 2002; What Works
Cearnghouse, 2006). However, attanng true randomzaton and true contro (comparson) group desgn
s often hghy probematc. In a study of readng and maths nterventons, Seethaer and Fuchs (2005)
found ony 34 of 806 reevant artces n ve |ournas (4.22%) used random aocaton, ndcatng a drop n
the bucket n terms of evdence based on ths method. Ther study renforces an eary anayss by
Gersten, Baker, Smth-|ohnson, Fogo, and Hagan-Burke (2004), whch found a sgncant reducton n the
proporton of expermenta research n the US funded for the two-year perod of 1997-1998 compared
wth 1987-1988.
Hence, whe promoted as a method of choce, RCTs are reatvey rare n educatona research. They
are most sutabe for provdng evdence on outcomes not processes. Examnaton of processes s aso
necessary partcuary when these are compex or not we understood. A number of researchers have aso
argued the benets of other methodooges (Natona Research Counc, 2002; Odom et a., 2005):
rgorous correaton studes (Thompson, Damond, McWam, Snyder, & Snyder, 2005), weconstructed
snge-sub|ect desgns (Horner et a., 2005) and sound quatatve studes (Brantnger, |mnez, Kngner,
Pugach, & Rchardson, 2005). The Natona Readng Panes (2000) decson not to ncude quatatve or
snge-case studes n ther revew of ehectve methods of teachng readng, nor to argue for the benets
of studyng an educatona nterventon usng a varety of methodooges, has been crtczed (Pressey et
a., 2006). The deveopment of quaty standards has been promoted as a more reevant approach rather
than adherence to one partcuar method especay one whch s very dmcut to mpement successfuy
n educatona research (Gersten, Baker, & Loyd, 2000; Gersten et a., 2005). Longtudna studes usng
tranguated data sources can aso provde mportant nformaton reevant to ncusve educaton.
Dockre, Lndsay, Pakara, and Cuen (n press), n a study of chdren wth specc anguage and
communcaton needs between 8 and 17 years, report changes n educatona provson (manstream and
speca) experenced by a substanta proporton of the young peope as we as a ack of evdence for the
superorty of ether ncusve or speca provson. The present paper adopts a broad approach to
evauaton and hence to the types of studes consdered.
Evauatng the ehectveness of ncusve educaton
Examnng to what degree, or even whether, an nterventon descrbed as ncusve educaton or
manstreamng may be consdered ehectve s compcated by varatons wth respect to partcpants (the
range of SEN types, severty, persstence and comorbdty), nterventon denton (contextua factors,
nature of the nterventon) and the type of evauatve method (e.g. RCTs, correatona research, meta-
anayses and snge-study desgn). A formdabe set of ssues has been reveaed for researchers, yet these
must be addressed f research s to ead to ehectve practce. Therefore, the rest of ths paper w expore
research, whch may shed ght on the man questons concernng the ehectveness of ncusve educaton.
The revew w be presented n two parts. The man secton w comprse a revew of the papers n
speced |ournas 2000-2005, together wth other studes many produced durng ths perod. Ths revew
w therefore consder current evdence about emcacy. Pror to ths, a bref revew w be presented of the
hstorca evdence.
An hstorca perspectve
A key paper n the hstory of the move to ncusve educaton was that by Dunn (1968). Indeed, a recent
survey reported that ths was the most hghy cted paper n the ed of earnng dmcutes (McLeskey,
2004). It s nterestng to note, therefore, that Dunns paper s argey an opnon pece, radca and
nsprng wth an anayss of the then current system n the US together wth a bueprnt for change, much
of whch woud be recognzed now; hs secton of emcacy studes comprses |ust three paragraphs. Aso
worthy of note s Dunns purpose. He sets out ceary that hs concern s many A better educaton than
speca cass pacement s needed for sococuturay deprved chdren wth md earnng probems who
have been abeed mentay retarded (p. 5). It s ths eement of speca educaton that he argued n ts
present form s obsoete and un|ustabe (p. 6). Note aso hs statement:
We are not argung that we do away wth our speca educaton programmes for the moderatey and severey
retarded, for other types of more handcapped chdren or for the mutpy handcapped. (p. 6)
Around ths tme a number of studes were undertaken to nvestgate the emcacy of dherent pacements
and for dherent groups, the ma|orty conducted n the US. These studes dented the methodoogca
probems dscussed above, eadng to questons about the ndvdua studes vadty, ncudng the
equvaence of chdren n comparatve studes and attrton. For exampe, Backman (1967:8) quoted n
Chrstopos and Renz (1969) argues that a study by Godsten, Moss, and |ordan (1965) bends nto the
ong ne of negatve ndngs that have characterzed ths area of research for the past 30 years by fang
to ndcate the superorty of speca casses. However, athough usng a random aocaton desgn, t
suhered substanta attrton osng three quarters of the orgna sampe.
Severa revews of ncusve educaton were undertaken n the 1980s (e.g. Madden & Savn, 1983) and
1990s (e.g. Baker, Wang, & Waberg, 1994; Hegarty, 1993; and Sebba & Sachdev, 1997). These adopted
dherent methodooges ncudng overvews, revews and meta-anayses but faed to provde cear
evdence for the benet of ncusve educaton. Baker et a. revewed severa meta-anayses and found
postve but generay sma ehect szes, the hghest for academc achevement, but prmary n ony one
of the three anayses (Tabe 1).
Tabe 1. An anayss of three meta-anaytc studes of the ehects of ncusve pacements (from Baker, Wang, &
Waberg, 1994)
Carberg and Kavae Wang and Baker Baker
Year pubshed 1980 1985-6 1994
Tme perod Pre-1980 1975-1984 1983-
1992
Academc ehect sze 0.15 0.44 0.08
Soca ehect sze 0.11 0.11 0.28
A further revew of eght mode programmes by Manset and Semme (1997) found evdence of varyng
degrees of ehectveness and argued that ncusve programmng ehects are reatvey unmpressve for
most students wth dsabtes especay n vew of the extraordnary resources avaabe to many of
these mode programmes (p. 117). Interacton ehects between eve of chd dmcutes and pacement
were reported by a number of studes usng RCTor at east quas-expermenta desgns. For exampe, Ms,
Coe, |enkns, and Dae (1998) found no overa dherences n pacement ehects for groups of pre-
schoochdren wth dsabtes, but hgher performng chdren beneted more from ntegrated speca
educaton cass pacement whereas ower performng chdren beneted more from manstream or
segregated pacements (see aso Coe, Ms, Dae, & |enkns, 1991).
By the end of the 20th century, therefore, the evdence for the ehectveness of ncusve
educaton/manstreamng mght best be descrbed as equvoca athough, equay, there was tte
evdence for the superorty of speca educaton. Rather, there was a degree of support for ehectveness
but ths was tempered by a number of caveats. Some concerned the methodoogy of the studes, whe
others may be nterpreted not as crtques but reastc apprasas of the compexty of the topc. That s, t
mght not be reastc to ask f ncusve educaton was ehectve, but t woud be better to focus on whch
modes were more ehectve for whch chdren ncudng the reatve mportance of dherent moderators
(Lndsay, 1989).
Post-2000
Foowng Seethaer and Fuchs (2005), ths secton focuses on a target group of |ournas. Ths dhers,
therefore, from systematc revews whch expore the whoe ed usng keywords to dentfy approprate
pubcatons such as studes n the UK through the Evdence for PoIcy and Practce Informaton and
Coordnatng (EPPI) Centre (e.g. Kaambouka, Farre, Dyson, & Kapan, 2005). For the present study eght
|ournas from the ed of speca educaton were seected. The |ourna of Speca Educaton (125 papers),
Exceptona Chdren (135), Learnng Dsabtes Research and Practce (150), |ourna of Learnng
Dsabtes (282) and Remeda and Speca Educaton (225) are ma|or US |ournas overwhemngy
pubshng studes undertaken n the US. The Brtsh |ourna of Speca Educaton (169) has been the ma|or
UK |ourna for SEN, and the European |ourna of Speca Needs Educaton (145) s the ma|or European
|ourna: the former argey pubshes UK studes, whe the atter reports studes many from across
Europe. Fnay, the Internatona |ourna of Incusve Educaton (142) has a wder bref and ncudes papers
from many countres across the word.
Each ssue from 2000 to the end of 2005 was examned, sx fu years, and papers were seected that
had reevance to the ehectveness of ncusve educaton. No restrcton was paced on methodoogy and
hence both quanttatve and quatatve desgns were potentay acceptabe. Each abstract was read and
ts reevance was evauated. Ths process aso aowed the generaton of a range of categores concernng
ehectveness. Ths dhered from Seethaer and Fuchss more focused paper, whch seected ony those
studes examnng readng and maths nterventons wth group desgns and random assgnment to
treatment condtons. The derved categores were: opnon, comparatve studes of outcomes, other
outcome studes, non-comparatve quatatve studes ncudng non-expermenta case studes, teacher
practce and deveopment, teacher atttude and the use of teachng assstants. In addton a category of
research methodoogy was dented.
Foowng the readng of the abstracts, papers were seected for detaed readng that appeared to
address the ehectveness of ncusve educaton. As the seecton crtera were deberatey set to be
broad ths resuted n papers varyng from those wth a cear focus on ehectveness research questons
through to others that addressed ehectveness n passng. The denton of ehectveness was not tghty
drawn, so aowng studes whch reported on varous chd outcomes. Aso, studes were seected on the
bass of ther nvestgatng ehectveness, not whether ncuson was found to be ehectve.
A tota 1373 papers were consdered. Despte the broad categorzaton of ehectveness, ony 14
papers (1.0%) were dented that reported comparatve outcome studes of chdren wth some form of
SEN. Other papers presented quatatve studes of ncusve practce, some usng non-comparatve case
study methods but others reportng descrptons of practce, whch may ncude respondents |udgments.
In ths secton, the 14 comparatve outcome studes w be reported, foowed by dscusson of non-
comparatve quatatve studes. In the foowng secton, process studes w be reported ncudng
research on teacher practce, teacher atttudes and the use of teachng assstants w be presented as
these studes provde nformaton about ehectveness even f they were not ehectveness studes per se.
Fnay, other recent research w be revewed focusng on schoo ehectveness and ncuson.
Studes of outcomes Comparatve studes of outcomes
Fourteen papers were dented as comparatve studes of outcomes, of whch two were revews. There
was substanta varaton on severa dmensons. None used a RCT method. Ony nne compared the
performance of chdren wth SEN n dherent settngs and n the other ve (ncudng two revews),
outcomes for chdren wth SEN were compared wth those for typcay deveopng (TD) chdren, where
both were attendng manstream schoos (Tabe 2). The nature of chdrens SEN vared greaty as dd age
of sampe, wth studes rangng from chdren n preschoo/kndergarten to 17 year ods. Most studes (9)
ncuded measures of soca, emotona or behavoura deveopment together wth academc deveopment
(ncudng academc engagement) and the other ve addressed soca factors ony, ncudng sef-concept.
The studes are dscussed by age of partcpants.
An nteracton ehect was reported by Raherty, Pscte, and Boettcher (2003) who researched a US
preschoo settng, where between 53% and 75% of the chdren n the ncuson casses had dsabtes
and a chdren n segregated casses had dsabtes. The former contaned 12 to 18 chdren, 1 speca
educaton teacher and 1 eary chdhood teacher; the atter contaned 6 chdren, 1 speca educaton
teacher and 1 ade. The chdren n the ncusve casses had hgher eves of functonng at pre-test but
usng a covarance mode the study found an nteracton between settngs and degree of dsabty. Type
of settng had no dherenta mpact on chdren wth ow eves of dsabty n terms of ether anguage
abty or soca competence but chdren wth severe dsabtes n ncusve settngs had greater gans
than those n segregated casses. The very hgh proporton of chdren wth dsabtes rases questons
about whether these casses can be consdered ncusve.
An nteracton ehect was aso found by Buysse, Godman, and Sknner (2002) n a US study of 333 pre-
schoo chdren (120 wth dsabtes and 213 TD) attendng one of two forms of ncusve eary chdhood
programmes; specazed settngs had a ma|orty of chdren wth dsabtes whe n chd care settngs
the opposte was the case. Dsabty covered a wde range of probems ncudng deafness, autstc
spectrum dsorder and menta retardaton. Chdren n the chd-care settngs had more paymates and
were more key to have a TD frend than those n specazed settngs, but ths coud be due to the
dherences n avaabty of TD chdren n each settng.
Other studes have produced mxed or equvoca resuts. A Dutch study comparng over 400 matched
pars of at-rsk chdren n speca and reguar (manstream) educaton (age up to 13 years) found no
dherences by settng on ether academc or psychosoca deveopment (Karsten, Peetsma, Roeeved, &
Vergeer, 2001). A Swedsh study of 183 pups (9-3 years) found no dherence n sef-concept between
those recevng support from speca educators n manstream schoos (Aod, 2000) athough there was
somedence of those supported n manstream havng ower eves of sef-concept for academc
competence compared wth those n sma groups n speca unts.
Wener and Tardh (2004) report a Canadan study of 117 chdren (Grades 4-8) wth earnng
dsabtes (LD) educated n one of four dherent servce devery modes: In-cass or Resource Room
Support for those |udged to need a ower ntensty of servce; Incuson or Sef-Contaned Speca
Educaton cassrooms for those needng a hgher ntensty of support. On a range of soca factors
addressng frendshp, oneness, sefperceptons and soca sks, the comparsons of each par of modes
tended to favour the more ncusve approach, athough the overa eves of soca and emotona
functonng were ower than chdren wthout LD and the arge number of comparsons ncreased the rsk
of Type I errors n the number of statstcay sgncant dherences found.
A study comparng 8th grade students n mdde schoos n the US, one ncusve the other operatng a
pu out speca educaton system, wth matched groups of students wth LD, found that the ncusve
educaton group acheved sgncanty hgher eves on a range of academc measures and equvaent
scores on others (Rea, McLaughan, and Wather-Thomas, 2002). These chdren aso had better
attendance and equvaent eves of suspenson. The features of ths reatvey successfu mode ncuded
a teamng mode whereby teachers panned work together and casses rotated durng the day.
A postve ndng for ncuson was aso reported from a Norwegan study of 592 students wth genera
earnng probems over the three years of upper secondary schoong (Mykebust (2002). The study
compared students who were taught excusvey n sma groups outsde the cassroom, recevng adapted
teachng durng ther rst year of upper secondary, wth those who were taught n ordnary casses. After
three years the atter group had made better progress: 40% compared wth 10% were academcay on
schedue. Drop-out rate showed the opposte ehect, however. Ths study therefore suggests a compex
stuaton whereby the speca cass support n the rst year heped to reduce the rsk of drop-out, but was
ess ehectve than genera cass pacement at that tme for academc progress. Markussen (2004)
compared 777 students wth SEN, 285 attendng speca casses wth reduced numbers of students and
492 attendng ordnary casses, wth a comparson group of 463 non-SEN students. The SEN students n
speca casses acheved a ower eve of success compared wth those n ordnary casses after other
factors had been controed. However, there were no dherences among the SEN group attendng ordnary
casses n achevng forma competence rrespectve of whether they receved hep n cass or n sma
groups outsde the cassroom.
A meta-anayss of sef-concept of students wth earnng dsabtes derved from an anayss of 36
research reports aowng 65 dherent pacement comparsons (Ebaum, 2002) provdes more substanta
evdence. Ths found no overa reatonshp between sef-concept and settng (reguar cassroom for a
nstructon, part-tme resource, sefcontaned for a academc nstructon and speca schoo) for four out
of ve comparsons suggestng that students fared no better or worse n terms of sef-concept n reguar
or separate cassrooms. A revew by Zeeke (2004) of 41 studes examnng sef-concept of chdren wth
earnng dmcutes compared wth normay achevng chdren n manstream aso found strong evdence
of the former havng more sgncanty ower scores on academc sef-concept, whe evdence of soca
sefconcept overa ndcated they fared no worse.
The studes, such as Zeekes, whch have examned outcomes for chdren wth SEN compared wth TD
chdren, rather than by settng, provde dherent evdence regardng ncuson. A Dutch study of 25 9-12
year ods wth behavour probems n fu-tme reguar educaton produced negatve ndngs regardng
ncuson as these chdren were socay ncuded ess than ther peers wthout SEN (Monchy, P|, &
Zandberg, 2004). Furthermore, the teachers were |udged to have too postve a vew of these chdrens
soca ntegraton and to have underestmated the frequency of ther beng bued and of buyng others.
However, two other studes provde more postve resuts. Waace, Anderson, Barthoomay, and Hupp
(2002) n a study of 118 ncusve cassrooms n four US hgh schoos seected from 114 successfu schoos
showed that students wth and wthout dsabtes had equvaent hgh eves of academc engagement
and ow eves of napproprate behavour. Cawey, Hayden, Cade, and Baker-Kroczynsk (2002) report a
successfu scence programme n an nner cty US schoo wth very hgh eves of poverty. Students wth
LD and severe emotona dsturbance were ntegrated nto scence essons taught |onty by the reguar
and scence teachers who had been on a 100-hour tranng programme. No behavoura probems were
found and the success rate of the speca educatona students was equvaent to that of the genera
educaton students.
Cambra and Svestre (2003) studed the sef-concept and soca preference of Spansh students wth a
range of SEN and comparson TD chdren n a manstream schoo wth Speca Expermenta Schoo status
(35% had SEN of varous knds). The typcay deveopng group had sgncanty more postve soca and
academc sefconcepts and were aso more key to be seected and ess key to be re|ected. Hence,
manstreamng n ths study was not assocated wth equvaent soco-emotona deveopment for the SEN
group.
Ouatatve studes
Ouatatve methodoogy has been used to nvestgate the progresson of chdren but some do not
provde sumcent data to aow a |udgment on the ndngs. For exampe, Peters (2002) n case studes of
two US schoos cams a varety of gans for students wth sgncant SEN, but no data are presented to
support ths concuson. Other studes typcay focus on processes rather than chd outcomes, often
usng very sma sampes. For exampe, Ha and McGregor (2000) show that three chdren wth
dsabtes were nvoved n a varety of peer reatonshps durng kndergarten and Grade 1, but ths eve
of nvovement reduced by upper eementary grades (10-13 years), e.g. recproca nomnatons as
paymate for two of the three boys reduced from 11 at kndergarten/Grade 1 to ony one postve
recproca nomnaton at upper eementary eve. They were aso ess nvoved n shared actvtes
athough these chdren contnued to pay wth and be accepted by peers n the payground. Ha and
McGregor specuate that by the end of eementary schoong these boys may have been n cassrooms but
not perceved as part of a cass. Hanson et a. (2001) found that ony about 10% of the 25 chdren
orgnay n ncusve preschoo settngs remaned n ncusve settngs ve years ater. They dented ve
factors nuencng ths change: professona nuences, fames abtes to access nformaton, nuence
of advocates, match between famy and schoo needs and expectatons, and the nuence of chd and
famy characterstcs. Ths quatatve study based on annua ntervews and observatons reveas the
tensons between a desre for ncusve educaton and the probems of meetng chdrens needs wth the
avaabe resources. Other case studes have focused more on the processes operatng wthn schoos
rather than on the chdren, suggestng possbe areas for deveopment, but n the absence of chd eve
data these ndngs are specuatve (e.g. Carrngton & Ekns, 2002).
Where outcomes have been examned, mxed resuts have been found. P| and Hamstra (2005) n a
Norwegan study report that seven of 24 pups (29%) n a fu ncusve mode of educaton had soca-
emotona deveopment |udged as worryng by ndependent assessors, athough the teachers and
parents were more postve. Pavr and Monda-Amaya (2000, 2001) n two studes of 20 and 30 chdren,
respectvey, report that athough chdren wth earnng dsabtes fet part of a soca network, many fet
oneness at schoo. In an ntervew study of 14 young peope (12-18 years) wth Down syndrome
attendng ether ther oca manstream secondary schoo or a resourced manstream schoo, Cucke and
Wson (2002) found that the young peope were postve about frendshps and havng roe modes among
manstream peers but frendshps were many mted to schoo. More truy recproca frendshps were
noted wth peers who aso had SEN, ncudng others wth Down syndrome. Cucke and Wson suggest ths
reects the coser match of nterests, emotona maturty and communcaton sks. A study of 24 young
peope (mean age 22 years) who had transferred from a speca schoo for pups wth moderate earnng
dmcutes to manstream presents an even goomer pcture (Hornby & Kdd, 2001). Ony three of the 24
were workng fu-tme and one part-tme and none was marred.
Studes of process Teacher practce
At the heart of a educaton s the practce of teachers; consequenty, the roe of teachers n deveopng
ncuson s centra to ts ehectveness. A number of studes have expored teacher practce; these have
typcay been sma-scae. Fem, Moen, and Gudmundsdottr (2004) studed the practce of one teacher
recommended as achevng ehectve ncusve practce n Norway over four months, workng wth a cass
of 23 7th grade students ncudng three wth SEN. The study dented eements of practce consdered to
ead to ehectveness. These ncuded genera educatona practce apped to the pup wth SEN (e.g.
ehectve scahodng; deveopng a modeng postve nteractons and ambence; contngency
management and ehectve nstructona methods ncudng feedback). Aso dented as mportant were
coaboraton wth other teachers and the schoo admnstraton.
Other studes have supported these factors. Addtona speca teachers to work wth kndergarten
teachers (Takaa & Auno, 2005) and coaboratve teams to work wth 4th grade students wth severe
dsabtes or consdered at-rsk n genera educatona cassrooms (Hunt, Soto, Maer, & Doerng, 2003)
have been found usefu. The mportance and ehectveness of ndvduazed Uned Pans of Support (UPS)
were ndcated by observed changes n the students behavour wth eves of engagement ncreasng
substantay, as dd an ncrease n ntatng nteractons wth teachers and other chdren, together wth
team members opnons of mproved performance. The UPS stressed team acton and Hunt et a.
specuate that a key eement n ts success was that team members had tme to reect together.
The deveopment of a postve ethos, wth a vaues-based commtment to ncuson, has aso been
shown to have an mportant roe (Fsher, Roach, & Frey, 2002; Kugemass, 2001). However, teachers may
not share these vews, even f there s a natona pocy for ncuson. A sense of ackng competence
(Dockre & Lndsay, 2001); ack of resources or addtona tranng and support for teachers to deveop
ther own sks, and an unreastc or ack of awareness of the prevaence of deveopmenta probems
(Dockre, Shed, & Rgby, 2003) may undermne teachers deveopment of ncusve educaton (Frere &
Cesar, 2003; Skarbrevk, 2005).
Teacher atttudes
Teacher atttudes, as we as ther behavours, have been proposed as a key factor n successfu ncusve
educaton. Revews have dented a number of mportant factors ahectng teacher atttudes to ncuson
(Avramds & Norwch, 2002; Scruggs & Mastroper, 1996). Athough a genera shft to a more postve
atttude to ncuson has been dented, there s no evdence of acceptance of a pocy of tota ncuson.
The nature of chdrens dsabty or SEN appears crtca wth teachers generay havng more
favourabe atttudes to ncudng chdren wth physca and sensory mparment than those wth earnng
dmcutes or BESD (e.g. Cough & Lndsay, 1991). There s a ack of consstent evdence concernng
teachers age and gender and age of pups taught, but teachers beefs and tranng are mportant
(Avramds & Norwch, 2002). There s mxed evdence concernng experence of contact wth chdren wth
SEN (e.g. Center & Ward, 1987; Prasner, 2003). Resources, both physca ncudng Informaton and
Communcaton Technoogy (ICT) and teachng materas, and human, ncudng teachng assstants, are
mportant, as s support from the head teacher (Marsha, Raph, & Pamer, 2002). Furthermore,
restructurng of the physca envronment and organzatona changes may aso be necessary for
successfu ncuson (Avramds, Bayss, & Burden, 2002).
Hence teachers may have postve atttudes n prncpe but they temper these by a number of
practca consderatons (Cro & Moses, 2000; Frederckson, Dunsmur, Lang, & Monsen, 2004). Ths s
partcuary the case wth respect to meetng currcuar demands rather than addressng soca ncuson
(Fem & Keer, 2000) and atttudes may vary wth currcuum sub|ect (Ens & Porter, 2005).
Teachng assstants
Teachng assstants n the UK have had many roes over the years from genera dutes around the
cassroom to specc work wth ndvdua pups wth SEN. Increasngy, a more genera SEN roe to
support ncuson workng n coaboraton wth the teacher s beng promoted. However, the UK context
has been made more compex by the tradton of these non-SEN roes beng undertaken by other
personne workng as assstants and the recent workoad agreement amed at reducng teachers
responsbtes for non-teachng tasks. There have aso been many dherent terms used, a common one
for those wth the SEN roe havng been earnng support assstants. In the US, the term
paraprofessona s the most common. In ths paper teachng assstant (TA) w be the preferred term.
The key ssues to consder are the nature of TA practce, the tranng they receve to carry t out and how
ths heps to support the ncuson of chdren wth SEN.
The empoyment of TAs to support chdren wth SEN ncreased substantay durng the 1990s (Farre,
Bashaw, & Poat, 1999). However, ther roe has been uncear, often eft to schoos to determne. Teachers
have typcay been postve about the support avaabe from TAs (Moran & Abbott, 2002; Ofsted, 2002)
but often have not been abe to artcuate ceary the academc benets they beeve the pups have
attaned (Batchford, Russe, Bassett, Brom, & Martn, 2004). French (2001) found tte evdence of
schedued pannng meetngs between paraprofessonas and teachers.
The man practce provded by TAs has been drect support of pups wth SEN (Amaz & Caste|on,
2001; Batchford et a., 2004; Gangreco, Edeman, Broer, & Doye, 2001; Groom & Rose, 2005) but see
Emanuesson (2001) for some varatons. However, the specc nature of such support has vared to
ncude drect teachng of academc sks, fe sks or vocatona sks; supportng pups wth chaengng
behavour to prevent or ameorate possbe dsrupton and optmze both conduct and earnng;
factatng nteractons wth other pups; and provdng persona care or supportng sef-hep sks n
chdren, e.g. toetng and feedng.
There have been concerns regardng the potenta overap wth teachng and confuson over what TAs
actuay do and what professonas thnk they shoud be dong (Gangreco, Edeman, & Broer, 2001). One
concern s the dstncton of roe between the TA and teacher: shoud the TA support, suppement, extend
or repace the teacher? Gven the mpcatons for condtons of servce ths ssue has rased concerns
beyond the pedagogc nto the potca arena. However, the use of TAs to support ncuson s now we
estabshed but ack of tranng has been hghghted as a ma|or concern for successfu undertakng of a
pedagogc roe (Batchford et a., 2004; Farre et a., 1999; Rggs & Mueer, 2001). Ths has been
addressed wthn the UK by a number of tranng ntatves
(http://www.teachernet.gov.uk/whoeschoo/teachngassstants/tranng/ accessed 3.3.06). In the US,
Gangreco, Edeman, and Broer (2003) report a arge-scae nnovatve programme for pannng TA support,
whch was rated hghy by partcpants.
Gangreco et a. (2001) argue that the terature has been top-heavy wth nondatabased artces on
roes and tranng of paraprofessonas cang for roe carcaton as we as more and better tranng (p.
57). In the UK, there s ndrect evdence to support mpact on chdren, beyond the opnons of the
teachers wth whom TAs work. Ofsted (2002) report that the evdence from ther nspectons of schoos
shows the quaty of teachng n essons wth TAs s better than n essons wthout them, but pont out that
schoos rarey evauate the mpact of TAs on pups earnng and attanment. Batchford et a. (2004) n a
arge-scae study report that TAs had an ndrect ehect on teachng by ncreasng pup engagement and
hepng teachers focus on teachng; wth a TA present there was a more actve form of nteracton and
more ndvduazed teacher attenton. Evdence for soca benets comes from an evauaton of a tranng
programme amed to teach four TAs how to factate nteractons between pups wth severe dsabtes
and ther peers. Athough sma scae, a comparson of basene and post-nterventon observatona data
ndcates the tranng was successfu n not ony doubng TA factatve behavour but aso student
nteracton, whch ncreased 25-fod and was mantaned (Causton-Theoharrs & Mamgren, 2005).
The use of TAs s now very we estabshed. Teachers and TAs are deveopng coaboratve teamwork
and tranng s now more wdespread. Nevertheess, concern remans. The evdence of postve mpact
remans mted, both n absoute terms and aso wth respect to specc tranng programmes for whch
further evdence of repcabty s requred. Broer, Doye, and Gangrenko (2005) have rased mportant
questons about the negatve as we as postve aspects of TA support from a study of pup perspectves
whch dented the TA beng seen as havng four roes: mother, frend, protector and prmary teacher.
Hence, the nature of TAs work and the roe taken and perceved by the chd, and the reatonshp
between roe and chd outcomes requre more research.
Schoo ehectveness and ncuson
Athough the focus of ths paper so far has been on the mpact of ncuson on pups wth SEN, t s aso
reasonabe to examne the mpact on pups wthout SEN. Indeed Engands Speca Educatona Needs
and Dsabty Act 2001 states that a chd wth SEN must be educated n a manstream schoo uness ths
s ncompatbe wth the parents wshes or the provson of emcent educaton of other chdren. Two
research strands may be dented: the drect mpact on non-SEN chdren and the mpact on overa
schoo standards and ehectveness.
In a systematc revew of 26 studes, Kaambouka et a. (2005) dented 23% postve ndngs, 15%
negatve, 53% neutra and 10% mxed ndngs wth respect to mpact of ncuson on non-SEN pups.
Most studes concerned the ncuson of pups wth dmcutes n earnng or cognton and there was
evdence of more negatve ndngs where ncuson concerned pups wth emotona and behavoura
dmcutes; however, no study reported negatve mpact when the ncuded chdren had physca, sensory
or communcaton dmcutes. Studes such as those revewed by Kaambuka et a. are reatvey sma-
scae but have the advantage of data drawn from ndvdua pup proes derved from nstruments
desgned to focus on specc domans. Large-scae studes of schoo eve mpact typcay use ess
senstve measures. For exampe, the recent avaabty of PLASC data n Engand has aowed arge-scae,
natona studes, but usng ess specc crtera. PLASC aows anayss of SEN by two ma|or crtera:
whether a chd has a statement of SEN or s at the next ower eve (Schoo Acton Pus) and the prmary
need dented (e.g. moderate earnng dmcutes).
Lunt and Norwch (1999) found a substanta negatve correaton between attanment at 16 years
(Genera Certcate of Secondary Educaton (GCSE), average ponts schoo for the schoo) and eve of
ncuson n a sampe of 3151 secondary schoos. Not more than 3% of the top 20% GCSE performers were
schoos wthn the top 20% n terms of proporton of SEN pups. However, ths study dd not take account
of soca dsadvantage, a factor that has been found to be assocated wth hgher eves of dented SEN
(Lndsay et a., 2006; Skba, Smmons, Poon-Staudnger, Feggns-Azzz, & Chung, 2005). A natona study
usng PLASC data by Dyson, Farre, Pata, Hutcheson, and Gaanaugh (2004) found a very sma, negatve
reatonshp between pup attanment (GCSE and GNVO average ponts score) and eve of ncusvty (the
proporton of pups at Schoo Acton Pus and wth a Statement). However, there was evdence of soco-
economc dsadvantage beng a confoundng factor: more ncusve schoos were more key to have
hgher proportons of pups suherng soco-economc dsadvantage, as ndcated by egbty for free
schoo meas.
Nether of these arge-scae anayses addressed ncuson n terms of more rened measures of
ncuson such as cassroom processes, resources and currcua, athough the same crtcsm coud be
made of many sma-scae studes. Furthermore, Dyson et a. (2004) report that anayses of 16 case
studes n ther study ndcated that categorzaton of schoos on ther measures of ncusvty and
performance was somewhat unstabe over tme (p. 57). Aso Lndsay et a. (2006) report that soco-
economc dsadvantage s dherentay reated to dherent categores of SEN, wth a substanta
reatonshp wth BESD but not sensory mparment.
Dscusson
Incuson has been a ma|or pocy ntatve desgned to mprove the educatona opportuntes of chdren
wth speca educatona needs and dsabtes. Support for ncuson s based on two foundatons: that
chdren have a rght to ncuson wthn manstream schoos and that ncusve educaton s more
ehectve. The present revew has focused on the atter queston (see Lndsay, 2003 for a dscusson of the
former).
Nevertheess, both are mportant. Ehectveness must be |udged reatve to the crtera used, whch are
party derved from vaues as we as technca consderatons.
Overa, the weght of evdence revewed n ths paper cannot be sad to provde a cear endorsement
for the postve ehects of ncuson (see aso Zgmond, 2003). |ust 1% of over 1300 studes pubshed
2000-2005 revewed addressed ehectveness and the resuts from these studes were ony margnay
postve overa, athough comparabty between outcomes for SEN and TD chdren coud be nterpreted
as postve rather than non-dherence. Furthermore, the studes cover a range of ages and methods of
ncuson; used a varety of methods and produced evdence on a number of dherent outcome varabes.
Taken as a whoe, and wth the pre-2000 evdence, whch presents a smar pcture, there s a ack of a
rm research base for ncusve educaton to support ether whether ths s a preferabe approach n terms
of outcomes, or how ncuson shoud be mpemented. The revew has hghghted the mportance of
nteracton ehects and hence the need to examne moderators and medators ahectng outcomes. Ths
amounts to a cear ndcaton of the power of poces argued to be supportng chdrens rghts (to be
ncuded) rather than of evdence of optma practce. The research base s more hepfu n dentfyng
processes that factate ncuson. The dherenta benet of tranng TAs s a case n pont. However, there
s a ack of rgorous studes that demonstrate postve chd outcomes rather than mproved teachng
processes.
Can ncusve educaton be evauated?
Some educatonsts queston the vaue of research n ths ed as ncuson s consdered approprate de
facto and hence what s needed s a commtment to ensure t s mpemented. Negatve ndngs may be
vewed as ndcatng mtatons n present practce, whch must be addressed, rather than as presentng a
chaenge to the basc poston n support of ncuson (e.g. Booth, 1996). Ths stance sts uneasy wth
other researchers who are commtted to evdence-based pocy and practce. Aso, a dmcuty wth ths
poston s that the reatve standng and prorty of rghts are not unversay agreed; often there may be
competng rghts (Mthaug, 1998). Others do use the research terature but argue that the evdence more
strongy supports ncuson whereas the poston on the bass of the present revew s that t s barey
more than equvoca (see aso Norwch & Key, 2005).
Those who are commtted to research aso have sgncant dmcutes n examnng the ehectveness of
ncuson. Frst, probems n the denton of varabes are endemc. How s ncuson to be operatonay
dened? Dyson et a. (2004) used the proporton of pups desgnated as havng SEN as a measure of
ncusvty. Ths s hghy probematc, as they recognzed. The categorzaton of a chd as havng SEN and
the speccaton of the severty of the SEN (as |udged by the pup havng a Statement or beng at the
ower eve of Schoo Acton Pus n the Engsh system) are both contentous. Each s reated to ob|ectve
measures but s aso nuenced by schoo poces, ncudng attempts to secure resources. Categores
representng esser severty are even ess reabe (Lndsay et a., 2006). Attrbuton to certan categores
of SEN (e.g. moderate earnng dmcutes) and the denton of ocatona varabes are aso probematc.
Manstream schoos vary greaty (e.g. n terms of soco-economc dsadvantage, overa eves of
attanment and ethnc proes) and ocatona dstnctons wthn manstream may be compex. It cannot
be assumed that terms such as resource base, unt, ntegrated resource and desgnated speca provson
refer to comparabe provson, or even that there s commonaty wthn each category. Varaton aso
exsts, despte the Natona Currcuum n Engand, n currcuum content, pedagogy, groupng and use of
ICT and teachng assstants. Such varatons ncrease further when systems n dherent countres are
consdered.
A second dmcuty concerns the changng nature of schoong. Many speca schoos have deveoped
nk/outreach programmes where pups attend both manstream and speca schoos. The use of reatvey
segregated speca unt provson n schoos has changed to a more dhuse system of cass/resource base
pus support wthn manstream cassrooms. Furthermore, the manstream schoo system tsef s
changng, for exampe wth the deveopment of Charter schoos n the US and federatons of schoos n
Engand. These changes present methodoogca chaenges n terms of comparatve research n ths ed,
as ncuson can no onger be conceptuazed as the opposte of segregaton. Rather, ncuson nto
what? becomes a key research queston, and hence adds compexty to comparatve studes. For
exampe, federatons of schoos n Engand have deveoped a range of coaboratve partnershps wth
varyng purposes, forms of eadershp and governance, and degree of focus on SEN (Lndsay et a., n
press). Some have pared a successfu schoo wth one n dmcutes; others have deveoped a broader
based sharng of expertse; one schoo whch opened ony at Easter 2006 combnes a prmary, secondary
and the ony speca schoo n the oca authorty nto one schoo budng under an executve drector for
a three schoos.
A thrd theme concerns the use of teachng assstants (TAs) whch has deveoped substantay wth
ndcatons of potenta benet (Batchford et a., 2004; Ofsted, 2002). Athough ther ntroducton n the
past may have been seen as a cheap approach to ncuson, the sze of ths professona force now
presents a ma|or opportunty for deveopment. There s evdence for the ehectveness of tranng
(Causton-Theoharrs & Mamgren, 2005); what s now needed s evdence of ehectveness of dherent
support regmes for chdren wth dherent types of SEN. In partcuar, t s mportant to compare not ony
outcomes reated to traned vs. untraned TAs, but aso to compare TAs aganst reguar and specast
traned teachers, both wth regard to chd outcomes and costbenets.
A fourth theme concerns the ehectveness of pedagogy and needs to be focused on the nature of
dherent SEN. Brookes (2002), Graham (n press) and Pressey, Graham, and Harrs (2006) have revewed
successfu pedagogy for teracy nterventon whe Seethaer and Fuchs (2005) have examned both
readng and maths. Key prncpes that optmze achevement, of both TD chdren and those wth teracy
dmcutes have been dented. Other studes have dented comparabe prncpes for other domans
ncudng BESD (Evans, Harden, & Thomas, 2004). Both Davs and Foran (2004) and Lews and Norwch
(2005) have taken a broader perspectve n an attempt to dentfy whether there s a separate speca
educaton pedagogy, revewng evdence across the range of categores of SEN. The genera ndngs from
ther revews are that there are prncpes that can be apped to optmze earnng, but that these must be
both conceptuazed and operatonazed n reaton to the ndvdua chds earnng and deveopmenta
needs and to the settng n whch the teachng and earnng are to take pace.
Fnay, t s necessary to consder the use of teams of practtoners. Teams have a chequered hstory.
The chd gudance team mode was heavy crtczed n the eary 1970s (Tzard, 1973) but other forms of
teams have deveoped. In Engand the deveopment of Chdrens Trusts and the Every Chd Matters
agenda requre the deveopment of chdrens servces wth cear ntegraton of functons to avod
vunerabe chdren fang through gaps n servces. Teams may be focused at schoo eve to support
ncuson. However, ths s currenty an under-researched area and both the earer studes and recent
evauatons provde mxed ndngs (e.g. Heath et a., 2004).
A way forward
Ths paper has focused prmary on research evdence of the ehectveness of ncusve educaton.
However, t was aso argued that there s a separate conceptua framework that must be consdered. Ths
concerns vaues and rghts. Incusve educaton has been drven by a beef that ths s the correct
approach, to ncude rather than segregate and excude. Poces of varous governments have pursued
ths ne (e.g. Department of Educaton and Sks, 2001b). However, there are sgns of change. The UK
House of Commons Commttee on Educaton and Sks (2006) urged the Government to carfy ts poston
on ncuson whch t argued was confusng, wth pocy statements ndcatng an expectaton of fewer
speca schoos, whereas the Mnsters wtness statement to the Commttee stated that the Government
woud be content f, as a resut of oca authorty decsons, the current roughy statc porton of speca
schoos contnues (p. 5). The Commttee was strdent n ts crtcsm: The governments cear deoogca
stance to promote ncuson s eadng to parenta backash based on fear, frustraton and confuson. Ths
dupctous approach by the government undermnes peopes condence n ts abty to dever n the
genune nterests of those chdren wth SEN (p. 125).
However much educatona psychoogsts may wsh that evdence shoud drve pocy, the reaty s that
research evdence s ony one of severa nuences taken nto account by potcans. Nevertheess, t s
mportant that, as researchers and practtoners, we contnue to produce research evdence to nuence
pocy.
Gven that the government pocy n many countres s often confused but generay supportve of
ncuson, but the evdence for the ehectveness of ncusve educaton s, at best, margnay, n support
of ncusve educaton, the task now s twofod. Frst, there s a need for further conceptuazaton of the
optons of ncusve educaton. It s necessary to consder ncusve educaton as a mutfaceted practce,
but upon foundatons grounded n a beef that chdren wth deveopmenta dmcutes and SEN requre
approprate educaton, whch optmzes ther fe chances as ndvduas to become fu members of
socety. The proposton that ths shoud argey f not entrey be factated by educaton n manstream
schoos shoud be recognzed as a vaues-based not emprcay based poston. There are ndcatons of
practces whch appear to support ncuson, but there s a need for a more anaytca consderaton of
combned (nteractona) ehects of reevant medator and moderator factors concernng pup dversty;
currcuar and assessment speccatons and the educaton system whch, beng n a state of ncreasng
change and dversty may support more ehectve educaton, party by provdng more exbty n the
system. (Odom et a., 2004; Wede, 2005).
The agenda proposed here, therefore, accepts the basc premse that chdrens needs shoud be
addressed wthn an ncusve educaton system n the broadest sense, but vews ths as more than smpy
a queston of manstream vs. speca schoo or that ncuson can ony mean fu-tme educaton n a
manstream cass. The research evdence on ehectveness cannot be used to |ustfy ether poston. Ths
approach aso requres ts own research agenda, whch deveops beyond smpe comparatve studes to a
seres of compementary research strands. These woud ncude arge-scae anayses of datasets together
wth detaed anayses of the mpementaton of ncuson n dherent settngs. In partcuar, there s a
need to focus on medator and moderator nuences on processes and outcomes rather than ocaton
(Zgmond, 2003). Studes desgned on ths bass coud aso be usefuy shaped by drawng upon
psychoogca theores to a greater extent than s apparent from past research. Ths approach woud be
grounded n an ecoogca systems approach wth studes drawng appropratey on both quanttatve and
quatatve methods. Furthermore, there coud be greater use of ongtudna studes to expore the mpact
of educatona systems on the chdren over tme. Ths approach s research-based and hence actvey
re|ects both the vew that research s unnecessary as ncuson s a rght and a smpe mode of fu
ncuson for a (see aso Kavae & Mostert, 2003).
There s an opportunty to mpement and evauate a varegated system of ncusve educaton
approprate to ths centurys compex socetes and patterns of schoong where ncuson n ts wdest
sense s mparta, addressng regon, ethncty, soca cass and other soca dmensons as we as SEN
and dsabty. Parents w be mportant contrbutors on behaf of ther chdren, as w chdren
themseves, to shape up both the mpementaton of ncuson and ts evauaton. The task s to examne,
carefuy and anaytcay, how ncusve educaton can be ehectve n meetng the dherent needs of
ndvdua chdren wth dsabtes and speca educatona needs.