Schlumberger

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FRACTURING ENGINEERING MANUAL
Appendix D - Proppants
Section 1400
May 1998
Page 1 of 16
DOWELL CONFIDENTIAL
APPENDIX D - PROPPANTS
1 Introductory Summary............................................................................................................. 2
2 Physical Properties of Proppants .......................................................................................... 3
2.1 Proppant Strength................................................................................................................ 3
2.2 Grain Size and Grain-Size Distribution ................................................................................ 4
2.3 Quantities of Fines and Impurities ....................................................................................... 5
2.4 Roundness and Sphericity ................................................................................................... 6
2.5 Proppant Density ................................................................................................................. 6
3 Classes of Proppants .............................................................................................................. 6
3.1 Sand..................................................................................................................................... 6
3.2 Resin-Coated Proppants...................................................................................................... 6
3.2.1 Precured Resin-Coated Proppants............................................................................. 7
3.2.2 Curable Resin-Coated Proppants............................................................................... 7
3.2.3 Limitations Associated With Resin-Coated Proppants................................................ 7
3.2.3.1 Oxidative Breakers........................................................................................... 8
3.2.3.2 Borate-Crosslinked Fluids................................................................................ 9
3.2.3.3 Organometallic-Crosslinked Fluids .................................................................. 9
3.3 Intermediate-Strength Proppants......................................................................................... 9
3.4 High-Strength Proppants ..................................................................................................... 9
4 Conductivity........................................................................................................................... 10
4.1 Closure Stress ................................................................................................................... 10
4.2 Embedment........................................................................................................................ 10
4.3 Fracture Width ................................................................................................................... 11
4.4 Proppant-Pack Porosity ..................................................................................................... 12
4.5 Factors Operative in the Presence of Polymeric Fracturing Fluids.................................... 13
5 Proppant Testing ................................................................................................................... 13
6 Measurement of Proppant Addition to Fracturing Fluids.................................................. 14
Return to Fracturing Engineering
Section 1400
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Appendix D - Proppants
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7 Proppant Selection.................................................................................................................16
8 Proppant Flowback ................................................................................................................16
FIGURES
Fig. 1. Strength comparisons of various types of proppants. .......................................................4
Fig. 2. The effect of feldspar contamination on conductivity.........................................................5
Fig. 3. The relationship of proppant concentration and fracture width (no embedment). ..........12
TABLES
Table 1. Proppant-Pack Porosity Of Sand And Intermediate-Strength Proppant .......................12
Table 2. Density Table For Proppant Added To Fracturing Fluid...............................................14
1 Introductory Summary
Proppants are used to keep the walls of the fracture apart so that a conductive path
to the wellbore is retained after pumping has stopped and the fracturing fluid has
leaked-off. Placing the appropriate concentration and type of proppant in the
fracture is critical to the success of a hydraulic fracturing treatment.
Factors affecting the fracture conductivity (a measurement of how well a propped
fracture is able to convey the produced fluids over the producing life of the well) are:
proppant type
physical properties of the proppant
proppant concentration
proppant-pack permeability
effects of postclosure polymer concentration in the fracture
movement of formation fines in the fracture
long-term degradation of the proppant.
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Appendix D - Proppants
Section 1400
May 1998
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2 Physical Properties of Proppants
The physical properties of proppants that have an impact on fracture conductivity
are:
proppant strength
grain size and grain-size distribution
quantities of fines and impurities
roundness and sphericity
proppant density.
2.1 Proppant Strength
To open and propagate a hydraulic fracture, the in-situ stresses must be overcome.
After the well is put on production, the same stresses work to close the fracture and
act on the proppant. If the proppant strength is inadequate, the closure stress will
crush the proppant and the resulting fines will plug the proppant pack. Permeability
and, therefore, conductivity of the proppant pack will be drastically reduced.
Proppants are available in different types and mesh ranges to meet the conductivity
requirements of the fracture design.
Common practice is to use the difference between the bottomhole fracturing
pressure and bottomhole producing pressure to calculate the maximum effective
stress (or closure stress) on the proppant. During flowback and testing operations,
the bottomhole producing pressure is usually held constant and at a low value to
maximize the production rate. The potential for maximum crushing can occur during
flowback and testing operations when the flowing pressure at the perforations may
be low, or initially in the production of a well because the fracture gradient is at its
maximum, decreasing with reservoir pressure depletion. However, if the well is
initially completed and produced at a higher bottomhole pressure and with a near
constant production rate, the maximum effective stress on the proppant is less. By
producing a well in this manner, the stress on the proppant can increase with time,
but never exceeds the bottomhole fracturing pressure. A higher strength proppant
can be used as a "tail-in" segment after the fracture has been packed with a lower
strength proppant as a preventive measure against induced high closure stresses
and stress concentrations near the wellbore.
Strength comparisons are shown in Fig. 1. The following general guidelines may be
used to select proppants.
Sand closure stresses less than 6000 psi.
Resin-Coated Proppants closure stresses less than 8000 psi.
Intermediate-Strength Proppants closure stresses greater than 5000 psi but
less than 10,000 psi.
High-Strength Proppants closure stresses greater than 10,000 psi.
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Appendix D - Proppants
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Proppant type and size should be determined by comparing economic benefits
versus cost. This is accomplished using the FracNPV
*
software.
Fig. 1. Strength comparisons of various types of proppants.
2.2 Grain Size and Grain-Size Distribution
Grain Size Proppants with larger grain sizes provide a more permeable pack;
however, their use must be evaluated in relation to the formation that is propped and
the increased difficulties encountered in proppant transport and placement. Dirty
formations, or those subject to significant fines migration, are poor candidates for
large proppants. The fines tend to invade the proppant pack, causing partial
plugging and a rapid reduction in permeability. In these cases, smaller proppants,
which resist the invasion of fines, are more suitable. Although they offer less initial
conductivity, the average conductivity over the life of the well will be higher and will
more than offset the initial high productivity provided by larger proppants (which is
often followed by a rapid production decline).
Larger grain sizes can be more difficult to use in deeper wells because of greater
susceptibility to crushing due to higher closure stresses (as grain size increases,
strength decreases) and placement problems. Placement problems are two-fold
a wide fracture is required for the larger grains, and the particle settling rate
increases with increasing size.

*
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FRACTURING ENGINEERING MANUAL
Appendix D - Proppants
Section 1400
May 1998
Page 5 of 16
DOWELL CONFIDENTIAL
Grain-Size Distribution If the grain-size distribution is such that the mesh range
contains a high percentage of the smaller grains, the proppant-pack permeability and
therefore conductivity will be reduced.
Minimizing the mesh range will increase the permeability. For naturally occurring
sand, this will result in a large amount of waste. A manufactured proppant such as
intermediate-strength proppant (ISP) can be manufactured in narrow mesh ranges.
Typically, 20/40-mesh ISP is in fact nearer to 20/30 mesh.
2.3 Quantities of Fines and Impurities
Grain-size distribution and the quantities of fines and impurities in the proppant are
closely related. A high percentage of fines or impurities can reduce the proppant-
pack permeability. The effect on the proppant pack is the same as invading
formation fines. Fig. 2 illustrates the effect of feldspar contamination on conductivity.
Acid solubility is generally used as an indication of the amount of impurities such as
carbonates, feldspar, and iron oxides present in the proppant. For proppant mesh
sizes 6/20 through 30/50, the maximum allowable solubility is 2% (American
Petroleum Institute RP 56).
Fig. 2. The effect of feldspar contamination on conductivity.
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2.4 Roundness and Sphericity
The roundness and sphericity of a proppant grain can have a dramatic effect on
fracture conductivity. Proppant grain roundness is a measure of the relative
sharpness of grain corners, or of grain curvature. Particle sphericity is a measure of
how close the proppant particle or grain approaches the shape of a sphere. When
the grains are round and about the same size, stresses on the proppant are more
evenly distributed, resulting in higher loads before grain failure occurs.
2.5 Proppant Density
Proppant density has an influence on proppant transport and placement. High-
density proppants are more difficult to suspend in the fracturing fluid and to transport
in the fracture. Placement can be achieved in two ways using high-viscosity fluids
which carry the proppant for the entire length of the fracture with minimal settling,
and using low-viscosity fluids at a higher flow rate. Clearly, higher-density proppants
also require more mass of material to create the same fracture volume.
3 Classes of Proppants
3.1 Sand
Sand is the most often used proppant. It is the most economical, is readily available,
and provides sufficient fracture conductivity at closure stresses less than 6000 psi.
Depending on the overall balance of physical properties, sand can be subdivided into
groups.
Northern White Sand
Texas Brown Sand
Colorado Silica Sand
Arizona Silica Sand
Based on the American Petroleum Institute (API) standards, any sand source can be
qualified and grouped similar to the above sands.
3.2 Resin-Coated Proppants
Resin coatings are applied to sand (usually Northern White Sand) to improve
proppant strength. Resin-coated sand is stronger than conventional sand and may
be used at closure stresses less than 8000 psi, depending on the type of resin-
coated sand. At closure stresses greater than 4000 psi, resin-coated sand has a
higher conductivity than conventional sand. The resin helps spread the stress over a
larger area of the sand grain and reduces the point loading. When grains crush, the
resin coating helps encapsulate the crushed portions of the grains and prevents
them from migrating and plugging the flow channel. In some cases, resin-coated
proppants may be used as an alternative to an intermediate-strength proppants.
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Appendix D - Proppants
Section 1400
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3.2.1 Precured Resin-Coated Proppants
The resin coating on the proppant is (at least partially) cured during the
manufacturing process to form a nonmelting inert film. Proppants processed in this
fashion are called precured resin-coated proppants. The major application of
precured resin-coated proppants is to enhance the performance of sand at high
stress levels.
3.2.2 Curable Resin-Coated Proppants
A curable resin coating may also be applied to sand. The major application of
curable resin-coated proppants is as an attempt to prevent the flowback of proppants
near the wellbore. Theoretically, the curable resin-coated proppants are mixed and
pumped in the last stage of the treatment and the well is shut in for a period of time
to allow the resin to bind proppant particles together and cure into a consolidated,
but permeable filter. Treatment Design provides additional information concerning
proppant flowback control methodology. Curable resin-coated proppants should only
be used as a last resort to control proppant flowback.
3.2.3 Limitations Associated With Resin-Coated Proppants
Various resin-coated proppants can affect fracturing fluid performance, and
fracturing fluids can affect the performance of resin-coated proppants. The following
guidelines are recommended if resin-coated proppants are required by the client.
Minimize the amount of resin-coated proppants.
Use precured resin-coated proppants. These materials are (at least partially)
cured and are typically less damaging than fully curable resin-coated proppants.
Avoid using resin-coated proppants in conjunction with oxidative breakers.
Resin-coated proppants will decrease breaker effectiveness. Some resin-coated
proppants have very little effect on breaker activity. Additional breaker must be
used when other resin-coated proppants are used.
Always determine fracturing fluid/resin-coated proppant compatibility before
pumping. Typically, 30 to 60% of the resin coating is lost to the fluid. Resin loss
does not behave in a straight-forward manner with changes in temperature or
time at temperature. Resin loss increases as exposure to shear increases.
Never batch-mix resin-coated proppants in fracturing fluids.
Minimize handling of the resin-coated proppants to keep dust levels low. Solid
resin is a good emulsion stabilizer and can create an emulsion with the fracturing
fluid that is not miscible in water.
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3.2.3.1 Oxidative Breakers
Breaker J218, EB-Clean

J475 Breaker, EB-Clean LT J479 Encapsulated Breaker,

and Breaker J481 react with the resin coating on curable and precured resin-coated
proppants. The reaction results are:
additional resin loss
compressive strength reduction
conductivity reduction
consumption of breaker by the resin.
The particulate form of the encapsulated breakers (J475 and J479) and the resultant
localized release create a locally very high concentration of breaker. This effect has
not been extensively studied; however, numerous conductivity tests have been
performed using various fluid/breaker/resin-coated proppant combinations.
Observation of proppant-packs following fracture conductivity testing has shown that
the effect is limited to the faces of the proppant grains immediately near the site
where active breaker is being released from the breaker particle. Approximately 4 to
8 of the nearby proppant grains are affected, with roughly the closest 1/3 to 1/4
diameter (20/40 mesh) of resin coating removed from these proppant grains.
Typically, more than half of the removed resin is dissolved with the remainder
remaining as flakes. Since this is a surface reaction, the curable resin-coated
proppants are more reactive than are the precured resin-coated proppants.
J218 also reacts with resin-coated proppants; however, since the J218 is dissolved,
the effects on the resin-coated proppants are not localized. Some of the J218 is
consumed by the resin-coated proppants. Loss in curable resin-coated proppant
compressive strength should be expected. Typically, much lower (active)
concentrations of J218 (for example, 0.5 lbm/1000 gal versus 5 lbm/1000 gal) are
used so the effects are further limited.
Some resin-coated proppants have very little affect on J481. Other resin-coated
proppants reduce J481 performance considerably and additional J481 must be used.
Two important points are:
1. The effects of resin-coating degradation (flakes and loss of strength) on
proppant-pack conductivity are negligible in virtually all field conditions. The
effects of the concentrated polymer causing a reduction in conductivity are
presumed to be greater than the effects of resin-coating degradation.
2. The major problem that must be overcome is the consumption of breaker
(encapsulated or dissolved) by the (reaction with) resin-coated proppants.
Adding additional breaker will improve conductivity, but will also degrade more of
the resin coating. At some point, diminishing returns should be expected.

Mark of Schlumberger
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Dowell
FRACTURING ENGINEERING MANUAL
Appendix D - Proppants
Section 1400
May 1998
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DOWELL CONFIDENTIAL
3.2.3.2 Borate-Crosslinked Fluids
The addition of resin-coated proppants results in a decrease in the fluid pH value.
This can result in fluid decomposition. The amount of pH value decrease is
dependent on the brand and amount of resin-coated proppants.
The resin-coated proppant/fracturing fluid compatibility should be tested prior to
pumping.
Different proppants (and even different lots of proppant from a supplier) and
proppant concentration can affect the final pH value and fluid stability.
Additional resin-coated proppant information is provided in the appropriate manual
sections in the Fracturing Materials Manual Fluids.
3.2.3.3 Organometallic-Crosslinked Fluids
The addition of resin-coated proppants, especially curable resin-coated proppants, to
organometallic-crosslinked fracturing fluids can interfere with the crosslinking
mechanism. The major factor affecting fracturing fluid performance is the reduction
in the active metal crosslinker. The metal is complexed by the resin surface and is
not available for crosslinking the polymer. Reduction in the crosslinker varies from
15 to 40%. The resin coating also lowers the pH value.
The resin-coated proppant/fracturing fluid compatibility should be tested prior to
pumping.
Different proppants (and even different lots of proppant from a supplier) and
proppant concentration can affect the final pH value and fluid stability.
Additional resin-coated proppant information is provided in the appropriate manual
sections in the Fracturing Materials Manual Fluids.
3.3 Intermediate-Strength Proppants
ISP is fused ceramic (low-density) proppant or sintered bauxite (medium-density)
proppant. The sintered bauxite ISP is processed from bauxite ore containing large
amounts of mullite. This is in contrast to a high-strength proppant which is
processed from bauxite ore high in corundum. ISP is used at closure stresses
greater than 5000 psi, but less than 10,000 psi.
3.4 High-Strength Proppants
High-strength proppants are sintered bauxite containing large amounts of corundum,
and is used at closure stresses greater than 10,000 psi. High-strength proppant is
the most costly proppant.
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4 Conductivity
Fracture conductivity is a measurement of how well the propped fracture is able to
convey the produced fluid or fluids. The physical properties of proppants will affect
fracture conductivity. Other factors that have an impact on fracture conductivity are:
closure stress
embedment
fracture width
proppant-pack porosity
factors operative in the presence of polymeric fracturing fluids.
4.1 Closure Stress
Apart from linear variations in stresses with depth due to the gradients, in-situ
stresses also depend on the lithology of the formation, tectonic components, and
pore pressure. For calculations regarding proppants, closure stress may be
represented by Eq. 1.
CS = (PfgD) BHPP (1)
Where:
CS = closure stress (psi)
Pfg = fracture gradient (psi/ft)
D = depth (ft)
BHPP = bottomhole producing pressure (psi).
4.2 Embedment
Embedment is a process by which the fracture closes onto the proppant pack,
reducing fracture width and conductivity. It occurs when the effective closure stress
increases as a result of the reservoir pressure depletion.
When fracturing formations where embedment can occur, a wider fracture and a
higher concentration of proppant (weight per unit of fracture area) are required to
counteract the reduction in conductivity due to embedment.
The depth of embedment will be limited to one-half of a proppant grain diameter on
each fracture face in most formations. However, in very soft formations such as
chalk, the depth of embedment may be more severe.
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4.3 Fracture Width
The propped fracture width (no embedment) is related to the proppant concentration
by Eq. 2.
( )
w
C
p
p
=

12
1
(2)
Where:
w = propped width (in.)
Cp = proppant concentration (lbm/ft2)
p = proppant-pack porosity (%)
= proppant absolute density (lbm/ft3).
Although the maximum conductivity can theoretically be obtained from a partially
monolayer system, actual placement of a partial monolayer is virtually impossible to
achieve. Proppant embedment can cause total loss of conductivity in a monolayer
system. Therefore, the propped fracture is usually designed to have multiple layers
of proppant. By increasing the proppant concentration, multiple layers of proppant
will result and the fracture conductivity will increase because of the increased
fracture width associated with multiple layers. Multiple-layer proppant packing
requires a fracturing fluid with enough viscosity to create a fracture width that is
sufficient for entrance of the proppant at a higher concentration.
Fig. 3 illustrates the relationship of proppant concentration and fracture width for
20/40-mesh sand. Once a multilayer packing is achieved, the fracture width
increases proportionately to the increase in proppant concentration. Consequently,
the fracture conductivity also increases. The fracture width must be sufficient to
inject the proppant at a higher concentration, and the selected proppant must have
sufficient permeability under closure stress conditions to maintain the optimum
conductivity.
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Fig. 3. The relationship of proppant concentration and
fracture width (no embedment).
4.4 Proppant-Pack Porosity
The fracture width is reduced as the closure stress increases. This reduces the pore
volume to proppant volume ratio within the fracture, and therefore reduces the
proppant-pack porosity.
Table 1 provides the proppant-pack porosity of sand and intermediate-strength
proppants for various closure stresses.
Table 1. Proppant-Pack Porosity Of Sand And Intermediate-Strength
Proppant
Porosity (%) Closure Stress, Sand (psi) Closure Stress, ISP (psi)
37.0 1000 4000
33.5 3000 6000
30.0 5000 8000
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Section 1400
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4.5 Factors Operative in the Presence of Polymeric Fracturing Fluids
Proppant-pack permeability is significantly impaired by the concentration of polymer
in water-base fracturing fluids. The severity of damage is strongly dependent on the
type of fluid used and the surface polymer concentration. Final postclosure polymer
concentrations can be 10 to 15 times greater than the original polymer
concentration. Additional information on proppant-pack damage is provided in .
5 Proppant Testing
The API has established recommended practices for testing proppants. The
proppant evaluation includes the following:
proppant sampling and splitting
determination of bulk density, apparent density, and absolute density
sieve analysis
determination of roundness and sphericity
determination of acid solubility
silt test (turbidity method)
determination of crush resistance.
The following are the testing references.
API RP 56, Recommended Practices for Testing Sand Used in Hydraulic
Fracturing Operations , First Edition, American Petroleum Institute (1983).
API RP 60,Recommended Practices for Testing High-Strength Proppants
Used in Hydraulic Fracturing Operations, First Edition, American Petroleum
Institute (1989).
These testing references also contain the minimum and maximum allowables for the
different proppant properties. The allowables are generally considered as minimum.
For example, the roundness and sphericity of 0.6 is often exceeded and may be 0.9
for "high quality" sand.
API RP 56 and API RP 60 are available from the American Petroleum Institute,
Publications and Distribution Section, 1220 L Street, NW, Washington, DC 20005,
Telephone: 202.682.8375.
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6 Measurement of Proppant Addition to Fracturing Fluids
Hydraulic fracturing fluids containing proppants are slurries. Slurries are composed
of a fluid and a solid. The slurry density, or mass per unit volume of fluid, is
expressed as lbm/gal or g/cm3 or kg/m3. Slurry density is a critical parameter used
in hydraulic fracturing operations to control the amount of proppant added to the
fracturing fluid.
Occasionally, two terms are used interchangeably, but have very different meanings.
These are PPA, which is Pounds of Proppant Added to a gallon of liquid, and
lbm/gal, which is slurry weight in Pounds Per Gallon. Fracturing treatments are
designed using stages of slurry volumes containing ever increasing proppant
concentrations in the slurry. As more proppant is added to the slurry, the quantity of
liquid required decreases due to the additional volume taken up by the proppant
(illustrated in Table 2).
Table 2. Density Table For Proppant Added To Fracturing Fluid
Specific Gravity of Fracturing Fluid = 1.00
Weight Density of Fracturing Fluid = 8.345 lbm/gal
Proppant is Sand (SG = 2.65, Density = 22.1 lbm/gal)
Pounds
Proppant
Added to
One
Gallon
Pounds
Proppant
in one
Gallon
Slurry
Weight
Density
of Slurry
(lbm/gal)
Gallons
Liquid SG
of Slurry
in One
Gallon
Slurry
Slurry
Yield
0.00 0.00 8.35 1.00 1.00 1.00
1.00 0.96 8.94 1.07 0.96 1.05
2.00 1.83 9.49 1.14 0.92 1.09
3.00 2.64 9.99 1.20 0.88 1.14
4.00 3.39 10.45 1.25 0.85 1.18
5.00 4.08 10.88 1.30 0.82 1.23
6.00 4.72 11.28 1.35 0.79 1.27
7.00 5.32 11.66 1.40 0.76 1.32
8.00 5.87 12.00 1.44 0.73 1.36
9.00 6.40 12.33 1.48 0.71 1.41
10.00 6.89 12.63 1.51 0.69 1.45
The properties of a fracturing fluid are controlled with the use of additives. The
additive quantities in a fracturing fluid are always calculated based on a "clean" fluid
(fluid without proppant), and not on the slurry. As Table 2 illustrates, large errors in
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DOWELL CONFIDENTIAL
the calculation of additive quantities would take place if calculations were based on
the slurry volume rather than the liquid phase.
The slurry density in fracturing treatments is measured by a densitometer. The
densitometer will read either pounds of proppant added to one gallon of liquid (PPA),
weight density of fluid (lbm/gal), or both.
Occasionally, the slurry density weight, specific gravity of the slurry or liquid, or
proppant volume in the slurry must be calculated. The following equations may be
used for these purposes.
Pounds of Proppant in One Gallon of Slurry (Eq. 3)

1
8 345
+
. SG
p
(3)
Weight Density of Slurry (lbm/gal) (Eq. 4)

+
+
8 345
1
8 345
.
.
SG
SG
L
p
(4)
Specific Gravity of Slurry (Eq. 5)

+
+
8 345
8 345
.
.
SG
SG
L
p
(5)
Gallons of Liquid in One Gallon of Slurry (Eq. 6)
1
8 345

. SG
p
(6)
Slurry Yield (Eq. 7)
1
8 345
+

. SG
p
(7)
Where:
SGL = specific gravity of the liquid phase
SG
p
= specific gravity of the proppant
x = pounds of proppant added to a gallon of liquid (lbm).
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7 Proppant Selection
The selection of a proppant involves many compromises imposed by economical
and practical considerations. Criteria for selecting proppant type, size, and
concentration is based on a match of the fracture flow capacity to the formation
permeability to provide the highest production rates consistent with economics.
Treatment Design provides proppant selection and scheduling information.
8 Proppant Flowback
Treatment Design provides information concerning proppant flowback.