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1.

1
Chapter 1: Materials and Mechanics of Bending

1.1 Concrete
Concrete is a mixture of cement along with fine and coarse aggregates.
Aggregates: sand, gravel, crushed rock, and other materials.
Water is added for the chemical reaction of curing.

Concrete strength and durability depend on the proportions of the mix, along with
the placing, finishing, and curing of the concrete.

The compressive strength of concrete is high; the tensile strength of concrete is
low.
Concrete is a brittle material.
Reinforcing steel (in the form of bars and mesh) is used to resist tension.
Reinforced concrete is a combination of steel and concrete.

1.2 The ACI Building Code
The design and construction of reinforced concrete buildings is controlled by the
Building Code Requirements for Structural Concrete (ACI 318-08) of the American
Concrete Institute.
The term code generally refers to the ACI Code.
The code is revised, updated, and reissued on a 3-year cycle.
The code has no legal status, but the ACI Code is incorporated into the building
codes of almost all states and municipalities throughout the United States.
When incorporated into a state or local building code, the ACI Code has official
sanction, becomes a legal document, and is part of the law controlling reinforced
concrete design and construction in that area.

1.3 Cement and Water
Structural concrete generally uses hydraulic cement.
Water is required for the chemical reaction of hydration.
During hydration, the concrete hardens into a solid mass.
Portland cement, which originated in England, is the most common form of
cement.
Cement is marketed in bulk or in 94 lb (1 cubic foot) bags.

1.2
In concrete, the ratio of the amount of water to the amount of cement, by weight,
is termed the water/cement ratio.
This ratio is often expressed in terms of gallons of water per bag of cement.
For complete hydration of the cement in a concrete mix, a water/cement ratio
of 0.35 to 0.40 (4 to 4 gal/bag) is required.
- (4 gal. of water x 8 lb/gal. of water)/(94 lb of cement) = 32/94 = 0.34
- (4.5 gal. of water x 8 lb/gal. of water)/(94 lb of cement) = 36/94 = 0.38
To increase the workability of concrete (i.e. the ease with which it can be
mixed, handled, and placed), higher water/cement ratios are normally used.

1.4 Aggregates
In ordinary concretes, aggregates occupy approximately 70% to 75% of the volume
of the hardened mass.
Gradation of aggregate size to produce close packing is desirable since the
denser the concrete the better the strength and durability.

Aggregates are classified as fine and coarse.
Fine aggregate is generally sand.
Fine aggregate is classified as particles that pass a No. 4 sieve (four openings
per linear inch).
Coarse aggregates consist of particles (such as gravel) that are retained on a
No. 4 sieve.
The maximum size of coarse aggregate in reinforced concrete is governed by
ACI Code requirements.
- Maximum size requirements for aggregate are established to assure that
the concrete can be placed into forms without any danger of large particles
lodging between adjacent bars or between bars and the sides of the forms.

1.5 Concrete in Compression
The compressive strength of concrete is denoted f
c
with units of pounds per
square inch (or kips per square inch).

A test standardized by the American Society for Testing and Materials (ASTM
C39) is used to determine the compressive strength (f
c
) of concrete.
A specimen cylinder of concrete is loaded in compression to failure.


1.3
Figure 1-1 (p. 4 of the textbook) shows the results of compression tests on 28-
day standard cylinders for varying concrete design mixes.
- The compressive strength of
the concrete is the highest
compressive stress to which
the specimen is subjected.
- The compressive strength is
not the stress that exists in
the specimen at failure but
the stress that occurs at a
strain of approximately 0.002.


Typical stress-strain curves for concrete

Currently, 28-day concrete strengths (f
c
) range from 2500 to 9000 psi.
3000 to 4000 psi is common for reinforced concrete structures.
5000 to 6000 psi is common for pre-stressed concrete members.
Higher strength concretes have been achieved under laboratory conditions.

Note the following observations from the stress-strain curves.
The maximum compressive strength is generally achieved at a unit strain of
approximately 0.002.
Higher-strength concretes are more brittle and fracture at a lower maximum
strain than the low-strength concretes.
The initial slope of the curve varies (unlike that of steel) and only approximates
a straight line.
- For steel (that behaves elastically up to a yield point), the stress-strain plot
is a straight line below the yield point.
- For concrete, the straight-line portion of the plot is very short (if it exists
at all).
- For concrete, there is no constant value of modulus of elasticity for a given
concrete strength.
- If a straight-line portion is assumed, the modulus of elasticity is different
for concretes of different strengths.
- At low and moderate stresses (up to about 0.5 f
c
), concrete is assumed to
behave elastically.

1.4
The ACI Code (Section 8.5.1) provides the accepted empirical expression for the
modulus of elasticity.
E
c
= w
c
1.5
33f
c

where
E
c
= modulus of elasticity of concrete in compression (psi)
w
c
= unit weight of concrete (lb/ft
3
)
f
c
= compressive strength of concrete (psi)

The ACI Code expression for modulus of elasticity is valid for concretes having w
c

between 90 and 160 lb/ft
3
.
If the unit weight for concrete is 144 lb/ft
3
, the expression for modulus of
elasticity becomes
E
c
= 57,000 f
c

Table A-6 (p. 486 of the textbook) lists values for E
c
using this expression.

Concrete strength varies with time and rates of loading.
The specified concrete strength is usually the strength that occurs 28 days
after the concrete is placed.
Concrete attains approximately 70% of its 28-day strength in 7 days.
Concrete attains approximately 85% to 90% of its 28-day strength in 14 days.

1.6 Concrete in Tension
The tensile and compressive strengths of concrete are not equal or proportional.
The tensile strength of normal-weight concrete is approximately 10% to 15% of
the compressive strength (per ACI Code Commentary).
An increase in compressive strength is accompanied by an appreciably smaller
percentage increase in tensile strength.

The true tensile strength of concrete is difficult to determine.
The split-cylinder test (ASTM C496) is used to determine the tensile strength
of lightweight aggregate concrete.
Splitting tensile strength, f
ct
, may be calculated by the following expression
(derived from the theory of elasticity).
f
ct
= 2P/LD
where
f
ct
= splitting tensile strength of lightweight aggregate concrete (psi)

1.5
P = applied load at splitting (lb)
L = length of cylinder (inch)
D = diameter of cylinder (inch)

Another common approach to measure tensile strength is to use the modulus of
rupture, f
r
.
The modulus of rupture is the maximum tensile bending stress in a plain
concrete test beam at failure (ASTM C78).
The moment that produces a tensile stress just equal to the modulus of rupture
is termed the cracking moment, M
cr
.
The ACI Code recommends that the modulus of rupture f
r
(psi) be taken as
f
r
= 7.5 f
c

where
(Greek lower case lambda) = modification factor reflecting the lower
tensile strength of lightweight concrete relative to normal-weight
concrete
= 1.0 for normal-weight concrete
= 0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete
= 0.75 for all-lightweight concrete

1.7 Reinforcing Steel
Most concrete is reinforced in some way to resist tensile forces.

Tensile reinforcement is embedded in concrete to withstand the tensile stress.
Reinforcement is in the form of steel reinforcing bars or welded wire
reinforcing (often called mesh) composed of steel wire.
Reinforcing in the form of structural steel shapes, steel pipe, steel tubing, and
high-strength steel tendons is also permitted by the ACI Code.
Other economical reinforcement includes fiber-reinforced concrete (using
short fibers of steel or fiberglass).

Specifications for steel reinforcement are published by ASTM (American Society
for Testing and Materials).
The specifications are generally accepted for the steel used in reinforced
concrete construction in the United States.
The ASTM specifications are identified in the ACI Code (Section 3.5).

1.6
Steel bars used for reinforcing are generally round deformed bars.
Reinforcing bars feature patterned ribbed projections rolled onto their
surfaces conforming to ASTM specifications.
Steel reinforcing bars are available in straight lengths of 60 feet.
Smaller bar sizes are available in coil stock for use in automatic bending
machines.
Bars designations vary from No. 3 to No. 11, along with No. 14 and No. 18.
- The designation for the No. 3 to the No. 8 bars represents the bar diameter
in eighths of an inch (e.g. No. 5 bar is 5/8 in diameter).
- The No. 9, No. 10, and No. 11 bars have diameters that provide areas equal
to 1 square bars, 1.125 square bars, and 1.25 square bars, respectively.
- The No. 14 and No. 18 bars have diameters that provide areas equal to 1.5
and 2 square bars, respectively, and are commonly available by special
order.

Reinforcing bars are usually made from newly manufactured steel (billet steel per
ASTM A615).
Billet steel is available in grades 40, 60, and 75 (with minimum yield strengths
of 40,000, 60,000, and 75,000 psi, respectively).

Note the useful references and tables in Appendix A of the textbook.
Table A-1 (p. 483 of the textbook) lists the steel grades that are available for
each bar size.
Table A-1 also lists the weight, diameter, and cross-sectional area for each bar
size.
Table A-2 (p. 484 of the textbook) provides cross-sectional areas of multiple
reinforcing bars.
Table A-3 (p. 484 of the textbook) provides the minimum required beam width
based on the number of bars in one layer.

The most useful physical properties of reinforcing steel for reinforced concrete
design calculations are the yield stress (f
y
) and the modulus of elasticity (E
s
).
Table A-1 (p. 483 of the textbook) lists the available steel grades and the
associated yield stress.
The modulus of elasticity is taken as 29,000,000 psi (per ACI Code, Section
8.5.2).


1.7
Corrosion of reinforcing steel leads to cracking and spalling of the concrete in
which it is embedded.
Quality concrete, with adequate cover, provides good protection against
corrosion.
Protective coatings may be used to minimize the corrosion of the reinforcing
steel.
- Non-metallic materials: epoxy coated, complying with ASTM A775 or ASTM
A934 (per ACI Code).
- Metallic materials: zinc (galvanizing), complying with ASTM A767 (per ACI
Code).

Welded wire reinforcing (WWR) (mesh) is another type of reinforcing.
Welded wire reinforcing consists of cold-drawn wire in square or rectangular
patterns, welded at all intersections.
Welded wire reinforcing may be supplied in rolls or sheets depending on the
wire size.
Wire sizes are designated by the symbol WWR, followed by the spacing of the
longitudinal wires, then the spacing of the transverse wires, by the size of the
longitudinal wire, and by the size of the transverse wires.
For example: WWR6 x 12 W16 x W8
This is the designation for a plain WWR with 6 longitudinal spacing, 12
transverse spacing, and a cross sectional area equal to 0.16 in
2
for the
longitudinal wires and 0.08 in
2
for the transverse wires.


1.8
1.8 Beams: Mechanics of Bending Review
The expression for the maximum bending stress in a beam (i.e. the flexure
formula) is
f
b
= Mc/I
where
f
b
= the calculated bending stress at the outer fiber of the cross section
M = the applied maximum moment
c = the distance from the neutral axis to the outside tension or compression
fiber of the beam
I = the moment of inertia of the cross section about the neutral axis

The flexure formula represents the relationship between bending stress, bending
moment, and the geometric properties of the beam cross section.

Assumptions used in developing the flexure formula include:
Beams (such as steel and wood) are composed of homogeneous material.
Beams (such as steel and wood) exhibit elastic behavior up to a certain limit.
The stress distribution developed at any cross section is linear, varying from
zero at the neutral axis to a maximum at the outer fibers.

The maximum moment that may be applied to the beam cross section, called the
resisting moment (M
R
), may be found by rearranging the terms of the flexure
formula.
M
R
= F
b
I/c
where
F
b
= the allowable bending stress

The use of the flexure formula presents some complications when applied to
concrete.
Reinforced concrete is not a homogeneous material.
Concrete does not behave elastically over its full range of strength (stress).






1.9
A different approach, called the internal couple method, is used for the design and
analysis of concrete beams.
The internal couple (moment) is
composed of a compressive force
C above the neutral axis and a
parallel tensile force T below the
neutral axis forming a couple.
Forces acting at the cross section
must be equal and opposite in
direction to satisfy equilibrium
requirements (i.e. H = 0), thus
C = T
The couple formed by C and T must be equal and opposite to the bending
moment at the same location produced by the external loads.

The first example that follows demonstrates the concept of cracking moment M
cr
and the modulus of rupture (f
r
) for a plain (non-reinforced) concrete beam.
The cracking moment M
cr
causes the maximum tensile stress just to reach the
modulus of rupture (f
r
).
The cracking moment M
cr
causes the cross sectional area to be on the verge of
cracking.
The first example compares the modulus of rupture developed from the
cracking moment with the ACI-recommended modulus of rupture.

The second example of a plain (non-reinforced) concrete beam demonstrates the
internal couple method.
Non-reinforced concrete beams are considered homogeneous and elastic (valid
for small tensile stresses).
The analysis for bending stresses in the uncracked beam is based on the
properties of the gross cross sectional area using the elastic-based flexure
formula.
The use of the flexure formula is valid as long as the maximum tensile stress
does not exceed the modulus of rupture (f
r
).
The second example compares the internal couple method and the flexure
formula approach.

1.10
Example Modulus of Rupture

Problem 1-3 (p. 19 of the textbook)

Given: The 2-foot long plain (non-reinforced)
concrete beam with loading and cross
sectional area shown.
f
c
= 3,000 psi
Normal weight concrete

c
= 145 pcf
P = 2100 lb at failure

Find: a) Modulus of rupture (f
r
)
b) Compare the calculated
modulus of rupture with
the ACI recommended
modulus of rupture.

Solution

a) Modulus of rupture (f
r
)
Calculate the dead load (beam weight)
w = 145 [(6/12)(6/12)]
= 145 (0.25) = 36.25 lb/ft

M
max
= M
cr
= 1,068.13 lb-ft

I = 6(6)
3
/12 = 108.0 in
4


f
r
= M
cr
c/I = 1,068.13 (12/) (3.0)/108.0 = 356.0 psi

b) ACI-recommended modulus of rupture
f
r
= 7.5 f
c

= 7.5 (1.0) 3000 = 410.8 psi

1.11
Example - Internal Couple Method

Problem 1-5 (p. 20 of the textbook)

Given: The plain (non-reinforced) concrete beam
with loading and cross sectional area shown.
The loading includes the weight of the beam.
f
c
= 4000 psi
Normal weight concrete

c
= 145 pcf

Find: Maximum bending stress using the
a) Internal couple method
b) Flexure formula

Solution
M
max
= 11.25 k-ft

a) Internal couple method
C Z = M
max

M
max
= 11.25 k-ft (12/) = 135.0 k-in
Z = 2 (2/3) 8 = 10.667
C (10.667) = 135.0
C = 135.0/10.667 = 12.656 kips
C = (8)(8) f
b
= 12.656 kips
f
b
= 12.656/[(8)(8)] = 0.396 ksi

b) Flexure formula
f
b
= M
max
c/I
I = bh
3
/12 = 8(16)
3
/12 = 2730.7 in
4
f
b
= M
max
c/I = 135.0(8)/(2730.7) = 0.396 ksi

2.1
Chapter 2: Rectangular Reinforced Concrete
Beams and Slabs: Tension Steel Only

2.1 Introduction
When a beam is subjected to bending moments, bending strains are produced. For a
positive bending moment
Compressive strains and compressive stresses are produced in the top portion
of the beam cross section.
Tensile strains and tensile stresses are produced in the bottom portion of the
beam cross section.

For a concrete flexural member (e.g. beam, wall, slab) to have any significant load
carrying capacity, its basic inability to resist tensile stresses must be overcome.
A reinforced concrete member is formed by embedding reinforcement (usually
deformed steel bars) in the tension zone.
Members consisting of concrete and steel reinforcing bars can perform well
when subjected to flexure if properly designed and constructed.

First, lets consider simply supported single-span beams, carrying positive moment
(tension in the bottom), reinforced with steel bars placed near the bottom of the
beam.

2.2 Analysis and Design Method
The analysis based on the straight-line strain distribution and the straight-line
stress distribution from the neutral axis to the outer fibers is called elastic
design.
In elastic design, stress is proportional to strain.
Elastic design is considered valid for the homogeneous concrete beam as long as
the tensile stress does not exceed the modulus of rupture (the stress at which
tensile cracking begins).

Even though a reinforced concrete beam is known to be a non-homogeneous
member, for many years the elastic behavior approach was considered valid for
concrete design and was known as the working stress design (WSD) method.





2.2
Basic assumptions of the working stress design (WSD) method include:
1. A plane section before bending remains a plane section after bending.
2. Hookes law (stress is proportional to strain) applies to both the steel and the
concrete.
3. The tensile strength of concrete is zero and the reinforcing carries all of the
tension.
4. The bond between the concrete and the steel is perfect, so no slip occurs.

Based on these assumptions, the flexure formula was used even though the beam
was non-homogeneous.
This was accomplished by theoretically transforming one material (usually steel)
into the other material based on the ratio of the concrete and steel moduli of
elasticity.

The working stress design (WSD) method has been replaced by a more modern and
realistic approach for the design and analysis of reinforced concrete.
Originally called the ultimate strength design (USD) method, the method is now
called the strength design method.

Assumptions for the strength design method are similar to those listed for the
working stress design (WSD) method, with one notable exception.
As the loading increases, the proportional stress-strain relationship for the
compression stresses in the concrete is no longer valid.
With an increase in load, the compressive stress diagram takes a shape similar
to the concrete compressive stress-strain curve of Figure 1-1 (p. 4 of the
textbook).

The major differences between the allowable stress design (ASD) method and the
strength design method include
The way in which the applied loads (i.e. service loads) are handled.
The way in which the capacity (strength) of the reinforced concrete member is
determined.

In the strength design method
The applied loads (service loads) are amplified using load factors.
The member is designed so that the practical strength at failure is sufficient
to resist the effects (e.g. moment, shear) of the factored loads.


2.3
2.3 Behavior Under Load
Consider a reinforced concrete beam, simply supported, subjected to a downward
loading, causing positive moment in the beam.
Steel reinforcing (three bars) is located
near the bottom of the beam, which is
the tension side.
The overall depth of the beam cross
section is designated h.
The effective depth d is measured
from the compression face to the
centroid of the reinforcing steel.
- In this example, the centroid is at the center of the single layer of bars.
- If there are multiple layers of bars, the effective depth d is measured
from the compression face to the centroid of the bar group.

At very small loads, the concrete has not cracked and the stresses are low (below
the modulus of rupture).
Both concrete and steel resist the tension.
Concrete alone resists the compression.
The strain variation is linear from the neutral axis to the outer fiber.
Stresses also vary linearly from zero at the neutral axis and are proportional to
strains.








Flexural behavior at very small loads

At moderate loads, the tensile strength of the concrete is exceeded, and the
concrete cracks (hairline cracks).
The concrete cannot resist tension across a crack; the steel bars must resist all
the tension.
The concrete compressive stress is still proportional to the concrete
compressive strain.

2.4
This linear compressive stress pattern is valid for concrete stresses of f
c
up to
0.5 f
c
.
Above a stress of 0.5 f
c
, concrete is no longer considered to behave elastically
(recall Figure 1-1, p. 4 of the textbook).









Flexural behavior at moderate loads

With a further load increase, the compressive strains and stresses increase.
The steel bars resist all the tension.
The compressive strains and stresses in the concrete are no longer proportional
(recall Figure 1-1, p. 4 of the textbook).
The compressive strains in the concrete continue to vary linearly from the
neutral axis to the outer fiber.
Compressive stresses vary in a nonlinear manner, similar to the shape of the
stress-strain curve (Figure 1-1, p. 4 of the textbook).









Flexural behavior near ultimate load

The process of attaining the ultimate capacity of the member is irreversible.
The member has cracked and deflected significantly.
The steel has yielded and cannot return to its original length.



2.5
Structures are not designed and constructed to fail.
Factors are introduced to provide commonly accepted margins of safety.
However, ultimate capacities are the basis for reinforced concrete analysis and
design.

2-4 Strength Design Method Assumptions
The use of the strength design method depends on the following basic assumptions.
1. A plane section before bending remains a plane section after bending.
- Strain varies linearly from zero at the neutral axis.
2. Stresses and strains are approximately proportional only up to moderate loads.
- The proportionality between concrete strain and stress is valid as long as
the stress does not exceed 0.5 f
c
.
- When the load increases and approaches an ultimate load, the concrete
stresses and strains are no longer proportional.
- At ultimate load, the variation in concrete stress is no longer linear.
3. In calculating the ultimate moment capacity of a beam, the tensile strength of
the concrete is neglected.
4. The maximum usable concrete compressive strain at the extreme fiber is
assumed equal to 0.003.
- This value is based on extensive testing.
- Flexural concrete strain at failure for rectangular beams actually ranges
from 0.003 to 0.004.
- The assumption that the concrete is about to crush when the maximum
strain reaches 0.003 is slightly conservative.
5. The steel is uniformly strained.
- The steel strain used is the strain that exists at the level of the centroid of
the steel.
- If the strain in the steel (
s
) is less than the yield strain of the steel (
y
),
then the stress in the steel reinforcement is
f
s
= E
s

s
when
s
<
y

- If the strain in the steel (
s
) is greater than the yield strain of the steel
(
y
), then the stress in the steel reinforcement is independent of the strain
and is equal to the yield stress (f
y
).
f
s
= f
y
when
s
>
y

6. The bond between the steel and concrete is perfect and no slip occurs.

2.6
Assumptions 4 and 5 constitute what may be termed code criteria with respect to
failure.
The true ultimate strength of a member is slightly greater than the strength
determined using these assumptions.
The strength method of design and analysis of the ACI Code is based on these
criteria.

2-5 Flexural Strength of Rectangular Beams
We now examine the strains, stresses, and forces that exist in a reinforced
concrete beam subjected to its ultimate moment (i.e. the moment that exists just
prior to failure of the beam).

Based on the preceding assumptions, a beam may be loaded in the following ways.
The maximum tensile steel stress equals the yield stress (i.e. f
s
= f
y
) and the
maximum concrete compressive strain is 0.003 inch/inch.
The maximum tensile steel stress is less than the yield stress (that is, f
s
< f
y
)
and the maximum concrete compressive strain is 0.003 inch/inch.
Each condition implies a specific mode of failure.

The compressive stress distribution above the neutral axis for a flexural member
is similar to the concrete compressive stress-strain curve (ref. Figure 1-1 on p. 4
of the textbook).
The ultimate compressive stress f
c
does not occur at the outer fiber.
The shape of the stress curve is different for different strengths of concrete.
At ultimate moment, compressive strains and stresses in concrete are not
proportional.
Strains are assumed linear with the maximum strain of 0.003 inch/inch
occurring at the extreme outer compression fiber.
The maximum concrete compressive stress f
c
develops at some intermediate
level near, but not at, the extreme outer fiber.







2.7
The flexural strength (or resisting moment) of a rectangular beam is developed by
the internal stresses that may be represented as internal forces.
N
C
is a theoretical internal
resultant compressive force
that represents the total
internal compression above the
neutral axis.
N
T
is a theoretical internal
resultant tensile force that
represents the total internal
tension below the neutral axis.


Beam subjected to ultimate moment

These two forces N
C
and N
T
are parallel, equal, opposite, and separated by a
distance Z and constitute an internal resisting couple.
The maximum value of this couple is termed the nominal moment strength (M
n
)
of the beam member.
This nominal moment strength (M
n
) must be capable of resisting the design
bending moment induced by the applied loads.
- The design of a beam for a given loading condition requires proper concrete
dimensions and placement of the steel reinforcement.

The determination of the moment strength is complex because of the shape of the
compressive stress diagram above the neutral axis.
N
C
is difficult to evaluate.
The location of N
C
relative to the tensile steel is difficult to establish.

These two values (i.e. N
C
and Z) are established by replacing the complex
compressive stress distribution by a fictitious one of simple geometric shape.
To be valid, the fictitious distribution must result in the same total
compressive force N
C
as in the actual distribution at failure.
To be valid, the fictitious distribution must result in the force N
C
applied at
the same location as in the actual distribution at failure.





2.8
2-6 Equivalent Stress Distribution
A fictitious but equivalent rectangular concrete stress distribution was proposed
by Whitney and subsequently adopted by the ACI Code (Sections 10.2.6 and
10.2.7).
Other compressive stress distribution shapes may be used provided the results
are in agreement with comprehensive test results.
Because of the simplicity, the rectangular shape has become the more widely
used fictitious stress distribution for design purposes.

The equivalent stress distribution is shown below (ref. Figure 2-5, p. 30 of the
textbook).











Actual Compressive Equivalent Compressive Internal Couple
Stress Block Stress Block

The average stress intensity is taken as 0.85 f
c
.
This stress is assumed to act over the upper area of the beam cross section
defined by the width b and a depth of a, where
- The magnitude of a is determined by the following formula.
a =
1
c
where
c = the distance from the outer compressive fiber to the neutral axis

1
= a factor that is dependent on the strength of the concrete

1
= 0.85 for 2500 psi f
c
4000 psi

1
= 0.85 0.05 (f
c
4000)/1000 0.65 for f
c
> 4000 psi

It is unlikely that the compressive stresses are actually distributed in this manner.
This equivalent rectangular distribution gives results close to those of the
complex actual stress distribution.

2.9
The analysis and design of reinforced concrete beams is based on the equivalent
stress distribution.
The nominal moment strength M
n
of rectangular reinforced concrete beams is
determined.
The nominal moment strength is reduced by a strength reduction factor
(discussed in Section 2-9) to determine the practical moment strength for the
beam section.


2.10
Example Nominal Moment Strength

Example 2-1 (p. 32 of the textbook)

Given: Beam cross section shown.
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi (A615 Grade 60 steel)
A
s
= 2.37 in
2


Find: The nominal moment strength M
n
.

Solution

1. Assume that the stress in the steel is equal to f
y
and the maximum strain in the
concrete is 0.003.
By equilibrium, H = 0, so N
C
= N
T
(0.85 f
c
) a b = A
s
f
y

a = A
s
f
y
/(0.85 f
c
)b
= 2.37(60)/0.85(4)(10) = 4.18

2. Calculate the length of the lever arm Z.
Z = d a/2 = 23 4.18/2 = 20.9

3. Calculate the nominal moment strength M
n
.
Based on the concrete (M
n
= N
C
Z),
M
n
= N
C
Z = (0.85f
c
) a b (20.9)
= (0.85)(4.0)(4.18)(10)(20.9)
= 2,970 kip-inch
Based on the steel (M
n
= N
T
Z),
M
n
= N
T
Z = A
s
f
y
Z
= (2.37)(60.0)(20.9)
= 2,970 kip-inch

4. The previous calculations for the nominal moment strength M
n
were made based on
the assumption that the steel reached its yield strain (and its yield stress) and the
concrete reached its ultimate strain of 0.003.

2.11
Check this assumption by calculating the strain
t
in the steel when the
concrete strain reaches 0.003.
-
t
is the net tensile strain at the centroid of the extreme tension steel at
nominal strength.
- The location of the neutral axis may be determined as follows.
a =
1
c (ACI Code, Section 10.2.7)

1
= 0.85 because f
c
= 4000 psi
Therefore, c = a/0.85 = 4.18/0.85 = 4.92
- By similar triangles in the strain diagram, the strain in the steel can be
determined when the maximum strain in the concrete is 0.003.
0.003/c =
t
/(d - c)

t
= (d - c) (0.003/c) = (23 4.92)(0.003/4.92)

t
= 0.01102 inch/inch
- The strain at which steel yields (
y
) may be
determined from the basic definition of the
modulus of elasticity, E = stress/strain.
E
s
= f
y
/
y

So,
y
= f
y
/E
s
= 60,000/29,000,000 = 0.00207 inch/inch
(ref. Table A-1, p. 483 for yield strain
y
)
This represents the strain in the steel when the stress first reaches
60,000 psi.
Because the computed strain in the steel (
t
= 0.01102) is greater than the yield
strain (
y
= 0.00207),
- The steel reaches its yield stress before the concrete reaches its strain of
0.003, and
- The assumption that the stress in the steel is equal to the yield stress is
correct.

The nominal moment strength M
n
is the ultimate capacity of the member when the
member is on the verge of failure.
In this example, the member is on the verge of failure (known as ductile failure
mode) since the steel has reached its yield strain before the concrete reaches
a strain of 0.003.

2.12
Example Problem Nominal Moment Strength

Problem 2-1a (p. 66 of the textbook)

Given: Beam with the cross section shown.
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: The nominal moment strength M
n
.

Solution

A
s
= 4 (1.0)

= 4.00 in
2

(Note: A
#
9 bar has an area equal to a 1-inch square bar.)

Assume that the stress in the steel is equal to f
y
and the maximum strain in the
concrete is 0.003.
By equilibrium, H = 0, so N
C
= N
T
(0.85 f
c
) a b = A
s
f
y

a = A
s
f
y
/(0.85 f
c
) b = 4.00(60.0)/0.85(3.0)(16) = 5.88

Calculate the length of the lever arm Z.
Z = d a/2 = 24 5.88/2 = 21.06

Calculate the nominal moment strength M
n
.
Based on the concrete (M
n
= N
C
Z),
M
n
= N
C
Z = [(0.85f
c
) a b] Z
= (0.85)(3.0)(5.88)(16)(21.06)
M
n
= 5,052.4 kip-inch (421.0 kip-ft)

Based on the steel (M
n
= N
T
Z),
M
n
= N
T
Z = A
s
f
y
Z
= (4.00)(60.0)(21.06)
M
n
= 5,054.4 kip-inch (421.2 kip-ft) The difference is in rounding.

Check the assumption regarding the stress in the steel by calculating the strain
t

in the steel when the concrete strain reaches 0.003.
The location of the neutral axis may be determined as follows.

2.13
a =
1
c (ACI Code, Section 10.2.7)

1
= 0.85 because f
c
= 3000 psi
Therefore, c = a/0.85 = 5.88/0.85 = 6.92
By similar triangles in the strain diagram, the strain in the steel can be
determined when the maximum strain in the concrete is 0.003.
0.003/c =
t
/(d - c)

t
= (d - c) (0.003/c)
= (24 6.92)(0.003/6.92)

t
= 0.00741 inch/inch
> 0.00207 inch/inch
(ref. Table A-1, p. 483 for yield strain
y
)
Because the computed strain in the steel (
t
= 0.00741) is greater than the
yield strain (
y
= 0.00207),
- The steel reaches its yield stress before the concrete reaches its strain of
0.003, and
- The assumption that the stress in the steel is equal to the yield stress is
correct.

2.14
2-7 Balanced, Brittle, and Ductile Failure Modes
The location of the neutral axis varies based on the amount of tension steel in the
cross section.
The compressive stress block is just deep enough to ensure that the resultant
compressive force is equal to the resultant tensile force (i.e. H = 0).
If more tension bars are added to the bottom of a reinforced concrete cross
section, then the depth of the compressive block will be greater and the neutral
axis will be lower.

Balanced cross section (ACI Code, Section 10.3.2)
There is enough steel to put the neutral axis at a location where the yield strain
in the steel and the maximum concrete strain of 0.003 occur at the same time.
The amount of steel required to produce this condition is relatively large.
The balance condition is the dividing line between two distinct types of
reinforced concrete beams that are characterized by their mode failures:
brittle failure mode and ductile failure mode.

Brittle failure mode
A beam has more steel than is required to create the balanced condition.
The additional steel lowers the neutral axis.
The concrete reaches a strain of 0.003 before the steel yields.
If additional load is applied to the beam cross section, failure is initiated by a
sudden crushing of the concrete.
Brittle failure mode is undesirable.

Ductile failure mode (and its progression)
The neutral axis is higher than the balanced neutral axis.
The steel reaches its yield strain (and yield stress) before the concrete
reaches a strain of 0.003.
A slight increase in the applied load causes the steel to stretch.
- Strains in the steel and concrete continue to increase.
- The steel has reached its yield stress f
y
, so the tensile stress (and tensile
force) is not increasing.
The compressive force does not increase (to satisfy H = 0).
- The concrete strain and concrete stress increase, but the area under the
compression stress decreases and the neutral axis rises.

2.15
- This process continues until the reduced area fails in compression.
Ductile failure is due to yielding and is gradual.
- The beam shows increased deflection after the steel reaches the yield
point.
- Ductile failure provides adequate warning of impending failure.
- The steel, being ductile, does not pull apart even at failure of the beam.
The ductile failure mode is desirable and is required by the ACI Code.

2-8 Ductility Requirements
Failure modes
Ductile failure mode: Failure due to yielding steel is gradual with adequate
warning of collapse.
Brittle failure mode: Failure due to crushing of concrete is sudden and without
warning.

Strain limit definitions (ACI Code)
Tension controlled section (ductile failure mode)
The net tensile strain
t
in the extreme tension steel is equal to or greater
than 0.005 just as the concrete reaches its assumed strain limit of 0.003
(ACI, Section 10.3.4).

t
0.005 when
c
= 0.003
- The extreme tension steel is located d
t
from the extreme compression face
(ref. Figure 2-11, p. 36 of the textbook).
For a single layer of steel, d
t
= d.
For multiple layers of steel, d
t
> d.
Compression controlled section (brittle failure mode)
The net tensile strain
t
in the extreme tension steel is equal to or less than
the steel yield strain
y
just as the concrete reaches its assumed strain limit
of 0.003 (ACI Code, Section 10.3.3).

t

y
when
c
= 0.003
Transition region section The net tensile strain
t
in the extreme tension steel
is between compression controlled and tension controlled sections.

y

t
0.005




2.16
For non-prestressed flexural members subjected to little or no axial load:
The ACI Code (Section 10.3.5) requires the net tensile strain
t
at nominal
strength to be not be less than 0.004.
Because all values of
y
for reinforcing steel bars are less than 0.004, this
ensures a tension-controlled flexural member (one that exhibits ductility and
fails by yielding of the steel).
- Values of
y
for various grades of steel are as follows.
Grade 40
y
= 0.00138
Grade 60
y
= 0.00207
Grade 75
y
= 0.00259


2.17
Example Tension Controlled Section

Example 2-2 (p. 37 of the textbook)

Given: Beam cross section shown.
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: The steel area required to cause the
strain in the tension steel
t
to be 0.005
just as the maximum strain in the
concrete reaches 0.003.

Solution

1. Determine the location of the neutral axis (by similar triangles).
0.003/c = 0.005/(d c)
0.003/c = 0.005/(23 c)
0.003 (23 c) = 0.005 c
0.069 0.003 c = 0.005 c
0.069 = 0.008 c
c = 0.069/0.008 = 8.63

2. Determine N
C
.
a =
1
c

1
= 0.85 since f
c
< 4000 psi
a =
1
c = 0.85 (8.63) = 7.34
N
C
= 0.85 f
c
a b = 0.85 (3.0) 7.34 (10) = 187.2 kips

3. Determine A
s
.
N
T
= N
C
= 187.2 kips
N
T
= A
s
f
y
= 187.2
A
s
(60.0) = 187.2
A
s
= 187.2/60.0 = 3.12 in
2


2.18
Notes
For
t
to be 0.005 just as the concrete strain reaches 0.003, A
s
must be
3.12 in
2
.
A
s
= 3.12 in
2
is the maximum amount of steel for the section to be considered
tension-controlled.
- Any steel area in excess of 3.12 in
2
causes
t
to be less than 0.005.
The ACI Code does not allow
t
to be less than 0.004 in a non-prestressed
flexural member with little or no axial load.

Heavily reinforced concrete beams are less efficient than more lightly reinforced
concrete beams.
For a given beam size, an increase in A
s
is accompanied by a decrease in the
lever arm of the internal couple (Z = d a/2).

For example, double the tension steel in Example 2-1 and recalculate M
n
.
A
s
= 2 (2.37) = 4.74 in
2
(100% increase)
N
T
= A
s
f
y
N
C
= 0.85 f
c
a b and N
T
= N
C

a = A
s
f
y
/0.85 f
c
b = 4.74 (60.0)/0.85 (4.0)10 = 8.36
Z = d a/2 = 23 8.36/2 = 18.82
M
n
= N
C
Z = 0.85 f
c
a b Z = 0.85 (4.0) 8.36 (10) 18.82
M
n
= 5,349.4 kip-inch (445.8 kip-ft)
Increase in M
n
= (5349.4 2970)/2970 = 0.801 (80.1% increase)

The ACI Code (Section 10.5.1) establishes a lower limit on the amount of tension
reinforcement that is required for flexural members.
Where tensile reinforcement is required by analysis, the steel area A
s
shall not
be less than that given by
(A
s
)
min
= (3f
c
/f
y
) b
w
d (200/f
y
) b
w
d
Note: For a rectangular beam b
w
= b.

(A
s
)
min
is conveniently calculated using Table A-5 (p. 486 of the textbook).
The larger of the two values of (3f
c
/f
y
)b
w
d or (200/ f
y
)b
w
d is tabulated.
(A
s
)
min
is the product of the tabulated value and b
w
d.
The lower limit [i.e. (A
s
)
min
] guards against sudden failure.

2.19
According to the ACI Code (Section 10.5.3), the requirements of ACI Section
10.5.1 regarding (A
s
)
min
need not be applied if, at every section, A
s
provided is at
least one-third greater than that required by analysis.
For example, if the required A
s
= 3.0 in
2
by analysis and (A
s
)
min
= 5.0 in
2
, the
section may be designed using A
s
= 4.0 in
2
.
This requirement applies especially to grade beams, wall beams, and other deep
flexural members, where the minimum reinforcement requirement specified in
10.5.1 would result in an excessively large amount of steel.
Minimum required reinforcement in structural slabs is governed by the required
shrinkage and temperature steel as outlined in the ACI Code, Section 7.12.

2-9 Strength Requirements
The basic criterion for the strength design method is expressed as
Strength furnished Strength required
All members and all sections must be proportioned to meet this criterion.

The required strength may be expressed in terms of design loads or their related
moments, shears, and forces.
Design loads may be defined as service loads multiplied by the appropriate load
factors.
When the word design load is used the ACI Code, it indicates that load factors
have been applied.
The subscript u is used to indicate design loads, moments, shears, and forces.

ACI Code (Section 9.2) specifies the load factors that are to be used and the load
combinations that are to be investigated.
Loads that are considered include dead load, live load, fluid loads, loads due to
the weight and lateral pressure of soils, snow loads, and others.
Only dead loads, live loads, and loads due to the weight and lateral pressure of
soils are considered in this text.
For dead load and live load only, the load combination is
U = 1.2 D + 1.6 L 1.4 D
where
U = the required strength to resist factored loads or related internal
moments and forces
D = service dead load

2.20
L = service live load
1.2, 1.6 and 1.4 = load factors
Note: Since dead loads can be more accurately estimated than live loads,
a lower load factor is used for dead loads.
Strength reduction factors () are prescribed by the ACI Code (Section 9.3) as
an additional safety provision.
- Strength reduction factors account for variations in material strengths,
workmanship, and dimensions.
- Use of the strength reduction factor furnishes a practical strength that is
less than the nominal strength.

The ACI Code (Section 9.3) lists the following strength reduction factors ().
Tension-controlled sections 0.90
Compression-controlled sections
Spirally reinforced 0.75
Other reinforced members 0.65
Shear and torsion 0.75
Bearing on concrete 0.65

For sections in which
t
is between the limits for tension-controlled sections and
compression-controlled sections, may be increased linearly from that for
compression-controlled sections (i.e. 0.65) to 0.90 as
t
increases from the
compression-controlled strain limit (i.e. 0.002) to 0.005 (ref. Figure 2-14, p. 41 of
the textbook).
= 0.65 + [(0.90 0.65)/(0.005
y
)](
t

y
)

ACI Code (Section 9.3.2) uses
y
= 0.002, so the expression becomes
= 0.65 + (
t
0.002)(250/3) for
y

t
0.005

The practical strength of a reinforced concrete member is the product of the
nominal strength and the factor.
Practical strength = M
n


2.21
2-10 Rectangular Beam Analysis for Moment (Tension Reinforcement Only)
The flexural analysis problem requires knowledge of the cross section of the beam.
The following information is known (A
s
, d or h, f
c
, f
y
).
Tension bar size and number (i.e. A
s
)
Beam depth (d) or total depth (h)
Concrete compression strength (f
c
) and steel yield stress (f
y
)
The following information is to be determined.
The beam strength (i.e. M
n
)
Analysis means to check the adequacy of the given beam, or to find the
allowable load that the beam can carry.

The flexural design problem requires
The determination of one or more of the dimensions of the cross section (such
as b or h), and/or
The determination of the required steel area.

Tables are used to expedite the calculations for the design and analysis of
reinforced concrete.

Two factors are featured in Tables A-7 through A-11 of the textbook.
Reinforcement ratio (lower case Greek letter rho), the ratio of tension steel
area to effective concrete area:
= A
s
/b d
Coefficient of resistance k

A modified expression for M
n
(and M
n
) can be developed using the coefficient of
resistance k .
M
n
= b d
2
k

Tables A-7 through A-11 give values of the coefficient of resistance k for
corresponding values of the reinforcement ratio and various combinations of the
concrete compression strength f
c
and the steel yield stress f
y
.
The maximum tabulated value of corresponds to
t
= 0.004, the minimum value
for
t
allowed by code for non-prestressed flexural members with little or no
axial load (ACI Code, Section 10.3.5).

2.22
Values are tabulated for
t
between 0.004 and 0.005 because in this transition
region the strength reduction factor must be determined (ref. ACI Code,
Section 9.3.2.2).
When
t
> 0.005, no values for strain (
t
) are tabulated; the beam cross sections
are tension-controlled and = 0.90.
The tables assume that d = d
t
(one layer of steel).
If there are multiple layers of steel, then d
t
> d and
t
will be larger than the
tabulated
t
(so the tables are conservative with regard to the determination of
based on
t
.)


2.23
Example Rectangular Beam Analysis

Example 2-3 (p. 44 of the textbook)

Given: The beam with the cross section and
loading shown.
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
w
DL
= 0.65 kips/ft
w
LL
= 0.80 kips/ft
P
LL
= 12 kips

Find: Determine if the beam is adequate.

Solution

1. Determine the factored loads.
Beam weight = (20/12)(12/12)(150 lb/ft
3
)
= 250 lb/ft (0.250 k/ft)
w
u
= 1.2 w
DL
+ 1.6 w
LL

= 1.2 (0.65 + 0.250) + 1.6 (0.80)
= 1.08 + 1.28 = 2.36 k/ft
P
u
= 1.6 P
LL
= 1.6 (12) = 19.2 kips

2. Determine the maximum bending
moment due to factored loads (M
u
).
From the moment diagram: M
u
= 214 kip-ft

3. Determine the minimum steel (A
s
)
min
.
A
s
= 3.16 in
2
(ref. Table A-2)
Check (A
s
)
min
(ref. Table A-5)
(A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 b
w
d = 0.0033(12)(17.5) = 0.693 in
2
< 3.16 in
2
OK

4. Determine the nominal moment M
n
from N
C
Z or N
T
Z.
Assume a tension-controlled section (i.e. the steel reaches its yield stress,

t
0.005, and = 0.90), solve for the depth of the stress block (a) and the
length of the lever arm Z.

2.24
N
T
= A
s
f
y
N
C
= 0.85 f
c
a b and N
T
= N
C

a = A
s
f
y
/0.85 f
c
b = 3.16 (60.0)/0.85(4.0)12 = 4.65
Z = d a/2 = 17.5 4.65/2 = 15.18
Calculate M
n
based on steel (M
n
= N
T
Z).
M
n
= N
T
Z = A
s
f
y
Z = 3.16 (60.0) 15.18
= 2,878.1 kip-inch (239.8 kip-ft)
Calculate M
n
based on concrete (M
n
= N
C
Z) for comparison.
M
n
= N
C
Z = 0.85 f
c
a b Z = 0.85 (4.0)(4.65)(12)(15.18)
= 2,879.9 kip-inch (240.0 kip-ft)

5. Determine the practical moment strength M
n
.
M
n
= 0.9 (239.8) = 215.8 kip-ft > 214 kip-ft
The section is adequate.

6. Check the assumption regarding the steel stress and a tension-controlled
section.
a =
1
c
1
= 0.85 since f
c
4000 psi
4.65 = 0.85 c c = 4.65/0.85 = 5.47
By similar triangles in the strain diagram: 0.003/c =
t
/(d c).
0.003/5.47 =
t
/(17.5 - 5.47)

t
= (0.003/5.47)(17.5 - 5.47)
= 0.00660 >
y
= 0.00207 (ref. Table A-1, p. 483)
Since
t
> 0.005 the assumption regarding the steel stress is confirmed and the
section is a tension-controlled section.

Alternative Analysis
Determine the nominal moment M
n
using the coefficient of resistance and
Table A-10.

Perform Steps 1 3 above.

4. Calculate the reinforcement ratio.
= A
s
/b d = 3.16/12(17.5) = 0.01505



2.25
5. Determine k based on using Tables A-7 through A-11, as appropriate.
From Table A-10, k = 0.7809
An interpolation between 0.7809 and 0.7853 can be done, but it is not
warranted.
It is conservative to use the lower table value of k to determine a lower
nominal moment M
n
.
Since no value of
t
is listed for this value of and k ,
t
> 0.005 and the section
is tension-controlled.

6. Calculate M
n
.
M
n
= b d
2
k = 0.90(12)(17.5)
2
(0.7809) = 2,582.8 kip-inch
= 215.2 kip-ft (same as before) > M
u
= 214 kip-ft
The section is adequate.



2.26
2-11 Summary of Procedure for Rectangular Beam Analysis for M
n

(Tension Reinforcement Only)

Given: f
c
, f
y
, b, d, h, A
s


Find: Determine if the reinforced concrete rectangular beam is adequate.
If M
n
M
u
, then the beam is adequate.

1. Determine the factored loads.
Calculate the beam weight (lb/ft) =
c
b h
Calculate the beam loading:
w
u
= 1.2 w
DL
+ 1.6 w
LL

P
u
= 1.2 P
DL
+ 1.6 P
LL


2. Determine the maximum bending moment due to factored loads (M
u
).
From the moment diagram, or from the following equations:
M
u
= w
u
L
2
/8 for a uniform load
M
u
= P
u
L/4 for a concentrated load at mid-span

3. Determine the minimum steel (A
s
)
min
that is required using Table A-5 (p. 486)
and compare with A
s
.
(A
s
)
min
= (Design constant) b
w
d A
s
(A
s
)
min
?

4. Determine the nominal moment M
n
from N
C
Z or N
T
Z.
Assume a tension-controlled section (that is, steel reaches its yield stress,
t

0.005, and = 0.90), solve for the depth of the stress block (a) and the
length of the lever arm Z.
N
T
= A
s
f
y
N
C
= 0.85 f
c
a b and N
T
= N
C

a = A
s
f
y
/0.85 f
c
b
Z = d a/2

Calculate M
n

Based on the concrete (M
n
= N
C
Z)
M
n
= N
C
Z = (0.85f
c
) a b Z
Based on the steel (M
n
= N
T
Z)
M
n
= N
T
Z = A
s
f
y
Z

2.27
5. Determine the practical moment strength M
n
.
Assume = 0.90 for tension controlled sections.
If M
n
M
u
, then the beam is adequate.

6. Check the assumption regarding the steel stress and a tension-controlled
section.
Determine the location of the neutral axis:
a =
1
c (ACI Code, Section 10.2.7)

1
= 0.85 when 2500 psi f
c
4000 psi

1
= 0.85 (0.05/1000)(f
c
4000) 0.65 when f
c
> 4000 psi
Calculate c: c = a/
1

By similar triangles in the strain diagram, the strain in the steel can be
determined when the maximum strain in the concrete is 0.003.
0.003/c =
t
/(d - c)

t
= (d - c) (0.003/c)

The strain at which steel yields (
y
) is determined as follows.

y
= f
y
/E
s

where E
s
= 29,000,000 psi
See Table A-1, p. 483 for yield strain
y
associated with the specified
grade of steel.

If the computed strain in the steel is greater than the yield strain (that is,

t
>
y
), then the steel reaches its yield stress before the concrete reaches its
strain of 0.003, and the assumption that the stress in the steel is equal to the
yield stress is correct.

If
t
> 0.005 the assumption regarding the steel stress is confirmed and the
section is a tension-controlled section.

If
y

t
0.005, then is determined from the following equation.
= 0.65 + (
t
0.002)(250/3)



2.28
Alternative Analysis
Determine the nominal moment M
n
using the coefficient of resistance k and Tables
A-7 through A-11, as appropriate.

Perform Steps 1 3 above.

4. Calculate the reinforcement ratio.
= A
s
/b d

5. Determine k based on using Tables A-7 through A-11, as appropriate.
If no value of
t
is listed for the value of and k , then
t
> 0.005 and the
section is tension-controlled ( = 0.90).

If
y

t
0.005, then is determined from the following equation.
= 0.65 + (
t
0.002)(250/3)

6. Calculate M
n
.
M
n
= b d
2
k

2.29
Example Rectangular Beam Analysis

Problem 2-5a (p. 67 of the textbook)

Given: A reinforced beam with the cross
section shown.
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 40,000 psi
w
LL
= 3.60 kips/ft
w
DL
= 2.20 kips/ft

Find: Check the adequacy of the beam with
respect to moment.

Solution

1. Determine the factored loads.
Beam weight = (45/12)(20/12)(150 lb/ft
3
)
= 938 lb/ft
w
u
= 1.2 w
DL
+ 1.6 w
LL

= 1.2 (2.20 + 0.938) + 1.6 (3.60)
= 3.77 + 5.76 = 9.53 k/ft

2. Determine the maximum bending
moment due to factored loads (M
u
).
From the moment diagram: M
u
= 933.9 kip-ft

3. Determine the minimum steel (A
s
)
min
.
A
s
= 7.62 in
2
(ref. Table A-2)
Check (A
s
)
min
(ref. Table A-5)
(A
s
)
min
= 0.0050 b
w
d = 0.0050(20)(42)
= 4.20 in
2
< 7.62 in
2
OK

4. Determine the nominal moment M
n
from N
C
Z or N
T
Z.
Assume a tension-controlled section (i.e. the steel reaches its yield stress,

t
0.005, and = 0.90), solve for the depth of the stress block (a) and the
length of the lever arm Z.

2.30
N
T
= A
s
f
y
N
C
= 0.85 f
c
a b and N
T
= N
C

a = A
s
f
y
/0.85 f
c
b = 7.62 (40.0)/0.85 (3.0) 20 = 5.98
Z = d a/2 = 42.0 5.98/2 = 39.01
Calculate M
n
based on the steel (M
n
= N
T
Z).
M
n
= N
T
Z = A
s
f
y
Z = 7.62 (40.0) 39.01
= 11,890.2 kip-inch (990.9 kip-ft)
Calculate M
n
based on the concrete (M
n
= N
C
Z) for comparison.
M
n
= N
C
Z = (0.85f
c
a b) Z = 0.85 (3.0) (5.98) 20 (39.01)
= 11,897.3 kip-inch (991.4 kip-ft)

5. Determine the practical moment strength M
n
.
M
n
= 0.9 (990.9) = 891.8 kip-ft < 933.9 kip-ft
The section is not adequate.

6. Check the assumption regarding the steel stress and a tension-controlled
section.
a =
1
c
1
= 0.85 since f
c
= 3000 psi ( < 4000 psi )
5.98 = 0.85 c c = 5.98/0.85 = 7.04
By similar triangles in the strain diagram: 0.003/c =
t
/(d c).
0.003/7.04 =
t
/(42 7.04)

t
= (0.003/7.04)(42 7.04)
= 0.0149 >
y
= 0.00207 (ref. Table A-1, p. 483)
Since
t
> 0.005 the assumption regarding the steel stress is confirmed and the
section is a tension-controlled section.

Alternative Analysis
Determine the nominal moment M
n
using the coefficient of resistance and
Table A-7.

Perform Steps 1 3 above.

4. Calculate the reinforcement ratio.
= A
s
/b d = 7.62/20(42) = 0.0091



2.31
5. Determine k based on using Table A-7.
From Table A-7, k = 0.3380
Since no value of
t
is listed for this value of and k ,
t
> 0.005 and the section
is tension-controlled.

6. Calculate M
n
.
M
n
= b d
2
k = 0.90(20)(42)
2
(0.3380) = 10,732.2 kip-inch
= 894.3 kip-ft < 933.9 kip-ft
The section is not adequate.

2.32
Example Rectangular Beam Analysis

Problem 2-4 (p. 67 of the textbook)

Given: A reinforced beam with the cross
section shown.
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: M
n


Solution

Determine the nominal moment M
n
using the
coefficient of resistance and Table A-10.

Steps 1 2 are omitted.

3. Determine the minimum steel (A
s
)
min
.
Determine the location of the centroid for the steel area (referenced from
bottom row of steel).
Diameter (
#
10 bars) = 1.27 (Table A-1)
Clearance between layers = 1.0
Cover = 1.5
Stirrup =
#
3 bar
y (7A) = 2A(1.27/2 + 1.0 + 1.27/2)
7 y = 4.54
y = 0.649 (above the bottom row of steel)

d = 32 1.5 (cover) 0.375 (
#
3 stirrup) 1.27/2 (radius of
#
10 bar) 0.649
= 28.84
A
s
= 8.89 in
2
(ref. Table A-2)
Check (A
s
)
min
(ref. Table A-5)
(A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 b
w
d = 0.0033(16)(28.84) = 1.52 in
2
< 8.89 in
2
OK




2.33
4. Calculate the reinforcement ratio.
= A
s
/bd = 8.89/16(28.84) = 0.0193

5. Determine k based on using Table A-10.
From Table A-10, k = 0.9609,
t
= 0.00449 (See note below.)
Since
t
= 0.00449 < 0.005; calculate (ref. p. 40 of the textbook).
= 0.65 + (
t
0.002)(250/3)
= 0.65 + (0.00449 0.002)(250/3) = 0.858
Note:
t
= 0.00449 is conservative since d
t
> d;
t
is actually greater than
0.00449 (as will be shown in the following alternate analysis).

6. Calculate M
n
.
M
n
= b d
2
k = 0.858(16)(28.84)
2
(0.9609) = 10,971.8 kip-inch
= 914.3 kip-ft

Alternate Analysis
Determine the nominal moment M
n
from N
C
Z or N
T
Z.
Steps 1 2 are omitted.

Step 3: Determine the minimum steel (A
s
)
min
(same as before).

4. Determine the nominal moment M
n
from N
C
Z or N
T
Z.
Assume a tension-controlled section (that is, steel reaches its yield stress,
t

0.005, and = 0.90), solve for the depth of the stress block (a) and the
length of the lever arm Z.
N
T
= A
s
f
y
N
C
= 0.85 f
c
a b and N
T
= N
C

a = A
s
f
y
/0.85 f
c
b = 8.89 (60.0)/0.85 (4.0)16 = 9.81
Z = d a/2 = 28.84 9.81/2 = 23.94

Calculate M
n
based on the steel (M
n
= N
T
Z).
M
n
= N
T
Z = A
s
f
y
Z = 8.89 (60.0) 23.94
= 12,769.6 kip-inch (1,064.1 kip-ft)
Calculate M
n
based on concrete (M
n
= N
C
Z) for comparison.
M
n
= N
C
Z = 0.85 f
c
a b Z = 0.85 (4.0)(9.81)(16)(23.94)
= 12,775.9 kip-inch (1,064.7 kip-ft)


2.34
5. Determine the practical moment strength M
n
.
M
n
= 0.90(1,064.1) = 957.7 kip-ft

6. Check the assumption regarding the steel stress and a tension-controlled
section.
a =
1
c
1
= 0.85 since f
c
= 4000 psi
9.81 = 0.85 c c = 9.81/0.85 = 11.54

Compute the strain by using similar triangles in the strain diagram.
For comparison with the previous method of analysis, check the strain at the
centroid of the bar group: 0.003/c =
t
/(d - c).
0.003/11.54 =
t
/(28.84 11.54)

t
= (28.84 11.54)(0.003/11.54)
= 0.00450 >
y
= 0.00207 (Table A-1, p. 483)
Compare:
t
= 0.00450 with
t
= 0.00449 of the previous method.
By ACI Code, check the strain at the level of the extreme tension steel:
0.003/c =
t
/(d
t
- c).
d
t
= 32 1.50 0.375 1.270/2 = 29.49
0.003/11.54 =
t
/(29.49 11.54)

t
= (29.49 11.54)(0.003/11.54)
= 0.00467 >
y
= 0.00207 (Table A-1, p. 483)

The assumption regarding the yielding of the steel is confirmed.
However,
t
= 0.00467 < 0.005; calculate .
= 0.65 + (
t
0.002)(250/3) (ref. p. 40 of the textbook)
= 0.65 + (0.00467 0.002)(250/3) = 0.873

Recalculate M
n

M
n
= 0.873 (1,064.1) = 929.0 kip-ft

2.35
2-12 Slabs: Introduction
Slabs constitute a specialized category of bending members.
The most basic and common type of slab is the one-way slab.
A one-way slab is a reinforced concrete slab supported on two opposite sides so
that bending occurs in one direction only (i.e. perpendicular to the supported
edges).

A slab supported on all four edges is a two-way slab with bending occurring in two
directions perpendicular to each other.
If the ratio of lengths of the two perpendicular sides is greater than 2, the
slab may be treated as a one-way slab with bending primarily occurring in the
short direction.

A flat slab is a specific type of two-way slab (ref. Figure 2-16, p. 48 of the
textbook).
A flat slab is a concrete slab reinforced
in two or more directions, generally
without beams or girders to transfer the
loads to the supporting members.
The slab is considered as supported on a
grid of shallow beams.
- These beams are integral with and
have the same depth as the slab.
Columns supporting the flat slab tend to punch upward through the slab.
- The result is high shearing stress that cause inclined slab cracking.
- It is common to thicken the slab near the column (using a drop panel) and to
enlarge the top of the column (called a column capital).
A flat plate is another type of two-way slab (ref. Figure 2-16, p. 48 of the
textbook).
- The flat plate is similar to the flat slab
but without the drop panel and column
capital.
- A flat plate is a slab of uniform thickness
supported directly on columns.
- A flat plate is used where spans are
smaller and loads lighter than those
requiring a flat slab design.

2.36
2-13 One-Way Slabs: Analysis for Moment
In the analysis or design of a one-way slab, the slab is assumed to be a rectangular
beam with a width b = 12.
When loaded, the beam has
bending in one direction only.
The slab is analyzed and designed
as though it were composed of 12
wide segments placed side by side
with a total depth equal to the slab
thickness.

In a one-way slab, the main reinforcement is placed perpendicular to the supports.
Because analysis and design is done for a typical 12 wide segment, it is
necessary to specify the amount of steel in that segment.
Reinforcing steel in slabs in normally specified by bar size and center-to-center
spacing.
The amount of steel considered in the 12 wide typical segment is an average
amount.
Table A-4 (Areas of Reinforcing Bars per Foot of Slab, p. 485 of the textbook)
is provided to aid in the design and analysis of one-way slabs.

Further requirements of the ACI Code include:
Reinforcement for shrinkage and temperature perpendicular to the principal
reinforcement must be provided in structural floor and roof slabs where the
principal reinforcement extends in one direction only.
In structural slabs of uniform thickness, the minimum area (per ACI Code,
Section 7.12.2) for shrinkage and temperature steel is
A
s
= 0.0020 b h for Grade 40 or 50 deformed bars
A
s
= 0.0018 b h for Grade 60 deformed bars
where
b = width of the member (12 for slabs)
h = total slab thickness
In structural slabs of uniform thickness, the minimum amount of reinforcement
in the direction of the span (principal reinforcement) must not be less than that
required for shrinkage and temperature reinforcement (ACI Code, Section
10.5.4).

2.37
Principal reinforcement shall not be spaced farther apart than three times the
slab thickness nor more than 18 inches (ACI Code, Section 7.6.5).
Shrinkage and temperature reinforcement shall not be spaced farther apart
than five times the slab thickness nor more than 18 inches (ACI Code, Section
7.12.2.2).

The required thickness of a one-way slab may depend on the bending, deflection, or
shear strength requirements.
ACI Code imposes span/depth criteria to prevent excessive deflection.
- Table 9.5(a) of the ACI Code establishes minimum thicknesses for beams
and one-way slabs in terms of fractions of the span length.
Minimum thickness, h

Simply
supported
One end
continuous
Both ends
continuous
Cantilever
Solid one-
way slabs
/20 /24 /28 /10
= the span length of the slab
- No calculation for deflection is required if the criteria of Table 9.5(a) is
satisfied.
If the member supports construction, or is attached to construction, that may
be damaged by large deflections, then deflections must be calculated.
- If the thickness of the member is less than the thickness specified by the
Code criteria [i.e. Table 9.5(a)], then deflections must be computed.
- The lesser slab thickness may be used if the deflection is satisfactory.
The values in Table 9.5(a) are for use with non-prestressed reinforced concrete
members made with normal weight concrete and Grade 60 reinforcement.
- If a different grade of reinforcement is used, the values in ACI Table 9.5(a)
must be multiplied by a factor equal to
0.4 + f
y
/100,000

The ACI Code (Section 7.7.1) addresses cover.
Cover is the thickness of the concrete protection for the reinforcement
against weather and other effects.
Cover is measured from the surface of the steel to the nearest surface of the
concrete.



2.38
Minimum cover for reinforcement in slabs must be
- for surfaces not exposed directly to the weather or in contact with the
ground (for No. 11 bars and smaller).
- 2 for surfaces exposed to the weather or in contact with the ground (for
No. 6 through No. 18 bars).
- 1 for surfaces exposed to the weather or in contact with the ground
(No. 5 bars and smaller).
- Minimum cover is 3 if the slab is cast against and permanently exposed to
the ground.


2.39
Examples One-Way Slab Analysis

Example 2-4 (p. 50 of the textbook)

Given: A one-way structural interior slab
with the cross section shown.
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 40,000 psi (A615 Grade 40)

Find: M
n
and the service live load (psf) that
the slab can support.

Solution

Determine the area of steel (ref. Table A-4).

#
5 bars @ 7 c/c: A
s
= 0.53 in
2


Determine the effective depth.
d = 6.5 0.75 (cover) 0.625/2 = 5.44

Compute the steel ratio and check minimum steel.
= A
s
/bd = 0.53/12(5.44) = 0.0081
(A
s
)
min
= 0.0020 bh = 0.0020(12)(6.5) = 0.156 in
2
< 0.53 in
2
OK

Calculate M
n
using the coefficient of resistance.
From Table A-7, for = 0.0081, k = 0.3034.

t
is not tabulated, so
t
> 0.005; the section is tension-controlled, and = 0.90.

M
n
= b d
2
k = 0.9(12)(5.44)
2
(0.3034) = 97.0 kip-inch
= 8.08 kip-ft (per foot of slab width)

Calculate M
n
using the internal couple method (for comparison).
a = A
s
f
y
/0.85f
c
b = 0.53(40.0)/0.85(3.0)(12) = 0.693
Z = d a/2 = 5.44 0.693/2 = 5.09
Based on the steel (i.e. M
n
= A
s
f
y
Z):
M
n
= A
s
f
y
Z = 0.9(0.53)(40.0)(5.09) = 97.1 kip-inch
= 8.09 kip-ft (per foot of slab width)


2.40
Determine the service load.
The factored bending moment M
u
and service load w
u
are determined as follows.
M
n
= M
u
= w
u

2
/8
w
u
= 8M
u
/
2
= 8(8.08)/(12)
2
= 0.449 kip/ft

The slab weight is
w
DL
= (6.5/12/)(12/12/)(150 lb/ft
3
) = 81.25 lb/ft (0.0813 kip/ft)

The total factored load is
w
u
= 1.2 w
DL
+ 1.6 w
LL

0.449 = 1.2 (0.0813) + 1.6 w
LL

0.449 = 0.097 + 1.6 w
LL

1.6 w
LL
= 0.449 0.097 = 0.352
w
LL
= 0.352/1.6 = 0.220 kip/ft

Since the segment is 12 wide, the service live load that the slab can support is
0.220 kips/ft
2
(220 psf).



2.41
Problem 2-12 (p. 68 of the textbook)

Given: A one-way structural interior slab
with the cross section shown.
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 40,000 psi (A615 Grade 40)

Find: M
n
and the service live load (psf) that
the slab can support.

Solution

Determine the area of steel (ref. Table A-4).
#
8 @ bars 6 c/c: A
s
= 1.58 in
2

Determine the effective depth.
d = 8.0 0.75 (cover) 1.0/2 = 6.75

Compute the steel ratio and check minimum steel.
= A
s
/bd = 1.58/12(6.75) = 0.0195
(A
s
)
min
= 0.0020 bh = 0.0020(12)(8.0) = 0.192 in
2
< 1.58 in
2
OK

Calculate M
n
using the coefficient of resistance.
From Table A-7, for = 0.0195, k = 0.6608.

t
is not tabulated, so
t
> 0.005; the section is tension-controlled, and = 0.90.

M
n
= b d
2
k = 0.9(12)(6.75)
2
(0.6608) = 325.2 kip-inch
= 27.1 kip-ft (per foot of slab width)

Calculate a, Z, and M
n
using the internal couple method (for comparison).
a = A
s
f
y
/0.85f
c
b = 1.58(40.0)/0.85(3.0)(12) = 2.065
Z = d a/2 = 6.75 2.065/2 = 5.72
Based on the steel (i.e. M
n
= A
s
f
y
Z):
M
n
= A
s
f
y
Z = 0.9(1.58)(40.0)(5.72) = 325.4 kip-inch
= 27.1 kip-ft (per foot of slab width)




2.42
Determine the service load.
The factored bending moment M
u
and service load w
u
are determined as follows.
M
n
= M
u
= w
u

2
/8
w
u
= 8M
u
/
2
= 8(27.1)/(12)
2
= 1.506 kip/ft

The slab weight is
w
DL
= (8.0/12/)(12/12/)(150 lb/ft
3
) = 100.0 lb/ft (0.100 kip/ft)

The total factored load is
w
u
= 1.2 w
DL
+ 1.6 w
LL

1.506 = 1.2 (0.100) + 1.6 w
LL

1.506 = 0.120 + 1.6 w
LL

1.6 w
LL
= 1.506 0.120 = 1.386
w
LL
= 1.386/1.6 = 0.866 kip/ft

Since the segment is 12 wide, the service live load that the slab can support is
0.866 kips/ft
2
(866 psf).


2.43
2-14 Rectangular Beam Design for Moment (Tension Reinforcement Only)
In the design of rectangular sections consider the following.
f
c
and f
y
are usually specified by the designer.
Beam width, beam depth, and steel area usually need to be determined.
A number of combinations of beam width, beam depth, and steel area can
provide the required moment strength.
- A wide, shallow beam may have the same practical moment strength (M
n
) as
a narrow, deep beam.
Practical considerations may affect the final choices of the beam dimensions.
- The beam width and overall depth may be known by practical or architectural
considerations.
For example, a designer may want to match beam and column widths for
clean lines.
Or, a designer may not want to match beam and column widths for a
visual distinction.
Minimum depths may be controlled by that required by ducts for
ventilation systems.
- A beam section that is too narrow may present a challenge in fitting the
required steel.
- Finding the required steel area (and selecting the reinforcing bars) is the
remaining task.
There is no easy way to determine the best section.
- Economy depends on more than volume of concrete and the amount of steel
in a beam.
- Economy should consider labor and the reuse of formwork.

The equation M
n
= b d
2
k will be used in the design of rectangular reinforced
concrete sections.
This equation allows the use of Tables A-7 through A-11.

ACI Code has recommendations regarding the details related to clearance and
cover requirements for steel reinforcing bars.
Clearance details are governed by the requirement for concrete to pass through
a layer of bars without segregating the aggregates.
Cover details are governed by the need for the concrete to protect the steel
reinforcing bars from corrosion.

2.44
Minimum spacing and cover also prevent the concrete from splitting near highly
stressed tension bars.

Spacing requirements in the ACI Code specify the clear spacing between bars in a
single layer shall not be less than the following.
The bar diameter, but not less than 1 inch (ACI Code, Section 7.6.1).
1-1/3 times the maximum aggregate size (ACI Code, Section 3.3.2).

When multiple layers of bars are required
A 1-inch minimum clear distance is required between layers (ACI Code, Section
7.6.2).
Bars in the upper layers are placed directly above bars in the bottom layer.
Short transverse spacer bars may be used to separate the layers and support
the upper layers.
- A
#
8 spacer-bar provides the minimum 1-inch separation between layers.

Cover requirements for cast-in-place concrete are stated in the ACI Code.
Minimum cover on steel is 1 for beams, girders, and columns not exposed to
the weather or in contact with the ground.
Table A-3 combines spacing and cover requirements into a tabulation of
minimum beam widths for multiples of various bars.
- No. 3 stirrups (used for shear reinforcement) are assumed.

2.45
Example Rectangular Beam Design for Moment

Example 2-5 (p. 53 of the textbook)

Given: The rectangular reinforced concrete
beam section shown.
M
DL
= 100 kip-ft (including the weight
of the beam)
M
LL
= 75 kip-ft
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: Design the beam.

1. Determine the factored design moment M
u
.
M
u
= 1.2 M
DL
+ 1.6 M
LL
= 1.2(100) + 1.6(75) = 240 kip-ft

2. Estimate the effective depth d and calculate the required coefficient of
resistance k .
d = 25 1.5 (cover) 0.375 (
#
3 stirrup) 1.41/2 (half the diameter of
#
11 bar)
= 22.42
The
#
11 bar is the largest practical bar size (although
#
14 and
#
18 bars may
be used).
This method of estimating d provides a tighter design than that
suggested by the author.
The author suggests the following estimate for d: d = 25 3* = 22 inches
* The assumed effective depth accounts for the clear distance, stirrups,
and half of the diameter of the reinforcing steel.
Determine required k (M
u
= M
n
= bd
2
k , and assume = 0.90)
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2
= 240(12/)/0.9(10)(22.42)
2
= 0.6366

3. Determine the required steel ratio corresponding with the required
coefficient of resistance k using Table A-8.
From Table A-8, for k = 0.6398, = 0.0125.

t
is not tabulated,
t
> 0.005; this is a tension-controlled section, and = 0.90.


2.46
4. Compute the required steel area A
s
and check (A
s
)
min
.
Required A
s
= b d = 0.0125(10)(22.42) = 2.80 in
2

Check (A
s
)
min
(ref. Table A-5).
(A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 b
w
d = 0.0033(10)(22) = 0.73 in
2


5. Select the reinforcing bars using Tables A-2 and A-3.
Theoretically, any combination of bars providing at least 2.80 in
2
of steel
area will satisfy the design requirements.
No fewer than two bars should be used.
Consider a bar pattern that will allow symmetry after bars are cutoff.
The bars should be the same diameter.
The bars should be placed in one layer whenever possible.

Using Tables A-2 and A-3, possible selections include:
2 -
#
11 A
s
= 3.12 in
2
Minimum required beam width = 8.0 OK
3 -
#
10 A
s
= 3.81 in
2
Minimum required beam width = 10.5 NG
3 -
#
9 A
s
= 3.00 in
2
Minimum required beam width = 9.5 OK
4 -
#
8 A
s
= 3.16 in
2
Minimum required beam width = 11.0 NG
5 -
#
7 A
s
= 3.00 in
2
Minimum required beam width = 12.5 NG
The most acceptable combination is 3 -
#
9.
Check the actual effective depth, d.
d = 25 1.5 (cover) 0.375 (No. 3 stirrups) 1.128/2 (half of the diameter
of the No. 9 bar) = 22.56 > 22.42 OK
This is slightly in excess of the estimated depth d and is conservative (on
the safe side).

6. Sketch the design.
The final design sketch is shown at the right.
The final design sketch should show the following.
Beam width
Total beam depth
Main reinforcement size and number
of bars
Cover on reinforcement
Stirrup size

2.47
A second type of design problem may be categorized as free design.
There are three unknowns: beam width, beam depth, and steel area.
There are a number of solutions.

Note the following guidelines regarding the three unknowns.
Whenever possible, flexural elements should be proportioned so that they are
tension-controlled (i.e.
t
> 0.005).
If
t
> 0.005, then the strength reduction factor = 0.90.
The reinforcement ratio corresponding to
t
= 0.005 may be determined from
Tables A-7 through A-11.
The steel area must not be less than (A
s
)
min
(from Table A-5).
Table A-5 also has recommended maximum values for and k to use for design
purposes.
The assumption of a design value for the reinforcement ratio reduces the
number of unknowns from three to two (b and d).
Based on experience and judgment, rectangular beams commonly have d/b ratios
between 1 and 3.
- Desirable d/b ratios range from 1.5 to 2.2.

2.48
Example Rectangular Beam Design for Moment

Example 2-6 (p. 57 of the textbook)

Given: The rectangular reinforced concrete
beam section shown.
w
DL
= 1.35 kips/ft
w
LL
= 1.90 kips/ft
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: Design the beam.

Solution

1. Determine the factored design moment M
u
(temporarily neglecting the weight
of the beam).
w
u
= 1.2 w
DL
+ 1.6 w
LL
= 1.2 (1.35) + 1.6(1.90) = 1.62 + 3.04 = 4.66 kips/ft
M
u
= w
u
L
2
/8 = 4.66(18)
2
/8 = 188.7 kip-ft

2. Select a steel ratio .
Use the recommended value (ref. Table A-5): = 0.0120

3. From Table A-5, find the k value corresponding to the selected steel ratio .
Based on = 0.0120, select k = 0.6438.

4. Establish a value for b and compute the required effective depth d.
By architectural requirements.
By assuming a value for b and solving for d.
For example, let b = 11.
Using the relationship M
u
= M
n
= b d
2
k , find the effective depth.
d = (M
u
/ b k )
1/2
= [188.7(12/)/0.9(11)(0.6438)]
1/2
= 18.85
d/b = 18.85/11 = 1.71 OK
By establishing a desired ratio d/b and then solving for d and b.
For example, let d/b = 2 (i.e. d = 2b)

2.49
Using the relationship M
u
= M
n
= b d
2
k , solve for b.
M
u
= 0.9 b (2b)
2
k
188.7 (12/) = 0.9 b (2b)
2
(0.6438)
2264.4 = 2.32 b
3

b
3
= 2264.4/2.32 = 976.03
b = 9.92 (Use b = 10)

Use the value determined for b to find d.
M
u
= b d
2
k
188.7 (12/) = 0.9(10) d
2
(0.6438)
2264.4 = 5.79 d
2

d = (2264.4/5.79)
1/2
= 19.78
d/b = 19.78/10 = 1.98 OK

5. Estimate h (assuming 1.5 cover,
#
3 stirrups,
#
11 reinforcing bars) and compute
the dead load due to the beam weight.
Using b = 11 and d = 18.85,
h = 18.85 + 1.5 + 0.375 + 1.41/2 = 21.43 (Use 22)

6. Revise the factored design M
u
to include the additional moment due to the beam
weight.
Compute the dead load due to the weight of the beam.
w
DL
= (11/12)(22/12) 150 lb/ft
3

= 252.1 lb/ft (0.252 kips/ft)
The additional factored dead load: w
u
= 1.2 (0.252) = 0.30 kips/ft
The additional factored moment: M
u
= (0.30)(18)
2
/8 = 12.2 kip-ft
Total factored moment M
u
= 188.7 + 12.2 = 200.9 kip-ft

7. Calculate the required coefficient of resistance k , using b and d previously
determined along with the new factored design M
u
.
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2
= 200.9(12/)/0.9(11)(18.85)
2
= 0.6853
The corresponding = 0.0129 (ref. Table A-10)

8. Determine the required A
s
and check (A
s
)
min
using Table A-5.
A
s
= 0.0129 (11)(18.85) = 2.67 in
2

(A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 b
w
d = 0.0033(11)(18.85) = 0.68 in
2
< 2.67 in
2
OK


2.50
9. Select the steel reinforcing (ref. Tables A-2 and A-3).
Using Table A-2 and Table A-3, possible selections include the following.
2 -
#
11 A
s
= 3.12 in
2
Minimum required beam width = 8.0 OK
3 -
#
10 A
s
= 3.81 in
2
Minimum required beam width = 10.5 OK
3 -
#
9 A
s
= 3.00 in
2
Minimum required beam width = 9.5 OK
4 -
#
8 A
s
= 3.16 in
2
Minimum required beam width = 11.0 OK
5 -
#
7 A
s
= 3.00 in
2
Minimum required beam width = 12.5 NG
Select 3 -
#
9 A
s
= 3.00 in
2


10. Determine the final beam depth h; compute the actual effective depth d and
compare with the estimated depth.
h = 18.85 + 1.5 (cover) + 0.375 (No. 3 stirrup) + 1.128/2 = 21.29
Use 22

Compute the actual effective depth d.
d = 22.0 1.5 0.375 1.128/2 = 19.56 > 18.85 OK

The final d/b ratio is
d/b = 19.56/11 = 1.78 OK

11. Sketch the final design.
The design sketch for the beam section
is shown at the right.















2.51
2-15 Summary of Procedure for Rectangular Reinforced Concrete Beam Design
for Moment (Tension Reinforcement Only)
A. Cross section (b and h) are known: Find the required A
s
.
1. Determine the factored design moment M
u
(include the beam weight).
2. Based on the given h, estimate the effective depth d and calculate the
required coefficient of resistance k .
d = h 1.5 (cover) 0.375 (
#
3 stirrup) 1.41/2 (half the diameter of
#
11 bar)
Calculate the required k assuming = 0.90, subject to a later check.
Determine required k = M
u
/ b d
2

3. Determine the required steel ratio corresponding with the required
coefficient of resistance k (calculated above) using Tables A-7 through
A-11, as appropriate; ensure that
t
0.005 and = 0.90.
If
t
is within the range 0.004
t
0.005, then will have to be reduced.
= 0.65 + (
t
0.002)(250/3)
4. Compute the required steel area A
s
and check (A
s
)
min
.
Required A
s
= b d
Check (A
s
)
min
using Table A-5.
5. Select the reinforcing bars using Tables A-2 and A-3.
One layer is preferred.
Check the actual effective depth and compare with the estimated effective
depth (from Step 2).
If the actual effective depth is slightly greater than the estimated
depth, the design is slightly conservative (on the safe side).
If the actual depth is less than the estimated effective depth, the
design is not conservative and should be revised.
6. Sketch the design.

B. Design for cross section and required A
s
.
1. Determine the factored design moment M
u
(temporarily neglecting the
weight of the beam).
2. Select a steel ratio (use Table A-5 for recommended values).
3. From Table A-5 (or Tables A-7 through A-11), find the k value
corresponding to the selected steel ratio .
4. Establish a value for b and compute the required effective depth d.

2.52
Required d = (M
u
/ b k )
1/2

Check the d/b ratio.
If the d/b ratio is reasonable (1.5 to 2.2), use these values for the beam.
If the d/b ratio is not reasonable, increase or decrease b and compute
the new required d.
5. Estimate h (assuming 1.5 cover,
#
3 stirrups,
#
11 reinforcing bars) and
compute the dead load due to the beam weight.
6. Revise the factored design M
u
to include the additional moment due to the
beam weight.
7. Calculate the required coefficient of resistance k , using b and d previously
determined along with the new factored design M
u
.
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2

Find the steel ratio corresponding with the required k .
8. Determine the required A
s
and check (A
s
)
min
.
Required A
s
= bd
Check (A
s
)
min
using Table A-5.
9. Select the steel reinforcing (ref. Table A-2 and A-3).
Check to ensure that the bars fit into a beam width b in one layer
(preferable).
10. Determine the final beam depth h (round up to the nearest inch); compute
the actual effective depth d and compare with the estimated depth.
If the actual effective depth d is greater than the design effective
depth (from Step 4), then the design is slightly conservative (on the safe
side).
Check the final d/b ratio (1.5 < d/b < 2.2).
11. Sketch the final design.

A flow diagram of this procedure is presented in Appendix B (pp. 504 505 of the
textbook).

2.53
Example Rectangular Beam Design for Moment

Problem 2-27 (p. 70 of the textbook)

Given: The rectangular reinforced concrete
beam section shown.
w
LL
= 0.8 kips/ft
Concentrated loads at mid-span:
P
DL
= 10 kips
P
LL
= 14 kips
f
c
= 5000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: Design the beam.

Solution

1. Determine the factored design moment M
u
(temporarily neglecting the weight
of the beam).
w
u
= 1.2 w
DL
+ 1.6 w
LL
= 1.2 (0) + 1.6(0.8) = 0 + 1.28 = 1.28 kips/ft
P
u
= 1.2 P
DL
+ 1.6 P
LL
= 1.2 (10) + 1.6(14) = 12.0 + 22.4 = 34.4 kips
M
u
= w
u
L
2
/8 + P
u
L/4 = 1.28(28)
2
/8 + 34.4(28)/4
= 125.44 + 240.8 = 366.24 kip-ft

2. Select a steel ratio .
Use the recommended value (ref. Table A-5): = 0.0150

3. From Table A-5, find the k value corresponding to the selected steel ratio .
Based on = 0.0150, select k = 0.8047.

4. Establish a value for b and compute the required effective depth d.
Find b by letting d/b = 2 (i.e. d = 2b).
M
n
= M
u
= b d
2
k
M
u
= 0.9 b (2b)
2
k
366.24 (12/) = 0.9 b (2b)
2
(0.8047)
4,394.9 = 2.90 b
3

b
3
= 4,394.9/2.90 = 1515.5
b = 11.5 (Use b = 12)

2.54
Using b = 12, calculate d.
M
u
= b d
2
k
366.24 (12/) = 0.9(12) d
2
(0.8047)
4394.9 = 8.69 d
2

d = (4394.9/8.69)
1/2
= 22.49
Check d/b: d/b = 22.49/12 = 1.87 OK

5. Estimate h (assuming 1.5 cover,
#
3 stirrups,
#
11 reinforcing bars) and compute
the dead load due to the beam weight.
h = 22.49 + 1.5 + 0.375 + 1.41/2 = 25.07 (Use 26)

6. Revise the factored design M
u
to include the additional moment due to the beam
weight.
Compute the dead load due to the weight of the beam.
w
DL
= (12/12)(26/12)150 lb/ft
3

= 325.0 lb/ft (0.325 kips/ft)
The additional factored dead load: w
u
= 1.2 (0.325) = 0.390 kips/ft
The additional factored moment: M
u
= (0.390)(28)
2
/8 = 38.22 kip-ft
Total factored moment M
u
= 366.24 + 38.22 = 404.46 kip-ft

7. Calculate the required coefficient of resistance k , using b and d previously
determined along with the new factored design M
u
.
Required k = M
u
/bd
2
= 404.46(12)/0.9(12)(22.49)
2
= 0.8885
The corresponding = 0.0168 (ref. Table A-11)

8. Determine the required A
s
and check (A
s
)
min
using Table A-5.
A
s
= 0.0168 (12)(22.49) = 4.53 in
2

(A
s
)
min
= 0.0035 b
w
d = 0.0035(12)(22.49) = 0.94 in
2
< 4.53 in
2
OK

9. Select the steel reinforcing (ref. Tables A-2 and A-3).
Using Table A-2 and Table A-3, possible selections include:
3 -
#
11 A
s
= 4.68 in
2
Minimum required beam width = 11.0 OK
4 -
#
10 A
s
= 5.08 in
2
Minimum required beam width = 13.0 NG
5 -
#
9 A
s
= 5.00 in
2
Minimum required beam width = 14.0 NG
Select 3 -
#
11 A
s
= 4.68 in
2



2.55
10. Determine the final beam depth h; compute the actual effective depth d and
compare with the estimated depth.
h = 22.49 + 1.5 (cover) + 0.375 (No. 3 stirrup) + 1.41/2 = 25.07
Use 26

Compute the actual effective depth d.
d = 26 1.5 0.375 1.41/2 = 23.42 > 22.49 OK

The final d/b ratio is
d/b = 23.42/12 = 1.95 OK

11. Sketch the design.
The design sketch for the beam section is shown below.


2.56
2-16 Design of One-Way Slabs for Moment (Tension Reinforcement Only)
The sizes of reinforced concrete members have decreased as higher strength
steel and concrete have become available for use in such members.
Deflections of members are affected very little by material strength.
Deflections are affected greatly by the size of the cross section and its
related moment of inertia.
Deflections are greater for a member of high-strength materials than are the
deflections for the same member fabricated from lower strength materials.
- The member with high-strength materials has a smaller cross sectional area.

To limit adverse deflections, the ACI Code specifies minimum slab thicknesses.
A slab that meets the minimum thickness requirement must still be designed for
flexure.
Deflections for slabs meeting the ACI Code minimum thickness do not need to
be calculated or checked unless the slab supports or is attached to construction
likely to be damaged by large deflections.

The ACI Code (Section 8.9) specifies the span length that is to be used in the
analysis and design of flexural members.
The design span length recommended by the ACI Code (Section 8.9.1) for beams
and slabs not integral with supports is
Span length = clear span + depth of member
but the span length is not to exceed the distance between the centers of
supports.
In the analysis of frames or continuous construction for the determination of
moments, span length shall be taken as the distance center-to-center of
supports (ACI, Section 8.9.2).
For beams built integrally with supports, design on the basis of moments at
faces of support shall be permitted (ACI, Section 8.9.3).

2.57
Example Design of One-Way Slabs

Example 2-7 (p. 62 of the textbook)

Given: Simple-span one-way slab
LL = 400 psf
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: Design the slab.

Solution

1. Determine the required minimum h and use this to estimate the slab dead
weight.
From ACI Table 9.5(a), for a simply-supported, one-way slab:
Minimum h = /20 = 10(12/)/20 = 6
Try h = 6 and design a 12 wide segment.

2. Determine the dead load due to the weight of the slab.
Slab weight = (6/12)(12/12)150 lb/ft
3
= 75 lb/ft (0.075 kip/ft)
The total design load is
w
u
= 1.2 w
DL
+ 1.6 w
LL

= 1.2 (0.075) + 1.6 (0.400) = 0.09 + 0.64 = 0.73 kip/ft

3. Determine the design moment.
M
u
= w
u
L
2
/8 = 0.730(10)
2
/8 = 9.125 kip-ft

4. Establish the approximate depth d.
Assume
#
6 bars and minimum concrete cover on the bars of inch.
d = 6 0.75 0.75/2 = 4.875

5. Determine the required k assuming = 0.90.
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2
= 9.125 (12/)/0.9(12)(4.875)
2
= 0.4266

6. From Table A-10, for a required k = 0.4306, = 0.0077

t
is not tabulated,
t
> 0.005; this is a tension-controlled section, and = 0.90.


2.58
7. Determine the required steel area.
A
s
= b d = 0.0077(12)(4.875) = 0.45 in
2
(for each 12 of slab)

8. Select the main steel (from Table A-4).
Maximum spacing (ACI Code, Section 7.6.5) = 3h or 18
3h = 3(6) = 18 (Use 18 maximum spacing)
Minimum spacing in slabs: 4 (practical)
Using Table A-4, possible selections include the following.
#
3 @ 2 A
s
= 0.53 in
2

#
4 @ 5 A
s
= 0.48 in
2
#
5 @ 8 A
s
= 0.46 in
2
#
6 @ 11 A
s
= 0.48 in
2
Select
#
5 @ 8 A
s
= 0.46 in
2
(Allows bar cut-offs)
The assumption on bar size was satisfactory (the actual d > assumed d since the
selected bar size is smaller than assumed.)

9. Select shrinkage and temperature reinforcement (ACI Code, Section 7.12).
Maximum spacing (ACI Code, Section 7.12.2.2) = 5h or 18
5h = 5(6) = 30 > 18 (Use 18 maximum spacing)
Required A
s
= 0.0018bh
= 0.0018(12)(6) = 0.13 in
2
(for each 12 of slab)
Using Table A-4, possible selections include the following.
#
3 @ 10 A
s
= 0.13 in
2

#
4 @ 18 A
s
= 0.13 in
2
Select
#
3 @ 10 A
s
= 0.13 in
2


10. The main steel must exceed the area required for shrinkage and temperature
steel (ACI Code, Section 10.5.4).
The steel area is 0.46 in
2
> 0.13 in
2


11. Sketch the final design.
A final design sketch is shown below.






2.59
2-17 Summary of Procedure for Design of One-Way Slabs for Moment (to
Satisfy ACI Minimum h)
1. Compute the minimum h based on the ACI Code, Table 9.5(a).
The slab thickness can be rounded up:
To the next higher inch for slabs up to 6 inches thick, and
To the next higher inch for slabs thicker than 6 inches.

2. Compute the slab weight and compute w
u
(total design load).

3. Compute the design moment M
u
.

4. Estimate an effective depth d (assuming
#
6 bars and inch cover).
d = h 0.75 0.75/2 = h 1.12

5. Calculate the required k assuming = 0.90.
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2


6. From Tables A-7 through A-11, find the required steel ratio .
Check
t
to verify the assumption.
- If
t
< 0.005, the slab must be made thicker.

7. Compute the required steel area A
s
.
Required A
s
= bd

8. Select the main steel (from Table A-4).
Check the maximum spacing of 3h or 18.
Check the assumption of Step 4 (i.e. the use of
#
6 bars).

9. Select shrinkage and temperature steel (per ACI Code).
Required A
s
= 0.0020bh (Grade 40 and 50 steel)
Required A
s
= 0.0018bh (Grade 60 steel)

10. The main steel area cannot be less than the area of steel required for
shrinkage and temperature.

11. Sketch the design.


2.60
Example Design of One-Way Slabs

Problem 2-30 (p. 71 of the textbook)

Given: Simple-span one-way slab
LL = 300 psf
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: Design the slab.

Solution

1. Determine the required minimum h and use this to estimate the slab dead
weight.
From ACI Table 9.5(a), for a simply-supported, solid, one-way slab:
Minimum h = /20 = 8(12/)/20 = 4.8
Try h = 5 and design a 12 wide segment.

2. Determine the dead load due to the weight of the slab.
Slab weight = (5/12)(12/12)150 lb/ft
3
= 62.5 lb/ft (0.0625 kip/ft)
The total design load is
w
u
= 1.2 w
DL
+ 1.6 w
LL

= 1.2 (0.0625) + 1.6 (0.300) = 0.075 + 0.480 = 0.555 kip/ft

3. Determine the design moment.
M
u
= w
u
L
2
/8 = 0.555(8)
2
/8 = 4.44 kip-ft

4. Establish the approximate depth d.
Assume
#
6 bars and minimum concrete cover on the bars of inch.
d = 5 0.75 0.75/2 = 3.875

5. Determine the required k assuming = 0.90.
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2
= 4.44(12/)/0.9(12)(3.875)
2
= 0.3285

6. From Table A-8, for a required k = 0.3294, = 0.0059

t
is not tabulated,
t
> 0.005; this is a tension-controlled section, and = 0.90.


2.61
7. Determine the required steel area.
A
s
= b d = 0.0059(12)(3.875) = 0.27 in
2
(for each 12 of slab)

8. Select the main steel (from Table A-4).
Maximum spacing (ACI Code, Section 7.6.5) = 3h or 18
3h = 3(5) = 15 < 18 (Use 15 maximum spacing)
Minimum spacing in slabs: 4 (practical)
Using Table A-4, possible selections include the following.
#
3 @ 4 A
s
= 0.29 in
2

#
4 @ 9 A
s
= 0.27 in
2
#
5 @ 14 A
s
= 0.27 in
2
#
6 @ 18 A
s
= 0.29 in
2
Select
#
5 @ 14 A
s
= 0.27 in
2

or Select
#
4 @ 7 A
s
= 0.32 in
2
(Allows bar cut-offs)
The assumption on bar size was satisfactory (the actual d > assumed d since the
selected bar size is smaller than assumed.)

9. Select shrinkage and temperature reinforcement (ACI Code, Section 7.12).
Maximum spacing (ACI Code, Section 7.12.2.2) = 5h or 18
5h = 5(5) = 25 > 18 (Use 18 maximum spacing)
Required A
s
= 0.0018bh
= 0.0018(12)(5) = 0.11 in
2
(for each 12 of slab)
Using Table A-4, possible selections include the following.
#
3 @ 12 A
s
= 0.11 in
2

#
4 @ 18 A
s
= 0.13 in
2
Select
#
3 @ 12 A
s
= 0.11 in
2


10. The main steel must exceed the area required for shrinkage and temperature
steel (ACI Code, Section 10.5.4).
The steel area is 0.27 in
2
> 0.11 in
2


11. Sketch the final design.
A final design sketch is
shown at the right.



2.62
2-18 Slabs on Ground
Another category of slabs may be termed a slab on grade or a slab on ground.
Slabs on grade are generally used for floors.
The slab is supported throughout its entire area by some form of subgrade.

A theoretical approach to determine the required floor slab thickness must
consider the following factors.
The strength of the subgrade and the subbase.
The strength of the concrete.
The magnitude and type of loads (including the contact area of loads).

The subgrade is the natural ground or, graded and compacted, on which the floor is
built.
The pressure on the subgrade is generally low due to the rigidity of the
concrete floor slab.
The support from the subgrade must be reasonably uniform without abrupt
changes (from hard to soft).
The upper portion of the subgrade should be of uniform material and density.

The subbase is usually a thin layer of material placed on top of the prepared
subgrade.
A subbase is used when a uniform subgrade cannot be developed by grading and
compaction.
The subbase serves to equalize minor surface defects.
The subbase provides a capillary break to prevent moisture from getting
directly under the slab.
The subbase provides a working platform for construction activities.
A subbase of 4-inch minimum thickness, compacted to a high density, is
suggested.

The concrete strength for industrial and commercial slabs on ground should not be
less than 4000 psi at 28 days.
This strength furnishes wear resistance as well as strength.
In residential construction, the slabs on ground have concrete strengths of
2500 psi or 3000 psi.
- A minimum of 3000 psi is recommended.

2.63
The required slab thickness depends on the type of loading, magnitude of
loading, and the contact area of the load.

Reinforcing steel, in the form of welded wire reinforcement or deformed bars in
both directions, is usually placed in the slab.
The reinforcement may add strength to the slab, particularly when the slab
spans soft spots in the subgrade.
The reinforcement serves as crack control by minimizing the width of the
cracks that may develop between joints.
Reinforcement allows an increased joint spacing.

Questions are raised as to whether reinforcement is always necessary, particularly
with uniform support and short joint spacing.
The steel does not prevent cracking.
The steel does not add significantly to the load carrying capacity of the slab.
It is often more economical to obtain increased strength in concrete slabs on
ground by increasing the thickness of the slab.

Design aids and procedures have been developed for the design of slabs on ground
and are available in specialized publications.
Most design aids are based on research done for highway and airport
pavements.

3.1
Chapter 3: Reinforced Concrete Beams: T-Beams
and Doubly Reinforced Beams

3.1 T-Beams: Introduction
Many types of systems have been developed to allow spans greater than that
provided by flat slabs.
One such system (called a beam and girder system) is composed of a slab on
supporting reinforced concrete beams and girders.
The beam and girder framework is then supported by columns.
The slab is poured monolithically with the beams and girders (ref. Figure 3-1,
p. 73 of the textbook).

In the analysis and design of such floor and roof systems, it is common practice to
assume that the monolithically placed slab and supporting beam interact as a unit in
resisting positive bending moment.
The slab becomes the compression flange.
The supporting beam becomes the web or stem.
The interacting flange and stem produce the cross section having the typical T-
shape from which the T-beam gets its name.
The slab (comprising the T-beam flange) must be designed to span across the
supporting beams.
The slab behaves as a bending member acting in two directions.
If the T-beam section is subjected to a negative bending moment, the slab at
the top of the stem is in tension while the bottom of the stem is in compression
- This situation occurs at interior supports of continuous beams.

The ACI Code simplifies the analysis and design of a T-beam.
The ACI Code establishes criteria
whereby the flange has a limited
width that is considered effective
in resisting the applied moment.
- The effective width for
symmetrical shapes is always
equal to or less than the beam
spacing (ref. Figure 3-3, p. 74
of the textbook).


3.2
3.2 T-Beam Analysis
For purposes of analysis and design, the ACI Code (Section 8.12) has established
limits on the effective flange width.
1. The effective flange width must not exceed
One-fourth of the span length of the beam, or
b
w
+ 16h
f
, or
Center-to-center spacing of the beams.
The smallest of the three values controls.
2. For beams having a flange on one side only, the effective overhanging flange
width must not exceed
One-twelfth of the span length of the beam, or
6h
f
, or
One-half of the clear distance to the next beam.
The smallest of the three values controls.
3. For isolated beams in which the T-shape provides additional compression area
The flange thickness must not be less than one-half of the width of the
beam.
The total flange width must not be more than four times the web width.

The ductility requirements for T-beams are similar to those for rectangular
beams.
The ACI Code (Section 10.3.5) requires a net tensile strain
t
0.004 for
flexural members.
A section is tension-controlled when the net tensile strain
t
0.005.
- It is always desirable and more efficient in the design of flexural members
to strive for a tension-controlled section.
The T-shape can be a factor in the determination of net tensile strain for a T-
beam.

The procedure for determining the minimum steel for a T-beam is the same as for
a rectangular beam when the T-beam flange (slab) is in compression (positive
bending moment).
When tensile reinforcement is required by analysis, the steel area (A
s
) shall not
be less than that given by the following equation (ACI, Section 10.5.1).
(A
s
)
min
= (3f
c
/f
y
) b
w
d (200/f
y
) b
w
d

3.3
where
b
w
= the width of the web
This minimum steel requirement also applies to continuous T-beams.

For negative moment (i.e. the flange, or slab, is in tension) in statically determinate
members, the steel area (A
s
) shall not be less than that given by the following
equation (ACI, Section 10.5.2).
(A
s
)
min
= (6f
c
/f
y
) b
w
d or (3f
c
/f
y
) b d (200/f
y
) b
w
d
where
b
w
= the width of the web
b = the effective flange width
The minimum steel requirements need not be applied if, at every section along the
member, at least 33% more steel is provided above that required by analysis.

Because of the relatively large compression area available in the flange of the T-
beam, consider the following.
The moment strength is usually limited by the yielding of the tensile steel.
It is usual to assume that the tensile steel will yield before the concrete
reaches its ultimate strain and crushes.
The total tensile force, N
T
, at the ultimate condition is as follows.
N
T
= A
s
f
y


To proceed with the analysis, the shape of the compressive stress block must be
determined.
The total compressive force N
C
must be equal to the total tensile force N
T
.
The shape of the block must be compatible with the area in compression.
Two conditions may exist:
- The stress block includes only a portion of the flange (aka rectangular T-
beam).
- The stress block includes the entire flange and extends into the web (aka
true T-beam).
The rectangular T-beam (with effective flange width b) is analyzed in the same
way as a rectangular beam of width b.
The analysis of a true T-beam must consider the T-shaped compression stress
block.

3.4
Example T-Beam Analysis

Example 3-1 (p. 76 of the textbook)

Given: The T-beam section shown.
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
A
s
= 3.0 in
2
(3 -
#
9)

Find: The practical moment strength M
n
.

Solution

1. Determine the effective flange width.
One-fourth of the span length: N/A since span is not given.
b
w
+ 16h
f
: 10 + 16(2) = 42
Center-to-center beam spacing: 32
Use b = 32.

2. Check (A
s
)
min
(ref. Table A-5).
(A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 b
w
d = 0.0033(10)(12) = 0.40 in
2
< 3.0 in
2
OK

3. Assume that the steel yields and find N
T
.
N
T
= A
s
f
y
= 3.0 (60,000) = 180,000 lb

4. Determine the total compressive force that would be produced if the flange
alone is fully stressed to 0.85 f
c
.
N
C
= 0.85 f
c
h
f
b = 0.85(3000)(2.0)(32.0) = 163,200 lb

5. Because 180,000 lb > 163,200 lb; the compression stress block must extend
below the flange to produce the remaining compression force.
Remaining compression force = 180,000 163,200 = 16,800 lb
The analysis is one for a true T-beam.

6. Determine the depth of the compression stress block.
The remaining compression (i.e. N
Cw
= N
T
N
Cf
) is developed within the web
area.

3.5
N
Cw
= (N
T
N
Cf
) = 0.85 f
c
b
w
(a - h
f
)
16,800 = 0.85(3000)(10)(a 2)
16,800 = 25,500 a 51,000
25,500 a = 67,800
a = 67,800/25,500 = 2.66 (measured from the top of the beam)

7. Check ductility (i.e. determine the net tensile strain
t
).
Find c using the relationship a =
1
c (which is approximate for T-beams).
c = a/
1
= 2.66/0.85 = 3.13
The distance d
t
of the extreme tensile reinforcement from the compression
face is 12 inches.
Therefore, the net tensile strain in the extreme tensile reinforcement is
0.003/c =
t
/(d
t
c)

t
= (0.003/c)(d
t
c) = (0.003/3.13)(12 3.13) = 0.0085 > 0.005

8. Determine the strength reduction factor .
Because 0.0085 > 0.005, this is a tension-controlled section and = 0.90.

9. The internal couple is composed of two component couples, a flange couple
(N
Cf
Z
f
) and a web couple (N
Cw
Z
w
).
M
n
= flange couple + web couple = N
Cf
Z
f
+ N
Cw
Z
w

= N
Cf
Z
f
+ N
Cw
Z
w

= N
Cf
(d h
f
/2) + N
Cw
[d h
f
(a h
f
)/2]






M
n
= 163,200 (12 2/2) + 16,800 [12 2 (2.66 2)/2]
= 163,200 (11) + 16,800 (9.67) = 1,795,200 + 162,456
M
n
= 1,957,656 lb-inch (163.1 kip-ft)

The practical moment strength is
M
n
= 0.90 (163.1) = 146.8 kip-ft

3.6
Example Analysis of T-Beams

Problem 3-1 (p. 112 of the textbook)

Given: T-beam with the following properties.
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
A
s
= 3.16 in
2
(4 -
#
8)

Find: The practical moment M
n
.

Solution

1. Determine the effective flange width.
Use b = 36 (given).

2. Check (A
s
)
min
(ref. Table A-5).
(A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 b
w
d = 0.0033(12)(22) = 0.87 in
2
< 3.16 in
2
OK

3. Assume that the steel yields and find N
T
.
N
T
= A
s
f
y
= 3.16 (60,000) = 189,600 lb

4. Determine the total compressive force that would be produced if the flange
alone is fully stressed to 0.85 f
c
.
N
C
= 0.85 f
c
h
f
b = 0.85(4000)(4.0)(36.0) = 489,600 lb

5. Because 489,600 lb > 189,600 lb, the stress block does not extend below the
flange.
The analysis is one for a rectangular T-beam.

6. The depth of the compression stress block in the flange is
N
T
= N
C
= 0.85 f
c
b a
189,600 = 0.85(4000)(36) a
189,600 = 122,400 a
a = 189,600/122,400 = 1.55

7. Check ductility (i.e. determine the net tensile strain
t
).
Find c using the relationship a =
1
c (which is approximate for T-beams).

3.7
c = a/
1
= 1.55/0.85 = 1.82
The distance d
t
of the extreme tensile reinforcement from the compression
face is 22 inches.
Therefore, the net tensile strain in the extreme tensile reinforcement is
0.003/c =
t
/(d
t
c)

t
= (0.003/c)(d
t
c) = (0.003/1.82)(22 1.82) = 0.0333 > 0.005

8. Determine the strength reduction factor .
Because 0.0333 > 0.005, this is a tension-controlled section and = 0.90.

9. The internal couple is composed of one component couple, a flange couple
(N
Cf
Z
f
) only.
M
n
= flange couple = N
Cf
Z
f

= N
Cf
Z
f
= N
Cf
(d a/2)
= 189,600 (22 1.55/2) = 189,600 (21.23) = 4,024,260
M
n
= 4,024,260 lb-inch (335.4 kip-ft)

The practical moment strength is
M
n
= 0.90 (335.4) = 301.8 kip-ft

Alternatively,
= A
s
/b d = 3.16/(36)(22) = 0.0040
From Table A-10, k = 0.2315
M
n
= b d
2
k = 0.9(36)(22)
2
(0.2315) = 3,630.3 kip-inch (302.5 kip-ft)


3.8
3-3 Analysis of Beams Having Irregular Cross Sections
Beams having other than rectangular and T-shaped cross sections are common,
particularly in structures using precast elements.
The analysis is performed using the internal couple procedure.
This approach can take into account any variation in the shape of the
compressive stress block.
The method is similar to that used for true T-beam analysis.


3.9
Example Beams with Irregular Shapes

Example 3-3 (p. 81 of the textbook)

Given: The beam cross section shown
(inverted T-girder) with the
following properties.
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
A
s
= 4.00 in
2
(4 -
#
9 bars)

Find: The practical moment M
n
.

Solution

1. Determine the effective flange width.
Use b = 7 (given).

2. Check (A
s
)
min
. From Table A-5.
(A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 b
w
d = 0.0033(17)(24) = 1.35 in
2
< 4.00 in
2


3. Assume that the steel yields and find N
T
.
N
T
= A
s
f
y
= 4.00 (60,000) = 240,000 lb

4. Determine the total compressive force that would be produced if the flange
alone is fully stressed to 0.85 f
c
.
N
C
= 0.85 f
c
h
f
b = 0.85(3000)(4.0)(7.0) = 71,400 lb

5. Because 240,000 lb > 71,400 lb, the stress block must extend below the flange
to produce the remaining compression force.
240,000 71,400 = 168,600 lb

6. Determine the depth of the compression stress block.
The remaining compression (i.e. N
Cw
= N
T
N
Cf
) is developed within the web
area.
N
Cw
= (N
T
N
Cf
) = 0.85 f
c
b
w
(a - h
f
)
240,000 71,400 = 0.85(3000)(17)(a 4)
168,600 = 43,350 (a 4) = 43,350 a 173,400

3.10
43,350 a = 342,000
a = 342,000/43,350 = 7.89 (measured from the top of the beam)

7. Check ductility (i.e. determine the net tensile strain
t
).
Find c using the relationship a =
1
c (which is approximate for T-beams).
c = a/
1
= 7.89/0.85 = 9.28
The distance d
t
of the extreme tensile reinforcement from the compression
face is 24 inches.
Therefore, the net tensile strain in the extreme tensile reinforcement is
0.003/c =
t
/(d
t
c)

t
= (0.003/c)(d
t
c) = (0.003/9.28)(24 9.28) = 0.00476

8. Determine the strength reduction factor .
Because this is a transition section (0.004 < 0.00476 < 0.005), the
corresponding strength reduction factor is
= 0.65 + (
t
0.002)(250/3)
= 0.65 + (0.00476 0.002)(250/3) = 0.880

9. The internal couple is composed of two component couples, a flange couple
(N
Cf
Z
f
) and a web couple (N
Cw
Z
w
).
M
n
= flange couple + web couple = N
Cf
Z
f
+ N
Cw
Z
w

= N
Cf
Z
f
+ N
Cw
Z
w

= N
Cf
(d h
f
/2) + N
Cw
[d h
f
(a h
f
)/2]
M
n
= 71,400 (24 4/2) + 168,600 [24 4 (7.89 4)/2]
= 71,400 (22) + 168,600 (18.06) = 1,570,800 + 3,044,916
M
n
= 4,615,716 lb-inch (384.6 kip-ft)

The practical moment strength is
M
n
= 0.880 (384.6) = 338.5 kip-ft


3.11
3-5 Summary of Procedure for Analysis of T-Beams (for Moment)
1. Establish the effective flange width based on ACI criteria.
2. Check (A
s
)
min
(using Table A-5) and compare with the given A
s
.
3. Assume that the steel yields and find the tensile force N
T
.
N
T
= A
s
f
y

4. Compute the magnitude of the compression force that the flange alone is
capable of furnishing.
N
Cf
= 0.85 f
c
b h
f

5. Compare the tensile force N
T
with the compressive force N
Cf
.
If N
Cf
> N
T
, the beam behaves as a rectangular beam of width b.
- Continue the analysis following the Rectangular T-Beam Analysis.
If N
Cf
< N
T
, the beam behaves as a true T-beam and the remaining
compression (N
T
N
Cf
) is furnished by the web area.
- Continue the analysis following the True T-Beam Analysis.

Rectangular T-Beam Analysis
6. Solve for the depth of the compression stress block.
a = A
s
f
y
/0.85 f
c
b
7. Check ductility; find
t
.
8. Find (0.65 0.90).
9. Calculate M
n
.
M
n
= A
s
f
y
(d a/2)

In lieu of Steps 6 9, calculate , obtain k , check
t
, and determine .
M
n
= b d
2
k

True T-Beam Analysis
6. Determine the depth of the compression stress block.
a = (N
T
N
Cf
)/0.85f
c
b
w
+ h
f

7. Check ductility; find
t
.
8. Find (0.65 0.90).
9. Calculate M
n
using a summation of internal couples contributed by the flange
and the web.
M
n
= {N
Cf
(d h
f
/2) + (N
T
N
Cf
)[d h
f
(a h
f
)/2]}

3.12
3-4 T-Beam Design (for Moment)
The design of the T-beam section involves a total of five unknowns.
The dimensions of the flange (b and h
f
).
The dimensions of the web (h and b
w
).
The area of steel (A
s
).

In the normal progression of a design, most of the five unknowns have been
previously determined.
The flange thickness is determined by the design of the slab.
The web size is determined by the shear and moment requirements at the end
supports of a beam in continuous construction.
Practical considerations may also dictate web width (e.g. column sizes and
forming).

The ACI Code stipulates the permissible effective flange width b.
The flange alone generally provides more than sufficient compression area.
- The stress block usually lies completely within the flange.
Most T-beams are wide rectangular beams with respect to flexural behavior.

The method for the design of T-beams will depend on whether the T-beam behaves
as a rectangular T-beam or a true T-beam.
Rectangular T-beam design: The design procedure is the same as for the tensile
reinforced rectangular beam.
True T-beam design: The design proceeds by designing a flange component and a
web component and combining the two.


3.13
Example T-Beam Design

Example 3-4 (p. 84 of the textbook)

Given: The T-beam floor system shown.
Beam span: L = 22
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
LL = 125 psf (0.125 ksf)
DL = 200 psf (0.200 ksf) not including
the weight of the floor system

Find: Design the T-beam (i.e. determine A
s
).

Solution

1. Compute the factored loads and the factored design moment M
u
.
Slab weight = 8(4/12)(150 pcf) = 400 lb/ft (0.400 kip/ft)
Stem weight = (18/12)(12/12)(150 pcf) = 225 lb/ft (0.225 kip/ft)
Total weight = 0.400 + 0.225 = 0.625 kip/ft
Service dead load = 0.200 ksf (8) = 1.60 kip/ft
Service live load = 0.125 ksf (8) = 1.00 kip/ft

Calculate the factored load and moment.
w
u
= 1.2w
DL
+ 1.6w
LL
= 1.2 (1.60 + 0.625) + 1.6 (1.00) = 4.27 kip/ft
M
u
= w
u
L
2
/8 = 4.27(22)
2
/8 = 258.3 kip-ft

2. Assume an effective depth d.
Assume d = h 1.50 (cover) 0.375 (
#
3 stirrup) 1.41/2 (half dia. of
#
11 bar)
d = 22 1.5 0.375 1.41/2 = 19.42

3. Determine the effective flange width b based on ACI criteria.
One-fourth of the span length of the beam: (22) (12/) = 66
b
w
+ 16h
f
: 12 + 16(4) = 76
Center-to-center spacing of the beams: 96
Use an effective flange width b = 66

3.14
4. Assume a tension-controlled section (i.e. the steel yields, the tensile strain

t
0.005, and the strength reduction factor = 0.90).

5. Determine whether the beam behaves as a rectangular beam or as a true
T-beam.
Compute the practical moment strength M
nf
with the full effective flange
assumed to be in compression.
- This assumes the bottom of the compression block coincides with the
bottom of the flange.
M
nf
= N
C
Z = (0.85 f
c
) b h
f
(d h
f
/2)
= 0.90 (0.85)(3000)(66)(4)(19.42 4/2)
M
nf
= 10,554,430 lb-inch (879.5 kip-ft)

6. If M
nf
> M
u
, the beam behaves as a rectangular T-beam of width b.
Continue the design following the Rectangular T-Beam Design.
If M
nf
< M
u
, the beam behaves as a true T-beam.
Continue the design following the Rectangular T-Beam Design.
Because 879.5 kip-ft > 258.3 kip-ft, the total effective flange is not used in
compression (i.e. a < h
f
) and the T-beam behaves as a wide rectangular beam.

7. Design as a rectangular beam (b is known; d is estimated).
Compute the required k value.
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2
= 258.3 (12/)/0.9(66)(19.42)
2
= 0.1384 ksi

8. From Table A-8, select the corresponding steel ratio to provide k no less than
0.1384 ksi.
Required = 0.0024

9. Compute the required steel area A
s
.
Required A
s
= b d = 0.0024(66)(19.42) = 3.08 in
2


10. Select the steel bars and check the effective depth d.
From Tables A-2 and A-3, possible selections include the following.
2 -
#
11 bars A
s
= 3.12 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 8.0 OK
3 -
#
10 bars A
s
= 3.81 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 10.5 OK
4 -
#
9 bars A
s
= 4.00 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 12.0 OK
4 -
#
8 bars A
s
= 3.16 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 11.0 OK
6 -
#
7 bars A
s
= 3.60 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 14.0 NG

3.15
Select 4 -
#
8 bars (A
s
= 3.16 in
2
)

Check the actual effective depth d (assume
#
3 stirrup and 1 inch cover).
d = 22 1.50 0.375 1.0/2 = 19.63 > 19.42 as assumed OK

11. Check minimum steel requirements (A
s
)
min
(ref. Table A-5).
(A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 b
w
d = 0.0033(12)(19.63) = 0.78 in
2
< 3.16 in
2
OK

12. Check
t
to ensure a tension-controlled section (i.e.
t
0.005).
N
C
= N
T
= 0.85 f
c
b a = A
s
f
y

a = A
s
f
y
/0.85 f
c
b = 3.16(60,000)/0.85(3000)(66) = 1.127
c = a/
1
= 1.127/0.85 = 1.325
0.003/c =
t
/(d
t
c)
0.003/1.325 =
t
/(19.63 1.325)

t
/18.30 = 0.00226

t
= 0.0414 > 0.005 OK
The net tensile strain is much larger than 0.005. This is a tension-controlled
section, and = 0.90, as assumed.

13. Sketch the design.


3.16
3-6 Summary of Procedure for Design of T-Beams (for Moment)
1. Compute the factored loads and the factored design moment M
u
.

2. Assume an effective depth d.
Assume d = h 1.50 (cover) 0.375 (
#
3 stirrup) 1.41/2 (half dia. of
#
11 bar)

3. Determine the effective flange width b based on ACI criteria.
One-fourth of the span length of the beam, or
b
w
+ 16h
f
, or
Center-to-center spacing of the beams
Use the smallest value for the effective flange width b.

4. Assume a tension-controlled section (i.e. the steel yields, the tensile strain

t
0.005, and the strength reduction factor = 0.90).

5. Determine whether the beam behaves as a rectangular beam or as a true
T-beam.
Compute the practical moment strength M
nf
with the full effective flange
assumed to be in compression.
M
nf
= N
C
Z = (0.85 f
c
) b h
f
(d h
f
/2)

6. If M
nf
> M
u
, the beam behaves as a rectangular T-beam of width b.
Continue the design following the Rectangular T-Beam Design.
If M
nf
< M
u
, the beam behaves as a true T-beam.
Continue the design following the True T-Beam Design.

Rectangular T-Beam Design
7. Design as a rectangular beam (b is known; d is estimated).
Compute the required k value.
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2


8. From the tables in Appendix A (Tables A-7 through A-11, as appropriate), select
the corresponding steel ratio to provide k no less than that computed in
Step 7.

9. Compute the required steel area A
s
.
Required A
s
= b d

3.17
10. Select the steel bars (using Tables A-2 and A-3); check the effective depth d.
Check the beam width.
Check the actual effective depth d and compare it with the assumed
effective depth d.
d = h 1.5 (cover) 0.375 (
#
3 stirrup) d
b
/2
where
d
b
= diameter of selected reinforcing bar

If the actual d is slightly larger than the assumed d, the design will be
slightly conservative (on the safe side).
If the actual d is less than the assumed d, the design may be on the non-
conservative side and should be evaluated for possible revision.

11. Check minimum steel requirements (A
s
)
min
(ref. Table A-5).

12. Check
t
to ensure a tension-controlled section (i.e.
t
0.005).
Compute a and c.
Compute
t
.
Check the assumed value of .

13. Sketch the design.


True T-Beam Design
7. Using an estimated d
f
and Z
f
= d
f
h
f
/2, determine the steel area A
sf
required
for the flange couple.
d
f
= h 1.50 (cover) 0.375 (
#
3 stirrup) 1.41/2 (half dia. of
#
11 bar)
Required A
sf
= M
nf
/ f
y
Z
f


8. Determine the required steel area A
sw
due to the additional web couple acting
on a rectangular reinforced concrete beam.
Compute the depth of the web h
w
.
h
w
= h h
f

Compute an estimated effective depth of the web d
w
.
d
w
= h
w
1.50 (cover) 0.375 (
#
3 stirrup) 1.41/2 (half dia. of
#
11 bar)


3.18
Compute the required k for the web couple.
Required k = (M
u
- M
nf
)/ b
w
d
w
2

Determine the corresponding steel ratio .
Compute the required steel area A
sw
: A
sw
= b
w
d
w


9. Determine the total required steel area.
Total required A
s
= A
sf
+ A
sw
.

10. Select the reinforcing bars (using Tables A-2 and A-3); check the effective
depth d.
Check the beam width.
Check the actual d and compare it with the assumed d.
d = h 1.5 (cover) 0.375 (
#
3 stirrup) d
b
/2
where
d
b
= diameter of selected reinforcing bar

If the actual d is slightly larger than the assumed d, the design will be
slightly conservative (on the safe side).

If the actual d is less than the assumed d, the design may be on the non-
conservative side and should be evaluated for possible revision.

11. Check minimum steel requirements (A
s
)
min
(using Table A-5).

12. Check
t
to ensure a tension-controlled section (i.e.
t
0.005).
Compute a and c.
Compute
t
.
Check the assumed value of .

13. Sketch the design.


3.19
Example Design of T-Beams (for Moment)

Problem 3-12 (p. 114 of the textbook)

Given: The T-beam floor system shown.
Beam span: L = 18
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
LL = 325 psf (0.325 ksf)
DL = 50 psf (0.050 ksf) not including
the weight of the floor system

Find: Design the T-beam (i.e. determine A
s
).

Solution

1. Compute the factored loads and the factored design moment M
u
.
Slab weight = 8(4/12)(150 pcf) = 400 lb/ft (0.400 kip/ft)
Stem weight = (22/12)(15/12)(150 pcf) = 343.8 lb/ft (0.344 kip/ft)
Total weight = 0.400 + 0.344 = 0.744 kip/ft
Service dead load = 0.050 ksf (8) = 0.40 kip/ft
Service live load = 0.325 ksf (8) = 2.60 kip/ft

Calculate the factored load and moment.
w
u
= 1.2w
DL
+ 1.6w
LL
= 1.2 (0.40 + 0.744) + 1.6 (2.60) = 5.53 kip/ft
M
u
= w
u
L
2
/8 = 5.53(18)
2
/8 = 224.0 kip-ft

2. Assume an effective depth.
Assume d = h 1.50 (cover) 0.375 (
#
3 stirrup) 1.41/2 (half dia. of
#
11 bar)
d = 26 1.5 0.375 1.41/2 = 23.42

3. Determine the effective flange width b based on ACI criteria.
One-fourth of the span length of the beam: (18) (12/) = 54
b
w
+ 16h
f
: 15 + 16(4) = 79
Center-to-center spacing of the beams: 96
Use an effective flange width b = 54

3.20
4. Assume a tension-controlled section (i.e. the steel yields, the tensile strain

t
0.005, and the strength reduction factor = 0.90).

5. Determine whether the beam behaves as a rectangular beam or as a true
T-beam.
Compute the practical moment strength M
nf
with the full effective flange
assumed to be in compression.
- This assumes the bottom of the compression block coincides with the
bottom of the flange.
M
nf
= N
C
Z = (0.85 f
c
) b h
f
(d h
f
/2)
= 0.90 (0.85)(4000)(54)(4)(23.42 4/2)
M
nf
= 14,157,763 lb-inch (1179.8 kip-ft)

6. If M
nf
> M
u
, the beam behaves as a rectangular T-beam of width b.
Continue the design following the Rectangular T-Beam Design.
If M
nf
< M
u
, the beam behaves as a true T-beam.
Continue the design following the Rectangular T-Beam Design.
Because 1179.8 kip-ft > 224.0 kip-ft, the total effective flange is not used in
compression (i.e. a < h
f
) and the T-beam behaves as a wide rectangular beam.

7. Design as a rectangular beam (b is known; d is estimated).
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2
= 224.0 (12/)/0.9(54)(23.42)
2
= 0.1008 ksi

8. From Table A-10, select the steel ratio to provide k no less than 0.1008 ksi.
Required = 0.0018

9. Calculate the required steel area A
s
.
Required A
s
= b d = 0.0018(54)(23.42) = 2.28 in
2


10. Select the steel bars.
From Tables A-2 and A-3, possible selections include the following.
2 -
#
11 bars A
s
= 3.12 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 8.0 OK
2 -
#
10 bars A
s
= 2.54 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 8.0 OK
3 -
#
9 bars A
s
= 3.00 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 9.5 OK
3 -
#
8 bars A
s
= 2.37 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 9.0 OK
4 -
#
7 bars A
s
= 2.40 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 10.5 OK
6 -
#
6 bars A
s
= 2.64 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 13.5 OK
8 -
#
5 bars A
s
= 2.48 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 16.0 NG

3.21
Select 3 -
#
8 bars A
s
= 2.37 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 9.0 OK

Check the actual effective depth d (assume No. 3 stirrup and 1 cover).
d = 26 1.50 0.375 1.0/2 = 23.63 > 23.42 as assumed OK

11. Check minimum steel requirements (A
s
)
min
(ref. Table A-5).
(A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 b
w
d = 0.0033(15)(23.63) = 1.17 in
2
< 2.37 in
2


12. Check
t
to ensure a tension-controlled section (i.e.
t
0.005).
N
C
= N
T
= 0.85 f
c
b a = A
s
f
y

a = A
s
f
y
/0.85 f
c
b = 2.37(60,000)/0.85(4000)(54) = 0.775
c = a/
1
= 0.775/0.85 = 0.912
0.003/c =
t
/(d
t
c)
0.003/0.912 =
t
/(23.63 0.912)

t
/22.718 = 0.00329

t
= 0.0747 > 0.005 OK
The net tensile strain is much larger than 0.005. This is a tension-controlled
section, and = 0.90, as assumed.

13. Sketch the design.


3.22
3-7 Doubly Reinforced Beams: Introduction
Occasionally, practical and architectural considerations may limit beam sizes.
It then becomes necessary to develop more moment strength from a given
cross section.
The ACI Code (Section 10.3.5.1) permits the addition of tension steel in excess
of the code maximum.
- However, compression steel must also be added in the compression zone of
the cross section.
- The result is a reinforced concrete rectangular beam with both tension and
compression reinforcing (commonly called a doubly reinforced beam).

When beams are continuous (i.e. spanning more than two supports), practical
considerations are sometimes the reason for main steel in compression zones.
In areas of positive moment, the main tensile reinforcement must be placed at
the bottom of the beam.
In areas of negative moment, the main tensile reinforcement must be placed
near the top of the beam.
- The bottom of the beam is in compression.
As a general practice, some tension steel in each case is extended the length of
the beam and passes through compression zones.
- As a result, the compression steel may be used for added strength.
The compression reinforcement aids in reducing long-term deflections (ref.
Chapter 7).
- The use of compression steel to increase the bending strength of a
reinforced concrete beam is an inefficient way to utilize steel.
- Deflection control will commonly be the reason for the presence of
compression steel.

3-8 Doubly Reinforced Beam Analysis for Moment (Condition I)
The basic assumptions for the analysis of doubly reinforced rectangular beams are
similar to those for tensile reinforced beams.
One additional assumption: The compression steel stress (f
s
) is a function of
the strain at the level of the centroid of the compression steel.
- The steel behaves elastically until the strain exceeds the yield strain
y
.
- f
s
= f
y
when the compression steel strain
s

y
.
- If
s
<
y
, the compression steel stress f
s
=
s
E
s
, where E
s
is the modulus of
elasticity for steel.

3.23
Two different materials (concrete and steel) resist the compression force N
C
.
The total compression force consists of two forces.
- N
C1
is the compression force resisted by the concrete.
- N
C2
is the compression force resisted by the compressive steel.
For analysis, the total resisting moment of the beam consists of two parts (for
a positive moment).
- The concrete-steel couple is developed by the compression in the concrete
and the tension in the bottom steel.
- The steel-steel couple is developed by the compression in the top steel and
the additional tension in the bottom steel.



















Doubly reinforced beam analysis

The notation for doubly reinforced beam analysis follows.
A
s
= total compression steel cross-sectional area
d = effective depth of tension steel
d = depth to the centroid of compression steel from the compression face of
beam
A
s1
= area of tension steel used by the concrete-steel couple
A
s2
= area of tension steel used by the steel-steel couple
A
s
= total tension steel cross-sectional area (A
s
= A
s1
+ A
s2
)
M
n1
= nominal moment strength of concrete-steel couple

3.24
M
n2
= nominal moment strength of the steel-steel couple
M
n
= nominal moment strength of the doubly reinforced beam (M
n
= M
n1
+ M
n2
)

s
= unit strain at the centroid of the tension steel

s
= unit strain at the centroid of the compression steel

The following expressions are based on the assumption that both tension and
compression steels yield prior to concrete strain reaching 0.003.
The total nominal moment strength is the sum of the two internal couples.
- The concrete displaced by the compression steel is neglected.
The nominal strength of the concrete-steel couple is determined by the
following expression.
M
n1
= N
T1
Z
1

Based on the assumption that f
s
= f
y
and f
s
= f
y
(i.e. the tensile and compression
steels yield), the following expression for M
n1
can be developed.
M
n1
= A
s1
f
y
(d a/2)
Since A
s
= A
s1
+ A
s2
, then A
s1
= A
s
- A
s2

Since all the steel is assumed to yield, A
s2
= A
s
.
Then A
s1
= A
s
A
s

Therefore, M
n1
= (A
s
- A
s
) f
y
(d a/2)
The nominal strength of the steel-steel couple is determined by the following
expression.
M
n2
= N
T2
Z
2

Based on the assumption that f
s
= f
y
and f
s
= f
y
(i.e. the tensile and compression
steels yield), the following expression for M
n2
can be developed.
M
n2
= A
s2
f
y
(d d)
Since all the steel is assumed to yield, N
C2
= N
T2
.
N
C2
= A
s
f
s
and N
T2
= A
s2
f
y

Then A
s
f
s
= A
s2
f
y

Since all the steel is assumed to yield, A
s
= A
s2
.
Therefore, M
n2
= A
s
f
y
(d d)

Summing the two couples, we arrive at the nominal strength of a doubly reinforced
beam.
M
n
= M
n1
+ M
n2
= (A
s
- A
s
) f
y
(d a/2) + A
s
f
y
(d d)

3.25
The practical moment strength of M
n
may then be calculated.

Recall that the foregoing expressions are based on the assumption that both
tension and compression steels yield prior to concrete strain reaching 0.003.
This may be checked by determining the strains that exist at the nominal
moment.
- Strains in the tension and compression steels depend on the location of the
neutral axis.
The neutral axis may be located, as before, by the depth of the compressive
stress block and the relationship a =
1
c.
N
T
= N
C1
+ N
C2

A
s
f
y
= (0.85 f
c
) a b + A
s
f
y

a = (A
s
A
s
) f
y
/(0.85 f
c
) b
This expression may also be expressed as follows.
a = A
s1
f
y
/(0.85 f
c
) b

With the calculation of the distance a, the neutral axis location c may be
determined and the assumptions regarding strain checked.
Check the net tensile strain
t
in the extreme tensile reinforcement and ensure
that
t
0.004 to satisfy ACI Code (Section 10.3.5).

t
= 0.003(d
t
c)/c
where
d
t
= the distance of the extreme tensile reinforcement measured from the
compression face

Doubly Reinforced Concrete Beam
Condition I: Both tensile and compressive steels yield prior to the concrete
strain reaching 0.003.
Condition II: The tensile steel yields but the compressive steel does not yield
prior to the concrete strain reaching 0.003.

The maximum area of steel in the beam permitted by the ACI Code is that area of
steel that results in a net tensile strain of 0.004.


3.26
Example Doubly Reinforced Beam Analysis (Condition I)

Example 3-3 (p. 97 of the textbook)

Given: Cross section shown.
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: The practical moment strength M
n
.

Solution

1. Assume that all the steel yields.
f
s
= f
y
and f
s
= f
y
Therefore, A
s2
= A
s

A
s
(2 -
#
10) = 2.54 in
2


2. Find the depth of the compression stress block.
A
s1
= A
s
(6 -
#
9) A
s
= 6.00 2.54 = 3.46 in
2

From the concrete-steel couple, the stress block depth is
a = A
s1
f
y
/(0.85 f
c
) b = 3.46(60)/(0.85)(3.0)(11) = 7.40

3. Locate the neutral axis.
Assuming the same relationship (a =
1
c) exists between the depth of the stress
block and the beams neutral axis as for singly reinforced beams, the neutral
axis is located in order to check the steel strains.
c = a/
1
= 7.40/0.85 = 8.71
This value of c is based on the assumption of Step 1 and will be verified in
Step 4.

4. Check the strains to determine whether the assumptions are valid and that
both steels yield before the concrete crushes.
The strains calculated exist at the nominal moment.
Compression reinforcement
0.003/c =
s
/(c d)
0.003/8.71 =
s
/(8.71 2.5)

s
= (0.003/8.71)(8.71 2.5) = 0.00214
Therefore,
s
>
y
= 0.00207 (ref. Table A-1).

3.27
- Because
s
>
y
, the compression steel will yield before the concrete
strain reaches 0.003, and f
s
= f
y
.
- The assumption concerning the compression steel stress is valid.
Extreme tensile reinforcement
0.003/c =
t
/(d
t
c)
0.003/8.71 =
t
/(21.1 8.71)

t
= (0.003/8.71)(21.1 8.71) = 0.0043 > 0.004
Therefore, the tensile steel yields, and ductility is
assured.
- Because 0.004
t
0.005, this is a transition
section, and the strength reduction factor is
calculated as follows.
= 0.65 + (
t
0.002)(250/3) = 0.65 + (0.0043 0.002)(250/3)
= 0.842

5. Compute the nominal strengths M
n1
and M
n2
and the total nominal strength M
n
.
From the concrete-steel couple:
M
n1
= (A
s
- A
s
) f
y
(d a/2) = (6.00 2.54)(60)(20 7.40/2)
= 3384 kip-inch (282 kip-ft)
From the steel-steel couple:
M
n2
= A
s
f
y
(d d) = 2.54 (60)(20 2.5)
= 2,667 kip-inch (222 kip-ft)
M
n
= M
n1
+ M
n2
= 282 + 222 = 504 kip-ft

6. Compute the practical moment strength M
n
.
The practical moment strength is
M
n
= 0.842 (504) = 424 kip-ft

In this example, a ductile failure mode is assured.
Both the compressive steel and tensile steel yield prior to the concrete
reaching a compressive strain of 0.003.
The net tensile strain
t
> 0.004.

3.28
Example Doubly Reinforced Beam (Condition I)

Problem 3-16 (p. 117 of the textbook)

Given: The beam cross section shown.
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: The practical moment strength M
n
.

Solution

1. Assume that all the steel yields.
f
s
= f
y
and f
s
= f
y
Therefore, A
s2
= A
s

A
s
(2 -
#
8) = 1.58 in
2


2. Find the depth of the compression stress block.
A
s1
= A
s
(8 -
#
9) A
s
= 8.00 1.58 = 6.42 in
2

From the concrete-steel couple, the stress block depth is
a = A
s1
f
y
/(0.85 f
c
) b = 6.42(60)/(0.85)(4.0)(14) = 8.09

3. Locate the neutral axis.
Assuming the same relationship (a =
1
c) exists between the depth of the stress
block and the beams neutral axis as for singly reinforced beams, the neutral
axis is located in order to check the steel strains.
c = a/
1
= 8.09/0.85 = 9.52
This value of c is based on the assumption of Step 1 and will be verified in
Step 4.

4. Check the strains to determine whether the assumptions are valid and that
both steels yield before the concrete crushes.
The strains calculated exist at the nominal moment.
Compression reinforcement
0.003/c =
s
/(c d)
0.003/9.52 =
s
/(9.52 2.5)

s
= (0.003/9.52)(9.52 2.5) = 0.00221
Therefore,
s
>
y
= 0.00207 (from Table A-1).

3.29
- Because
s
>
y
, the compression steel will yield before the concrete
strain reaches 0.003, and f
s
= f
y
.
- The assumption concerning the compression steel stress is valid.
Extreme tensile reinforcement
d
t
= 26 1.5 0.375 1.128/2 = 23.56
0.003/c =
t
/(d
t
c)
0.003/9.52 =
t
/(23.56 9.52)

t
= (0.003/9.52)(23.56 9.52) = 0.0044 > 0.004
Therefore, the tensile steel yields, and ductility is
assured.
- Because 0.004
t
0.005, this is a transition
section, and the strength reduction factor is
calculated as follows.
= 0.65 + (
t
0.002)(250/3) = 0.65 + (0.0044 0.002)(250/3)
= 0.850

5. Compute the nominal strengths M
n1
and M
n2
and the total nominal strength M
n
.
From the concrete-steel couple:
M
n1
= (A
s
- A
s
) f
y
(d a/2)
d = 26 1.5 0.375 1.128 0.5 = 22.50
M
n1
= (8.00 1.58)(60)(22.50 8.09/2)
= 7109 kip-inch (592 kip-ft)

From the steel-steel couple:
M
n2
= A
s
f
y
(d d) = 1.58 (60) (22.50 2.5)
= 1896 kip-inch (158 kip-ft)
M
n
= M
n1
+ M
n2
= 592 + 158 = 750 kip-ft

6. Compute the practical moment strength M
n
.
The practical moment strength is
M
n
= 0.850 (750) = 638 kip-ft

In this example, a ductile failure mode is assured.
Both the compressive steel and tensile steel yield prior to the concrete
reaching a compressive strain of 0.003.
The net tensile strain
t
> 0.004.

3.30
3-9 Doubly Reinforced Beam Analysis for Moment (Condition II)
Usually the compression steel (A
s
) will reach its yield stress before the concrete
reaches a strain of 0.003.
This may not occur in shallow beams reinforced with the higher-strength steels.
- Higher strength steels require higher strains before yielding (compare
values of strain in Table A-1).
The magnitude of
s
(and therefore f
s
) depends on the location of the neutral
axis.
- If the neutral axis is located relatively high in the cross section, it is
possible that
s
<
y
at the nominal moment.
The depth of the compressive stress block (i.e. a) also depends on c, because
a =
1
c.

The total compressive force must be equal to the total tensile force A
s
f
y
.
An equilibrium equation can be written in order to solve for the exact required
value of c.

Based on equilibrium, H
F
= 0: N
T
= N
C1
+ N
C2

A
s
f
y
= (0.85 f
c
) b a + f
s
A
s

where
a =
1
c
f
s
=
s
E
s
= [(0.003/c)(c d)] E
s

Substituting,
A
s
f
y
= (0.85 f
c
) b
1
c + [(0.003/c)(c d)] E
s
A
s

Multiplying by c,
A
s
f
y
c = (0.85 f
c
) b
1
c
2
+ [ 0.003 (c d)] E
s
A
s

A
s
f
y
c = (0.85 f
c
) b
1
c
2
+ 0.003 c E
s
A
s
- 0.003 d E
s
A
s

(0.85 f
c
) b
1
c
2
+ (0.003 E
s
A
s
- A
s
f
y
) c - 0.003 d E
s
A
s
= 0
With E
s
= 29,000 ksi, the expression becomes
(0.85 f
c
b
1
) c
2
+ (87 A
s
A
s
f
y
) c 87 d A
s
= 0

Solve for c using the quadratic equation: [- b (b
2
4 a c)
1/2
]/2a

3.31
Example Doubly Reinforced Beam Analysis (Condition II)

Example 3-7 (p. 99 of the textbook)

Given: Cross section shown.
f
c
= 5000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
A
s
= 1.58 in
2
(2 -
#
8)
A
s
= 4.68 in
2
(3 -
#
11)

Find: The practical moment strength M
n
.

Solution

1. Assume that all the steel yields.
This results in A
s2
= A
s
.

2. Determine the depth of the compression stress block.
(A
s
A
s
) f
y
= 0.85 f
c
a b
(4.68 1.58) 60.0 = 0.85(5.0) a (11)
186.0 = 46.75 a
a = 186.0/46.75 = 3.98

3. Determine the location of the neutral axis: c = a/
1

Calculate
1
since f
c
> 4000 psi.

1
= 0.85 [0.05 (f
c
4000)/1000]
= 0.85 [0.05 (5000 - 4000)/1000] = 0.80
c = 3.98/0.80 = 4.98
This value of c is based on the assumption in Step 1 and will be verified in
Step 4.

4. Check the steel strains.
Compression steel: 0.003/c =
s
/(c d)
0.003/4.98 =
s
/(4.98 2.5)

s
= (0.003/4.98)(4.98 2.5) = 0.00149 < 0.00207 (Grade 60 steel)
The compression steel has not yielded (f
s
< f
y
).


3.32
Tension steel: 0.003/c =
t
/(d
t
c)
0.003/4.98 =
t
/(20 4.98)

t
= (0.003/4.98)(20 4.98) = 0.00905 > 0.00207 (Grade 60 steel)
The tension steel has yielded.

The assumption of Step 1 is not correct. This is Condition II.

5. Find the location of the neutral axis by re-computing c using the following
formula.
(0.85 f
c
b
1
) c
2
+ (87 A
s
A
s
f
y
) c 87 d A
s
= 0
where
A
s
= 4.68 in
2
f
y
= 60.0 ksi f
c
= 5.0 ksi
b = 11
1
= 0.80 (for f
c
= 5000 psi)
A
s
= 1.58 in
2
d = 2.5
Substitution of these values yields the following equation.
(0.85)(5.0)(11)(0.80) c
2
+ [(87)(1.58) 4.68(60.0)] c 87(2.5)(1.58) = 0
37.4 c
2
143.34 c 343.65 = 0
Using the quadratic equation: [- b (b
2
4 a c)
1/2
]/2a
c = {-(-143.34) [(-143.34)
2
4 (37.4)(-343.65)]
1/2
}/2(37.4)
c = (143.34 268.25)/74.8
c = 5.50

6. With this value of c, compute the compressive steel stress.
0.003/c =
s
/(c d)
0.003/5.50 =
s
/(5.50 2.50)

s
= (0.003/5.50)(5.50 2.50) = 0.001636 <
y
= 0.00207
f
s
=
s
E
s
= 0.001636 (29,000) = 47.45 ksi < 60.0 ksi (as expected)
More directly, the compressive steel stress may be computed from the
following formula.
f
s
= 87(c d)/c = 87(5.50 2.50)/5.50 = 47.45 ksi < 60.0 ksi

7. Solve for a using a =
1
c.
a = 0.80 (5.50) = 4.40



3.33
Calculate the actual net tensile strain to check ductility.
0.003/c =
t
/(d
t
c)

t
= 0.003(d
t
c)/c
= 0.003(20 5.50)/5.50 = 0.00791 > 0.005
Thus, the beam is ductile and = 0.90.

8. Calculate the compression and tension forces.
N
C1
= 0.85 f
c
a b = 0.85 (5.0)(4.40)(11) = 205.7 kips
N
C2
= A
s
f
s
= 1.58 (47.45) = 75.0 kips
N
C
= N
C1
+ N
C2
= 205.7 + 75.0 = 280.7 kips
Check: N
T
= A
s
f
y
= 4.68 (60.0) = 280.8 kips 280.7 kips

9. Calculate the nominal moment strength.
M
n1
= N
C1
Z
1
= N
C1
(d a/2)
= 205.7 (20 4.40/2) = 3,661.5 kip-inch (305.1 kip-ft)
M
n2
= N
C2
Z
2
= N
C2
(d d)
= 75.0 (20 2.5) = 1,312.5 kip-inch (109.4 kip-ft)
M
n
= M
n1
+ M
n2
= 305.1 + 109.4 = 414.5 kip-ft

10. Calculate the practical moment strength.
M
n
= 0.9 (414.5) = 373.1 kip-ft

3.34
3-10 Summary of Procedure for Analysis of Doubly Reinforced Beams (for
Moment)
1. Assume that all the steel yields, f
s
= f
s
= f
y
. Therefore A
s2
= A
s
.

2. Using the concrete-steel couple and A
s1
= A
s
A
s
, determine the depth of the
compression stress block.
a = A
s1
f
y
/(0.85 f
c
) b = (A
s
A
s
)f
y
/(0.85 f
c
) b

3. Compute the location of the neutral axis: c = a/
1
.
This value of c is based on the assumption in Step 1; that assumption will be
verified in Step 4.

4. Check the strain in the compression reinforcement and the net tensile strain in
the extreme tensile reinforcement to determine whether the assumption in
Step 1 is valid.
Compression reinforcement: 0.003/c =
s
/(c d)
Tensile reinforcement: 0.003/c =
t
/(d
t
- c)
It is required that
t
0.004.
Therefore, the tensile steel has yielded (i.e. 0.004 >
y
).
One of the following two conditions may exist.
- In each of the two cases, the strength-reduction factor must be
determined.
a. Condition I:
s

y
.
This indicates that the assumption of Step 1 is correct and the
compression steel has yielded.
b. Condition II:
s
<
y
.
This indicates that the assumption of Step 1 is not correct and the
compression steel has not yielded.


3.35
Condition I
5. If
s
and
s
both exceed
y
, compute the nominal moment strengths M
n1
and M
n2
.
For the concrete-steel couple: M
n1
= A
s1
f
y
(d a/2)
For the steel-steel couple: M
n2
= A
s
f
y
(d d)
M
n
= M
n1
+ M
n2


6. Compute the practical moment strength M
n
.

Condition II
5. If
s
is less than
y
and
s

y
, compute c using the following formula.
(0.85 f
c
b
1
) c
2
+ (87 A
s
A
s
f
y
) c 87 d A
s
= 0
and solve the quadratic equation for c.

6. Compute the compressive steel stress (to be less than f
y
).
f
s
= 87(c d)/c

7. Solve for a using a =
1
c.
To check ductility, recalculate the net tensile strain.

t
= 0.003 (d
t
c)/c
Compute the strength-reduction factor (ref. Section 2-9).

8. Compute the compressive forces.
N
C1
= (0.85 f
c
) b a
N
C2
= A
s
f
s

Check these by computing the tensile force.
N
T
= A
s
f
y

Check: N
T
= N
C1
+ N
C2


9. Compute the resisting moment strengths of the individual couples. Sum the
individual couples to determine the nominal moment strength.
M
n1
= N
C1
(d a/2)
M
n2
= N
C2
(d d)
M
n
= M
n1
+ M
n2

10. Compute the practical moment strength M
n
.


3.36
Example Doubly Reinforced Beam Analysis (Condition II)

Problem 3-19 (p. 118 of the textbook)

Given: Cross section shown.
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
A
s
= 6.24 in
2
(4 -
#
11)

Find: a) The practical moment strength
M
n
for the section shown.
b) The practical moment strength
M
n
for the section with 4-
#
8
bars added.
c) Increase in the practical
moment strength.

Solution

a) Determine the practical moment strength M
n
for the section shown.
d = 30 1.5 0.375 1.41/2 = 27.42
= A
s
/b d = 6.24/(15)(27.42) = 0.0152
From Table A-8: k = 0.7490,
t
= 0.00413 < 0.005
= 0.65 + (
t
0.002)(250/3) = 0.65 + (0.00413 0.002)(250/3)
= 0.828
M
n
= b d
2
k = 0.828(15)(27.42)
2
(0.7490)
= 6,994.2 kip-inch (582.9 kip-ft)

b) Determine the practical moment strength M
n
for the section with 4-
#
8 bars
added.
d = 2.5
A
s
= 3.16 in
2

A
s1
= A
s
A
s
= 6.24 3.16 = 3.08 in
2


1. Assume that all the steel yields.
This results in A
s2
= A
s
.


3.37
2. Determine the depth of the compression stress block.
(A
s
A
s
) f
y
= 0.85 f
c
a b
(6.24 3.16) 60.0 = 0.85(3.0) a (15)
184.8 = 38.25 a
a = 184.8/38.25 = 4.83

3. Determine the location of the neutral axis: a =
1
c

1
= 0.85 since f
c
4000 psi
c = 4.83/0.85 = 5.68
This value of c is based on the assumption in Step 1 and will be verified in
Step 4.

4. Check the steel strains.
Compression steel: 0.003/c =
s
/(c d)
0.003/5.68 =
s
/(5.68 2.5)

s
= (0.003/5.68)(5.68 2.5) = 0.00168 < 0.00207 (Grade 60 steel)
The compression steel has not yielded (f
s
< f
y
).

Tension steel: 0.003/c =
t
/(d
t
c)
0.003/5.68 =
t
/(27.42 5.68)

t
= (0.003/5.68)(27.42 5.68) = 0.0115 > 0.00207 (Grade 60 steel)
The tension steel has yielded.

The assumption of Step 1 is not correct. This is Condition II.

5. Find the location of the neutral axis by re-computing c using the following
formula.
(0.85 f
c
b
1
) c
2
+ (87 A
s
A
s
f
y
) c 87 d A
s
= 0
(0.85)(3.0)(15)(0.85) c
2
+ [(87)(3.16) 6.24(60.0)] c 87(2.5)(3.16) = 0
32.51 c
2
99.48 c 687.3 = 0
c = {-(-99.48) [(-99.48)
2
4 (32.51)(-687.3)]
1/2
}/2(32.51)
= (99.48 315.08)/65.02
c = 6.38

6. With this value of c, compute the compressive steel stress.
0.003/c =
s
/(c d)
0.003/6.38 =
s
/(6.38 2.50)

3.38

s
= (0.003/6.38)(6.38 2.50) = 0.0018245 <
y
= 0.00207
f
s
=
s
E
s
= 0.0018245 (29,000) = 52.91 ksi < 60.0 ksi (as expected)
More directly, the compressive steel stress may be computed from the
following formula.
f
s
= 87(c d)/c = 87(6.38 2.5)/6.38 = 52.91 ksi < 60.0 ksi

7. Solve for a using a =
1
c.
a = 0.85 (6.38) = 5.42
Calculate the actual net tensile strain to check ductility.
0.003/c =
t
/(d
t
c)

t
= 0.003(d
t
c)/c
= 0.003(27.42 6.38)/6.38 = 0.0099 > 0.005
Thus, the beam is ductile and = 0.90.

8. Calculate the compression and tension forces:
N
C1
= 0.85 f
c
a b = 0.85 (3.0)(5.42)(15) = 207.3 kips
N
C2
= A
s
f
s
= 3.16 (52.91) = 167.2 kips
N
C
= N
C1
+ N
C2
= 207.3 + 167.2 = 374.5 kips
Check: N
T
= A
s
f
y
= 6.24 (60.0) = 374.4 kips 374.5 kips

9. Calculate the nominal moment strength:
M
n1
= N
C1
Z
1
= N
C1
(d a/2)
= 207.3(27.42 5.42/2) = 5,122.4 kip-inch (426.9 kip-ft)
M
n2
= N
C2
Z
2
= N
C2
(d d)
= 167.2 (27.42 2.5) = 4,166.6 kip-inch (347.2 kip-ft)
M
n
= M
n1
+ M
n2
= 426.9 + 347.2 = 774.1 kip-ft

10. Calculate the practical moment strength.
M
n
= 0.9 (774.1) = 696.7 kip-ft

c) Determine the increase in the practical moment strength.
The increase in the practical moment strength is
(696.7 582.9)/582.9 x 100% = 19.5%
The increase in the steel area is
(9.40 6.24)/6.24 x 100% = 50.6%

3.39
3-11 Doubly Reinforced Beam Design for Moment
A doubly reinforced concrete section can be designed when
A singly reinforced rectangular section is inadequate.
The size of the beam cannot be increased.

The procedure to design a doubly reinforced section consists of
The separate design of the two component couples so that their summation
results in a beam of the required strength.

3.40
Example Doubly Reinforced Beam Design

Example 3-8 (p. 106 of the textbook)

Given: The reinforced concrete beam with
the cross section shown.
M
u
= 697 kip-ft
Use d = 3
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: Design the beam section.

Solution

Can a singly reinforced beam be used?
Estimate d assuming two rows of bars using
#
3 stirrups and
#
11 reinforcing
steel bars with 1 clearance.
d = 30 1.50 0.375 1.41 1.0/2 = 26.22
Calculate the coefficient of resistance k .
k = M
u
/ b d
2
= 697 (12)/0.9 (14)(26.22)
2
= 0.9656
From Table A-8: k = 0.9656 is not listed.
- The maximum value of k listed in Table A-8 is 0.7597 corresponding with

t
= 0.004.
- Thus, k = 0.9656 corresponds with
t
< 0.004 and is not permitted by code.
A singly reinforced concrete beam cannot be used.

Design a doubly reinforced concrete beam.
1. Estimate d assuming two rows of steel; estimate d
t
assuming 1 of cover,
#
3 stirrup, and
#
8 reinforcing bars.
d = h 4 = 30 4 = 26 (Two rows of steel are likely.)
d
t
= h 1.50 0.375 1.0/2 = 30 1.50 0.375 0.5 = 27.63

2. Determine the factored design moment M
u
.
The factored design moment is given: M
u
= 697 kip-ft


3.41
3. Determine the practical moment strength M
n
for a singly reinforced beam.
The maximum steel ratio is
max
= 0.01355 for
t
= 0.005 and = 0.90
(ref. Table A-8).
The associated k = 0.6835 for
t
= 0.005 and = 0.90 (ref. Table A-8).
- These values assume d = d
t
.
Since d
t
> d (and the table is based on d = d
t
), the maximum steel ratio
max

associated with
t
= 0.005 may be increased by proportion (i.e. by d
t
/d).
So,
max
= (
max
from Table A-8)(d
t
/d)
= 0.01355(27.63/26) = 0.0144
The associated k = 0.7177 ksi (ref. Table A-8).
Assume a tension-controlled section (actual
t
0.005, = 0.90).
This assumption will be checked later.
Maximum M
n
= b d
2
k = 0.90(14)(26)
2
(0.7177)
= 6,113.1 kip-inch (509.4 kip-ft)

4. Compare the practical moment strength M
n
for a singly reinforced beam with
the factored design moment M
u
.
M
n
= 509.4 kip-ft < M
u
= 697 kip-ft
Therefore, a doubly reinforced beam is required.

5. Find the required steel area A
s1
to provide a concrete-steel couple having a
practical moment strength of M
n
determined in Step 3.
M
n1
= M
n
= 509.4 kip-ft
= 0.0144 (from Step 3)
Required A
s1
= b d = 0.0144(14)(26) = 5.24 in
2

6. Determine the steel-steel couple; the moment-strength is equal to the balance
of the factored design moment M
u
.
Required M
n2
= M
u
- M
n1
= 697 509.4 = 187.6 kip-ft

7. Find the required compressive force in the steel for the steel-steel couple.
Assume that d = 2 unless a value is given.
- A value of d = 3 is given in this example.
Since M
n2
= N
C2
(d d)
N
C2
= M
n2
/(d d) = 187.6(12)/0.90(26 3) = 108.8 kips


3.42
8. Determine the location of the neutral axis (assuming that all steel yields).
Check the strain
s
in the compression steel, and compute the compression
stress f
s
.
a = A
s1
f
y
/0.85 f
c
b = 5.24(60.0)/0.85(3.0)(14) = 8.81
c = a/
1
= 8.81/0.85 = 10.36

0.003/c =
s
/(c d)

s
= (0.003/c)(c d)

s
= (0.003/10.36)(10.36 3) = 0.00213 >
y
= 0.00207 (ref. Table A-1)
Because
s
>
y
, the compression steel yields before the concrete strain reaches
0.003 and f
s
= f
y
.

9. Determine the required compression steel area A
s
.
N
C2
= A
s
f
s

Required A
s
= N
C2
/f
s
= N
C2
/f
y
= 108.8/60.0 = 1.81 in
2


10. Determine the required area A
s2
.
Since A
s2
f
y
= f
s
A
s
, the required A
s2
= f
s
A
s
/f
y
.
Required A
s2
= f
s
A
s
/f
y
= 60.0(1.81)/60.0 = 1.81 in
2

Note: Because f
s
= f
y
, the required A
s2
= required A
s
= 1.81 in
2


11. Compute the total tension steel required.
A
s
= A
s1
+ A
s2
= 5.24 + 1.81 = 7.05 in
2


12. Select the compression steel: A
s
= 1.81 in
2
(one row).
From Tables A-2 and A-3, possible selections include the following.
2 -
#
11 bars A
s
= 3.12 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 8.0 OK
2 -
#
10 bars A
s
= 2.54 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 8.0 OK
2 -
#
9 bars A
s
= 2.00 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 7.5 OK
3 -
#
8 bars A
s
= 2.37 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 9.0 OK
4 -
#
7 bars A
s
= 2.40 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 10.5 OK
5 -
#
6 bars A
s
= 2.20 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 11.5 OK
6 -
#
5 bars A
s
= 1.86 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 12.5 OK
10 -
#
4 bars A
s
= 2.00 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 18.0 NG
Select 2 -
#
9 bars A
s
= 2.00 in
2




3.43
13. Select the tension steel: A
s
= 7.05 in
2
(two rows).
From Tables A-2 and A-3, possible selections include
5 -
#
11 bars A
s
= 7.80 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 11.0 OK
6 -
#
10 bars A
s
= 7.62 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 10.5 OK
8 -
#
9 bars A
s
= 8.00 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 12.0 OK
9 -
#
8 bars A
s
= 7.11 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 13.0 OK
12 -
#
7 bars A
s
= 7.20 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 14.0 OK
17 -
#
6 bars A
s
= 7.48 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 18.5 NG
Select 6 -
#
10 bars A
s
= 7.62 in
2

Place bars in two rows with 1 clear between layers.

14. Check the actual d and compare it with the assumed d.
Determine the actual depth to the centroid of the bar group.
Actual d = 30 1.50 0.375 1.27 0.50 = 26.36
The assumed d was 26, thus 26.36 > 26 OK

15. Check d
t
and compare with the assumed d
t
.
d
t
= 30 1.50 0.375 1.27/2 = 27.49 27.63 OK

16. Check the value assumption of Step 3 ( = 0.90).
Check M
n
and compare with M
u
.
A
s
= 7.62 in
2
, A
s
= 2.00 in
2

d = 26.36 (Step 14), d
t
= 27.49 (Step 15)
d = 1.50 + 0.375 + 1.128/2 = 2.44
Assume f
s
= f
s
= f
y
; A
s2
= A
s


a = (A
s
A
s
)f
y
/0.85 f
c
b = (7.62 2.00)(60.0)/(0.85)(3.0)(14) = 9.45
c = a/
1
= 9.45/0.85 = 11.12

0.003/c =
s
/(c d)

s
= (0.003/c)(c d)

s
= (0.003/11.12)(11.12 2.44) = 0.00234 >
y
= 0.00207 OK
The compression steel has yielded.





3.44
0.003/c =
t
/(d
t
c)

t
= (0.003/c)(d
t
c)

t
= (0.003/11.12)(27.49 11.12) = 0.00442 >
y
= 0.00207 OK
> 0.004 OK
< 0.005, thus < 0.90
The tensile steel has yielded.

Continue checking by following the Condition I analysis for doubly reinforced
concrete beams.

The tensile strain
t
is in the transition zone and must be reduced below 0.90.
= 0.65 + (
t
0.002)(250/3) = 0.65 + (0.00442 0.002)(250/3)
= 0.852

M
n1
= A
s1
f
y
(d a/2) = (7.62 2.00)(60.0)(26.36 9.45/2)
= 7,295.3 kip-inch (607.9 kip-ft)
M
n2
= A
s
f
y
(d d) = (2.00)(60.0)(26.36 2.44)
= 2,870.4 kip-inch (239.2 kip-ft)
M
n
= (M
n1
+ M
n2
) = 0.852 (607.9 + 239.2)
= 721.7 kip-ft > 697 kip-ft OK

17. Sketch the final design.
The final sketch is shown at the right.

3.45
3-12 Summary of Procedure for Design of Doubly Reinforced Beams (for Moment)
The size of the beam cross section (i.e. b and h) is known.
1. Estimate d assuming two rows of steel; estimate d
t
assuming 1 of cover,
#
3
stirrup, and
#
8 reinforcing bars.
d = h 4 for two rows of steel.
d
t
= h 1.5 0.375 1.0/2

2. Determine the factored design moment M
u
.

3. Determine the practical moment strength M
n
for a singly reinforced beam.
Assume a tension-controlled section: Find the maximum steel ratio for a net
tensile strain
t
= 0.005 from the appropriate table in Appendix A; use the
corresponding strength-reduction factor, = 0.90.
If d
t
> d (typical for two rows of tensile steel), increase the maximum steel
ratio.

max
= (
max
from the appropriate table)(d
t
/d)
Find the corresponding k from the appropriate table in Appendix A.
Assume a tension-controlled section (
t
0.005, = 0.90), calculate the
maximum practical moment strength for a singly reinforced beam.
M
n
= b d
2
k

4. Compare the practical moment strength M
n
for a singly reinforced beam with
the factored design moment M
u
.
If M
n
< M
u
, design the beam as a doubly reinforced beam.
If M
n
M
u
, the beam can be designed as a beam reinforced with tension
steel only.

For a Doubly Reinforced Beam
5. Find the required steel area A
s1
to provide a concrete-steel couple having a
practical moment strength of M
n
determined in Step 3.
The concrete-steel couple is M
n1
= M
n

Using from Step 3, find the steel area A
s1
required for the concrete-steel
couple.
Required A
s1
= b d



3.46
6. Determine the steel-steel couple; the moment-strength is equal to the balance
of the factored design moment M
u
.
Required M
n2
= M
u
- M
n1


7. Find the required compressive force in the steel (assume that d = 2 unless a
value is given) for the steel-steel couple.
N
C2
= M
n2
/ (d d)

8. Determine the location of the neutral axis (assuming that all steel yields).
Check the strain
s
in the compression steel, and compute the compression
stress f
s
.
a = A
s1
f
y
/0.85 f
c
b
c = a/
1


0.003/c =
s
/(c d)

s
= (0.003/c)(c d)
If
s

y
, the compression steel yields before the concrete strain reaches
0.003 and f
s
= f
y
.
If
s
<
y
, the compression steel does not yield before the concrete strain
reaches 0.003 and f
s
=
s
E
s
, where E
s
= 29,000 ksi.

9. Determine the required compression steel A
s
.
N
C2
= A
s
f
s

Required A
s
= N
C2
/f
s


10. Determine the required A
s2
.
Since A
s2
f
y
= f
s
A
s
, the required A
s2
= f
s
A
s
/f
y
.
Required A
s2
= f
s
A
s
/f
y
Note: If f
s
= f
y
, required A
s2
= required A
s


11. Compute the total tension steel required.
A
s
= A
s1
+ A
s2


12. Select the compression steel (A
s
).





3.47
13. Select the tension steel (A
s
).
Check the required beam width.
Place the bars in one layer, if possible.

14. Check the actual d and compare it with the assumed d.
Determine the actual effective depth to the centroid of the bar group.
If the actual d is slightly in excess of the assumed d, the design will be
slightly conservative (on the safe side).
If the actual d is less than the assumed d, the design may be on the
unconservative side and an analysis and possible revision should be
considered.

15. Check d
t
and compare with the assumed d
t
.

16. Check the value assumption of Step 3 ( = 0.90).
Check M
n
and compare with M
u
.
Compute d
Assume f
s
= f
s
= f
y
; A
s2
= A
s


Compute a: a = (A
s
A
s
) f
y
/0.85 f
c
b
Compute c: c = a/
1

Check
s
:
s
= (0.003/c)(c d)
Check
t
:
t
= (0.003/c)(d
t
c)
If
s

y
and
t

y
, continue checking by following the Condition I analysis
for doubly reinforced concrete beams.
If
s
<
y
and
t

y
, continue checking by following the Condition II analysis
for doubly reinforced concrete beams.

17. Sketch the design.


3.48
Example Doubly Reinforced Beams

Problem 3-23 (p. 119 of the textbook)

Given: Rectangular reinforced concrete
beam with the cross section shown.
DL = 1.25 kip/ft (including the beam
weight)
LL = 2.60 kip/ft
Span = 18 (simply supported)
b 10 (Use 10)
h 20 (Use 20)
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: Design the beam section.

Solution

Can a singly reinforced beam be used?
Estimate d assuming two rows of bars using
#
3 stirrups and
#
11 reinforcing
steel bars with 1 clearance.
d = 20 1.50 0.375 1.41 1.0/2 = 16.22
Calculate the coefficient of resistance k .
M
u
= 229.2 kip-ft (and is calculated below)
k = M
u
/ b d
2
= 229.2 (12)/0.9 (10)(16.22)
2
= 1.1616
From Table A-8: k = 1.1616 is not listed.
- The maximum value of k listed in Table A-8 is 0.7597 corresponding with

t
= 0.004.
- Thus, k = 1.1616 corresponds with
t
< 0.004 and is not permitted by code.
A singly reinforced concrete beam cannot be used.

Design a doubly reinforced concrete beam.
1. Estimate d assuming two rows of steel; estimate d
t
assuming 1 of cover,
#
3 stirrup, and
#
8 reinforcing bars.
d = h 4 = 20 4 = 16 (Two rows of steel are likely.)

3.49
d
t
= h 1.5 0.375 1.0/2 = 20 1.5 0.375 1.41/2 = 17.63

2. Determine the factored design moment M
u
.
w
u
= 1.2 w
DL
+ 1.6w
LL
= 1.2(1.25) + 1.6(2.60)
= 1.50 + 4.16 = 5.66 kip/ft
M
u
= w
u
L
2
/8 = (5.66)(18)
2
/8 = 229.2 kip-ft

3. Determine the practical moment strength M
n
for a singly reinforced beam.
The maximum steel ratio is
max
= 0.01355 for
t
= 0.005 and = 0.90
(ref. Table A-8).
The associated k = 0.6835 for
t
= 0.005 and = 0.90 (ref. Table A-8).
- These values assume d = d
t
.
Since d
t
> d (and the table is based on d = d
t
), the maximum steel ratio
max

associated with
t
= 0.005 may be increased by proportion (i.e. by d
t
/d).
So,
max
= (
max
from Table A-8) (d
t
/d)
= (0.01355) (17.63/16) = 0.0149
The associated k = 0.7373 ksi (ref. Table A-8).
Assume a tension-controlled section (actual
t
0.005, = 0.90).
This assumption will be checked later.
Maximum M
n
= b d
2
k = 0.90(10)(16)
2
(0.7373)
= 1,698.7 kip-inch (141.6 kip-ft)

4. Compare the practical moment strength M
n
for a singly reinforced beam with
the factored design moment M
u
.
M
n
= 141.6 kip-ft < M
u
= 229.2 kip-ft
Therefore, a doubly reinforced beam is required.

5. Find the required steel area A
s1
to provide a concrete-steel couple having a
practical moment strength of M
n
determined in Step 3.
M
n1
= M
n
= 141.6 kip-ft
= 0.0149 (from Step 3)
Required A
s1
= b d = 0.0149(10)(16) = 2.38 in
2

6. Determine the steel-steel couple; the moment-strength is equal to the balance
of the factored design moment M
u
.
Required M
n2
= M
u
- M
n1
= 229.2 141.6 = 87.6 kip-ft

3.50
7. Find the required compressive force in the steel for the steel-steel couple.
Assume that d = 2 unless a value is given.
Since M
n2
= N
C2
(d d)
N
C2
= M
n2
/(d d) = 87.6(12)/0.90(16 2.5) = 86.5 kips

8. Determine the location of the neutral axis (assuming that all steel yields).
Check the strain
s
in the compression steel, and compute the compression
stress f
s
.
a = A
s1
f
y
/0.85 f
c
b = 2.38(60.0)/0.85(3.0)(10) = 5.60
c = a/
1
= 5.60/0.85 = 6.59

0.003/c =
s
/(c d)

s
= (0.003/c)(c d)

s
= (0.003/6.59)(6.59 2.5) = 0.00186 <
y
= 0.00207 (ref. Table A-1)
Because
s
<
y
, the compression steel does not yield before the concrete strain
reaches 0.003 and f
s
< f
y
.
f
s
=
s
E
s
= 0.00186 (29,000) = 53.94 ksi < f
y
= 60 ksi
Note: f
s
= 53.94 ksi is approximate only, but hopefully this value is close enough
to the actual value of f
s
to give a good estimate for A
s
.
The actual value for f
s
will be determined in Step 16.

9. Determine the required compression steel A
s
.
N
C2
= A
s
f
s

Required A
s
= N
C2
/f
s
= 86.5/53.94 = 1.60 in
2


10. Determine the required A
s2
.
Since A
s2
f
y
= f
s
A
s
, the required A
s2
= f
s
A
s
/f
y
.
Required A
s2
= f
s
A
s
/f
y
= 53.94(1.60)/60.0 = 1.44 in
2

Note: Because f
s
< f
y
, the required A
s2
< required A
s
= 1.60 in
2


11. Compute the total tension steel required.
A
s
= A
s1
+ A
s2
= 2.38 + 1.44 = 3.82 in
2







3.51
12. Select the compression steel: A
s
= 1.60 in
2
(one row).
From Tables A-2 and A-3, possible selections include the following.
2 -
#
11 bars A
s
= 3.12 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 8.0 OK
2 -
#
10 bars A
s
= 2.54 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 8.0 OK
2 -
#
9 bars A
s
= 2.00 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 7.5 OK
3 -
#
8 bars A
s
= 2.37 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 9.0 OK
3 -
#
7 bars A
s
= 1.80 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 8.5 OK
4 -
#
6 bars A
s
= 1.76 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 10.0 OK
6 -
#
5 bars A
s
= 1.86 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 12.5 NG
Select 2 -
#
9 bars A
s
= 2.00 in
2


13. Select the tension steel: A
s
= 3.82 in
2
(two rows).
From Tables A-2 and A-3, possible selections include
3 -
#
11 bars A
s
= 4.68 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 8.0 OK
4 -
#
10 bars A
s
= 5.08 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 8.0 OK
4 -
#
9 bars A
s
= 4.00 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 7.5 OK
5 -
#
8 bars A
s
= 3.93 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 9.0 OK
7 -
#
7 bars A
s
= 4.20 in
2
Minimum b
w
= 10.5 NG
Select 4 -
#
9 bars A
s
= 4.00 in
2

Place bars in two rows with 1 clear between layers.

14. Check the actual d and compare it with the assumed d.
Determine the actual depth to the centroid of the bar group.
Actual d = 20 1.5 0.375 1.128 0.50 = 16.50
The assumed d was 16: 16.5 > 16 OK

15. Check d
t
and compare with the assumed d
t
.
d
t
= 20 1.5 0.375 1.128/2 = 17.56 17.63 OK

16. Check the value assumption of Step 3 ( = 0.90).
Check M
n
and compare with M
u
.
A
s
= 4.00 in
2
, A
s
= 2.00 in
2

d = 16.50 (Step 14), d
t
= 17.56 (Step 15)
d = 1.5 + 0.375 + 1.128/2 = 2.44
Assume f
s
= f
s
= f
y
; A
s2
= A
s




3.52
a = (A
s
A
s
)f
y
/0.85 f
c
b = (4.00 2.00)(60.0)/(0.85)(3.0)(10) = 4.71
c = a/
1
= 4.71/0.85 = 5.54

0.003/c =
s
/(c d)

s
= (0.003/c)(c d)

s
= (0.003/5.54)(5.54 2.44) = 0.00168 <
y
= 0.00207
The compression steel has not yielded.

0.003/c =
t
/(d
t
c)

t
= (0.003/c)(d
t
c)

t
= (0.003/5.54)(17.56 5.54) = 0.0065 > 0.004
The tensile steel has yielded.

Continue checking by following the Condition II analysis for doubly reinforced
concrete beams.
(0.85f
c
b
1
) c
2
+ (87A
s
A
s
f
y
) c 87 d A
s
= 0
0.85(3.0)(10)(0.85) c
2
+ [87(2.00) 4.00(60.0)] c 87(2.44)(2.00) = 0
21.68 c
2
66.0 c 424.56 = 0
c = {66.0 [(- 66.0)
2
4(21.68)(- 424.56)]

}/[2(21.68)]
c = 6.20
f
s
= (87/c)(c d) = (87/6.20)(6.20 2.44) = 52.76 ksi
a = 0.85 c = 0.85(6.20) = 5.27

t
= (0.003/c)(d
t
c) = (0.003/6.20)(17.56 6.20) = 0.00550
>
y
= 0.00207 OK
> 0.005, thus = 0.90

N
C1
= 0.85 f
c
b a = 0.85(3.0)(10)(5.27) = 134.4 kips
N
C2
= A
s
f
s
= 2.00(52.76) = 105.5 kips
N
C1
+ N
C2
= 134.4 + 105.5 = 239.9 kips
Check N
T
: N
T
= A
s
f
y
= 4.00(60.0) = 240.0 kips 239.9 kips

M
n1
= N
C1
(d a/2) = (134.4)(16.50 5.27/2)
= 1,863.5 kip-inch (155.3 kip-ft)

M
n2
= N
C2
(d d) = (105.5)(16.50 2.44)
= 1,483.3 kip-inch (123.6 kip-ft)

3.53

M
n
= (M
n1
+ M
n2
) = 0.90 (155.3 + 123.6)
= 251.0 kip-ft > 229.2 kip-ft OK

17. Sketch the final design.
The final sketch is shown at the right.

3.54
3-13 Additional Code Requirements for Doubly Reinforced Beams
The compression steel in reinforced concrete beams acts like all typical
compression members it tends to buckle.
Buckling of the compression steel is accompanied by spalling of the concrete
cover.
To prevent this type of failure, the ACI Code requires that the compression
bars be tied into the beam in a manner similar to that used for reinforced
concrete columns (discussed in Chapter 9).

Compression reinforcement in beams or girders must be enclosed by ties or
stirrups.
The size of the ties or stirrups must be at least
#
3 for
#
10 longitudinal bars or
smaller.
The size of the ties or stirrups must be at least
#
4 for
#
11 longitudinal bars or
larger.
The spacing of the ties or stirrups is not to exceed the smaller of
- 16 longitudinal bar diameters
- 48 tie (or stirrup) bar diameters, or
- The least dimension of the beam.

Alternatively, welded wire fabric of equivalent area may be used.

The ties or stirrups are to be used throughout the area where compression
reinforcement is required.




4.1
Chapter 4: Shear in Beams

4.1 Introduction
Shear forces create additional tensile stresses.
The concrete itself provides some shear strength.
Steel reinforcing must be added to provide additional shear strength if the
shear exceeds the shear strength of the concrete.

The concepts of bending stresses and shearing stresses have been presented in
previous courses.
Bending stress: f = Mc/I
Shear stress: v = VQ/Ib

Most points along the length of a beam are subject to both shear stress and
bending stress.
Exceptions include the following.
- Shear stress is zero at the extreme fibers.
- Bending stress is zero at the neutral axis.

The state of plane stress at a point is represented by normal stress components
and shear stress components acting on an element.
The magnitudes of the normal stress and shear stress
acting on an element depend on the inclination of the
plane on which these stresses act.
A unique combination of normal stress and shear
stress at a point on a beam results in maximum and
minimum normal stresses and shear stress at that
point.
- These maximum stresses occur on planes that are
inclined with respect to the horizontal axis of the
beam.
The maximum and minimum normal stresses act on perpendicular planes.
- These planes are commonly called the principal planes.
- The stresses are called principal stresses.
The principal stresses occurring at a point in a beam subjected to shear and
bending stresses may be calculated using the following formula.
f
pr
= f/2 (f
2
/4 + v
2
)
1/2


4.2
where
f
pr
= the principal stress
f = the bending stress
v = the shear stress
The orientation of the principal planes may
be determined using the following formula.
tan 2 = 2v/f
where
= the angle measured from the horizontal

The magnitudes of the shearing stresses and bending stresses vary along the
length of the beam and with the distance from the neutral axis.
Thus, the inclination of the principal planes varies with location.
The magnitudes of the principal stresses vary with location.
- At the neutral axis, the principal stresses occur at a 45 angle, where
f = 0, tan 2 = , and = 45

Consider the small square element shown at the right.
The vertical shear stresses are equal and
opposite on the two vertical faces to satisfy
equilibrium requirements.
The horizontal shear stresses are equal and
opposite on the two horizontal faces to satisfy
equilibrium requirements.
- The horizontal stresses must be equal to the
vertical shear stresses.

Consider a set of orthogonal planes that are inclined at 45 with respect to the
original element.
Resolve the shear stresses into
components that are parallel and
perpendicular to these planes.
The components combine so that
one of the inclined planes is in
compression and the other is in
tension.


4.3
Concrete is strong in compression but weak in tension.
There is a tendency for the concrete to crack along the plane subject to
tension if the stress is large enough.
The tensile force resulting from the tensile stress acting along a diagonal is
known as diagonal tension.
When the diagonal tension becomes large enough, shear reinforcing must be
provided.

Tensile stresses of various inclinations and magnitudes exist in all parts of the
beam.
These tensile stresses result from either shear alone or the combined action of
shear and bending.
These tensile stresses must be considered in the analysis and design of
reinforced concrete beams.

In plain concrete beams, consider the following.
The portion of the beam where the shear force is high and shear failure may
occur is referred to as the shear span.
- When the shear span exceeds
approximately three times the
effective depth of the beam, the
mode of failure in shear is diagonal
tension failure.
For plain concrete beams with shorter
spans, the failure mode is a
combination of shear, crushing, and
splitting.
For plain concrete beams with longer shear spans, cracks due to bending
(tension) stresses occur long before cracks due to diagonal tension.

In concrete beams reinforced for flexure (moment), note the following.
Tensile strength is furnished by the steel reinforcing.
However, the steel placed in the beam to reinforce for moment is not located
where the large diagonal tension stresses (due to shear) occur.
Additional reinforcing steel must be furnished to resist the diagonal tension
stresses due to shear.


4.4
Considerable research has been conducted to establish the exact distribution of
the shear stresses over the depth of the beam cross section.
Despite extensive studies, the precise shear-failure mechanism is still not fully
understood.

The ACI 318-08 furnishes design guidelines for shear reinforcement based on the
vertical shear force V
u
that develops at any given cross section.
Although it is really the diagonal tension for which shear reinforcement is
provided, diagonal tensile forces (or stresses) are not calculated.
Vertical shear forces are taken as a good indicator of the diagonal tension that
is present in the beam section.

4-2 Shear Reinforcement Design Requirements
The design of non-prestressed bending members for shear is based on the
following assumptions and rationale.
The concrete resists part of the shear.
Shear reinforcement must resist any additional shear in excess of what the
concrete can resist.
Shear reinforcement (a.k.a. web reinforcement) is provided to cross the
diagonal tension cracks and keep the cracks from opening.

Web reinforcement may take several forms. The ACI Code allows
Vertical stirrups (the most common form of web reinforcement).
Welded wire reinforcement with wires located perpendicular to the axis of the
member.
Spirals, circular ties or hoops.
Additionally, for non-prestressed members, the code allows shear
reinforcement composed of
- Inclined or diagonal stirrups.
- Main reinforcement bent to act as inclined stirrups.

For members of normal-weight concrete subject to shear and flexure only, the
amount of shear force that the concrete alone (i.e. un-reinforced for shear) can
resist is V
c
.
V
c
= 2f
c
b
w
d [ACI Eq. (11-3)]
where
= 1.0 for normal-weight concrete

4.5
f
c
= concrete compressive strength (psi)
b
w
= width of the web (stem) for T-beams
= b (beam width) for rectangular beams (inches)
d = effective depth of the beam section

Theoretically, no shear reinforcement is required if the practical shear strength
of the concrete is greater than or equal to the factored shear force, that is,
V
c
V
u

where
V
u
= the design shear force, determined from factored loads
= strength-reduction factor for shear
= 0.75

It is permitted to determine V
c
using a more detailed calculation (ref. ACI 318-08,
Section 11.2.2).
For most designs, it is convenient and conservative to use the ACI Equation (11-
3) noted above.

Minimum shear reinforcement: The ACI Code requires a minimum area of shear
reinforcement in all reinforced concrete flexural members where V
u
exceeds V
c
,
except as follows.
In slabs and footings.
In concrete joist construction (as defined by the ACI Code, Section 8.13).
In shallow beams.
- A member qualifies as a shallow beam if the total depth is not greater than
the largest of the following three values (ref. ACI Code, Section 11.4.6.1).
10
2 times the flange thickness
One-half times the width of the web

The provision of the code requiring minimum shear reinforcement guards against
cases where an unforeseen load would cause failure due to shear.
Shear failure of a flexural member is sudden and without warning.

In cases where shear reinforcement is required for strength or because V
u
> V
c
,
the minimum area of shear reinforcement is found using the following equation.
A
v
= 0.75f
c
(b
w
s/f
yt
) 50 b
w
s/f
yt
[ACI Eq. (11-13)]

4.6
where
A
v
= total cross-sectional area of the shear reinforcement within a distance s.
= 2A
s
for single-loop stirrups
where
A
s
= the cross sectional area of the stirrup bar (in
2
)
b
w
= web width
= b (beam width) for rectangular sections (inch)
s = center-to-center spacing of shear reinforcement in a direction parallel to
the longitudinal reinforcement (inch)
f
yt
= yield strength of shear reinforcing steel (psi)

When f
c
4444 psi, the minimum area of shear reinforcement is controlled by
50 b
w
s/f
yt
.

When determining the shear strength V
c
of reinforced or prestressed concrete
beams and concrete joist construction, the value of f
c
is limited to 100 psi unless
minimum web reinforcement is provided.

The portion of any span in which shear reinforcement is theoretically necessary is
determined by using the factored shear (V
u
) diagram.
When the factored shear V
u
exceeds the practical shear strength of the
concrete web (i.e. V
c
), shear reinforcement is required.
Minimum web reinforcement must be provided elsewhere in the span where
V
u
> V
c
.

The basis for shear design is outlined in the ACI Code (Section 11.1.1).
The practical shear strength must be greater than or equal to the factored
shear force.
V
n
V
u
[ACI Eq. (11-1)]
where
V
n
= V
c
+ V
s
[ACI Eq. (11-2)]

from which
V
c
+ V
s
V
u

where
V
n
= the total nominal shear strength from the concrete and steel
V
c
= the nominal shear strength provided by the concrete alone

4.7
V
s
= the nominal shear strength provided by the shear reinforcement

The design of the stirrups usually follows the selection of the beam size.
Knowing the beam size, V
c
can be determined from ACI Eq. (11-3).
V
u
is determined from the shear diagram.
The stirrups are designed to provide the required shear strength V
s
.
V
s
= V
u
- V
c


For vertical stirrups, V
s
may be calculated using the following equation.
V
s
= A
v
f
yt
d/s [ACI Eq. (11-15)]

For inclined stirrups at 45, V
s
may be calculated using the following equation.
V
s
= 1.414A
v
f
yt
d/s [ACI Eq. (11-16)]
where
s = the horizontal center-to-center distance of stirrups parallel to the main
longitudinal steel.

It is often more practical to rearrange the ACI equations and determine the
spacing.
Bar size, steel strength, and beam effective depth are usually predetermined.
For vertical stirrups, the equation to determine spacing follows.
s = A
v
f
yt
d/required V
s


Because the practical shear strength of the reinforcing steel V
s
is usually
determined, the ACI Eq. (11-15) equation can be rewritten as follows.
V
s
= A
v
f
yt
d/s
Then, the required spacing for the stirrups can be determined as follows.
required s = A
v
f
yt
d/required V
s

or
required s = A
v
f
yt
d/(V
u
V
c
)

Similarly, for inclined stirrups at 45, the required spacing can be determined
as follows.
required s = 1.414 A
v
f
yt
d/(V
u
V
c
)


4.8
These equations give the maximum spacing of stirrups based on required
strength that must be provided by the steel reinforcing.

4-3 Shear Analysis Procedure
The shear analysis procedure involves the following.
Check the shear strength in an existing (reinforced or plain) concrete member
and determine if shear reinforcing is required.
- The practical shear strength (whether from the concrete alone, or from the
concrete and steel) must be greater than or equal to the factored shear
force for all locations in the beam member.
V
c
+ V
s
V
u

Verify that the details of the reinforcement pattern comply with the ACI Code
provisions.


4.9
Example Shear Analysis

Example 4-1 (p. 127 of the textbook)

Given: The reinforced concrete beam
section shown.
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
Normal weight concrete

Find: The maximum factored shear
force V
u
permitted on the member
by the ACI Code.

Solution

The member qualifies as a flexural member based on the following criteria.
It is not a slab.
It is not a concrete joist.
The member does not qualify as a shallow beam since the total depth is greater
than 10.

Because no shear reinforcement is provided, the ACI code (Section 11.4.6.1)
requires that V
u
not exceed V
c
.

Maximum V
u
= V
c

= 0.5 (2 f
c
) b
w
d
= 0.5 (0.75) 2 (1.0) ( 4000 ) (18) (10.25)
Maximum V
u
= 8,752 lb


4.10
Example Shear Analysis

Example 4-2 (p. 127 of the textbook)

Given: The reinforced concrete beam
section shown.
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: The maximum factored shear
force V
u
permitted on the member
by the ACI Code.

Solution

V
c
= 2 f
c
b
w
d
= 2 (1.0) 4000 (18) (33)
V
c
= 75,140 lb (75.1 kips)

V
s
= A
v
f
yt
d/s
= 2 (0.11) (60.0) (33)/12
V
s
= 36.3 kips

Maximum V
u
= V
c
+ V
s

= 0.75 (75.1) + 0.75 (36.3)
Maximum V
u
= 83.6 kips


4.11
Example Shear Analysis

Problem 4-1 (p. 157 of the textbook)

Given: The reinforced concrete beam
section shown.
V
u
= 9,000 lb
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: Is the beam adequate for shear?

Solution

The beam is reinforced for moment only (no shear reinforcement).
Is the member exempt from the requirement for shear reinforcement?
It is not a slab, so no exemption.
It is not a concrete joist, so no exemption.
If the member is a shallow beam, then it is exempt.

The member qualifies as a shallow beam if the total depth is not greater than the
largest of the following three values (ref. ACI Code, Section 11.4.6.1).
10
2 times the flange thickness
One-half times the width of the web

Check the criteria to determine if the member qualifies as a shallow beam.
Determine the total depth h.
- Assume that
#
11 reinforcing bars are used for flexure reinforcement.
h = d + 1.50 (cover) + (diameter of the reinforcing bar)
= 7.25 + 1.50 + 1.41/2 = 9.46
Determine 2 times the flange thickness: Not applicable (the beam is not
integral with a slab).
Determine one-half times the width of the web.
times the width of the web = (12) = 6
The total depth of 9.46 is the largest of the three values and controls.

4.12
Since the total depth of 9.46 is less than 10, the member qualifies as a shallow
beam and no shear reinforcement (i.e. A
v
) is required.

Because no shear reinforcement is provided, and the member qualifies as a shallow
beam, the ACI code (Section 11.4.6.1) requires that V
u
not exceed V
c
.
Thus, V
u
V
c
.

V
c
= 2 f
c
b
w
d
= 0.75 (2) (1.0) 3000 (12) (7.25) = 7,148 lb < V
u
= 9,000 lb
Therefore, the beam is not adequate for shear.

4.13
4-4 Stirrup Design Procedure
In the design for shear reinforcement (i.e. stirrups), the result is a determination
of stirrup size and spacing pattern.

A general procedure follows.
1. Determine the shear values based on span and loading; draw the factored shear
(V
u
) diagram.
2. Determine if stirrups are required.
For flexural members, if V
u
V
c
, then stirrups are not required.
3. Determine the portion of the span over which stirrups are required (assuming
that stirrups are required).
For flexural members, when V
u
V
c
, stirrups are no longer required.
4. On the V
u
diagram, determine the area representing required V
s
.
This area displays the required strength of the web reinforcement that is to
be provided.
5. Select the size of the stirrup and determine the spacing that is required at the
critical section (i.e. a distance d from the face of the support) based on the
required V
s
.
The most common stirrup size is
#
3.
This is the minimum spacing; at this location, the stirrups are the most
closely spaced.
6. Establish the ACI Code maximum spacing requirements.
7. Determine the spacing requirements based on shear strength to be furnished
by the web reinforcing.
8. Establish the spacing pattern and show sketches.

Notes on Stirrup Design
1. Materials and maximum stresses
a. The ACI Code (Section 11.4.2) limits the design yield strength of shear
reinforcement to reduce excessive crack widths in beam webs subject to
diagonal tension.
Reinforcing bars: 60,000 psi.
Deformed wire reinforcing: 80,000 psi.
b. The value of V
s
must not exceed 8f
c
b
w
d no matter the amount of web
reinforcement (per ACI Code, Section 11.4.7.9).


4.14
2. Bar sizes for stirrups
a. The most common stirrup size used is a
#
3 bar.
The use of a
#
4 bar may be required if span and loading conditions
produce large shear values.
- Rarely is anything larger than a
#
4 bar stirrup required.
In large beams, multiple stirrup sets are sometimes provided in which a
diagonal crack would be crossed by four or more vertical bars at one
location of a beam.
- Single loop stirrups are generally satisfactory for b 24.
- Double loop stirrups are satisfactory for 24 < b 48.
- Triple loop stirrups are satisfactory for b > 48.
b. When conventional single loop stirrups are used, the web area A
v
provided by
each stirrup is twice the cross sectional area of the bar because each
stirrup crosses a diagonal crack twice.
A
v
= 0.22 in
2
for
#
3 bars
A
v
= 0.40 in
2
for
#
4 bars
c. Do not vary the stirrup bar sizes.
Use the same bar size unless other alternatives are not reasonable.
Spacing should generally be varied and size held constant.
3. Stirrup spacing
a. When stirrups are required, the maximum spacing for vertical stirrups must
not exceed d/2 or 24 inches, whichever is smaller (ACI Code, Section
11.4.5.1).
If V
s
exceeds 4 f
c
b
w
d, the maximum spacing must not exceed d/4 or 12
inches, whichever is smaller (ACI Code, Section 11.4.5.3).
The maximum spacing may be governed by ACI Equation (11-13).
s
max
= A
v
f
yt
/0.75 f
c
b
w
A
v
f
yt
/50 b
w

b. Stirrups should be spaced no closer than 4 inches.
c. It is economical and practical to compute the spacing required at several
locations and to place stirrups in groups of varying spacing.
Spacing values should be made to not less than 1-inch increments.
d. The ACI Code (Section 11.1.3) permits the maximum shear to be the shear at
the section a distance d from the face of the support (called the critical
section) for the following conditions.

4.15
The support reaction introduces a vertical compression into the end
region of the member.
No concentrated load occurs between the face of the support and the
distance d from the face of the support.
The beam is loaded at or near the top.
This consideration is not applicable for brackets, short cantilevers, and
special isolated conditions.

Sections located less than a distance d from the face of the support may
be designed for the same V
u
as the shear at the critical section.
Stirrup spacing should be constant from the critical section back to the
face of the support and based on the spacing requirements at the critical
section.
The first stirrup should be placed at a maximum distance of s*/2 from
the face of the support
- The distance s* represents the minimum stirrup spacing required
from the face of the support to the critical section.
- A distance of 2 is commonly used.
For the balance of the span, the stirrup spacing is determined by
- The shear strength that is required by the stirrups, or
- The maximum spacing limitations.
e. The actual stirrup pattern used in the beam is the designers choice.
The choice of pattern is governed by strength requirements and
economy.
- Many patterns satisfy strength requirements.
Because the shear typically decreases from the support to the center of
the span, the stirrup spacing can be continually increased from the
critical section up to the maximum spacing allowed by the Code.
- Such spacing design requires tedious design, detailing, and bar placing
operations, but results in the least steel used.
- This is not warranted economically.
In the usual uniformly loaded beams, no more than two or three different
spacings should be used within a pattern.
- Longer spans or concentrated loads may warrant more detailed spacing
patterns.


4.16
Example Stirrup Design Procedure

Example 4-3 (p. 130 of the textbook)

Given: The simply supported rectangular
concrete beam shown.
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: Design the web reinforcement.

Solution

1. Determine the shear values based
on clear span and loading; draw the
factored shear (V
u
) diagram.
Maximum V
u
= 115.0 kips (from
the shear diagram)
The shear force at the critical
section (located a distance d
from the face of the support):
d = 25 = 2.08
V
u
* = 115.0 2.08 (11.5) = 91.1 kips

2. Determine if stirrups are required.
The ACI Code (Section 11.4.6) requires stirrups if V
u
> V
c
.
V
c
= (2f
c
b
w
d) = 0.75 (2) 4000 (16) (25) = 37,947 lb (37.9 kips)
V
c
= 0.5 (37.9) = 18.95 kips < 91.1 kips
Stirrups are required.

3. Determine the portion of the span over which stirrups are required.
Stirrups must be provided to the point where V
u
= V
c
.
Locate where V
u
= V
c
= 18.95 kips.
From the face of the support: (115.0 18.95)/11.5 = 8.35 feet
Minimum web reinforcement must be provided where V
c
< V
u
< V
c
.
Locate where V
u
= V
c
= 37.9 kips.
From the face of the support: (115.0 37.9)/11.5 = 6.70 feet

4.17
4. On the V
u
diagram, determine the area representing required V
s
.
The required V
s
is the area enclosed by the V
c
line, the V
u
* line, and the
sloping V
u
line.
- This area shows the required strength of the shear reinforcing at any
point along the span.
- This area graphically shows V
c
+ V
s
V
u
.
For this V
u
diagram, the required V
s
can be written in equation form.
- Designating the slope (kips/ft) as m, taking x (feet) from the face of the
support, and considering the range 2.08 x 6.70,
Required V
s
= maximum V
u
V
c
mx
= 115.0 37.9 11.5 x
= 77.1 11.5 x

5. Select the size of the stirrup and determine the spacing that is required at the
critical section (i.e. a distance d from the face of the support) based on the
required V
s
.
Assume a
#
3 stirrup (A
s
= 0.11 in
2
, so A
v
= 0.22 in
2
).
From ACI Equation (11-15),
Required s* = A
v
f
yt
d/required V
s
*
= 0.75(0.22)(60.0)(25)/(91.1 37.9) = 4.65
Note that the denominator in the preceding expression (required V
s
*) is
equal to V
u
* - V
c
.
Use a 4 spacing.
The 4 spacing is the spacing used in the portion of the beam between the
face of the support and the critical section (which lies the distance d from
the face of the support).
This spacing is based on the amount of shear strength that must be provided
by the shear reinforcing.
If the required spacing had been less than 4 inches (a minimum spacing), a
larger bar would be needed for the stirrup.

6. Establish the ACI Code maximum spacing requirements.
If V
s
< 4 f
c
b
w
d, the maximum spacing is d/2 or 24, whichever is smaller.
Compare V
s
(= V
s
*) at the critical section with 4 f
c
b
w
d.
4 f
c
b
w
d = 4 4000 (16)(25) = 101,200 lb (101.2 kips)
V
s
* = V
s
*/ = (91.1 37.9)/0.75 = 70.9 kips < 101.2 kips

4.18
Since 70.9 kips < 101.2 kips, the maximum spacing should be the smaller of
d/2 or 24.
d/2 = 25/2 = 12.5 < 24 Use 12
A second criterion for maximum spacing is based on the ACI Code minimum
area requirement (ACI Code, Section 11.4.6.3).
ACI Equation (11-13) may be rewritten in the form
s
max
= A
v
f
yt
/0.75f
c
b
w
A
v
f
yt
/50 b
w

where the units of f
yt
are psi.

Evaluate the following two expressions.
s
max
= A
v
f
yt
/0.75f
c
b
w
= 0.22(60,000)/0.75 4000 (16) = 17.39
s
max
= A
v
f
yt
/50 b
w
= 0.22(60,000)/50(16) = 16.50

Based on the two maximum spacing criteria, the smaller value controls.
Therefore, the 12 spacing controls throughout the beam wherever stirrups
are required.

7. Determine the spacing requirements based on the shear strength to be
furnished by the web reinforcing.
The spacing required at the critical section is 4.
The maximum spacing is 12 where stirrups are required.
Stirrups are required from the face of the support to a point 8.35 from the
face of the support.

Determine the spacing requirements for the rest of the beam.
The spacing required is established at various distances from the face of
the support.
The stirrups are placed in groups; each group has a different spacing.
The number of locations at which the required spacing should be determined
is based on judgment and is a function of the shape of the required V
s

portion of the V
u
diagram.
Required s = A
v
f
yt
d/required V
s
where the denominator is the expression given in Step 4.




4.19

8. Establish the spacing pattern and show sketches.
Determine the theoretical stopping points for various spacings based on the
formula for the required s by solving for x at various values of s.
The first stirrup is placed 2 away from the face of the support (i.e. a
distance equal to one-half the required spacing at the critical section).
Use spacing values in increments of 1-inch for spacings from the minimum
spacing to a spacing equal to the maximum spacing.
- Develop a table showing s and corresponding x values.
- A table for Example 4-3 is shown below.

Required s = A
v
f
yt
d/required V
s

s = 0.75(0.22)(60.0)(25)/(77.1 11.5x)
77.1 11.5x = 0.75(0.22)(60.0)(25)/s = 247.5/s
11.5 x = 77.1 - 247.5/s

s 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
x
1.32 =
16
2.40 =
29
3.11 =
37
3.63 =
44
4.01 =
48
4.31 =
52
4.55 =
55
4.75 =
57
4.91 =
59

Develop a table to evaluate the possible spacing patterns.

Spacing
(inches)
Theoretical
stopping point
(from FOS)
Length
required to
cover (inch)
Number of
spaces to
use
Actual
length
covered
(inches)
Actual
stopping
point (inches
from FOS)
2 - - 1 2 2
4 29 27 7 28 30
5 37 7 2 10 40
6 44 4 1 6 46
7 48 2 1 7 53
8 52 - - - -
9 55 2 1 9 62
10 57 - - - -
11 59 - - - -
12 101 (8.35) 39 4 48 110
12 120 (10 C/L) 10 1 10 120


4.20

Develop a table to establish the final spacing pattern.

Spacing
(inches)
Theoretical
stopping point
(from FOS)
Length
required to
cover (inch)
Number of
spaces to
use
Actual
length
covered
(inches)
Actual
stopping
point (inches
from FOS)
2 - - 1 2 2
4 29 27 7 28 30
5 59 29 6 30 60
12 101 (8.35) 41 4 48 108
12 120 (10 C/L) 12 1 12 120
Use three spacing groups with spacings of 4, 5, and 12.
- The last stirrup in the 12-spacing group is located 9 from the face of
the support.
- One additional stirrup in the 12-spacing group places a stirrup at the
centerline of the beam, thus providing stirrups across the full length of
the beam.
This is common practice and conservative.
The final stirrup design is shown below (ref. Figure 4-9, p. 136 of the
textbook).













4.21
Example Stirrup Design

Problem 4-11 (p. 159 of the textbook)

Given: Beam loaded as shown.
Loads shown are factored loads.
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: Design single-loop stirrups.

Solution

1. Determine the shear values based
on clear span and loading; draw the
factored shear (V
u
) diagram.
Maximum V
u
= 77.5 kips (from
the shear diagram)
The shear force at the critical
section (located a distance d
from the face of the support):
d = 32 = 2.67
V
u
* = 77.5 2.67 (2.5) = 70.8 kips

2. Determine if stirrups are required.
The ACI Code (Section 11.4.6) requires
stirrups if V
u
> V
c
.
V
c
= (2f
c
b
w
d) = 0.75 (2) 3000 (14)(32)
= 36,807 lb (36.8 kips)
V
c
= 0.5(36.8) = 18.4 kips < 70.8 kips
Stirrups are required.

3. Determine the portion of the span over which stirrups are required.
Stirrups must be provided to the point where V
u
= V
c
.
Locate where V
u
= V
c
= 18.4 kips.
From a point 10 feet from the face of the support,
(22.5 - 18.4)/2.5 = 1.64 (11.64 from the face of support)

4.22
Minimum web reinforcement must be provided where V
c
< V
u
< V
c
.
Locate where V
u
= V
c
= 36.8 kips.
Because of the discontinuity in the shear diagram, the practical shear value
V
c
= 36.8 kips occurs at a point 10 from the face of support.

4. On the V
u
diagram, determine the area representing required V
s
.
The required V
s
is the area enclosed by the V
c
line, the V
u
* line, and the
sloping V
u
line.
From 0 < x < 5
Required V
s
= maximum V
u
V
c
mx
= 77.5 36.8 2.5 x
= 40.7 2.5 x
From 5 < x < 10
Required V
s
= maximum V
u
V
c
m (x 5)
= 50.0 36.8 - 2.5 (x 5)
= 25.7 2.5 x

5. Select the size of the stirrup and determine the spacing that is required at the
critical section (i.e. a distance d from the face of the support) based on the
required V
s
.
Assume a
#
3 stirrup (A
s
= 0.11 in
2
, so A
v
= 0.22 in
2
).
From ACI Equation (11-15),
Required s* = A
v
f
yt
d/required V
s
*
= 0.75(0.22)(60.0)(32)/(70.8 36.8) = 9.32
Note that the denominator in the preceding expression (required V
s
*) is
equal to V
u
* - V
c
.

Use a 9 spacing.
The 9 spacing is the spacing used in the portion of the beam between the
face of the support and the critical section (which lies the distance d from
the face of the support).

6. Establish ACI Code maximum spacing requirements.
If V
s
< 4 f
c
b
w
d, the maximum spacing is d/2 or 24, whichever is smaller.
Compare V
s
* at the critical section with 4f
c
b
w
d.
4f
c
b
w
d = 4 3000 (14)(32) = 98,150 lb (98.2 kips)
V
s
* = V
s
*/ = (70.8 36.8)/0.75 = 45.3 kips < 98.2 kips

4.23
Since 45.3 kips < 98.2 kips, the maximum spacing should be the smaller of
d/2 or 24.
d/2 = 32/2 = 16 < 24 Use 16
A second criterion for maximum spacing is based on the ACI Code minimum
area requirement (ACI Code, Section 11.4.6.3).
ACI Equation (11-13) may be rewritten in the form
s
max
= A
v
f
yt
/0.75f
c
b
w
A
v
f
yt
/50b
w

where the units of f
yt
are psi.

Evaluate the following two expressions.
s
max
= A
v
f
yt
/0.75f
c
b
w
= 0.22(60,000)/0.75 3000 (14) = 22.95
s
max
= A
v
f
yt
/50b
w
= 0.22(60,000)/50(14) = 18.86

Based on the two maximum spacing criteria, the smaller value controls.
Therefore, the 16-inch spacing controls throughout the beam wherever
stirrups are required.

7. Determine the spacing requirements based on the shear strength to be
furnished by the web reinforcing.
Spacing required at the critical section is 9.
The maximum spacing is 16 where stirrups are required.
Stirrups are required from the face of the support to a point 11.64 from
the face of the support.

Determine the spacing requirements for the rest of the beam.
The spacing required is established at various distances from the face of
the support.
The stirrups are placed in groups; each group has a different spacing.
The number of locations at which the required spacing should be determined
is based on judgment and is a function of the shape of the required V
s

portion of the V
u
diagram.
Required s = A
v
f
yt
d/required V
s

where the denominator is the expression given in Step 4.




4.24
8. Establish the spacing pattern and show sketches.
Determine the theoretical stopping points for various spacings based on the
formula for the required s by solving for x at various values of s.
The first stirrup is placed 2 away from the face of the support.
Use spacing values in increments of 1-inch for spacings from the minimum
spacing to a spacing equal to the maximum spacing.
- Develop a table showing s and corresponding x values.
- A table for Problem 4-11 is shown below.
Use caution at the discontinuity in the shear diagram at x = 5.
From 0 < x < 5
Required s = A
v
f
yt
d/required V
s

s = 0.75(0.22)(60.0)(32)/(40.7 2.5 x)
40.7 2.5 x = 0.75(0.22)(60.0)(32)/s = 316.8/s
2.5 x = 40.7 316.8/s

s 10 11 12
x 3.61 = 43 4.76 = 57
5.72 > 5.0
(See Note)
Note: For the 12 spacing, x is greater than 5.0 and is outside the range for
the applicable equation.
From 5 < x < 10
Check required spacing when x = 5.
Required s = A
v
f
yt
d/required V
s

s = 0.75(0.22)(60.0)(32)/(25.7 2.5 x)
= 0.75(0.22)(60.0)(32)/[25.7 2.5 (5)]
s = 316.8/13.2 = 24.0 > 16 (Use 16)

Develop a table to evaluate the possible spacing patterns.
Spacing
(inches)
Theoretical
stopping point
(from FOS)
Length
required to
cover (inch)
Number of
spaces to
use
Actual
length
covered
(inches)
Actual
stopping
point (inches
from FOS)
2 - - 1 2 2
9 43 41 5 45 47
10 57 10 1 10 57
11 60 (5.0) 3 1 11 68
16 140 (11.64) 72 5 80 148

4.25
Develop a table to establish the final spacing pattern.
For simplification, a spacing of 9 is used from a point 2 from the face of
the support to a point 5 from the face of the support.
From a point 5 from the support to a point 11.64 from the support the
maximum spacing of 16 is used.

Spacing
(inches)
Theoretical
stopping point
(from FOS)
Length
required to
cover (inch)
Number of
spaces to
use
Actual
length
covered
(inches)
Actual
stopping
point (inches
from FOS)
2 - - 1 2 2
9 60 (5.0) 58 7 63 65
16 140 (11.64) 75 5 80 145
16 180 (15 C/L) 35 2 32 177
Use two spacing groups with spacings of 9 and 16.
- The first stirrup is placed 2 away from the face of the support.
Use a distance no greater than one-half the required spacing at the
critical section.
A 2 spacing is commonly used.
- The last required stirrup in the 16-spacing group is located 12-1 from
the face of the support.
- Using two additional stirrups in the 16-spacing group places a stirrup at a
point 3 left of the centerline, providing stirrups across the full length of
the beam.
The final stirrup pattern is shown in the sketch below.











Design sketch for Problem 4-11

4.26
4-5 Torsion of Reinforced Concrete Members
The twisting (torsion) of reinforced concrete members is caused by a moment that
acts about the longitudinal axis of the member due to unbalanced loads applied to
the member.
The torsional moment usually acts in combination with bending moment and
shear force.
The torsion may be due to unbalanced loads due to unequal adjacent spans
supported by the beam.
The torsion may be due to unequal live loads on adjacent spans.
The torsion may be due to the sequence of construction loads.
- Loads could be applied to one side of the beam before the loads are applied
to the other side of the beam.

In the ACI Code, the design of torsion in solid and hollow concrete beams is based
on a thin-walled tube model (ref. Figures 4-15 and 4-16, p. 141 of the textbook).
The outer concrete cross section that is centered on the stirrups is assumed to
resist the torsion.
The concrete in the core is neglected (after cracking, the core is ineffective in
resisting torsion).

Torsional moments cause additional shear stresses that result in diagonal tension
stresses in the concrete member.
These diagonal tension stresses cause spiral inclined cracks to form around the
surface of the concrete member (ref. Figure 4-16, p. 141 of the textbook).
- Example: Spiral failure by twisting a piece of chalk.
After cracking, the torsional resistance of the concrete member is provided by
the outermost closed stirrups and the longitudinal reinforcement located near
the surface of the beam.

One of two conditions occurs in the design of reinforced concrete members for
torsion: compatibility torsion or equilibrium torsion.
1. Compatibility torsion: Compatibility torsion occurs in statically indeterminate
structures.
- The design torsion may be reduced due to redistribution of internal forces
to maintain compatibility of deformations.
Example: Spandrel beam (ref. Figure 4-17, p. 143 of the textbook).
- The rotation of the slab is restrained by the spandrel beam.

4.27
- For compatibility, the restraining moment at the exterior end of the slab is
equal to the torsional moment in the beam (per each unit length along the
spandrel beam).
- As the slab rotates and cracks, the slab moments are redistributed and the
torsional moment on the spandrel beam is reduced.

2. Equilibrium torsion: Equilibrium torsion occurs in statically determinate
structures.
- The torsion cannot be reduced because redistribution of internal moments
and forces is not possible in statically determinate structures.
- The full design torsion must be resisted by the beam.
- Examples of concrete members in equilibrium torsion are shown in Photo 4-1
(p. 143 of the textbook) and Figure 4-18 (p. 144 of the textbook).

Torsion Design of Reinforced Concrete Members (ACI Code, Section 11.5)
The ACI Code design approach for torsion follows a similar approach to the design
for shear.
The critical section is located a distance d from the face of the support.
- If a concentrated torque occurs within a distance of d from the support,
the critical section for torsion is at the face of the support.

Check to determine if torsion can be neglected.
Torsion can be neglected in non-prestressed members if the factored torque at
the critical section is less than or equal to one-quarter of the cracking torque
of the beam section, that is
T
u
* 0.25T
cr

where
T
cr
= the cracking torque
= 4 f
c
(A
cp
)
2
/P
cp

Thus, torsion may be neglected when
T
u
* 0.25T
cr
= 0.25 [4 f
c
(A
cp
)
2
/P
cp
]
= f
c
(A
cp
)
2
/P
cp

where
= 0.75 (ACI Code, Section 9.3.2.3)




4.28
A
cp
= area of outside perimeter of the cross section
= b h for rectangular beams not cast monolithically with a slab
(For isolated beams cast monolithic with a slab, the area A
cp
can be
determined from ACI Sections 11.5.1.1 and 13.2.4.)
P
cp
= outside perimeter of the cross section
= 2 (b + h) (ref. Figure 4-15)
= the lightweight aggregate factor
= 1.0 for normal weight concrete
When the torsion can be neglected, closed stirrups are not required.
Torsional reinforcement is required to resist the full applied torsional moment
(as specified in ACI Section 11.5.2.1), when
T
u
* > f
c
(A
cp
)
2
/P
cp


Check the required cross sectional dimensions.
The ACI Code requires that solid and hollow concrete beam cross-sectional
dimensions satisfy ACI Code Equations (11-18) and (11-19).
- To reduce unsightly cracks on the surface of the beam, and
- To prevent crushing of the concrete from stresses due to combined shear
and torsion.
For solid sections, the dimensions must satisfy the following.
{(V
u
*/b
w
d)
2
+ [T
u
*p
h
/1.7(A
oh
)
2
]
2
}

(V
c
/b
w
d + 8f
c
) ACI Eq. (11-18)
For hollow sections, the dimensions must satisfy the following.
V
u
*/b
w
d + T
u
*p
h
/1.7(A
oh
)
2
(V
c
/b
w
d + 8f
c
) ACI Eq. (11-19)
where
V
c
= 2 f
c
b
w
d
A
oh
= area enclosed by the centerline of the outermost closed stirrup
= x
1
y
1
(ref. Figure 4-19, p. 146 of the textbook)
x
1
= width measured to the centerline of the outermost stirrup
y
1
= height measured to the centerline of the outermost stirrup
p
h
= perimeter along the centerline of the outermost closed stirrup
= 2(x
1
+ y
1
)
The size of the beam should be increased if these equations are not satisfied.
The ACI Code has additional provisions for hollow sections with a varying wall
thickness.

4.29
Torsion Reinforcement
The reinforcement for torsion is added to that required for other load effects
that act in combination with the torsional moment.
The torsional reinforcement consists of
- Closed stirrups, and
- Longitudinal reinforcement at the corners of the beam.
The yield strength of the torsional reinforcement shall not be greater than
60,000 psi (per ACI Code, Section 11.5.3.4).

Transverse Reinforcement Required for Torsion (Stirrups)
The required torsional stirrup area is determined by the following equation.
A
t
/s = T
u
*/(2 A
o
f
yt
cot )
where
A
t
= the area of one leg of the torsional or outermost closed stirrup
(inches
2
)
s = stirrup spacing
= 30 to 60; use 45 for non-prestressed members (ACI Code, Section
11.5.3.6[a])
f
yt
= yield strength of stirrups (60,000 psi)
T
u
* = factored torque at the critical section
A
o
0.85 A
oh
= 0.85 x
1
y
1


The critical section for torsion is permitted to be at a distance d from the face
of the support provided no concentrated torque occurs within a distance d from
the face of the support.
If a concentrated torque occurs within a distance d from the face of the
support, the critical section is at the face of the support (ACI Code, Section
11.5.2.4).

The nominal torsional strength (T
n
) is found from the following equation
T
n
= 2A
o
A
t
f
yt
/s (cot ) [ACI Eq. (11-21)]

The total stirrup area required for combined shear and torsion is obtained from
the following equation (ref. ACI Code, Section 11.5.5.2).
A
vt
/s = A
v
/s + 2A
t
/s 50 b
w
/f
yt

0.75 f
c
(b
w
/f
yt
)

4.30

where
A
vt
= area of two legs of closed stirrups required for combined shear plus
torsion
A
t
= area of one leg of closed stirrups required for torsion
A
v
= area of two legs of closed stirrups required for shear
A
o
0.85 A
oh
= 0.85 x
1
y
1

f
yt
= yield strength of stirrups (60,000 psi)
b
w
= width of beam stem
s = spacing of stirrups
p
h
/8 and 12 (ACI Code, Section 11.5.6.1)
p
h
= perimeter along the centerline of the outermost closed stirrup
= 2(x
1
+ y
1
)

Additional Longitudinal Reinforcement Required for Torsion
Additional longitudinal reinforcement required to resist torsion
Must be added to the reinforcement required for bending
Is obtained from the following equations:
A

= (A
t
/s) p
h
(f
yt
/f
y
) cot
2
[ACI Eq. (11-22)]
5f
c
(A
cp
/f
y
) (A
t
/s) p
h
(f
yt
/f
y
) [ACI Eq. (11-24)]
where
A
t
/s = torsional stirrup area
25 b
w
/f
yt

p
h
= 2(x
1
+ y
1
)
A
cp
= b h
b
w
= width of beam stem
f
yt
= stirrup yield strength (psi)
f
y
= longitudinal steel yield strength (psi)

Additional notes regarding the required torsional reinforcement.
The additional longitudinal reinforcement must be distributed around the
surface of the beam with a maximum spacing of 12 inches.
There should be at least one longitudinal bar in each corner of the closed
stirrups.

4.31
The additional longitudinal reinforcement diameter should be
- At least 0.042 times the stirrup spacing (i.e. 0.042 s),
- Not less than a
#
3 bar (ACI Code, Section 11.5.6.2).
The additional longitudinal rebar area should be added to the longitudinal rebar
area required for bending.
The closed torsional stirrups should be closed with 135 hooks (ACI Code,
Section 11.5.4.1).
- At least one longitudinal bar should be enclosed by and at each corner of the
stirrup.
- 90 hooks are ineffective after the corners of the beam spall off due to
torsion failure.

Torsion Design Procedure
The design procedure for torsion is as follows.
1. Determine the maximum factored concentrated or uniformly distributed
torsional load (w
tu
) and the corresponding factored gravity load (w
u
) that occurs
simultaneously.
2. Determine the factored torsional moment (T
u
), the factored shear (V
u
), and the
factored bending moment (M
u
).
3. Determine the reinforcement required to resist the factored bending moment
M
u
.
4. Calculate the concrete shear strength V
c
and determine the portion of the
beam over which stirrups are required due to vertical shear.
5. Determine if torsion can be neglected. If torsion cannot be neglected,
determine the portion of the beam over which stirrups are required due to
torsional shear.
6. Determine if the torsion in the member is caused by compatibility torsion or by
equilibrium torsion .
a. For compatibility torsion, design the member for a reduced torque of T
cr
.
b. For equilibrium torsion, design the member for the full torsional moment
(T
u
*) calculated in Step 2.
7. Check the dimensions of the member cross section to assure that crushing is
prevented.
Use ACI Code Equation (11-18) for solid sections
Use ACI Code Equation (11-19) for hollow sections

4.32
8. Determine the required torsional stirrup area (A
t
/s), the stirrup area required
for shear (A
v
/s), and the total stirrup area required for combined shear and
torsion (A
vt
/s).
Check that the maximum stirrup spacing is not exceeded.
Check the minimum stirrup area.
Using the torsional diagram and the shear force diagram, the required spacing
can be laid out to match the variation in shear and torsional moment.
9. Determine the additional longitudinal reinforcement required for torsion.
10. Draw the detail of the reinforcement.

4.33
Example Design of Beams for Torsion

Example 4 5 (p. 151 of the textbook)

Given: Beam section shown.
Span = 27 between columns
Dead loads
Stud wall partitions = 10 psf
Mech/elect equip = 5 psf
Precast planks = 75 psf
2 Topping = 20 psf
Live load = 60 psf
Normal weight concrete
= 1.0
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: Design the beam for torsion and shear.

Solution

1. Determine the maximum factored concentrated or uniformly distributed
torsional load (w
tu
) and the corresponding factored gravity load (w
u
) that occurs
simultaneously.
Dead loads
Stud wall partitions = 10 psf
Mech and Elect = 5 psf
Precast planks = 75 psf
2 Topping = 20 psf
Total dead load = 110 psf
Live load
Operating room floor, LL = 60 psf
Tributary widths (TW) of Beam
TW (30 span) = 30/2 = 15 feet
TW (24 span) = 24/2 = 12 feet


4.34
The torsion in this beam is equilibrium torsion caused by the eccentricity of the
plank loads.
Determine the eccentricity of the hollow-core plank load.
e = 18/2 + 3/2 = 10.5 (0.875)

The maximum uniform torsional loading occurs due to checkerboard (or partial)
loading on the planks.
The full design dead load and live load is assumed on the 30-foot span.
The full design dead load and one-half of the design live load is assumed on
the 24-foot span.
- Such an assumption is common practice among designers.
- Such an assumption generally results in a slightly more conservative
design.

The maximum torsion and the corresponding maximum uniform vertical load
occur at the same time.

The maximum factored uniform torsional load for a 1-foot width of plank is
w
tu
= (1.2 w
DL
+ 1.6w
LL
)(30/2) e (1.2 w
DL
+ 1.6w
LL
/2)(24/2) e
= [1.2(110 psf) + 1.6(60 psf)](15)(0.875)
[1.2(110 psf) + 1.6(60 psf)/2](12)(0.875)
= 228(15)(0.875) 180(12)(0.875)
w
tu
= 1102.5 lb-ft/ft (1.10 kip-ft/ft width of plank)

The corresponding maximum factored uniform vertical load for a 1-foot width
of plank is
w
u
= [1.2(110 psf) + 1.6(60 psf)](15)
+ [1.2(110 psf) + 1.6(60 psf)/2](12)
= 228(15) + 180(12)
w
u
= 5580 lb/ft (5.58 kip/ft width of plank)

2. Determine the factored torsional moment (T
u
), the factored shear (V
u
), and the
factored bending moment (M
u
).
Calculate the effective depth (assume one layer of reinforcement).
d = 24 1.5 (cover) 0.5 (
#
4 stirrups) 1.27/2 (
#
10 bar)
= 21.37 (1.78)



4.35
Factored torsional moment
The maximum design torsional moment at the face of the support is
T
u
= w
tu
/2 = 1.10 (27)/2 = 14.85 kip-ft
The maximum design torsional moment at the critical section is
T
u
* = T
u
- w
tu
d = 14.85 1.10(1.78) = 12.89 kip-ft
Factored shear
The maximum design shear at the face of the support (occurring at the same
time as the maximum torsion) is
V
u
= w
u
/2 = 5.58(27)/2 = 75.3 kips
The maximum design shear at the critical section is
V
u
* = V
u
- w
u
d = 75.3 5.58(1.78) = 65.4 kips
Factored bending moment
The uniformly distributed load due to fully loaded planks is
w
u
= [1.2(110 psf) + 1.6(60 psf)](15)
+ [1.2(110 psf) + 1.6(60 psf)](12)
= 228(15) + 228(12)
w
u
= 6156 lb/ft (6.16 kip/ft width of plank)
The maximum bending moment at mid-span is
M
u
= w
u

2
/8 = 6.16(27)
2
/8 = 561.3 kip-ft

3. Determine the reinforcement required to resist the factored bending
moment M
u
.
Compute the practical moment strength M
nf
with the full effective flange
assumed to be in compression (assuming a tension-controlled section).
M
nf
= N
C
Z = (0.85 f
c
) b h
f
(d h
f
/2)
= 0.90(0.85)(4.0)(18)(10)(21.37 10/2) = 9,016.6 kip-inch
M
nf
= 751.4 kip-ft > 561.3 kip-ft (Rectangular beam design)
Compute the required k value.
k = M
u
/ b d
2
= 561.3(12)/0.9(18)(21.37)
2

k = 0.9104 ksi
From Table A-10, = 0.01806,
t
= 0.005, = 0.90
A
s
= 0.01806 b d = 0.01806 (18)(21.37) = 6.95 in
2

(A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 b
w
d = 0.0033(24)(21.37) = 1.69 in
2
< 6.95 in
2
OK
Try
#
10 bars in one row.
Six -
#
10 provide A
s
= 7.62 in
2
, b
min
= 18 < 24 OK


4.36
Check d (assume
#
4 stirrups):
d = 24 1.5 0.50 1.27/2 = 21.37 = 21.37 OK

4. Calculate the concrete shear strength V
c
and determine the portion of the
beam over which stirrups are required due to vertical shear.
The concrete shear strength is
V
c
= 2 f
c
b
w
d
V
c
= 0.75(2)4000(18)(21.37) = 36,490 lb (36.5 kips)
Determine the portion of the beam over which stirrups at minimum spacing
are required due to vertical shear.
x = (V
u
- V
c
)/w
u
= (75.3 36.5)/5.58 = 6.95
Determine the portion of the beam over which stirrups are no longer
required due to vertical shear.
V
c
= 0.5(36.5) = 18.25 kips
x = (V
u
- V
c
)/w
u
= (75.3 18.25)/5.58 = 10.22
Stirrups for vertical shear are required from the face of the support to a point
10.22 from the face of the support.
Minimum reinforcement for vertical is required from 6.95 to 10.22 from
the face of the support.

5. Determine if torsion can be neglected.
If torsion cannot be neglected, determine the portion of the beam over which
stirrups are required due to torsional shear.
Torsion can be neglected if T
u
* 0.25 T
cr

T
cr
= 4 f
c
(A
cp
)
2
/P
cp

= 4 (1.0) 4000 (18 x 24)
2
/[2(18 + 24)]
T
cr
= 562,054.2 lb-inch (46.84 kip-ft)
0.25 T
cr
= 0.25 (0.75) 46.84 = 8.78 kip-ft

Alternatively, 0.25 T
cr
= f
c
(A
cp
)
2
/P
cp

0.25 T
cr
= (1.0)(0.75) 4000 (18 x 24)
2
/[2(18 + 24)]
0.25 T
cr
= 105,385 lb-inch (8.78 kip-ft)
Because T
u
* = 12.89 kip-ft > 8.78 kip-ft, the beam must be designed for torsion.
Determine the portion of the beam over which stirrups are required due to
torsional shear.
- Theoretical cut-off point:
x = (T
u
0.25T
cr
)/w
tu
= (14.85 8.78)/1.10 = 5.52

4.37
- Torsional reinforcement must be provided a distance of at least (b
t
+ d)
beyond the point required by analysis per ACI Code (Section 11.5.6.3).
b
t
= the width of that part of the cross section containing the
torsional reinforcement.
(b
t
+ d) = 18 + 21.37 = 39.37 (3.28)
- Stirrups for torsion are required from the face of the support to a point
8.80 (i.e. 5.52 + 3.28 = 8.80) from the face of the support.

6. Determine if the torsion in the member is caused by compatibility torsion or by
equilibrium torsion (ref. pp. 142 - 144 of the textbook).
The torsion in this beam is equilibrium torsion caused by the eccentricity of
the plank loads.
- The member must be designed for the full torsional moment (T
u
*)
calculated in Step 2.

7. Check the dimensions of the member cross section to assure that crushing is
prevented.
Known: b = 18, h = 24, d = 21.37, = 45, = 0.75
x
1
= 18 (2 sides)(1.5 cover + 0.5 stirrup/2) = 14.5
y
1
= 24 (2 sides)(1.5 cover + 0.5 stirrup/2) = 20.5
A
oh
= x
1
y
1
= (14.5)(20.5) = 297.3 in
2

A
o
= 0.85 A
oh
= 0.85(297.3) = 252.7 in
2

p
h
= 2(x
1
+ y
1
) = 2(14.5 + 20.5) = 70.0
A
cp
= b h = 18(24) = 432.0 in
2

Check the beam cross sectional dimensions using ACI Eq (11-18):
{(V
u
*/b
w
d)
2
+ [T
u
* p
h
/1.7(A
oh
)
2
]
2
}
1/2

(V
c
/b
w
d + 8f
c
) = (V
c
/b
w
d + 8 f
c
)
{[65,400/(18)(21.37)]
2
+ [12,890(12)(70.0)/1.7(297.3)
2
]
2
}
1/2

36,500/(18)(21.37) + (0.75) 8 4000
[(170.0)
2
+ (72.1)
2
]
1/2
(94.9 + 379.5)
184.7 psi < 474.4 psi OK
The size of the beam is adequate to resist the torsional moments.



4.38
8. Determine the required torsional stirrup area (A
t
/s), the stirrup area required
for shear (A
v
/s), and the total stirrup area for the combined shear and torsion
(A
vt
/s).
The required torsional stirrup area is
A
t
/s = T
u
*/(2 A
o
f
yt
cot )
= 12,890(12)/2(0.75)(252.7)(60,000)(1.0)
A
t
/s = 0.0068
The stirrup area required to resist the maximum factored shear acting with
the maximum torsion is
A
v
/s = (V
u
* V
c
)/ f
yv
d
= (65,400 36,500)/0.75(60,000)(21.37)
A
v
/s = 0.0300
The total stirrup area required (2-leg stirrups) is
A
vt
/s = A
v
/s + 2A
t
/s = 0.0300 + 2(0.0068) = 0.0436
Check the minimum stirrup area.
A
vt
/s 50 b
w
/f
yt
= 50(18)/60,000 = 0.0150 < 0.0436 OK
A
vt
/s 0.75f
c
(b
w
/f
yt
) = 0.754000(18/60,000) = 0.0142 < 0.0436 OK
The total stirrup area required is A
vt
/s = 0.0436
Determine the minimum stirrup spacing.
- Use a
#
4 stirrup: A
vt
(2 legs) = 2(0.20 in
2
) = 0.40 in
2

- The minimum spacing of the stirrups to resist the maximum combined
shear and torsion is
s = selected A
vt
/(A
vt
/s) = 0.4/0.0436 = 9.2
[Note: If #3 stirrups were used, then s = 2(0.11)/0.0436 = 5.05, which is less than
the 8 spacing for the #4 stirrups noted below.]
- The spacing of the transverse torsion reinforcement shall not exceed the
smaller of the following (per ACI 11.5.6.1):
p
h
/8 or 12
p
h
/8 = 70/8 = 8.75 (controls) Use 8
Minimum stirrup spacing: Use
#
4 closed stirrups at 8 center-to-center.
Determine the maximum stirrup spacing.
- Transverse reinforcement for torsion is required from the face of the
support to a point 8.80 from the face of the support.
- Transverse reinforcement for shear is required from the face of the
support to a point 10.22.

4.39
- From a point 8.80 from the face of the support to a point 10.22 from
the face of the support, only transverse reinforcement for the vertical
shear force is required.
In this portion of the beam (8.80 to 10.22 from the face of the
support), the stirrup spacing required for vertical shear alone is the
maximum spacing allowed by the ACI Code.
4 f
c
b
w
d = 4 4000 (18) (21.37) = 97,312 lb (97.3 kips)
V
s
* = V
s
*/ = (V
u
* - V
c
)/ = (65.4 36.5)/0.75 = 38.5 kips
V
s
* < 4 f
c
b
w
d, thus the maximum spacing is d/2 or 24
s
max
= d/2 = 21.37/2 = 10.68 < 24
s
max
= (A
v
f
yt
)/(0.75 f
c
b
w
) = (0.40)(60,000)/[0.75 4000 (18)] = 28.1
s
max
= (A
v
f
yt
)/(50 b
w
) = 0.40(60,000)/50(18) = 26.7
Maximum stirrup spacing: Use
#
4 closed stirrups at 10 center-to-center.

Use a table to establish the final spacing pattern.
Spacing
(inches)
Theoretical
stopping point
(from FOS)
Length
required to
cover (inch)
Number of
spaces to
use
Actual
length
covered
(inches)
Actual
stopping
point (inches
from FOS)
3 - - 1 3 3
8 106 (8.80) 103 13 104 107
10 123 (10.22) 16 2 20 127
10
162
(13.5 C/L)
35 3 30 157
Three additional stirrups are included to provide transverse reinforcement across the full
length of the beam.
The position of the first stirrup is taken as 3 from the face of the support to put the
last stirrup 5 from the centerline of the span for a symmetrical design.

9. Determine the additional longitudinal reinforcement required for torsion.
b
w
= width of the beam stem = 18
f
yt
= stirrup yield strength = 60,000 psi
f
y
= longitudinal steel yield strength = 60,000 psi
A
t
/s = 0.0068 (as previously calculated)
25 b
w
/f
yt
= 25(18)/60,000 = 0.0075
Therefore use A
t
/s = 0.0075


4.40
From ACI Equation (11-22) and (11-24) the additional longitudinal reinforcement
is determined as follows.
A

= (A
t
/s) p
h
(f
yt
/f
y
) cot
2
= 0.0075(70.0)(60,000/60,000)(1.0)
2
= 0.53 in
2

5f
c
(A
cp
/f
y
) (A
t
/s) p
h
(f
yt
/f
y
)
5f
c
(A
cp
/f
y
) (A
t
/s) p
h
(f
yt
/f
y
)
= 5 4000 (432.0/60,000) (0.0075)(70.0)(60,000/60,000)
= 2.28 0.53 = 1.75 in
2

Therefore, the additional longitudinal steel required for torsion is A

= 1.75 in
2
.
Requirements for the additional longitudinal reinforcement for torsion.
The additional longitudinal steel should be distributed at the corners of the
beam.
The spacing between those bars should be no greater than 12.
Where the spacing exceeds 12, provide additional longitudinal bars at the
mid-width or the mid-depth of the beam.
This longitudinal reinforcement is in addition to the reinforcement required
to resist the bending moments on the beam.

If the additional reinforcement is concentrated on the top and bottom layers,
the total areas of the top and bottom longitudinal reinforcement in the beam
are determined as follows.
A
s,top
= A
s,top
(due to bending) + (1.75)
= 0 + 0.88 = 0.88 in
2

A
s,bottom
= A
s,bottom
(due to bending) + (1.75)
= 6.95 + 0.88 = 7.83 in
2


For the beam in this example, the spacing of the longitudinal reinforcement
exceeds the maximum spacing of 12.
The center-to-center distance between rebars in the top row is
approximately 13 (assuming
#
5 rebars in the top row).
18 2(1.5 + 0.5 + 0.625/2) = 13.4
The center-to-center distance between the top and bottom rebars is
approximately 19 (assuming
#
5 bars in the top row and
#
10 bars in the
bottom row).
24 2(1.5 + 0.5) - 0.625/2 - 1.27/2 = 19.1


4.41
The additional longitudinal reinforcement is distributed as follows.
A
s,top
= A
s,top
(due to bending) + (1/3)(1.75)
= 0 + 0.58 = 0.58 in
2

A
s,midheight
= (1/3)(1.75) = 0.58 in
2

A
s,bottom
= A
s,bottom
(due to bending) + (1/3)(1.75)
= 6.95 + 0.58 = 7.53 in
2

The minimum diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement is the largest of the
following.
0.042s = 0.042 (8) = 0.34, or
3/8 (controls)
Use 3 -
#
4 bars at the top (A
s
= 0.60 in
2
)
Use 2 -
#
5 bars at mid-height (A
s
= 0.62 in
2
)
Use 6 -
#
10 bars at the bottom in one row (A
s
= 7.62 in
2
, b
min
= 18 < 24 OK)

10. Draw the details of the reinforcement.















5.1
Chapter 5: Development, Splices, and Simple-Span Bar Cutoffs

5.1 Development Length: Introduction
One of the fundamental assumptions of reinforced concrete design is that at the
contact surface between the concrete and steel bars, perfect bonding exists and
no slippage occurs.
Some form of bond stress exists at the contact surface between the concrete
and the steel bars.
- The actual distribution of bond stresses along the reinforcing steel is highly
complex (due to the presence of concrete cracks).
The high bond stress results in small local slips adjacent to the cracks.
- Generally, this is harmless as long as failure does not spread all along the bar
resulting in a complete loss of bond.
If end anchorage is reliable, the bond can be lost along the entire length of
the bar without compromising the load carrying capacity of the beam.
- The result is similar to a tied arch.

End anchorage is considered reliable if the bar is embedded in the concrete to a
prescribed distance (known as development length,
d
of the bar).
If the actual extended length of a bar in the beam is equal to or greater than
the required development length, no bond failure occurs.
If the actual length is inadequate for full development, special anchorages (e.g.
hooks) are be provided to ensure adequate strength.

Current design methods based on the ACI Code (318-08) require adequate length
of embedment.
In application, the development length concept requires minimum lengths or
extensions of reinforcement beyond all points of peak stress in the
reinforcement (ref. ACI Code Commentary, Section R12.1).
Adequate embedment ensures the development of the full strength of the bar.

5-2 Development Length: Tension Bars
The ACI Code (Section 12.2.1) specifies the development length
d
for deformed
bars and deformed wires in tension based on the following.
The development length
d
is determined using the criteria of the ACI Code,
Section 12.2.2, or
The general equation of Section 12.2.3, but
The development length
d
shall not be less than 12.

5.2
The criterion of Section 12.2.2 offers a simple, conservative approach that
recognizes commonly used practical construction techniques, but is not used by the
author of the textbook.

The equation of Section 12.2.3 (ACI Equation [12-1]) offers a simple approach that
allows the user to see the effect of all variables controlling the development
length.
Shorter development lengths are computed using ACI Equation (12-1) of Section
12.2.3.
The development length
d
computations used in the textbook are based on
Section 12.2.3, and the following equation.

d
= (3/40)(f
y
/ f
c
){
t

s
/[(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
]} d
b
(ACI Eq. [12-1])
where
(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
2.5

d
= development length (inches)
f
y
= specified yield strength of non-prestressed reinforcement (psi)
f
c
= specified compressive strength of concrete (psi)
The value of f
c
shall not exceed 100 psi (ACI Code, Section 12.1.2).
- This is only a concern when f
c
exceeds 10,000 psi.
d
b
= nominal diameter of bar or wire (inches)

The other factors used in the equation are defined as follows ( is the lowercase
Greek letter psi).
1.
t
is a reinforcement location factor that accounts for the position of the
reinforcement in freshly placed concrete.

t
= 1.3 where horizontal reinforcement is placed so that more than 12 of fresh
concrete is cast in the member below the development length or splice (ACI
Code, Section 12.2.4).
This condition lends itself to the formation of entrapped air and moisture
on the underside of the bars, resulting in partial loss of bond between
the concrete and steel.

t
= 1.0 for other reinforcement

2.
e
is a coating factor reflecting the effects of epoxy coating.
Studies of the anchorage of epoxy-coated bars show that bond strength is
reduced because the coating prevents adhesion and friction between the bar
and concrete.

5.3

e
= 1.5 for epoxy-coated reinforcement having cover less than 3d
b
or clear
spacing between the bars is less than 6d
b
.

e
= 1.2 for all other conditions using epoxy-coated reinforcement.

e
= 1.0 for uncoated and galvanized reinforcement.
The product of
t
and
e
is not to be greater than 1.7 (ACI Code, Section
12.2.4).

3.
s
is a reinforcement size factor.

s
= 0.8 where
#
6 and smaller bars are used.

s
= 1.0 where
#
7 and larger bars are used.

4. Lambda () is the lightweight-aggregate concrete factor.
For purposes of development length calculation where lightweight concrete
is used, shall not exceed 0.75 unless average f
ct
is specified, in which case
can be calculated (ref. Section 1-6 of the textbook).

5. The factor c
b
represents a spacing or cover dimension (inches).
The value of c
b
is the smaller of
- The distance from the center of the bar to the nearest concrete surface
(cover) or
- One-half the center-to-center spacing of the bars being developed
(spacing).
The bar spacing is the actual center-to-center spacing between the
bars if adjacent bars are being developed at the same location.
If an adjacent bar is developed at another location, then the spacing
used is greater than the actual spacing to the adjacent bar.
Example: In the figure below, the spacing for bars Y may be taken to
be the same as that for bars X, since bars Y are developed in length
AB, and bars X are developed at a location other than AB.









5.4
6. The transverse reinforcement index K
tr
is computed from
40A
tr
/s n
where
A
tr
= the total cross-sectional area of all transverse reinforcement that is
within the spacing s and that crosses the potential plane of splitting
through the reinforcement being developed (inches
2
).
s = the maximum center-to-center spacing of transverse reinforcement
within
d
.
n = the number of bars or wires being developed along the plane of splitting.

To simplify the design, the ACI Code permits the use of K
tr
= 0.
This is conservative and may be used even if transverse reinforcement is
present.

To simplify development length calculations, a portion of ACI Equation (12-1) is
designated as K
D
where
K
D
= (3/40)(f
y
/f
c
)
So ACI Equation (12-1) equation becomes

d
= (3/40)(f
y
/ f
c
){
t

s
/[(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
]} d
b

= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
]} d
b

Values of K
D
of various combinations of f
y
and f
c
are tabulated in Table 5-1
(p. 167 of the textbook).

A reduction in the development length
d
is permitted where reinforcement is in
excess of that required by analysis, except
Where anchorage or development for f
y
is specifically required, or
Where the design includes provisions for seismic considerations.

The reduction factor (designated K
ER
) does not apply to
Development of positive moment reinforcement at supports (ACI Code, Section
12.11.2) or
Development of shrinkage and temperature reinforcement (ACI Code, Section
7.12.2.3).




5.5
The excess reduction factor K
ER
may be calculated from the following equation and
applied to the development length
d
computed from ACI Equation (12-1).
K
ER
= A
s
required/A
s
provided

Bundled bars
Bundled bars consist of a group of not more than four parallel reinforcing bars in
contact with each other and assumed to act as a unit.

When bundles are used, the ACI Code (Section 12.4) requires that the calculated
development lengths be made for individual bars within a bundle (either in tension
or compression) and then increased by the following amounts.
By 20% for three-bar bundles and
By 33% for four-bar bundles.

For determining the appropriate factors, a unit of bundled bars is treated as a
single bar of a diameter derived from the equivalent total area.

Additional criteria for bundled bars are furnished in the ACI Code (Section 7.6.6).


5.6
Summary of Procedures for Calculation of
d
using ACI Equation (12-1)
1. Determine K
D
from Table 5-1 (p. 167 of the textbook).

2. Determine applicable factors.
a. Reinforcement location factor.

t
= 1.3 for top reinforcement, when applicable.

t
= 1.0 for other reinforcement
b. Coating factor
e
applies only to epoxy-coated bars.
a.
e
= 1.5 for epoxy-coated reinforcement having cover less than 3d
b
or
clear spacing between the bars is less than 6d
b
.
b.
e
= 1.2 for all other conditions using epoxy-coated reinforcement.
c.
e
= 1.0 for uncoated and galvanized reinforcement.
c. Reinforcement size factor.

s
= 0.8 for
#
6 bars and smaller.

s
= 1.0 for
#
7 bars and larger.
d. Light-weight concrete aggregate factor.
= 1.0 for normal-weight concrete.
= 0.75 for lightweight concrete with f
ct
not specified.
= f
ct
/(6.7f
c
) 1.0 for lightweight concrete with f
ct
specified.

3. Check
t

e
1.7.

4. Determine c
b
, the smaller of cover or half-spacing (both referenced to the
center of the bar).

5. Check K
tr
= 40A
tr
/(s n), or use K
tr
= 0 (conservative).

6. Check (c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
2.5.

7. Calculate K
ER
if applicable.
K
ER
= A
s
required/A
s
provided

8. Calculate
d
.

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+K
tr
)/d
b
]} K
ER
d
b



5.7
Example Development Length: Tension Bars

Example 5-1 (p. 168 of the textbook)

Given: Partial cross section shown.
More than 12 of concrete is cast
below the
#
8 bars.
Concrete is light-weight.
f
y
= 60,000 psi
f
c
= 4000 psi
All bars are uncoated.
f
ct
is not specified.

Find: The tensile development length
d
required for the
#
8 top bars.
Solution
Use ACI Equation (12-1) and follow the eight-step procedure outlined below.
1. Determine K
D
.
From Table 5-1, K
D
= 71.2 for f
c
= 4000 psi and f
y
= 60,000 psi

2. Establish values for the factors
t
,
e
,
s
, and .
a.
t
= 1.3 (The bars are top bars.)
b.
e
= 1.0 (The bars are not coated.)
c.
s
= 1.0 (The bars are
#
8.)
d. = 0.75 (Lightweight concrete is used and f
ct
is not specified.)

3. Check
t

e
1.7

t

e
= 1.3 (1.0) = 1.3 < 1.7 OK

4. Determine c
b
.
Based on cover (center of bar to nearest concrete surface):
c
b
= 2 (cover) + 0.5 (#4 stirrup)
+ 1.0/2 (one-half of the diameter of the
#
8)
c
b
= 3.0
Based on bar spacing (one-half the center-to-center distance):
c
b
= [3.0 (clear) + 2(1.0/2) (one-half of the diameter of the
#
8)]
c
b
= 2.0
Therefore, c
b
= 2.0

5.8
5. Check K
tr
= 40A
tr
/(s n)
In the absence of information needed for the calculation, use K
tr
= 0.

6. Check (c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
2.5
(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
= (2.0 + 0)/1.0 = 2.0 < 2.5 OK

7. Calculate K
ER
if applicable.
The excess reinforcement factor is assumed not applicable.

8. Calculate
d
.

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+K
tr
)/d
b
]} K
ER
d
b

= (71.2/0.75)[(1.3)(1.0)(1.0)/2.0] (1.0)(1.0)

d
= 61.7 > 12 OK


5.9
Example Development Length: Tension Bars

Problem 5-1 (p. 193 of the textbook)

Given: The T-beam section shown
(taken from Figure 3-11, p. 87 of
the textbook).
Concrete is normal weight.
f
y
= 60,000 psi
f
c
= 3000 psi
All bars are uncoated.
f
ct
is not specified.

Find: The tensile development length
d
required for the
#
8 bottom bars.

Solution

Use ACI Equation (12-1) and follow the eight-step procedure outlined below.
1. Determine K
D
.
From Table 5-1, K
D
= 82.2 for f
c
= 3000 psi and f
y
= 60,000 psi

2. Establish values for the factors
t
,
e
,
s
, and .
a.
t
= 1.0 (The bars are bottom bars with less than 12 of concrete cast
below.)
b.
e
= 1.0 (The bars are not coated.)
c.
s
= 1.0 (The bars are
#
8.)
d. = 1.0 (Normal weight concrete is used.)

3. Check
t

e
1.7

t

e
= 1.0 (1.0) = 1.0 < 1.7 OK

4. Determine c
b
.
Based on cover (center of bar to nearest concrete surface):
c
b
= 1.5 (cover) + 0.375 (#3 stirrup)
+ 1.0/2 (one-half of the diameter of the
#
8)
c
b
= 2.38



5.10
Based on bar spacing (one-half the center-to-center distance):
c
b
= {(1/3)[12 2(1.5 + 0.375 + 0.5)]}
c
b
= 1.21
Therefore, c
b
= 1.21

5. Check K
tr
= 40A
tr
/(s n)
A
tr
= 2(0.11) = 0.22 in
2

s = 8 (spacing of stirrups)
n = 4 (the number of longitudinal bars)
K
tr
= 40A
tr
/(s n) = 40(0.22)/(8)(4) = 0.275

6. Check (c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
2.5
(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
= (1.21 + 0.275)/1.0 = 1.485 < 2.5 OK

7. Calculate K
ER
.
A
s
required = 3.14 in
2
(ref. p. 86 of the textbook)
A
s
provided = 4 (0.79) = 3.16 in
2

K
ER
= A
s
required/A
s
provided = 3.14/3.16 = 0.994

8. Calculate
d
.

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+K
tr
)/d
b
]} K
ER
d
b

= (82.2/1.0)[(1.0)(1.0)(1.0)/1.485] (0.994)(1.0)

d
= 55.0 > 12 OK


5.11
5-3 Development Length: Compression Bars
Tension bars produce flexural tension cracking in the concrete.
Flexural tension cracking is not a concern with compression bars.
As a result, shorter development lengths are allowed for compression bars.

The development length
dc
(inches) for deformed bars in compression is the larger
of the following.

dc
= (0.02 f
y
/ f
c
) d
b
, or

dc
= 0.0003 f
y
d
b
ACI Code (Section 12.3.2)
The value of
dc
shall not be less than 8 inches (ACI Code, Section 12.3.1).

Table A-12 (p. 496 of the textbook) gives values of
dc
(inches) for various values
of f
c
, using f
y
= 60,000 psi, and = 1.0.

The required development length for compression bars may be reduced by
multiplying
dc
by the following modification factors (per ACI Code, Section 12.3.3).
1. Reinforcement in excess of that required.
A
s
required/A
s
provided
2. A reduction factor = 0.75 may be used when
Bars are enclosed within a spiral that is not less than in diameter and not
more than 4 in pitch, or
Bars are enclosed within
#
4 ties in conformance with ACI (Section 7.10.5),
and spaced not more than 4 on center.

5-4 Development Length: Standard Hooks in Tension
If the required development length in tension cannot be achieved along the length
of the bars, mechanical anchorage must be provided at the end of the bars.
ACI Code (Section 12.6) allows any mechanical device to serve as anchorage if
its adequacy is verified by testing.
Anchorage for tension reinforcement is usually accomplished using 90 or 180
hooks.
- The dimensions and bend radii for hooks have been standardized by the ACI
Code (ref. Figure 5-5, p. 174 of the textbook).
Bend diameters are measured to the inside of the bar.
The 90 and 135 hooks have been standardized for stirrups and tie
reinforcement.

5.12
Hooks are not considered effective in developing bars in compression and
cannot be used as anchorage. ACI Code (Section 12.5.5)

The development length
dh
(inches) for deformed bars in tension terminating in a
standard hook is

dh
= [ 0.02
e
f
y
/ f
c
] d
b
ACI Code (Section 12.5.2)
where

e
= 1.2 for epoxy-coated reinforcing (
e
= 1.0 otherwise).
= 0.75 for lightweight concrete ( = 1.0 otherwise).
The development length
dh
is measured from the critical section to the outside
end (or edge) of the hook.
The final development length
dh
shall not be less than 8d
b
nor less than 6
(ACI, Section 12.5.1).

Table A-13 (p. 496 of the textbook) gives values of
dh
(inches) for various values
of f
c
, using f
y
= 60,000 psi,
e
= 1.0, and = 1.0.

The required development length
dh
for deformed bars in tension terminating in a
standard hook may be reduced by the following modification factors (per ACI
Code, Section 12.5.3).
Cover (modification factor = 0.7)
- For bars
#
11 and smaller, with side cover (normal to the plane of the hook)
not less than 2.
- For a 90 hook with cover on the bar extension beyond the hook not less
than 2.
Enclosed 90 hooks (modification factor = 0.8)
- For hooks of
#
11 and smaller bars enclosed within ties or stirrups
perpendicular to the bar being developed, spaced not more than 3d
b
along
dh

(ref. similar to Figure 5-6, p. 175 of the textbook).
- For hooks of
#
11 and smaller bars enclosed within ties or stirrups parallel to
the bar being developed, spaced not more than 3d
b
along the length of the
tail extension of the hook plus the bend.
Enclosed 180 hooks (modification factor = 0.8)
- For hooks of
#
11 and smaller bars enclosed within ties or stirrups
perpendicular to the bar being developed, spaced not more than 3d
b
along
dh

of the hook (ref. Figure 5-6, p. 175 of the textbook).

5.13
Where anchorage or development of f
y
is not specifically required,
reinforcement in excess of that required by analysis.
Modification factor = A
s(required)
/A
s(provided)

where
d
b
= the diameter of the hooked bar
For the 90 and 180 hook, the first tie or stirrup must enclose the bent
portion of the hook, within 2d
b
of the outside of the bend (ref. Figure 5-6,
p. 175 of the textbook).

The ACI Code (Section 12.5.4) establishes criteria for hooked bars that terminate
at the discontinuous ends of members with both side cover and top (or bottom)
cover over the hook less than 2.
Bar hooks are especially susceptible to a concrete splitting failure if both side
cover (normal to the plane of the hook) and top or bottom cover (parallel to the
plane of the hook) are small, as stated in the ACI Code Commentary (Section
R12.5.4)
- With minimum confinement provided by concrete, additional confinement
provided by ties or stirrups is essential, especially if full bar strength should
be developed by a hooked bar with such small cover.
Cases where hooks may require ties or stirrups for confinement at
discontinuous ends of members include
- Simply supported beams.
- Free ends of cantilevers, and
- The ends of members that frame into a joint where the member does not
extend beyond the joint.
Provisions for hooked bars that terminate at the discontinuous ends of
members require
- The hooked bar must be enclosed within ties or stirrups, perpendicular to
the bar being developed, spaced at not greater than 3d
b
along the developed
length
dh
.
- The first tie or stirrup must enclose the bent portion of the hook, within
2d
b
of the outside of the bend.
- The modification factors of ACI Section 12.5.3 do not apply.
This provision does not apply for hooked bars at the discontinuous ends of slabs
with concrete confinement provided by the slab continuous on both sides
perpendicular to the plane of the hook.

5.14
Example Development Length: Standard Hooks in Tension

Example 5-4 (p. 175 of the textbook)

Given: Tension (top) bars (
#
8) shown.
Bars are uncoated.
Normal weight concrete.
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
Side cover = 2







Find: Determine the anchorage or development length required.

Solution

Determine the required development length for the top bars into the exterior
column.
The critical section for development is at the face of the column.

1. From Table 5-1 (p. 167 of the textbook), K
D
= 82.2

2. Establish values for the factors
a.
t
= 1.3 (the bars are top bars with more than 12 of concrete below)
b.
e
= 1.0 (the bars are uncoated)
c.
s
= 1.0 (the bars are
#
8 bars)
d. = 1.0 (normal weight concrete)

3. The product
t
x
e
= 1.3 (1.0) = 1.3 < 1.7 OK

4. Determine c
b
.
Based on cover (center of bar to nearest concrete surface):
c
b
= 2.0 (cover) + 0.5 (stirrup) + 1.0/2 (
#
8 bar) = 3.0

5.15
Based on bar spacing (one-half the center-to-center distance):
c
b
= [14 - 2(2.0 + 0.5 + 1.0/2)]/2 = 2.0
Use c
b
= 2.0

5. K
tr
= 0.
There are no stirrups (transverse reinforcement) in the column (plane of
splitting).

6. Check (c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
2.5.
(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
= (2.0 + 0)/1.0 = 2.0 < 2.5 OK

7. The excess reinforcement factor is omitted.

8. Calculate
d
.

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
]} d
b


d
= (82.2/1.0)[(1.3)(1.0)(1.0)/2.0](1.0) = 53.4 > 12 OK
Because 53.4 > 21.5, the column width less 2 cover, try a standard 180
hook.

Determine the anchorage using the standard 180 hook shown below.
1. The development length
dh
for the hook is calculated from the following
equation.

dh
= (0.02
e
f
y
/ f
c
) d
b

Establish values for the factors
a.
e
= 1.0 (the bars are uncoated)
b. f
y
= 60,000 psi
c. = 1.0 (normal weight concrete)
d. f
c
= 3000 psi
e. d
b
= 1.0 (the diameter of the
bar being developed)

dh
= (0.02
e
f
y
/ f
c
) d
b
= [0.02(1.0)(60,000)/(1.0) 3000 ](1.0) = 21.9
Compare this value with the value listed in Table A-13 (p. 496 of the textbook).

2. The only applicable modification factor is based on side cover (normal to the
plane of the hook) of 2 inches.
Use a modification factor of 0.7 (ACI Code, Section 12.5.3a).

5.16
3. The required development length is

dh
= 21.9 (0.7) = 15.33
Check minimum
dh
(minimum
dh
= 8d
b
, or 6):
8 d
b
= 8(1.0) = 8.0 < 15.33 OK
The minimum width of column required is
15.33 + 2.5 (cover) = 17.83 < 24
Therefore, the hook will fit into the column and the detail is satisfactory.

Anchorage into the beam: The development length required if bars are straight is
(conservatively) 53.4, as determined previously.
The bars must be extended at least this distance into the span.
The ACI Code has additional requirements for the extension of tension bars
into areas of negative moments (discussed in Chapter 6).


5.17
Example Development Length: Standard Hooks in Tension

Problem 5-7 (p. 195 of the textbook)

Given: Tension (top) bars (
#
10) shown.
Bars are uncoated.
Normal weight concrete.
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
Side cover = 2
Clear space = 3


Find: Determine the anchorage or development length required.

Solution

Anchorage of top bars into the exterior column.
1. From Table 5-1 (p. 167 of the textbook), K
D
= 71.2

2. Establish values for the factors
a.
t
= 1.3 (the bars are top bars with more than 12 of concrete below)
b.
e
= 1.0 (the bars are uncoated)
c.
s
= 1.0 (the bars are
#
10 bars)
d. = 1.0 (normal weight concrete)

3. The product
t
x
e
= 1.3(1.0) = 1.3 < 1.7 OK

4. Determine c
b
.
Based on cover (center of bar to nearest concrete surface),
c
b
= 2.0 (cover) + 1.27/2 (
#
10 bar) = 2.64
Based on bar spacing (one-half the center-to-center distance),
c
b
= (3.0 + 1.27)/2 = 2.14
Use c
b
= 2.14
5. K
tr
= 0.
There are no stirrups (transverse reinforcement) in the column (plane of
splitting).

5.18
6. Check (c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
2.5.
(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
= (2.14 + 0)/1.27 = 1.69 < 2.5 OK

7. The excess reinforcement factor is omitted.

8. Calculate
d
.

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
]} d
b


d
= (71.2/1.0)[(1.3)(1.0)(1.0)/1.69](1.27) = 69.6 > 12 OK
Because 69.6 > 4-1 (49.5), the column width less 1 cover, try a standard
180 hook.

Determine the anchorage using the standard 180 hook shown below.
1. The development length
dh
for the hook is calculated from

dh
= (0.02
e
f
y
/ f
c
) d
b

Establish values for the factors
a.
e
= 1.0 (the bars are uncoated)
b. f
y
= 60,000 psi
c. = 1.0 (normal weight concrete)
d. f
c
= 4000 psi
e. d
b
= 1.27 (the diameter of the bar
being developed)

dh
= (0.02
e
f
y
/ f
c
) d
b
= [0.02(1.0)(60,000)/(1.0) 4000 ](1.27) = 24.1
Compare this value with the value listed in Table A-13 (p. 496 of the textbook).

2. The only applicable modification factor is based on side cover (normal to the
plane of the hook) of 2 inches.
Use a modification factor of 0.7 (ACI Code, Section 12.5.3a).

3. The required development length is then calculated from

dh
= 24.1 (0.7) = 16.9
Check minimum
dh
(minimum
dh
= 8d
b
, or 6):
8 d
b
= 8(1.27) = 10.2 < 16.9
The minimum width of column required is
16.9 + 1.5 (cover) = 18.4 < 4 3 (51)
Therefore, the hook will fit into the column and the detail is satisfactory.

5.19
5-5 Development of Web Reinforcement
Anchorage of web reinforcement must be furnished in accordance with the ACI
Code (Section 12.13).
Stirrups must be carried as close to the compression and tension surfaces as
possible because near ultimate load the flexural tension cracks penetrate
deeply. ACI Code Commentary (Section R12.13.1)

The ends of single leg, simple U-, or multiple U-stirrups must be anchored by one
of the following methods (ref. Figure 5-9, p. 179 of the textbook).
1. For
#
5 and smaller bars, and for
#
6,
#
7 and
#
8 bars of f
y
equal to 40,000 psi or
less, anchorage is provided by a standard hook, bent around a longitudinal
reinforcing bar (ACI Code, Section 12.13.2.1).
2. For
#
6,
#
7, and
#
8 stirrups with f
y
greater than 40,000 psi, anchorage is
provided by a standard stirrup hook bent around a longitudinal bar plus an
embedment between mid-height of the member and the outside end of the hook
equal to or greater than
0.014 d
b
[f
y
/( f
c
)] (ACI Code, Section 12.13.2.2)
- A 135 or a 180 hook is preferred, but a 90 hook is acceptable if the free
end of the hook is extended the full 12d
b
. ACI Code Commentary (Section
R12.13.2.2).

ACI standard hooks for ties and stirrups, as shown in Figure 5-9 (p. 179 of the
textbook) include 90 and 135 hooks only.
The 180 hook is acceptable.
The 135 hook is easier to fabricate.
Many stirrup-bending machines now in use are not designed to fabricate a 180
hook.
The anchorage strength of a 135 and 180 hook is approximately the same.

The ACI Code (Section 12.13.5) establishes criteria with respect to lapping of
double U-stirrups or ties (without hooks) to form a closed stirrup.
Legs are considered properly spliced when the lengths of the lap are 1.3
d
, as
depicted in Figure 5-9c (p. 179 of the textbook).
Each bend of each simple U-stirrup must enclose a longitudinal bar.
If the lap of 1.3
d
cannot fit within the depth of a shallow member (provided
that the depth of the member is at least 18), then double U-stirrups may be
used if

5.20
- Each U-stirrup extends the full available depth of the member, and
- The force in each leg of the U-stirrup does not exceed 9000 pounds
(i.e. A
b
f
y
9000 lb), where A
b
is the area of the individual bar or wire.

When torsional reinforcing is required, a commonly used alternative stirrup is the
one-piece closed stirrup (ref. Figure 5-10, p. 180 of the textbook).
The use of the one-piece closed stirrup, however, has its disadvantages.
- The entire beam reinforcing (longitudinal steel and stirrups) may have to be
prefabricated as a cage and then placed as a unit.
This may not be practical if the longitudinal bars have to be passed
between column bars.
- Alternatively, and at a greater cost, the longitudinal bars could be threaded
through the closed stirrups and column bars.

Transverse torsional reinforcement must be anchored by one of the following (per
ACI Code, Section 11.5.4.2).
The use of 135 standard hooks around a longitudinal bar.
If spalling of the member at transverse torsional reinforcement anchorage
(hooks) is restrained by a flange, slab, or similar member, then
- For
#
5 and smaller bars, and for
#
6,
#
7 and
#
8 bars of f
y
equal to 40,000 psi
or less, the use of 90 standard hooks bent around a longitudinal reinforcing
bar (as depicted in Figure 5-10, p. 180 of the textbook) is allowed.
(ACI Code, Section 12.13.2.1)
- For
#
6,
#
7, and
#
8 stirrups with f
y
greater than 40,000 psi, anchorage is
provided by a standard stirrup hook bent around a longitudinal bar plus an
embedment between mid-height of the member and the outside end of the
hook equal to or greater than
0.014 d
b
[f
y
/( f
c
)] (ACI Code, Section 12.13.2.2)
- ACI Code, Sections 12.13.2.3 and 12.13.2.4 specify the requirements for
welded plain wire reinforcement forming simple U-stirrups.

5.21
5-6 Splices
The need to splice reinforcing steel is a reality due to the limited lengths of steel
bars that are available.
All bars are available in lengths up to 60 feet.

#
3 and
#
4 bars tend to bend in handling when longer than 40 feet.
Typical stock straight lengths are:
- For
#
3 bars: 20, 40, and 60 feet.
- For
#
4 bars: 30, 40, and 60 feet.
- For
#
5 to
#
18 bars: 60 feet.

Splicing may be accomplished by
Welding
Mechanical means
- Example: Patented devices available from BarSplice Products, Inc. (Dayton,
Ohio) include as
ZAP Screw-lok System
BPI-GRIP (BarGrip) System
Grip-Twist System
BPI Barsplice System
Lapping bars is the most common way of splicing
#
11 bars and smaller, (ref.
Figure 5-11, p. 181 of the textbook).
- The splice consisting of lapped bars is more economical than the other types
of splices (considering labor and material costs of the other types of
splices).
- Lapped bars are commonly tied together.
- Lapped bars may be spaced apart up to one-fifth of the lap length, with an
upper limit of 6 inches.
- Splices in regions of maximum moment should be avoided.

The ACI Code (Section 1.2.1) requires that the design drawings show
The location and length of lap splices, and
The type and location of mechanical and welded splices.


5.22
5-7 Tension Splices
The ACI Code (Section 12.15.1) specifies the length of lap for tension splices based
on the class (i.e. Class A or Class B) in which the splice is categorized.
According to ACI Code (Section 12.15.2), lap splices of deformed bars and
deformed wire in tension are Class B splices, except Class A splices are
allowed when
- The area of reinforcement provided is at least twice that required by
analysis for the entire length of the splice and
- One-half or less of the total reinforcement is spliced within the required lap
length.

The length of lap for tension splices are
Class A splice: lap length = 1.0
d

Class B splice: lap length = 1.3
d

where

d
= the tensile development length of the bar (per ACI Code, Section 12.2)
Notes regarding the determination of the tensile development length
d
for this
application:
The 12 minimum for the
d
calculation is not considered.
The excess reinforcement factor is not considered for tension splices.
- The splice classification already reflects any excess reinforcement at
the splice location.

Other requirements for tension lap splices:
The minimum length of lap for tension lap splices is 12.
Splices must be staggered at least 24 (ACI Code, Section 12.15.5.1).

Requirements for mechanical and welded splices for tensile reinforcement are
contained in ACI Code (Sections 12.14.3 and 12.15).

5-8 Compression Splices
The ACI Code (Section 12.16.1) contains the requirements for the length of lap
splices for compression bars.
For f
c
3000 psi, the following lap lengths, in multiples of bar diameters d
b
, are
required.
- f
y
= 40,000 psi: 20 d
b

- f
y
= 60,000 psi: 30 d
b

- f
y
= 75,000 psi: 44 d
b


5.23
- Lap lengths must not be less than 12 inches.
For f
c
< 3000 psi, the length of the lap must be increased by one-third.

Lap splices may not be used for bars larger than
#
11, except for compression
splices of bars of different sizes (per ACI Code, Section 12.16.2).
When bars of different sizes are lap spliced in compression, the splice length
must be the larger of the compression development length
dc
of the larger bar,
or the compression lap splice length of the smaller bar.
where

dc
= the compression development length of the bar (per ACI Code,
Section 12.3)
Lap splices of
#
14 and
#
18 bars to
#
11 and smaller bars are permitted.

Requirements for mechanical and welded splices for compressive reinforcement are
contained in ACI Code (Sections 12.16.3).

End-bearing splices (ACI Code, Section 12.16.4): Compression splices may also be of
the end-bearing type, where bars are cut square, then butted together and held in
concentric contact by a suitable device.
End-bearing splices must not be used except in members containing closed ties,
closed stirrups, or spirals.
Welded splices and mechanical connections are acceptable and are subject to
the requirements of the ACI Code (Section 12.16).

Splice requirements for columns: Special splice requirements for columns are
specified by the ACI Code (Section 12.17).
For bars in compression, lap splices shall conform to ACI Code (Section 12.16.1
and 12.16.2) for compression splices.
In certain tied reinforced compression members, lap splice length of bars
within a tie may be multiplied by 0.83, but lap length must not be less than 12.
- The ties throughout the lap splice length must have an effective area not
less than 0.0015hs in both directions (ref. ACI Code, Section 12.17.2.4),
where
h = overall dimension of the member
s = the spacing of the ties
In spirally reinforced compression members, lap splice length of bars within a
spiral may be multiplied by 0.75, but lap length must not be less than 12.


5.24
Example Compression Splices

Problem 5-11 (p. 196 of the textbook)

Given: Spirally reinforced column with
#
9 compression bars.
No excess steel
Bars are enclosed by a 3/8 dia. spiral with 3 pitch
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: The required length of lap.

Solution

f
c
= 4000 psi > 3000 psi and f
y
= 60,000 psi
Thus, the splice length = 30 d
b


The modification factor (MF) for spirally reinforced compression members is 0.75.

Required compression lap splice length = 30 d
b
x MF 12
= (30 d
b
) 0.75
= (30)(1.128) 0.75 = 25.4 > 12
Required compression lap splice length = 25.4

5.25
5-9 Simple-Span Bar Cutoffs and Bends
The maximum required A
s
for a beam is needed only where the moment is maximum.
This maximum steel may be reduced at points along a bending member where
the bending moment is smaller.
Economy sometimes dictates that reinforcing steel be cutoff in a simple span.
Reducing the steel area is usually accomplished by stopping or bending the bars
in a manner consistent with the following.
- The theoretical requirements for the strength of the member.
- The requirements of the ACI Code.

Bars can be theoretically stopped or bent in flexural members whenever they are
no longer needed to resist moment.
The ACI Code (Section 12.10.3) requires that each bar be extended beyond the
point at which the bar is no longer required for flexure as follows.
- For a distance equal to the effective depth of the member, or for a distance
equal to 12 d
b
, whichever is greater.
- The bar extensions do not apply at the supports of simple spans and at free
ends of cantilevers.
The required bar extensions do not allow the bars to be cut off at the
theoretical cutoff point, but the bars may be bent at the theoretical cutoff
point.
- If bars are bent, a general practice is to begin the bend at a distance equal
to one-half the effective depth beyond the theoretical cutoff point.
- The bent bar should be anchored or made continuous with reinforcement on
the opposite face of the member.
- The bending of reinforcing bars in slabs and beams to create truss bars
(ref. Types 3 through 7, Figure 13-4, p. 472 of the textbook) has fallen into
disfavor over the years because of placement problems and the labor
involved.

In determining bar cutoffs, the stopping of bars should be performed using a
symmetrical pattern so that the remaining bars will also be in a symmetrical
pattern.
For simple spans, the ACI Code (Section 12.11.1) requires that at least one-third
of the positive steel extend into the support a distance of 6.
- In practice, this requirement is usually exceeded.

5.26
- For single span solid concrete slabs, all bottom bars should extend into the
support.
- Figure 5-12 (p. 183 of the textbook) shows recommended bar details.

5.27
Example Simple Span Bar Cutoffs

Example 5-5 (p. 183 of the textbook)

Given: A simple-span, uniformly loaded beam.
w
u
= 3.611 kip/ft
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
Assume there is no excess steel.
Normal-weight concrete.
Stirrups extend to the end of the beam
at the support.
Bars are uncoated.

Find: Bar cutoff locations.

Solution

Bar cutoff scheme:
The two center bars are cut first.
The other two inside bars will be
cut next.
The two corner bars are to run the
full length of the beam.




Check the minimum steel requirement.
From Table A-5, (A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 b d = 0.0033(16.5)(18) = 0.98 in
2


The two corner bars provide a steel area of 1.20 in
2
(2 bars each with an area of
0.60 in
2
).
By running the two corner bars the full length of the beam, the minimum steel
requirement is met.
By running the two corner bars the full length of the beam, the requirement for
one-third of the positive steel to extend into the support is met.

5.28
The first two bars may be cutoff where only four bars are required.
Find the value for M
n
(which equals M
u
) for 4 bars and the location for this
calculated M
n
value.
The value for M
n
will be determined using the coefficient of resistance k .

1. Determine the steel ratio .
= A
s
/b d = 4(0.60)/16.5(18) = 0.0081

2. Using Table A-10, determine the corresponding value of k .
k = 0.4513 and
t
> 0.005; thus = 0.90 (tension-controlled section)

3. Calculate the practical moment strength M
n
(which equals M
u
) for 4 bars.
M
u
= M
n
= b d
2
k
= 0.90 (16.5) (18)
2
(0.4513)
M
u
= M
n
= 2171.4 kip-inch (180.95 kip-ft)

4. Determine the location for M
u
= 180.95 kip-ft.
M
cut
= 0 = - 43.33 x + 180.95
+ 3.611 (x) (x/2)
0 = - 43.33 x + 180.95 + 1.806 x
2

1.806 x
2
43.33 x + 180.95 = 0

x = - (- 43.33) [(43.33)
2
4(1.806)(180.95)]
1/2

2(1.806)
x = (1/3.612)(43.33 23.88)
x = 5.38, 18.61
Use x = 5.38 (6.62 from the centerline of the span)

This locates the theoretical cutoff point where the first two bars may be
terminated.
The bars must be extended past this point a distance d or 12 d
b
, whichever
is larger.
12 d
b
= 12 (7/8) = 10.5
d = 18
The bars must be extended 18 past the theoretical cut off point.


5.29
The minimum distance from the centerline of the span to the cutoff of the
first two bars is
6.62 + 1.50 = 8.12

The next two bars may be cutoff where only two bars are required.
Find the value for M
n
(which equals M
u
) for 2 bars and the location for this
calculated M
n
value.
The value for M
n
will be determined using the coefficient of resistance k .

1. Determine the steel ratio .
= A
s
/bd = 2(0.60)/16.5(18) = 0.0040

2. Using Table A-10, determine the corresponding value of k .
k = 0.2315 and
t
> 0.005; thus = 0.90 (tension-controlled section)

3. Calculate the practical moment strength M
n
(which equals M
u
) for 2 bars.
M
u
= M
n
= b d
2
k
= 0.90 (16.5) (18)
2
(0.2315)
M
u
= M
n
= 1113.8 kip-inch (92.8 kip-ft)

4. Determine the location for M
u
= 92.8 kip-ft.
M
cut
= 0 = - 43.33 x + 92.8
+ 3.611 (x) (x/2)
0 = - 43.33 x + 92.8 + 1.806 x
2

1.806 x
2
43.33 x + 92.8 = 0

x = - (- 43.33) [(43.33)
2
4(1.806)(92.8)]
1/2

2(1.806)
x = (1/3.612)(43.33 34.74)
x = 2.38, 21.61
Use x = 2.38 (9.62 from the centerline of the span)

This locates the theoretical cutoff point where the next two bars may be
terminated.
The bars must be extended past this point a distance d or 12 d
b
, whichever is
larger.
12 d
b
= 12 (7/8) = 10.5

5.30
d = 18
The bars must be extended 18 past the theoretical cut off point.

The minimum distance from the centerline of the span to the cutoff of the
next two bars is
9.62 + 1.50 = 11.12

A check must be made of the required development length
d
for the first two
bars.
Because the bar cutoff occurs 8.12 from the centerline of the span, the
development length
d
must be less than 8.12 for the critical section at the
centerline.
a. From Table 5-1, K
D
= 71.2.
b. Establish values for the factors
t
,
e
,
s
, and .
1.
t
= 1.0 (the bars are not top bars).
2.
e
= 1.0 (the bars are not coated).
3.
s
= 1.0 (the bars are
#
7).
4. = 1.0 (normal-weight concrete is used).
c. The product
t
x
e
= 1.0 < 1.7 OK
d. Determine c
b

Based on cover (center of bar to the nearest concrete surface),
c
b
= 1.5 + 0.5 (stirrups) + 0.875/2 (
#
7 bar) = 2.44
Based on bar spacing (one-half the center-to-center distance),
c
b
= {16.5 2[1.5 + 0.5 + 0.875/2]}/5 = 1.163
Therefore, c
b
= 1.163
e. Determine K
tr
using data on the stirrups.
K
tr
= 40A
tr
/sn
A
tr
= 2(0.20) = 0.40 in
2
(area of the two legs of the stirrup)
s = 9 (stirrup spacing)
n = 2 (number of bars being developed = the two bars being cut)
K
tr
= 40A
tr
/sn = (40)(0.40)/9(2) = 0.889
f. Check (c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b

(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
= (1.163 + 0.889)/0.875 = 2.35 < 2.5 OK
g. The excess reinforcement factor is omitted, since no excess steel is
assumed.

5.31
h. Calculate
d
.

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
]}d
b

= (71.2/1.0)[(1.0)(1.0)(1.0)/2.35](0.875) = 26.5 (2.21)

The required tensile development length (2.21) is much less than the
distance from the centerline of the span to the actual cutoff point (8.12).
The cutoff for the first two bars is satisfactory.

Similarly, a check must be made of the required development length
d
for the
second two bars.
The theoretical cutoff point is 9.62 from the centerline of the span.
- The minimum distance from the centerline of the span to the actual cutoff
is 11.12.

d
can be conservatively taken as 2.21.
- c
b
, based on bar spacing, is larger for these two bars than for the first two
cut bars since there are four bars at this location rather than six bars (so
the bar spacing is greater).
The point to which the second two bars are stressed to a maximum (i.e. the
theoretical cutoff point for the first two bars) is 6.62 from the centerline of
the span.
- The second two bars must extend at least
d
past the cutoff point for the
first two bars.
- Measured from the centerline of the span, the bars must extend at least
6.62 + 2.21 = 8.83
Because this is less than the actual distance to the cutoff point (11.12), the
cutoff for the second pair is satisfactory.

The remaining pair of corner bars (representing one-third of the positive moment
steel) must continue into the support.
The critical section for the corner bars is a distance of 9.62 from the
centerline of the span (i.e. the theoretical cutoff for the second two bars).
The development length of these bars must be satisfied from the end of the
bar back to the critical section.
- The required development length is 2.21.
- The available straight development length is
12 (half-span) + 6 (half of the bearing) 9.62 1.5 (clearance)
= 144 + 6 115.4 1.5 = 33.1 (2.76)

5.32
Because 2.76 > 2.21, adequate development length is available.

If the available development length was not adequate, one of two solutions could be
used.
Provide a standard 180 hook at the end of each of the two corner bars, or
Extend all four of the outside bars to the end of the beam (thereby cutting
only the two center bars).













5.33
The ACI Code (Section 12.10.5) does not permit flexural reinforcement to be
terminated in a tension zone unless special conditions are satisfied.
When bars terminate in a tension zone (such as those in Example 5-5), the
member undergoes a reduction in shear capacity and loss of ductility.
Flexural cracks tend to open early whenever any reinforcement is terminated in
a tension zone.
- The cracks are less likely to develop where the shear stress is low.
No flexural reinforcement may be terminated in a tension zone unless one of
the following conditions is satisfied.
- Section 12.10.5.1: Factored shear at the cutoff point does not exceed two-
thirds of the design shear strength V
n
, written as
V
u
(2/3) (V
c
+ V
s
)
- Section 12.10.5.2: Stirrup area
in excess of that required for
shear and torsion is provided
along each terminated bar over
a distance equal to three-
fourths the effective depth of
the member (0.75d) from the
point of bar cutoff.
The excess stirrup area shall not be less than 60 b
w
s/f
y
.
The spacing shall not exceed d/(8
b
), where
b
is the ratio of
reinforcement cutoff to total area of tension reinforcement at the
section.
- Section 12.10.5.3: For
#
11 bars and smaller, the continuing reinforcement
provides double the area required for flexure at the cutoff point and
factored shear does not exceed three-quarters of the design shear
strength V
n
.
V
u
(3/4)(V
c
+ V
s
)

The first condition is a check only.
The third condition may require moving the cutoff point to another location.
The second condition is a design method whereby additional stirrups may be
introduced if the shear strength is inadequate as determined by the ACI Code
(Section 12.10.5.1).
It is convenient to determine the number of additional stirrups to be added
in the length 0.75d along the end of the bar from the cutoff point.

5.34
The required excess stirrup area is
A
v
= 60 b
w
s/f
yt

Assuming that the size of the stirrup (and therefore A
v
) is known, the
minimum spacing is
s = A
v
f
yt
/60 b
w

Therefore, the number of stirrups N
s
to be added in the length 0.75d is
N
s
= 0.75 d/s + 1 = 0.75 d/(A
v
f
yt
/60 b
w
) + 1 = (45 b
w
d/A
v
f
yt
) + 1
Also, because maximum s = d/(8
b
), the minimum number of stirrups N
s
to
be added in the length 0.75d is
N
s(min)
= 0.75d/[d/(8
b
)] + 1 = 6
b
+ 1
The larger resulting N
s
controls.

In Example 5-5, the cutoff points were established with no regard to ACI Section
12.10.5.
The cutoff points need to be checked to determine if the requirements of ACI
Code Section 12.10.5 are satisfied.
If the requirements of ACI Code Section 12.10.5 are not satisfied, then the
bars can be extended or addition transverse reinforcement added.

5.35
Example Code Provisions for Terminating Flexural Reinforcement in a Tension
Zone

Example 5-5 (p. 183 of the textbook)

Given: Results of the bar cut-off points in the previous work of Example 5-5.

Find: Determine if the provided transverse reinforcement (i.e.
#
4 bars @ 9 c/c) is
adequate at the cut-off points according to ACI Code Section 12.10.5.1.

Solution

Requirement: V
u
(2/3) (V
c
+ V
s
)
At the cutoff point of the first two bars (i.e. 8.12 from mid-span):
V
u
= 8.12 (3.611) = 29.32 kips
V
c
= 2 f
c
b d = 2 (1) 4000 (16.5)(18) = 37,568 lb (37.57 kips)
For
#
4 stirrups at 9 c/c:
V
s
= A
v
f
yt
d/s = 2(0.20)(60.0)18/9 = 48.0
Check: (2/3) (V
c
+ V
s
) = (2/3) (0.75) (37.57 + 48.0)
= 42.79 kips > V
u
= 29.32 kips OK
The furnished transverse reinforcement is adequate at the cutoff point for the
first two bars.

At the cutoff point of the second two bars (i.e. 11.12 from mid-span):
V
u
= 11.12 (3.611) = 40.15 kips
V
c
= 37.57 kips (same as before)
For
#
4 stirrups at 9 c/c:
V
s
= A
v
f
yt
d/s = 2(0.20)(60.0)18/9 = 48.0 (same as before)
Check: (2/3) (V
c
+ V
s
) = 42.79 kips (the same as before)
= 42.79 kips > V
u
= 40.15 kips OK
The furnished transverse reinforcement is adequate at the cutoff point for the
second two bars.

5.36
Example Simple-Span Bar Cutoffs and Bends

Example 5-6 (p. 189 of the textbook)

Given: The beam section shown.
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
At the cutoff point for the top 2-
#
9 bars:
V
u
= 52 kips

Find: Check shear in accordance with ACI
Code (Section 12.10.5) and redesign
stirrup spacing as required.

Solution

Check V
u
(2/3) (V
c
+ V
s
) in accordance with the ACI Code, Section 12.10.5.1.
V
c
= 2 f
c
b d = 2 (1) 3000 (12)(26) = 34,177.9 lb (34.2 kips)
V
s
= A
v
f
yt
d/s = 0.22(60,000)(26)/11 = 31,200.0 lb (31.2 kips)
Check: (2/3) (V
c
+ V
s
) = (2/3)(0.75)(34.2 + 31.2) = 32.7 kips < V
u
= 52 kips
Therefore, add excess stirrups over a length of 0.75d along the bars that are
being terminated from the cut end, in accordance with the ACI Code (Section
12.10.5.2).
N
s
= (45 b
w
d/A
v
f
yt
) + 1 or N
s(min)
= 6
b
+ 1
where

b
= the ratio of reinforcement cutoff to total area of the tension
reinforcement

b
= 2 bars cutoff/6 tension bars total = 1/3
N
s
= (45 b
w
d/A
v
f
yt
) + 1 = [45(12)(26)/0.22(60,000)] + 1 = 2.06
N
s(min)
= 6
b
+ 1 = 6 (1/3) + 1 = 3.0 (Controls)
Add 3 stirrups over the length of 0.75d = 0.75 (26) = 19.5.





5.37
Find the new spacing required in the 19.5 length.
Original number of stirrups in 19.5 @ 11 c/c 19.5/11 = 1.77 stirrups
Number of additional stirrups required = 3 stirrups
Total number of stirrups in 19.5 = 4.77 stirrups

The new stirrup spacing in the 19.5 length is
19.5/4.77 = 4.09 (Use 4)
The stirrup pattern originally designed should now be altered to include the 4
spacing along the last 19.5 of the cut bars.

5.38
The problems associated with terminating bars in a tension zone may be avoided
If ACI Code Section 12.10.5.1 is satisfied, or
If ACI Code Section 12.10.5.3 is satisfied, or
If the bars are extended into the support.

In summary, a general representation of the bar cutoff requirements for positive
moment steel in a simple span may be observed in Figure 5-16 (p. 190 of the
textbook).
If bars A are to be cut off, they must
- Extend a minimum distance
d
from the critical section (i.e. the point of
maximum positive moment at the center of the span), and
- Extend beyond the theoretical cutoff point a distance equal to the effective
depth of the member or 12 d
b
, whichever is greater.
The remaining positive moment bars B must
- Extend a minimum distance
d
from the theoretical cutoff point of bars A,
and
- Extend at least 6 into the support.


5.39
5-10 Code Requirements for Development of Positive Moment Steel at Simple
Supports
The ACI Code (Section 12.11.3) contains
requirements concerning the development of
straight, positive moment bars at simple
supports and points of inflection.
The ACI Code requirement places a
restriction on the size of the bar that
may be used such that

d
M
n
/V
u
+
a
ACI Eq. (12-5)
where
M
n
= nominal moment strength
= b d
2
k , assuming all steel reinforcement at the section is stressed to f
y

V
u
= shear force due to factored loads at the section

a
= (at the support) the available embedment length beyond the center of
the support

a
= (at a point of inflection) the effective depth of the member or 12d
b
,
whichever is greater

This requirement does not need to be satisfied for reinforcement terminating
beyond the centerline of simple supports by a standard hook (or by mechanical
anchorage at least equivalent to a standard hook).

The effect of this code requirement is to make certain that the bars are small
enough so that they can be fully developed before the applied moment increases to
the magnitude where they must be capable of carrying the yield stress f
y
.

The distance from the end of the bar to the point where the bar must be fully
developed is (M
n
/V
u
) +
a
.
Bars must be chosen so that the development length
d
is no greater than this
distance.
The code allows M
n
/V
u
to be increased by 30% when the ends of the
reinforcement are confined by a compressive reaction such as is found in a
simply supported beam (e.g. a beam supported by a wall).

5.40
Example Code Requirements for Development of Positive Moment Steel

Example 5-7 (p. 191 of the textbook)

Given: Beam cross section and support
shown.
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
V
u
= 80 kips (at the support)
Normal weight concrete is used.
Stirrups begin 3 from the face of
the support.
Bars are uncoated.

Find: Check the bar diameters in accordance
with ACI Code (Section 12.11.3).

Solution

The end of the beam is confined by a
compressive reaction allowing a 30%
increase in M
n
/V
u
.

Check ACI Equation (12-3), as modified, for the favorable support conditions
(ACI Commentary R12.11.3).

d
1.3 (M
n
/V
u
) +
a
ACI Eq. (12-5)

Calculate the required tensile development length
d
.

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
]}d
b

1. From Table 5-1, K
D
= 71.2
2. Establish values for the factors
t
,
e
,
s
, and .
a.
t
= 1.0 (the bars are not top bars).
b.
e
= 1.0 (the bars are not coated)
c.
s
= 1.0 (the bars are
#
10)
d. = 1.0 (normal-weight concrete is used).
3. The product
t
x
e
= 1.0 < 1.7 OK


5.41
4. Determine c
b

Based on cover (center of bar to nearest concrete surface),
c
b
= 1.5 + 0.5 (stirrups) + 1.27/2 (
#
10 bar) = 2.64
Based on bar spacing (one-half the center-to-center distance),
c
b
= [15 2(1.5 + 0.5 + 1.27/2)] = 4.87
Therefore, c
b
= 2.64
5. Determine K
tr

K
tr
is taken as zero since the stirrups stop 3 from the face of the support and
do not extend to the ends of the bars.
6. Check (c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b

(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
= (2.64 + 0)/1.27 = 2.08 < 2.5 OK
7. The excess reinforcement factor is not applicable and is omitted.
8. Calculate
d
.

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
]}d
b

= (71.2/1.0)[(1.0)(1.0)(1.0)/2.08](1.27) = 43.5 > 12 OK

Now check ACI Equation (12-5).
= A
s
/bd = 2.54/15(26) = 0.0065
k = 0.3676 ksi (Table A-10)
M
n
= b d
2
k = 15(26)
2
(0.3676) = 3,727 kip-inch

The maximum permissible
d
is

d
= 1.3(M
n
/V
u
) +
a

= 1.3(3,727/80) + 4.5 = 65.1 > 43.5

Therefore, the bar diameter is adequately small and the bar can be developed as
required.
If the required
d
were in excess of 65.1, the use of standard hook beyond the
centerline of support would satisfy the development requirement, and this code
section would not apply.

The use of smaller bars result in a smaller required
d
.


5.42
Example Development, Splices, and Simple-Span Bar Cutoffs

Problem 5-14 (p. 198 of the textbook)

Given: Beam loaded as shown.
Supports are 12 wide.
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: Determine the following.
a) Design a rectangular beam (tension
steel only).
b) Determine bar cutoffs.
c) Design the shear reinforcement
and check bar cutoffs in tension
zones, if necessary.

Solution

a) Design a rectangular beam (tension
steel only).
Positive moment design
Determine M
u
.
M
u
= 820 kip-ft (from the moment diagram)
Select desired and k .
Use recommended design values from Table A-5: = 0.0120, k = 0.6438 ksi
Assume = 0.9
Calculate d (assume d/b = 2):
M
u
= b d
2
k
820(12) = 0.9 (b) (2b)
2
(0.6438)
9840 = 2.318 b
3

b
3
= 9840/2.318 = 4245.6
b = 16.19
Use b = 16



5.43
Calculate d using b = 16:
820(12) = 0.9 (16) (d
2
) (0.6438)
9840 = 9.271 d
2

d
2
= 9840/9.271 = 1061.4
d = 32.6

Required A
s
= b d = 0.0120 (16) (32.6) = 6.26 in
2

Select 5 -
#
10 bars (A
s
= 6.35 in
2
, b
min
= 15.5 < 16 OK)

Determine h = 32.6 + 1.5 (cover) + 0.375 (assume
#
3 stirrups) + 1.27/2
= 35.11 (Use 35.5)

Check d: d = 35.5 1.5 0.375 1.27/2 = 33.0 > 32.6 OK

Negative moment design
Determine M
u
.
M
u
= 320 kip-ft (from the moment diagram)

Determine the required k and (since b and d are known).
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2
= 320(12)/0.9(16)(33.0)
2
= 0.2449 ksi
From Table A-10: = 0.0043 for k = 0.2482,
t
> 0.005, = 0.90

Determine the required A
s
.
A
s
= b d = 0.0043 (16) (33.0) = 2.27 in
2

A
s(min)
= 0.0033 b d = 0.0033(16)(33.0)
= 1.74 in
2
< 2.27 in
2
OK
Select 2 -
#
10 (A
s
= 2.54 in
2
)

b) Bar cutoffs
Positive moment
Find the theoretical cutoff point for
3 -
#
10 bars and extend the remaining
two (corner) bars for the full length of
the beam to provide stirrup support.
Find M
n
for the two remaining bars (A
s
= 2.54 in
2
).
= 2.54/16(33.0) = 0.0048
From Table A-10, k = 0.2758 ksi,
t
> 0.005, = 0.90


5.44
M
n
= b d
2
k = 0.9(16)(33.0)
2
(0.2758)
= 4,325.0 kip-inch (360.4 kip-ft)

Determine the location x where M
u
= 360.4 kip-ft.
M
cut
= 0 = 10x (x/2) 240 (x - 8) + M
M = - 5x
2
+ 240 x - 1920
360.4 = - 5x
2
+ 240 x 1920
0 = - 5x
2
+ 240 x 2,280.4
x = 13.05 (from the left end of the beam, or
8.95 from the center of the beam)

The bars must be extended past the theoretical cutoff point the larger of d or
12 d
b
, whichever is greater.
d = 33.0
12 d
b
= 12(1.27) = 15.24
Therefore, 33.0 (2.75) controls.

This places the actual cutoff point at 11.70 (i.e. 8.95 + 2.75) from the center
of the span (near the point of inflection).
The point of inflection (where M = 0) is located 10.14 from the left end of
the beam (or 11.86 from the center of the span).
Extend the 3 -
#
10 bars past the inflection point and 6 into the support (to
the centerline of the support).
- The bars terminate in a compression zone (14 from the center of the
beam).
- The termination point is a logical cutoff point.
- The Code requirements (Section 12.10.5) for terminating bars in a tension
zone are avoided.
No shear check at the bar cutoff points is required since the bars are
terminated in compression zones.

Check
d
for the three interior
#
10 bars.
Since the bottom
#
10 bars are stressed to f
y
at mid-span, the length of the
bars from mid-span to center of support (where the three bars are
terminated) must be greater than the required development length
d
.

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
]}d
b


5.45
1. From Table 5-1, K
D
= 71.2
2. Establish values for the factors
t
,
e
,
s
, and .
a.
t
= 1.0 (the bars are not top bars).
b.
e
= 1.0 (the bars are not coated)
c.
s
= 1.0 (the bars are
#
10)
d. = 1.0 (normal-weight concrete is used).
3. The product
t
x
e
= 1.0 < 1.7 OK
4. Determine c
b

Based on cover (center of bar to nearest concrete surface),
c
b
= 1.5 + 0.375 (
#
3 stirrups) + 1.27/2 (
#
10 bar) = 2.51
Based on bar spacing (one-half the center-to-center distance),
c
b
= [16 2(1.5 + 0.375 + 1.27/2)]/4 = 1.373
Therefore, c
b
= 1.373 controls
5. Determine K
tr

K
tr
is taken as zero (conservative).
6. Check (c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b

(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
= (1.373 + 0)/1.27 = 1.081 < 2.5 OK
7. The excess reinforcement factor is
K
ER
= required A
s
/provided A
s
= 6.26/6.35 = 0.986
8. Calculate
d
.

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
]}d
b

= (71.2/1.0)[(1.0)(1.0)(1.0)/1.081](0.986)(1.27) = 82.5
Length of bar from mid-span to cutoff point = 14 (168) > 82.5 OK

Negative moment
Extend the top 2 -
#
10 bars for the full length of the beam to provide stirrup
support.
Check
d
for the top 2 -
#
10 bars in the overhang (with the critical section at
the center of the support).
Available development length = 96 1.5 = 94.5

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
]}d
b

1. From Table 5-1, K
D
= 71.2



5.46
2. Establish values for the factors
t
,
e
,
s
, and .
a.
t
= 1.3 (the bars are top bars).
b.
e
= 1.0 (the bars are not coated)
c.
s
= 1.0 (the bars are
#
10)
d. = 1.0 (normal-weight concrete is used).
3. The product
t
x
e
= 1.3 < 1.7 OK
4. Determine c
b

Based on cover (center of bar to nearest concrete surface),
c
b
= 1.5 + 0.375 (
#
3 stirrups) + 1.27/2 (
#
10 bar) = 2.51
Based on bar spacing (one-half the center-to-center distance),
c
b
= {16 2[1.5 + 0.375 + 1.27/2]} = 5.49
Therefore, c
b
= 2.51 controls
5. Determine K
tr

K
tr
is taken as zero (conservative).
6. Check (c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b

(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
= (2.51 + 0)/1.27 = 1.98 < 2.5 OK
7. The excess reinforcement factor is
K
ER
= required A
s
/provided A
s
= 2.27/2.54 = 0.894
8. Calculate
d
.

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
]}d
b

= (71.2/1.0)[(1.3)(1.0)(1.0)/1.98](0.894)(1.27)
= 53.1 < 94.5 OK

c. Stirrup Design
Determine if stirrups are required.
Stirrups are required where V
u
> V
c

V
c
= 0.75 (2) f
c
b d = 0.75 (2) 4000 (16)(33) = 50,090 lb (50.1 kips)
V
c
= 25.0 kips
If V
c
< V
u
< V
c
, only the minimum web reinforcement required by the ACI
Code is needed.

Overhang
Determine the area where stirrups are not required by calculating the
location where V
c
= 25.0 kips.
x = (25.0 kips)/(10.0 kips/ft) = 2.5

5.47
Therefore, V
c
= 25.0 kips at a point 2.5 from the end of the beam (or
5.5 from the center of the support, or 5 from the face of the support).
- No stirrups are required from the end of the beam to a point 2.5 from
the end of the beam.
Calculate V
u
* at a distance d = 33 from the face of the support (or 57
from the end of the beam),
V
u
* = (57/12)(10 kip/ft)
= 47.5 kips @ 33 from face of support
V
c
= 50.1 kips > V
u
* = 47.5 kips
- Because V
c
< V
u
* < V
c
, only the minimum web reinforcement required
by the ACI Code is needed in the overhang portion of the beam from a
point 2.5 from the end of the beam to the face of the support.

Determine the minimum area (i.e. maximum spacing) of web reinforcement for
#
3 stirrups.
Check to determine if V
s
exceeds 4f
c
b
w
d.
4 f
c
b
w
d = 4 4000 (16)(33) = 133,600 lb (133.6 kips)
V
s
* = (V
u
* - V
c
)/
= (47.5 50.1)/0.75 = -3.47 kips (say 0 kips) < 133.6 kips
Since V
s
* < 4 f
c
b
w
d, then s
max
d/2 or 24, whichever is smaller (per ACI
Code Section 11.4.5.3)
s
max
= 33/2 = 16.5 < 24
Also check, s
max
= A
v
f
yt
/0.75f
c
b
w
A
v
f
yt
/50b
w

s
max
= 0.22(60,000)/0.75 4000 (16) = 17.39
s
max
= 0.22(60,000)/50(16) = 16.5

Use
#
3 stirrups with 16 spacing.
Place the first stirrup 2 from the face of the support.
Place 4 additional stirrups @ 16 c/c.
Place one additional stirrup @ 16 c/c to provide stirrups across the full
length of the overhang.
- The last stirrup is 8 from the end of the beam.

Center span
Determine the area where stirrups are not required by calculating the
location where V
c
= 25.0 kips.

5.48
x = (25.0 kips)/(10.0 kips/ft) = 2.5
Therefore, V
c
= 25.0 kips at a point 2.5 from the center of the beam (or
11.5 from the center of the support, or 11 from the face of the support).
- No stirrups are required in the middle 5 of the beam.
Determine the area where minimum web reinforcement is required by
calculating the location where V
c
= 50.1 kips.
x = (50.1 kips)/(10.0 kips/ft) = 5.01
Therefore, V
c
= 50.1 kips at a point 5.01 from the center of the beam (or
8.99 from the center of the support, or 8.49 from the face of the support).
- Minimum web reinforcement is required from a point 2.5 from the center
of the beam to a point 5.01 from the center of the beam.
Use
#
3 stirrups @ 16 as before.
Calculate V
u
* at a distance d = 33 (2.75) from the face of the support.
V
u
* = 160 [(33 + 6)/12](10 kip/ft)
= 127.5 kips @ 33 from face of support
Measuring the distance x from the inside face of the support, determine
stirrup spacing for 2.75 (i.e. 33) x 7.50 (at the 20 kip concentrated
load).
Required V
s
= V (at the face of the support) V
c
- 10x
= [160 0.5(10)] 50.1 10x = 104.9 10x

Determine the minimum spacing for V
u
* (at 2.75 from the face of the support),
assuming
#
3 stirrups.
Required s* = A
v
f
yt
d/Required V
s

= 0.75(0.22)(60)(33)/(127.5 50.1)
= 4.22 (Use 4)

Determine the maximum spacing (for 8.49 < x < 11.00 from the face of the
support).
Check to determine if V
s
exceeds 4f
c
b
w
d.
4 f
c
b
w
d = 4 4000 (16)(33) = 133,600 lb (133.6 kips)
V
s
* = (V
u
* - V
c
)/
= (127.5 50.1)/0.75 = 103.2 kips < 133.6 kips
Since V
s
* < 4 f
c
b
w
d, then s
max
d/2 or 24, whichever is smaller (per ACI
Code Section 11.4.5.3)
s
max
= 33/2 = 16.5 < 24

5.49
Also check, s
max
= A
v
f
yt
/0.75f
c
b
w
A
v
f
yt
/50b
w

s
max
= 0.22(60,000)/0.75 4000 (16) = 17.39
s
max
= 0.22(60,000)/50(16) = 16.5
Therefore, use s
max
= 16

Determine stirrup spacing for 2.75 x 7.5 from the face of support.
Required s = A
v
f
yt
d/Required V
s

s = 0.75(0.22)(60)(33)/(104.9 10x)
s = 326.7/(104.9 10x)
104.9 10x = 326.7/s
x = 10.49 32.67/s
Calculate spacing values for 1 increments.
s 5 6 7 8 9 10 11
x 3.96 5.05 5.82 6.41 6.86 7.22
7.52 >
7.5

Determine stirrup spacing for 7.5 x 8.49 from the face of the support.
Required V
s
= V (at the face of the support) 20 V
c
- 10x
= [160 0.5(10)] - 20 50.1 10x = 84.9 10x
Required s = A
v
f
yt
d/Required V
s

s = 0.75(0.22)(60)(33)/(84.9 10x)
s = 326.7/(84.9 10x)
For x = 7.50, s = 33.0 > 16.0 (Use 16)

Determine the final stirrup spacing pattern.
Spacing
(inches)
Theoretical
stopping point
(from FOS)
Length
required to
cover (inch)
Number of
spaces to
use
Actual
length
covered
(inches)
Actual
stopping
point (inches
from FOS)
2 - - 1 2 2
4 2.75 = 33 31 8 32 34
4 3.96 = 48 14 4 16 50
5 5.05 = 61 11 3 15 65
5 7.50 = 90 40 8 40 90
16 11.0 = 132 42 3 48 138
16 1 16 154


5.50
Adopt the following stirrup placement (to minimize the number of groups).
Place the first stirrup 2 from the face of the support.
Place 12 additional stirrups @ 4 c/c (out to x = 50).
Place 8 additional stirrup @ 5 c/c (out to x = 90).
Place 4 additional stirrup @ 16 c/c (out to x = 154).
- The last stirrup is located 8 from the centerline of the beam and
provides a symmetrical stirrup pattern.
- Stirrups are not required beyond x = 132.
Following this pattern, the last required stirrup is located at x = 138.
One additional stirrup is added at x = 154 to provide stirrups across
the full length of the beam.

Sketch the final stirrup pattern.
Note that no shear check at the bar cutoff points is required since the bars
are terminated in compression zones.




6.1
Chapter 6: Continuous Construction Design Considerations

6.1 Introduction
A common form of concrete cast-in-place building construction consists of a
continuous one-way slab cast monolithically with supporting continuous beams and
girders.
In this type system, all members contribute in carrying the floor load to the
supporting columns.
- The slab steel runs through the beams.
- The beam steel runs through the girders.
- The steel from the beams and girders run through the columns.
The result is that the whole floor is tied together, forming a highly
indeterminate and complex type of rigid structure.

The behavior of the members is affected by their rigid connections.
Loads applied directly on a member produce moment, shear, and a definite
deflected shape.
Loads applied to adjacent members produce similar effects because of the
rigidity of the connections.
The shears and moments transmitted through a joint depend on the relative
stiffness of all the members framing into that joint.
With this type of condition, a precise evaluation of moments and shears
resulting from a floor loading is very time consuming.
- Several commercial computer programs are available to facilitate this type
of analysis.

In an effort to simplify and expedite the design phase, the ACI Code (Section
8.3.3) permits the use of standard moment and shear equations whenever the span
and loading conditions satisfy certain requirements.
The use of standard moment and shear equations applies to continuous non-
prestressed one-way slabs and beams.
The use of standard moment and shear equations is an approximate method and
may be used for buildings of the usual type of construction, spans, and story
heights.
- The ACI Code moment values result from the product of a coefficient and
w
u

n
2
.

6.2
- The ACI Code shear values result from the product of a coefficient and
w
u

n
.
where
w
u
= the factored design uniform load

n
= the clear span for positive moment and shear
= the average of two adjacent clear spans for negative moment

ACI Code coefficients and equations for shear and moment for continuous beams
and one-way slabs are shown below (ref. Figure 6-1, p. 200 of the textbook).




























Figure 6-1. ACI Code coefficients and equations for shear
and moments for continuous beams and one-way slabs.

6.3
The application of the ACI Code coefficients and equations is limited to the
following.
1. The equations can be used for two or more approximately equal spans (with the
larger of two adjacent spans not exceeding the shorter by more than 20%).
Examples:
Shorter span Longer span
10 12
20 24
30 36
2. Loads must be uniformly distributed.
3. The maximum allowable ratio of live load to dead load is 3:1 (based on service
loads).
4. Members must be prismatic (e.g. rectangular, symmetrical).

The shear and moment equations generally give reasonably conservative values for
the conditions noted above.
A more theoretical and precise analysis must be made if
- More precision is required, or desired, for economy, or
- The stated conditions are not satisfied.

6-2 Continuous-Span Bar Cutoffs
Using a design approach similar to that for simple spans, the area of main
reinforcing steel required at any given point depends on the design moment.
As the moment varies along the span, the steel may be modified or reduced in
accordance with the theoretical requirements of the members strength and
the requirements of the ACI Code.

Bars can theoretically be stopped or bent in flexural members whenever they are
no longer needed to resist moment.
A general representation of the bar cutoff requirements for continuous spans
(both positive and negative moments) is shown below (ref. Figure 6-2, p. 202 of
the textbook).








6.4




























- Positive moment steel: In continuous members, the ACI Code (Section
12.11.1) requires that a minimum of one-fourth of the positive moment steel
be extended into the support a distance of at least 6.
- Negative moment steel: The ACI Code (Section 12.12.3) also requires that at
least one-third of the negative moment steel be extended beyond the point
of inflection by the larger of the following.
A distance not less than one-sixteenth of the clear span.
A distance equal to the effective depth of the member d.
A distance equal to 12d
b
.
If negative moment bars C (Figure 6-2a, p. 202 of the textbook) are to be
cutoff, they must extend beyond the theoretical cutoff point defined by the
moment diagram.
- That extension must be at least a full development length
d
beyond the face
of the support, and

6.5
- The bars must extend beyond the theoretical cutoff point, defined by the
moment diagram, by the larger of the following.
A distance equal to the effective depth of the member d.
A distance equal to 12d
b
.
The remaining negative moment bars D (minimum of one-third of total negative
steel) must extend
- At least the full development length
d
beyond the theoretical point of
cutoff of bars C.
- In addition, these bars must extend past the point of inflection by the
larger of the following.
A distance equal to the effective depth of the member d.
A distance equal to 12d
b
.
A distance equal to 1/16 of the clear span.
When negative moment bars are cut off before reaching the point of inflection,
the situation is analogous to the simple beam cutoffs where the reinforcing
bars are being terminated in a tension zone.
If positive moment bars (Bars A in Figure 6-2b, p. 202 of the textbook) are to
be cut off, they must extend the larger of the following.
- A distance equal to the development length
d
past the point of maximum
positive moment.
- A distance equal to the effective depth of the member d.
- A distance equal to 12d
b
.
The location of the theoretical cutoff point depends on the amount of steel to
be cut and the shape of the applied moment diagram.
- The remaining positive moment bars B must extend
d
past the theoretical
cutoff point of bars A and extend at least 6 into the support.
- Requirements for terminating bars in the tension zone again apply.
- The size of the positive moment bars at the point of inflection must meet
the requirements of the ACI Code (Section 12.11.3).

Because the determination of cutoff and bend points constitutes a relatively time-
consuming chore, it has become customary to use defined cutoff points that
experience has indicated are safe.
The recommended bar details and cutoffs for continuous spans are shown below
(ref. Figure 6-3, p. 203 of the textbook).


6.6



























6-3 Design of Continuous Floor Systems
One common type of floor system consists of a continuous, cast-in-place, one-way
reinforced concrete slab supported by monolithic, continuous reinforced concrete
beams.
The design of the system may be based on ACI Code coefficients (ref. Figure
6-1, p. 200 of the textbook) if the floor system parameters and loading
conditions satisfy the criteria for application of the ACI Code coefficients.


6.7
Example Design of Continuous Floor Systems

Example 6-1 (p. 203 of the textbook)

Given: Floor system shown, consisting of
a continuous one-way slab supported
by continuous beams.
DL = 25 psf (excluding the weight
of the slab)
LL = 250 psf
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
Normal weight concrete
Bars are uncoated.

Find: a) Design the continuous
one-way floor slab.
b) Design the continuous
supporting beam.

Solution
The primary difference in this design from previous flexural designs is that,
because of continuity, the ACI coefficients and equations will be used to determine
design shears and moments.

a) Design the continuous one-way floor slab.
1. Determine the slab thickness.
ACI Code criteria for minimum thickness [ref. Table 9.5(a)].
With both ends continuous,
minimum h =
n
/28 = 11(12)/28 = 4.71
With one end continuous,
minimum h =
n
/24 = 11(12)/24 = 5.50
Try a 5 thick slab. Design a 12 wide segment (b = 12).

2. Determine the load.
Slab weight (dead load) = (5.5/12)(150 pcf) = 68.8 psf

6.8
Live load/Dead load = 250/(25 + 68.8) = 2.67 < 3 OK
w
u
= 1.2w
DL
+ 1.6w
LL
= 1.2 (25 + 68.8) + 1.6 (250)
= 112.6 + 400 = 512.6 psf
By designing a slab segment 12 wide, the loading is 512.6 lb/ft.
Use w
u
= 0.513 k/ft

3. Determine the moments and shears.
Moments: Moments are determined using the ACI moment equations (ref.
Figure 6-1, p. 200 of the textbook).







End span
Exterior support (spandrel beam)
- M
u
= w
u

n
2
/24 = (0.513)(11)
2
/24 = 2.59 kip-ft
Mid-span (end integral with support)
+ M
u
= w
u

n
2
/14 = (0.513)(11)
2
/14 = 4.43 kip-ft
Interior support
- M
u
= w
u

n
2
/10 = (0.513)(11)
2
/10 = 6.21 kip-ft

Interior spans
Interior supports
- M
u
= w
u

n
2
/11 = (0.513)(11)
2
/11 = 5.64 kip-ft
Mid-span (end integral with support)
+ M
u
= w
u

n
2
/16 = (0.513)(11)
2
/16 = 3.88 kip-ft

Shears: Similarly, shears are determined using the ACI shear equations (ref.
Figure 6-1, p. 200 of the textbook).
End span
Face of first interior support
V
u
= 1.15w
u

n
/2 = 1.15(0.513)(11)/2 = 3.24 kips
All other supports
V
u
= w
u

n
/2 = (0.513)(11)/2 = 2.82 kips

6.9
4. Design the slab.
Determine an approximate effective depth d.
d = h 0.75 (cover) 0.625/2 (assume
#
5 bars)
= 5.5 0.75 0.31 = 4.44

5. Design the steel reinforcing.
Minimum reinforcement for slabs of constant thickness is that required for
shrinkage and temperature.
Minimum required A
s
= 0.0018 b h = 0.0018(12)(5.5)
= 0.12 in
2
per ft
Maximum spacing for shrinkage and temperature steel = 5h or 18
s
max
= 5(5.5) = 27.5 > 18
Thus, s
max
= 18
Shrinkage and temperature steel: Use
#
3 at 11 c/c (A
s
= 0.12 in
2
).
- This is the smallest bar meeting the required area of steel.

Assume a tension-controlled section (i.e. the steel reaches its yield stress,

t
0.005, and = 0.90).
The maximum moment (end span, interior support) is M
u
= 6.21 kip-ft
M
u
= M
n
= b d
2
k
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2
= 6.21(12)/0.9(12)(4.44)
2
= 0.3500 ksi
From Table A-8: k = 0.3500, = 0.0063,
t
> 0.005, and = 0.90
A
s
= b d = 0.0063(12)(4.44) = 0.34 in
2
> 0.12 in
2
OK

The steel required at other points is found in a similar manner (all values in the
formula for k are the same except for M
u
):
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2
= M
u
(12)/0.9(12)(4.44)
2
= M
u
/17.742

The results are summarized in the following table.
Location Moment (kip-ft) k (ksi) Required A
s
(in
2
per 12)
End span
Exterior support - w
u

n
2
/24 = 2.59 0.1460 0.0026 0.14
Mid-span + w
u

n
2
/14 = 4.43 0.2497 0.0044 0.23
Interior support - w
u

n
2
/10 = 6.21 0.3500 0.0063 0.34

Interior spans
Interior supports - w
u

n
2
/11 = 5.64 0.3179 0.0057 0.30
Mid-span + w
u

n
2
/16 = 3.88 0.2187 0.0039 0.21

6.10
6. Check the shear strength.
The maximum shear V
u
= 3.24 kips in the end span at the face of the first
interior support.
Slabs are not usually reinforced for shear.
A check of the shear at the face of the support, rather than at the critical
section (located a distance d from the face of the support) is conservative.

Check to determine if shear reinforcement is required.
Shear reinforcement is not required if the practical shear strength of the
section (i.e. V
n
= V
c
) is greater than the shear force due to the factored
loads (i.e. V
u
), that is
V
n
= V
c
> V
u

Note: V
n
= V
c
since no transverse reinforcement is provided.
V
n
= V
c
= 2 f
c
b
w
d = 0.75(2)(1.0) 3000 (12)(4.44)
= 4377.4 lb (4.38 kips) > 3.24 kips
Therefore, the slab thickness is OK and no shear reinforcement is required.

7. Select the main steel.
Establish a pattern for the main reinforcement.
Minimize the number of bar sizes.
Minimize the number of different spacings.
In the positive moment areas, provide spacing equal to half of the maximum
spacing to allow alternate bars to be terminated.

Maximum spacing for main reinforcement = 3h or 18
s
max
= 3(5.5) = 16.5 < 18
Use s
max
= 8 in positive moment areas (to allow bar cutoffs).

The following table was developed to summarize the possible selections for the
reinforcing steel.
Location A
s
required Possible selections A
s
provided per 12
End span
Exterior support (-) 0.14
#
3 @ 9 0.15

#
4 @ 16 0.15
Use
#
4 @ 15 (multiple of 5) 0.16

At mid-span (+) 0.23
#
3 @ 5.5 0.24

#
4 @ 10 0.24
Use
#
4 @ 8 0.30

6.11

Interior support (-) 0.34
#
3 @ 3 0.38
#
4 @ 7 0.34
#
5 @ 10 0.37
Use
#
5 @ 10 (multiple of 5) 0.37

Interior spans
Interior supports (-) 0.30
#
3 @ 4 0.33

#
4 @ 8 0.30

#
5 @ 12 0.31
Use
#
5 @ 10 (multiple of 5) 0.37

Mid-span (+) 0.21
#
3 @ 6 0.22

#
4 @ 12 0.20
Use
#
4 @ 8 (matches end span) 0.30

A work sketch is recommended to establish the steel pattern and cutoff points
(ref. Figure 6-5, p. 208 of the textbook).












8. Check the development length in the spandrel beam.
Determine the development length of the
#
4 bars @ 15 c/c.

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+K
tr
)/d
b
]} K
ER
d
b


a. Determine K
D
from Table 5-1 (p. 167 of the textbook).
K
D
= 82.2
b. Establish values for the factors
t
,
e
,
s
, and .
1)
t
= 1.3 (the bars are top bars)
2)
e
= 1.0 (bars are not coated)
3)
s
= 0.8 (bars are
#
4)
4) = 1.0 (normal-weight concrete is used)

6.12
c. Check the product
t x

e
= 1.3 < 1.7 OK
d. Determine c
b
.
Based on cover (center of bar to nearest concrete surface),
c
b
= 0.75 + 0.5/2 = 1.0
Based on bar spacing (one-half the center to center distance),
c
b
= (1/2) (15) = 7.5
Use c
b
= 1.0 (the smaller of the two values)
e. Check K
tr
= 40A
tr
/s n.
K
tr
= 0. There is no transverse steel crossing the plane of splitting.
f. Check (c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
2.5.
(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
= (1.0 + 0)/0.5 = 2.0 < 2.5 OK
g. Calculate K
ER
if applicable.
K
ER
= A
s
required/A
s
provided = 0.14/0.16 = 0.875
h. Calculate
d
(
d
12).

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
]} K
ER
d
b

= (82.2/1.0)[(1.3)(1.0)(0.8)/2.0] (0.875)(0.5) = 18.7 > 12
Use
d
= 19
Available
d
= 12 (beam width) 2.0 (cover) = 10.0 < 19

9. Determine if a 180 standard hook is adequate.
Because the 19 development length cannot be furnished, a hook must be
provided.
a. Calculate
dh
.

dh
= (0.02
e
f
y
/f
c
)d
b.
e
= 1.0 (the bars are uncoated)
= 1.0 (normal weight concrete is used)
c. Modification factors are as follows.
1) Assume a side cover of 2.5 (normal to the plane of the hook); ACI Code
Section 12.5.3a) allows a modification factor of 0.7.
2) For excess steel, use
A
s
required/A
s
provided = 0.14/0.16 = 0.875
d. The required development length is determined as follows.
Applicable equation:
dh
= (0.02
e
f
y
/ f
c
) d x modification factors


6.13

dh
= [(0.02)(1.0)(60,000)/(1.0) 3000 ](0.5)(0.7)(0.875)

dh
= 10.95 (0.7)(0.875) = 6.71
Note: Using Table A-13:
dh
= 11.0 (0.7)(0.875) = 6.74
Minimum
dh
= 6 or 8 d
b
(whichever is greater)
8 d
b
= 8(0.5) = 4.0 < 6
Therefore, the required
dh
= 6.71
e. Check the total width of beam required at the discontinuous end:
Required width of beam = 6.71 + 2 (cover)
= 8.71 < 12 (width of the spandrel beam) OK

10. Determine the bar cutoff points.
Use the recommended bar cutoff point shown in Figure 6-3 (p. 203 of the
textbook).
- These are typical bar cutoff points for normal construction.
All bars terminate in a compression zone.
- Because the bars are terminated in a compression zone, the requirements
of the ACI Code (Section 12.10.5) need not be checked.

11. Prepare the design sketches.
The final design sketches are shown in Figure 6-7 (p. 211 of the textbook).


6.14
Example 6-1 (Continued)
b) Design the continuous supporting beam.
The second part of Example 6-1 involves the design of the continuous
supporting beam.

1. Determine the load.
Tributary width = 12 feet
Service live load = 250 psf x 12 = 3000 lb/ft
Service dead load = 25 psf x 12 = 300 lb/ft
Weight of the slab = (5.5/12)(12)(150 pcf) = 825 lb/ft
For the beam, assume b = 12 and h = 30 for estimating the weight.
Weight of beam = (12/12)[(30 5.5)/12](150 pcf) = 306.3 lb/ft
Live load/Dead load = 3000/(300 + 825 + 306.3) = 2.10 < 3 OK

2. Calculate the design load
w
u
= 1.2w
DL
+ 1.6w
LL
= 1.2 (300 + 825 + 306.3) + 1.6 (3000)
= 1717.6 + 4800 = 6517.6 lb/ft (6.5 kips/ft)

3. Determine the moments and shears.
Moments: Moments are determined using the ACI moment equations (ref.
Figure 6-1, p. 200 of the textbook).







n
= 24 (span c/c of column) 16 column = 22-8 (22.67)
(ref. Figure 6-8, p. 211 of the textbook)
End span
Exterior support (column):
- M
u
= w
u

n
2
/16 = (6.5)(22.67)
2
/16 = 208.8 kip-ft
Mid-span (end integral with support):
+ M
u
= w
u

n
2
/14 = (6.5)(22.67)
2
/14 = 238.6 kip-ft
Interior support (more than two spans):
- M
u
= w
u

n
2
/10 = (6.5)(22.67)
2
/10 = 334.1 kip-ft

6.15
Interior spans
Interior supports (more than two spans):
- M
u
= w
u

n
2
/11 = (6.5)(22.67)
2
/11 = 303.7 kip-ft
Mid-span (end integral with support):
+ M
u
= w
u

n
2
/16 = (6.5)(22.67)
2
/16 = 208.8 kip-ft

Shears: Similarly, shears are determined using the ACI shear equations (ref.
Figure 6-1, p. 200 of the textbook).
End span
Face of first interior support
V
u
= 1.15w
u

n
/2 = 1.15(6.5)(22.67)/2 = 84.7 kips
All other supports
V
u
= w
u

n
/2 = (6.5)(22.67)/2 = 73.7 kips

4. Design the beam.
Establish concrete dimensions based on the maximum bending moment.
The maximum moment occurs in the end span at the first interior support
where the negative moment is M
u
= w
u

n
2
/10 = 334.1 kip-ft.
Since the top of the beam is in tension, the design is that of a rectangular
beam.
a. Maximum moment (negative) = 334.1 kip-ft
b. Use the recommended design values from Table A-5.
k = 0.4828 ksi and = 0.0090
c. From Table A-5 (or Table A-8), k = 0.4828 ksi and = 0.0090.

t
> 0.005 and = 0.90
d. Assume b = 12, find the required effective depth d.
M
u
= b d
2
k
334.1 (12) = 0.9 (12) (d
2
) 0.4828
4009.2 = 5.214 d
2

d
2
= 4009.2/5.214 = 768.9
d = 27.73
Note: The author uses d = 28 rather than 27.73 for the following analysis. The following
notes are developed based on d = 28 to avoid confusion.
Check d/b ratio: d/b = 28/12 = 2.33 (acceptable)


6.16
e. Check the estimated beam weight assuming one layer of
#
11 bars and
#
3
stirrups.
Required h = 28 (depth) + 1.5 (cover) + 0.375 (stirrup) + 1.41/2
= 30.6
Use h = 31 and d = 28
Check the minimum h from the ACI Code [Table 9.5(a)].
The table is applicable to slabs and beams.
For beams, one end continuous,
Minimum h = /18.5 = (1/18.5)(22.67)(12) = 14.70 < 31 OK
For beams, both ends continuous,
Minimum h = /21 = (1/21)(22.67)(12) = 12.95 < 31 OK
Note that the estimated beam weight based on b = 12 and h = 30 is slightly
on the low side.
The author considers this acceptable.
f. Design the steel reinforcing for points of negative moment.
The reinforcing steel will be spread out in the flange.
1) At the first interior support.
M
u
= b d
2
k
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2
= 334.1(12)/0.9(12)(28)
2
= 0.4735 ksi
From Table A-8: k = 0.4781, = 0.0089,
t
> 0.005, and = 0.90
Required A
s
= b d = 0.0089(12)(28) = 2.99 in
2

(A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 b d = 0.0033(12)(28) = 1.11 in
2
< 2.99 in
2
OK
Select 7 -
#
6 bars (A
s
= 3.08 in
2
)
2) At the other interior supports (- M
u
= 303.7 kip-ft).
M
u
= b d
2
k
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2
= 303.7(12)/0.9(12)(28)
2
= 0.4304 ksi
From Table A-8: k = 0.4348, = 0.0080,
t
> 0.005, and = 0.90
Required A
s
= b d = 0.0080(12)(28) = 2.69 in
2

(A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 b d = 0.0033(12)(28) = 1.11 in
2
< 2.69 in
2
OK
Select 7 -
#
6 bars (A
s
= 3.08 in
2
)
3) At the exterior support (- M
u
= 208.8 kip-ft).
M
u
= b d
2
k
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2
= 208.8(12)/0.9(12)(28)
2
= 0.2959 ksi

6.17
From Table A-8: k = 0.2982, = 0.0053,
t
> 0.005, and = 0.90
Required A
s
= b d = 0.0053(12)(28) = 1.78 in
2

(A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 b d = 0.0033(12)(28) = 1.11 in
2
< 1.78 in
2
OK
Select 5 -
#
6 bars (A
s
= 2.20 in
2
)
Check d: d = 31 1.50 0.375 0.75/2 = 28.75 > 28 OK
Note: The
#
6 bars were used at all three sections, so this check is applicable to all three
locations.
g. Design the steel reinforcing for points of positive moment.
At points of positive moment, the top of the beam is in compression.
The design is that of a T-beam.
1) End-span positive moment (+ M
u
= 238.6 kip-ft).
a. Design moment: M
u
= 238.6 kip-ft
b. Effective depth d = 28
c. Effective flange width:
span length = 0.25(22.67)(12) = 68 or
b
w
+ 16h
f
= 12 + 16(5.5) = 100 or
Beam spacing = 12(12/) = 144
Use an effective flange width of 68 (ref. Figure 6-11, p. 215 of the
textbook).
d. Assume total flange is in compression, and section is tension-
controlled (
t
0.005, and = 0.90).
M
nf
= (0.85f
c
) a b Z
= 0.9(0.85)(3.0)(5.5)(68)(28 5.5/2)
= 21,673 kip-inch (1806 kip-ft)
e. Because 1806 kip-ft > 238.6 kip-ft, the member behaves as a wide
rectangular T-beam with b = 68 and d = 28
f. Determine the required k .
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2

k = 238.6(12)/0.9(68)(28)
2
= 0.0597 ksi
g. From Table A-8: k = 0.0651, = 0.0011,
t
> 0.005, and = 0.90
h. The required steel area is
A
s
= b d = 0.0011(68)(28) = 2.09 in
2

(A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 b
w
d = 0.0033(12)(28) = 1.11 in
2
< 2.09 in
2
OK


6.18
i. Select the reinforcing steel (Table A-2 and Table A-3).
Possible selections (for one row of steel):
2 -
#
11 A
s
= 3.12 in
2
b
min
= 8.0 OK
2 -
#
10 A
s
= 2.54 in
2
b
min
= 8.0 OK
3 -
#
8 A
s
= 2.37 in
2
b
min
= 9.0 OK
4 -
#
7 A
s
= 2.40 in
2
b
min
= 10.5 OK
5 -
#
6 A
s
= 2.20 in
2
b
min
= 11.5 OK
7 -
#
5 A
s
= 2.17 in
2
b
min
= 14.5 > 12 NG
Select 3 -
#
8 A
s
= 2.37 in
2

j. Check d using
#
3 stirrups and 1.5 cover.
d = 31 1.5 0.375 1.0/2 = 28.63 > 28 (assumed) OK
2) Interior span positive moment.
a. Design moment: M
u
= 208.8 kip-ft
b. Effective depth d = 28
c. Effective flange width = 68 (same as before)
d. Assume total flange is in compression, and section is tension-
controlled (
t
0.005, and = 0.90).
M
nf
= 1806 kip-ft (same as before)
e. Because 1806 kip-ft > 208.8 kip-ft, the member behaves as a wide
rectangular T-beam with b = 68 and d = 28
f. Determine the required k .
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2

k = 208.8(12)/0.9(68)(28)
2
= 0.0522 ksi
g. From Table A-8: k = 0.0593, = 0.0010,
t
> 0.005, and = 0.90
h. The required steel area is
A
s
= b d = 0.0010(68)(28) = 1.90 in
2

(A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 b
w
d = 0.0033(12)(27.73) = 1.11 in
2
< 1.90 in
2
OK
i. Select the reinforcing steel (Table A-2).
Select 3 -
#
8 A
s
= 2.37 in
2
(same as before)
j. Check d using
#
3 stirrups and 1.5 cover.
d = 31 1.5 0.375 1.0/2 = 28.63 > 28 (assumed) OK




6.19
5. Check the distribution of negative moment steel.
When flanges are in tension (i.e. negative moment areas), the ACI code (Section
10.6.6) requires that a part of the main tension reinforcement be distributed as
follows (using whichever is smaller),
Over the effective flange width, or
Effective flange width: b = 68
Over a width equal to one-tenth of the span.
Span/10 = 22.67(12)/10 = 27.2
Therefore, distribute the negative moment bars over a width of 27 (ref.
Figure 6-12, p. 217 of the textbook for suitable bars and patterns).
Exterior column (5 -
#
6 bars): Three of the
#
6 bars are placed within the
stirrup; the two remaining
#
6 bars are each placed on each side of the beam
13.5 from the center of the beam.
First interior support (7 -
#
6 bars): Three of the
#
6 bars are placed within
the stirrup; the four remaining
#
6 bars are spaced with two on each side of
the beam between the stirrup and a point 13.5 from the center of the
beam.
Other interior supports (7 -
#
6 bars): Three of the
#
6 bars are placed
within the stirrup; the four remaining
#
6 bars are spaced with two on each
side of the beam between the stirrup and a point 13.5 from the center of
the beam.

If the effective flange width exceeds one-tenth of the span (as it does in this
example), the ACI Code also requires
Some longitudinal reinforcement must be provided in the outer portions of
the flange.
- In this example, no additional steel is furnished.
- In the authors opinion, this requirement is satisfied by the slab
temperature and shrinkage steel.

6. Prepare the work sketch.
A work sketch is developed in Figure 6-13 (p. 218 of the textbook) and shown
below.






6.20












7. Check the anchorage into the exterior column.
Determine the development length of the 5 -
#
6 bars.

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+K
tr
)/d
b
]} K
ER
d
b

a. Determine K
D
from Table 5-1 (p. 167 of the textbook).
K
D
= 82.2
b. Establish values for the factors
t
,
e
,
s
, and .
1)
t
= 1.3 (the bars are top bars)
2)
e
= 1.0 (bars are not coated)
3)
s
= 0.8 (bars are
#
6)
4) = 1.0 (normal-weight concrete is used)
c. Check the product
t x

e
= 1.3 < 1.7 OK
d. Determine c
b
.
Based on cover (center of bar to nearest concrete surface),
c
b
= 1.5 + 0.375 (stirrup) + 0.75/2 = 2.25
Based on bar spacing (one-half the center-to-center distance).
Consider the 3 -
#
6 bars located within the stirrup.
c
b
= [12 - 2(1.5 + 0.375 + 0.75/2)]/2 = 1.875
Use c
b
= 1.875 (the smaller of the two values)
e. Check K
tr
= 40A
tr
/(sn).
Use K
tr
= 0 (conservative).
f. Check (c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
2.5.
(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
= (1.875 + 0)/0.75 = 2.5 2.5 OK
g. Calculate K
ER
if applicable:
K
ER
= A
s
required/A
s
provided = 1.78/2.20 = 0.809

6.21
h. Calculate
d
(
d
12):

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+K
tr
)/d
b
]} K
ER
d
b


d
= (82.2/1.0)[(1.3)(1.0)(0.8)/2.5] (0.809)(0.75) = 20.75 > 12
Use
d
= 21
With 2 clear at the end of the bar, the available embedment length in the 16
(assumed) column is 16 2 = 14 < 21
A hook is required.

8. Determine if a 90 standard hook is adequate.
Because the 21 development length cannot be furnished, a hook must be
provided.
a. From Table A-13 (p. 496 of the textbook),
dh
= 16.4
b. Modification factors to be used are
1) Assume a side cover of 2.5 (normal to the plane of the hook) and cover
on the bar extension beyond the hook is 2: ACI Code Section 12.5.3a)
allows a modification factor of 0.7.
2) For excess steel, use
A
s
required/A
s
provided = 1.78/2.20 = 0.809
c. The required development length is

dh
= 16.4 (0.7)(0.809) = 9.29
Minimum
dh
= 6 or 8d
b
(whichever is greater)
Minimum
dh
= 8d
b
= 8(0.75) = 6.0 = 6
Therefore, the required
dh
= 9.29
d. Check the available development length (ref. Figure 6-14, p. 220 of the
textbook).
Available development length = 16 2 cover = 14 > 9.29 OK

For other points along the continuous beam, use bar cutoff points recommended
in Figure 6-3 (p. 203 of the textbook) and as shown in Figure 6-18 (p. 224 of
the textbook).

9. Prepare the stirrup design.
Established values are b
w
= 12, effective depth d = 28, f
c
= 3000 psi, and
f
y
= 60,000 psi.


6.22
Note: The author continues using the estimated effective depth d = 28,
although the actual effective depth may be determined.
- In the negative moment areas: d = 31 1.5 0.375 0.75/2 = 28.75
- In the positive moment areas: d = 31 1.5 0.375 1.0/2 = 28.63

a. The shear force V
u
diagram is shown in Figure 6-15 (p. 220 of the textbook).
Recall the maximum V
u
= 84.7 kips for the interior support of the first
span.
The shear force diagram is unsymmetrical with respect to the centerline
of the span.
The stirrup design is based on the shear in the interior portion of the
end span where the maximum values occur.
The resulting stirrup pattern will be used throughout the continuous
beam.
b. Determine if stirrups are required.
No shear reinforcement is required if V
u
V
c
.
Minimum shear reinforcement is required where V
c
< V
u
V
c
.
V
c
= 2f
c
b
w
d = 2(1.0) 3000 (12)(28) = 36,807 lb (36.8 kips)
V
c
= 0.75 (36.8) = 27.6 kips
V
c
= 0.5(0.75)(36.8) = 13.8 kips
At the critical section, a distance d (28) from the face of the support,
V
u
* = 84.7 (28/12) 6.5 = 69.5 kips.
Stirrups are required since V
u
* = 69.5 kips > 13.8 kips
c. Find the length of span over which the stirrups are required.
Stirrups are required from the face of the support to the point where
V
u
= V
c
= 13.8 kips.
From Figure 6-15, V
u
= V
c
= 13.8 kips occurs a distance x from the face
of the support based on the following equation.
x = (V
u
- V
c
)/w
u
= (84.7 13.8)/6.5 = 10.91
From Figure 6-15, V
u
= V
c
= 27.6 kips occurs a distance x from the face
of the support based on the following equation.
x = (V
u
- V
c
)/w
u
= (84.7 27.6)/6.5 = 8.78
Minimum shear reinforcement is required from 8.78 < x < 10.91.
No shear reinforcement is required from x = 10.91 to mid-span (11.33).

6.23
d. On the shear diagram, designate the area between the V
c
line, the V
u
* line,
and the sloping V
u
line as the required V
s
.
At locations between 2.33 (28) and 8.78 from the face of the support,
the required V
s
varies.
Designating the distance from the face of the support as x,
Required V
s
= maximum V
u
- V
c
6.5 x
= 84.7 27.6 6.5 x
= 57.1 6.5 x
e. Establish the ACI Code minimum spacing requirements.
Assume a
#
3 stirrup (A
v
= 0.22 in
2
)
For the region where V
u
> V
u
* (from the face of the support to a point
2.33 from the face of the support),
Required s* = A
v
f
yt
d/required V
s
*
= A
v
f
yt
d/(V
u
* - V
c
) = 0.75(0.22)(60.0)(28)/(69.5 27.6)
Required s* = 6.62
Use 6.5 spacing.
f. Establish ACI Code maximum spacing requirements.
If V
s
< 4f
c
b
w
d, the maximum spacing is d/2 or 24, whichever is
smaller.
4f
c
b
w
d = 4 3000 (12)(28) = 73,614 lb (73.6 kips)
Compare V
s
* (the maximum V
s
) at the critical section with the value of
4f
c
b
w
d.
V
s
* = V
u
* - V
c
= 69.5 27.6 = 41.9 kips
V
s
* = V
s
*/ = 41.9/0.75 = 55.9 kips < 73.6 kips
The maximum spacing that follows must be observed.
Maximum spacing is the smaller of
s
max
= d/2 = 28/2 = 14 or 24
s
max
= A
v
f
yt
/0.75f
c
b
w
A
v
f
yt
/50 b
w

= 0.22(60,000)/0.75(3000)(12) = 26.7
s
max
= A
v
f
yt
/50 b
w
= 0.22(60,000)/50(12) = 22
Therefore, use a maximum spacing of 14.
g. Determine spacing requirements based on the required shear strength.
The formula for the required spacing uses the expression for required
V
s
from Step d.

6.24
Required s = A
v
f
yt
d/required V
s

= 0.75(0.22)(60.0)(28)/(57.1 6.5 x)
= 277.2/(57.1 6.5 x)
Determine the theoretical stopping point for each spacing (in increments
of 1) based on the following formula.
6.5 x = 57.1 277.2/s
S 6.5 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14
X
2.22
= 27
2.69
= 32
3.45
= 41
4.04
= 48
4.52
= 54
4.90
= 59
5.23
= 63
5.50
= 66
5.73
= 69

Use a table to establish the theoretical spacing pattern.
The first stirrup is placed 3 away from the face of the support.
Spacing
(inches)
Theoretical
stopping
point (from
FOS)
Length
required to
cover
(inch)
Number of
spaces to
use
Actual
length
covered
(inches)
Actual
stopping
point
(inches
from FOS)
3 - - 1 3 3
6.5 32 29 5 32.5 35.5
7 41 5.5 1 7 42.5
8 48 5.5 1 8 50.5
9 54 3.5 1 9 59.5
10 59 0 0 0 59.5
11 63 3.5 1 11 70.5
12 66 0 0 0 70.5
13 69 0 0 0 70.5
14 10.91 = 131 60.5 4 56 126.5
9.5 136 (C/L) 9.5 1 9.5 136

Use a table to establish the final spacing pattern.
Spacing
(inches)
Theoretical
stopping
point (from
FOS)
Length
required to
cover
(inch)
Number of
spaces to
use
Actual
length
covered
(inches)
Actual
stopping
point
(inches
from FOS)
3 - - 1 3 3
6.5 5.73 = 69 66 11 71.5 74.5
14 10.91 = 131 56.5 4 56 130.5

6.25
For simplification, the 6.5 spacing is used from the face of the support
to a point 74.5 (6.21) from the face of the support.
- Only two additional stirrups are required above that required for the
theoretical spacing pattern.
From a point 8.78 from the support to a point 10.91 from the support
the maximum spacing of 14 can be used.
The stirrups are not needed beyond a point 10.91 (131) from the
support.
The last stirrup in the 14-spacing group is located 5.5 from the
centerline of the span.
h. Sketch the stirrup pattern.
Figure 6-17 (p. 223 of the textbook) shows the final stirrup spacing.
Despite the lack of symmetry in the shear diagram, the stirrup pattern is
symmetrical with respect to the centerline of the span.
This is conservative and is used for all spans.

The final design sketches are shown in Figure 6-18 (p. 224 of the textbook).
As with the slab design, the typical bar cutoff points (ref. Figure 6-3, p. 203
of the textbook) are used for the beams.
All bars terminate in a compression zone, and the requirements of ACI Code
(Section 12.10.5) need not be checked.


7.1
Chapter 7: Serviceability

7.1 Introduction
Requirements of the ACI Code (Section 9.1) include the following.
Bending members must have adequate structural strength to support the
anticipated factored loads.
Bending members must have adequate performance at service load levels.

Adequate performance, or serviceability, relates to deflections and cracking in
the reinforced concrete beams and slabs.
Serviceability is to be assured at service load levels, not at ultimate strength.
At service loads, deflections should be held to specified limits for many
considerations.
- Aesthetics.
- Effects on non-structural elements (e.g. windows and partitions).
- Undesirable vibrations.
- Proper functioning of roof drainage systems.
Cracking should be limited to hairline cracks.
- For appearance.
- To prevent the intrusion of water and protect the reinforcement against
corrosion.

7-2 Deflections
Guidelines for control of deflections are found in the ACI Code (Section 9.5).
Table 9.5(b) Maximum Permissible Computed Deflections
Type of member Deflection to be considered Deflection
Flat roofs not supporting or attached to nonstructural
elements likely to be damaged by large deflections.
Immediate deflection due to live
loads
/180
Floors not supporting or attached to nonstructural
elements likely to be damaged by large deflections.
Immediate deflections due to live
loads
/360
Roof or floor construction supporting or attached to
nonstructural elements likely to be damaged by large
deflections.
That part of the total deflection
occurring after attachment of
nonstructural elements (sum of
long-term deflection due to all
sustained loads and the immediate
deflection due to any additional live
load).
/480
Roof or floor construction supporting or attached to
nonstructural elements not likely to be damaged by
large deflections.
/240
Additional footnotes accompany the table in the Code.



7.2
One of two methods may be used to comply with the Code guidelines regarding
deflections.
Use the minimum thickness (or depth of member) criteria as established in
Table 9.5(a) of the Code for one-way slabs and non-prestressed beams.
Calculate expected deflections using standard deflection formulas in
combination with the Code provisions for moment of inertia and effects of the
load/time history of the member.

Minimum thickness (depth) guidelines are simple and direct and should be used
whenever possible.
Tabulated minimum thicknesses apply to one-way slabs and non-prestressed
beams that do not support and are not attached to non-structural elements
likely to be damaged by large deflections.
For members not within these guidelines, deflections must be calculated.

When deflections are calculated (i.e. the second method), the ACI Code requires
that deflections be checked at service load levels.
Properties at service load levels must be used.
- Under service loads, concrete flexural members still exhibit generally
elastic-type behavior.
Cracking occurs in the tension zone where the applied moment is large enough to
produce tensile stress greater than the tensile strength of the concrete.
- The cross section for determining the moment of inertia has the shape
shown in Figure 7-1 (p. 228 of the textbook).

The moment of inertia of the cracked section shown in Figure 7-1 is designated I
cr
.
I
cr
is determined based on the assumption that the concrete is cracked to the
neutral axis.
- The concrete is assumed to
have no tensile strength.
- The small tensile zone below
the neutral axis and above the
upper limit of cracking is
neglected.
The moment of inertia of the
cracked section I
cr
represents one
end of a range of values that may
be used for deflection calculations.

7.3
The moment of inertia of the full uncracked section (i.e. the gross section) is
termed the moment of inertia of the gross cross section and is designated I
g
.
The moment of inertia of the uncracked section I
g
represents the other end of
the range of values that may be used for deflection calculations.
- For a small bending moment and a maximum flexural stress less than the
modulus of rupture, the full uncracked section may be considered in
determining the moment of inertia to resist deflection.

A more realistic value of moment of inertia lies somewhere between these two
values.
The Code recommends that deflections be calculated using an effective moment
of inertia, I
e
, where
I
g
> I
e
> I
cr


Once the effective moment of inertia I
e
is determined, the deflection of the
member may be calculated using standard deflection formulas.
The effective moment of inertia I
e
depends on the values of the moment of
inertia of the gross section I
g
and the moment of inertia of the cracked section
I
cr
.
The moment of inertia of the gross section for a rectangular shape may be
calculated from the following equation.
I
g
= bh
3
/12
This equation neglects the presence of any reinforcing steel.

7-3 Calculation of I
cr

The moment of inertia of the cracked section I
cr
is calculated in the normal way
once the problem of the differing materials (concrete and steel) is overcome.
The steel is replaced by an equivalent area of concrete, A
eq
.
The magnitude of A
eq
is based on the theory (from strength of materials) that
when two differing materials are subjected to equal strains, the stresses in the
materials are in proportion to their moduli of elasticity, as shown by the
following.
For a tensile strain of , at the level of the reinforcing steel,
The tensile stress in the steel is f
s
= E
s
.
The theoretical tensile stress in the concrete f
c(tens)
= E
c
.



7.4
Rewrite these expressions for strain.
Strain in the steel: = f
s
/E
s

Strain in the concrete: = f
c(tens)
/E
c
Next, equate the results.
f
s
/E
s
= f
c(tens)
/E
c
Express f
s
in terms of f
c(ten)

f
s
= f
c(tens)
(E
s
/E
c
)

The ratio E
s
/E
c
is called the modular ratio and is denoted n.
Values of n are taken as the nearest whole number (but not less than 6).
Values of n for normal-weight concrete are listed in Table A-6 (p. 486 of the
textbook).

Since we are replacing the steel (theoretically) with an equivalent concrete area,
the equivalent concrete area A
eq
must provide the same tensile resistance as that
provided by the steel.
A
eq
f
c(tens)
= f
s
A
s

Substituting the expression for f
s
from above
A
eq
f
c(tens)
= f
c(tens)
(E
s
/E
c
)A
s

from which
A
eq
= (E
s
/E
c
)A
s
= n A
s


The equation above defines the equivalent area of concrete with which we are
replacing the steel.
The steel is transformed into an
equivalent concrete area equal to nA
s
.
The resulting transformed concrete
cross section is composed of a single
(although hypothetical) material.








7.5
Once the steel area is transformed, the determination of moment of inertia may
be performed in the normal manner.
The centroid of the equivalent concrete
area is placed at the centroid of the
steel area.
The equivalent concrete area is
represented as a thin rectangle
extending out past the sides of the
beam.
The neutral axis is located a distance y
down from a reference axis at the top of
the section.

The neutral axis may be determined by taking a summation of moments of the
effective areas about the reference axis.
y = A
i
y
i
/A
i


Once the neutral axis is located, the moment of inertia (I
cr
) may be found using
the familiar transfer formula from engineering mechanics.

If the beam cross section contains compression steel, this steel may also be
transformed and the neutral axis location and cracked moment of inertia
calculations can be carried out as before.
Because the compression steel displaces concrete that is in compression, it
should be theoretically transformed using (n 1) A
s
rather than nA
s
.
- For deflection calculations (which are only approximate), the use of nA
s

provides sufficient accuracy.

7.6
Example Calculation of I
cr


Example 7-1 (p. 231 of the textbook)

Given: The beam cross section shown.
A
s
= 2.00 in
2

f
c
= 3000 psi

Find: The moment of inertia of the cracked
section I
cr
.

Solution

n = 9 (ref. Table A-6)
A
eq
= n A
s
= 9(2.00) = 18.0 in
2


Find the location of the neutral axis (i.e. y ).
y A
i
= (A
i
y
i
)
y (by + A
eq
) = by ( y /2) + A
eq
(d)
y (8y + 18) = 8y ( y /2) + 18.0(17)
8y
2
+ 18 y = 4y
2
+ 306 Solution of a quadratic equation
4y
2
+ 18 y 306 = 0 ax
2
+ bx + c = 0
y = {- 18 [(18)
2
- 4(4)(- 306)]
1/2
}/2(4) x = [- b (b
2
4ac)
1/2
]/2a
y = 6.78

Compute the moment of inertia I
cr
.
I
cr
= I
x1
+ I
x2
= I
x1
+ [ I
x2
+ A
2
( y
2
)
2
]
= by
3
/3 + [0 + A
eq
(d y )
2
]
= 8(6.78)
3
/3 + [0 + 18(17 6.78)
2
]
= 831.1 + 1880.1
I
cr
= 2711.2 in
4



7.7
Example Calculation of I
cr


Problem 7-1c (p. 242 of the textbook)

Given: The beam cross section shown.
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: The moment of inertia of the cracked
section I
cr
.

Solution

n = 8 (ref. Table A-6)
A
s(tens)
= 4.80 in
2
(8 -
#
7)
A
eq(tens)
= n A
s
= 8(4.80) = 38.4 in
2

A
s(comp)
= 1.20 in
2
(2 -
#
7)
A
eq(comp)
= n A
s
= 8(1.20) = 9.6 in
2


Find the location of the neutral axis (i.e. y ).
y A
i
= (A
i
y
i
)
y (by + A
eq(tens)
+ A
eq(comp)
) = by ( y /2) + A
eq(tens)
(d) + A
eq(comp)
(2.5)
y (12y + 38.4 + 9.6) = 12y ( y /2) + 38.4(18) + 9.6(2.5)
y (12y + 48.0) = 6y
2
+ 691.2 + 24.0
12y
2
+ 48.0 y = 6y
2
+ 715.2
6y
2
+ 48.0 y 715.2 = 0
y = {- 48 [(48.0)
2
4(6)(- 715.2)]
1/2
}/2(6)
y = 7.63

Compute the moment of inertia I
cr
.
I
cr
= I
x1
+ I
x2
+ I
x3
= I
x1
+ [I
x2
+ A
2
( y
2
)
2
] + [I
x3
+ A
3
( y
3
)
2
]
= by
3
/3 + [0 + A
eq(tens)
(d y )
2
] + [0 + A
eq(comp)
( y 2.5)
2
]
= 12(7.63)
3
/3 + [0 + 38.4(18 7.63)
2
] + [0 + 9.6(7.63 2.5)
2
]
= 1776.8 + (0 + 4129.4) + (0 + 252.6)
I
cr
= 6158.8 in
4



7.8
7-4 Immediate Deflection
Immediate deflection is the deflection that occurs as soon as the load is applied to
the member.
For all practical purposes, the member behaves elastically.
The ACI Code (Section 9.5.2.3) states that this deflection may be calculated
using a concrete modulus of elasticity E
c
(per ACI Code, Section 8.5.1) and an
effective moment of inertia I
e
.
- The effective moment of inertia I
e
is computed as follows.
I
e
= {(M
cr
/M
a
)
3
I
g
+ [1 (M
cr
/M
a
)
3
] I
cr
} I
g
[ACI Eq. (9-8)]
where
I
e
= the effective moment of inertia
I
cr
= the moment of inertia of the cracked section transformed to
concrete
I
g
= moment of inertia of the gross (uncracked) concrete cross section
about the centroidal axis, neglecting all steel reinforcement
M
a
= maximum moment in the member at the stage for which deflection is
being computed
M
cr
= moment that would initially crack the cross section computed from
M
cr
= f
r
I
g
/y
t

where
y
t
= the distance from the neutral axis of the uncracked cross section
(neglecting steel) to the extreme tension fiber
f
r
= the modulus of rupture for the concrete
= 7.5 f
c

= 1.0 for normal-weight concrete
= 0.85 for sand-lightweight concrete
= 0.75 for all-lightweight concrete
Values for the modulus of rupture for normal-weight concrete are
tabulated in Table A-6 (p. 486 of the textbook)

Inspection of the formula for the effective moment of inertia I
e
shows that
If the maximum moment M
a
is low with respect to the cracking moment M
cr
, the
moment of inertia of the gross section I
g
is the dominant factor.
If the maximum moment M
a
is large with respect to the cracking moment M
cr
,
the moment of inertia of the cracked section I
cr
is the dominant factor.

7.9
In any case, I
g
> I
e
> I
cr
.

For continuous beams, the use of the average value of the effective moments
of inertia existing at sections of critical positive and negative moments is
recommended.
The use of mid-span sectional properties for simple and continuous spans,
and at the support for cantilevers, will also give satisfactory results.

The actual calculations of deflections are made using the standard deflection
methods for elastic members.
Deflection formulas of the type found in standard handbooks may be suitable.
More rigorous techniques (e.g. the moment area method or the method of
consistent deformation) may be used when necessary.


7.10
Example Immediate Deflection

Problem 7.3a (p. 243 of the textbook)

Given: A beam on a simple span of 20 feet
with the cross section shown.
DL = 1.5 kip/ft
LL = 1.0 kips/ft
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: The immediate deflection due to dead
load and live load.

Solution

n = 9 (ref. Table A-6)
A
eq
= n A
s
= 9(3.81) = 34.29 in
2


Find the location of the neutral axis (i.e. y ).
y A
i
= (A
i
y
i
)
y (by + A
eq
) = by ( y /2) + A
eq
(d)
y (12y + 34.29) = 12y ( y /2) + 34.29(21)
y (12y + 34.29) = 6y
2
+ 720.09
12y
2
+ 34.29 y = 6y
2
+ 720.09
6y
2
+ 34.29 y 720.09 = 0
y = {- 34.29 [(34.29)
2
4(6)(- 720.09)]
1/2
}/2(6)
y = 8.46

Compute the moment of inertia I
cr
.
I
cr
= I
x1
+ I
x2
= I
x1
+ [ I
x2
+ A
2
( y
2
)
2
]
= by
3
/3 + [0 + A
eq
(d y )
2
]
= 12(8.46)
3
/3 + [0 + 34.29(21 8.46)
2
]
= 2422.0 + 5392.2
I
cr
= 7814.2 in
4




7.11
Compute the moment of inertia I
g
.
I
g
= bh
3
/12 = 12(24)
3
/12
I
g
= 13,824.0 in
4


Compute the cracking moment.
Using f
r
= 0.411 ksi from Table A-6 (p. 486 of the text book)
M
cr
= f
r
I
g
/y
t
= 0.411 (13,824.0)/(24/2)
= 473.5 kip-inch (39.5 kip-ft)

Compute the moment M
a
.
When deflections are calculated, the ACI Code requires that deflections be
checked at service load levels.
w = w
DL
+ w
LL

w = 1.5 + 1.0 = 2.5 kips/ft
M
a
= wL
2
/8
= 2.5(20)
2
/8 = 125.0 kip-ft

Compute the moment of inertia I
e
using ACI Eq. (9-8).
I
e
= {(M
cr
/M
a
)
3
I
g
+ [1 (M
cr
/M
a
)
3
] I
cr
} I
g

= {(39.5/125.0)
3
(13,824.0) + [1 (39.5/125.0)
3
] (7814.2)}
= 436.2 + 7567.6 = 8003.8 in
4
< I
g
= 13,824.0 in
4

> I
cr
= 7814.2 in
4


Compute the immediate deflection.
When deflections are calculated, the ACI Code requires that deflections be
checked at service load levels.

Using E
c
= 3,120,000 psi from Table A-6 (p. 486 of the text book)

i
= 5wL
4
/384EI
= 5(2.5)(1000)(20)
4
(12/)
3
/384(3,120,000)(8003.8)
= 0.360


7.12
7-5 Long-Term Deflection
In addition to deflections that occur immediately, reinforced concrete members
are subject to added deflections that occur gradually over long periods of time.
These additional deflections are due mainly to creep and shrinkage.
- Such deflections are influenced by temperature, humidity, curing conditions,
age at time of loading, quantity of compression reinforcement, and the
magnitude of the sustained load.
These additional deflections may eventually become excessive.

The additional long-term deflections are computed based on two items.
The amount of sustained dead load and live load.
The amount of compression reinforcement in the beam.

The additional long-term deflection is determined by multiplying the immediate
deflection by the factor

.
The additional long-term deflection is estimated using the following formula.

LT
=

i
= [/(1 + 50 )]
i

where

= a multiplier for the additional long-term deflection


= /(1 + 50 ) [ACI Eq. (9-11)]
= non-prestressed compression reinforcement ratio (A
s
/bd)
= (Greek small letter Xi) time-dependent factor for sustained loads
= 2.0 for 5 years or more
= 1.4 for 12 months
= 1.2 for 6 months
= 1.0 for 3 months

i
= immediate deflection using deflection formulas of the type found in
standard handbooks calculated using service loads

Some judgment is required in determining what portion of the live load should be
considered sustained. For example,
In a residential application, 20% sustained live load might be a logical estimate.
In storage facilities, 100% sustained live load would be reasonable.




7.13
The calculated deflections must not exceed the maximum permissible deflections
that are found in ACI Code, Table 9.5(b).
This table sets permissible deflections in terms of fractions of span length.
These limits guard against damage to the parts of the system (both structural
and non-structural parts) due to excessive deflection.
For attached non-structural elements, only the deflection that takes place
after such attachment is made needs to be considered.


7.14
Example Long-Term Deflection

Example 7-2 (p. 235 of the textbook)

Given: A beam with the cross section shown.
Normal weight concrete
Simple span = 30
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
Service M
DL
= 20 kip-ft
Service M
LL
= 15 kip-ft
50% sustained live load
Sustained load time period = 5 years

Find: What ACI Code deflection criterion is satisfied?

Solution

A
s
= 2.37 in
2
(3 -
#
8)
n = 9 (ref. Table A-6)
A
eq
= n A
s
= 9(2.37) = 21.33 in
2


Find the location of the neutral axis for the cracked section (i.e. y ).
y A
i
= (A
i
y
i
)
y (by + A
eq
) = by ( y /2) + A
eq
(d)
y (10y + 21.33) = 10y ( y /2) + 21.33(14)
y (10y + 21.33) = 5y
2
+ 298.62
10y
2
+ 21.33y = 5y
2
+ 298.62
5y
2
+ 21.33y 298.62 = 0
y = {- 21.33 [(21.33)
2
4(5)(-298.62)]
1/2
}/2(5)
y = 5.88

Compute the moment of inertia I
cr
for the cracked section.
I
cr
= I
x1
+ I
x2
= I
x1
+ [I
x2
+ A
2
( y
2
)
2
]
= by
3
/3 + [0 + A
eq
(d y )
2
]
= 10(5.88)
3
/3 + [0 + 21.33(14 5.88)
2
] = 677.7 + 1406.4

7.15
I
cr
= 2084.1 in
4


Compute the moment of inertia I
g
for the gross section.
I
g
= bh
3
/12 = 10(16.5)
3
/12 = 3743.4 in
4


Compute the cracking moment.
f
r
= 7.5 f
c
= 7.5 (1.0) 3000 = 410.8 psi (0.411 ksi)
M
cr
= f
r
I
g
/y
t
= 0.411 (3,743.4)/(16.5/2)
= 186.5 kip-inch (15.5 kip-ft)

Compute the moment M
a
(the maximum moment in the member at the stage for
which deflection is being computed).
M
a
= M
DL
+ M
LL
= 20 + 15 = 35 kip-ft

Compute the effective moment of inertia I
e
.
I
e
= {(M
cr
/M
a
)
3
I
g
+ [1 (M
cr
/M
a
)
3
] I
cr
} I
g
[ACI Eq. (9-8)]
= {(15.5/35)
3
(3,743.4) + [1 (15.5/35)
3
] (2,084.1)}
= 325.1 + 1903.1 = 2,228.2 in
4
3,743.4 in
4


Compute the immediate deflection due to the service dead load.
M
DL
= 20 kip-ft
w
DL
= 8M
DL
/L
2
= 8(20)/(30)
2
= 0.178 kip/ft
(
i
)
DL
= 5wL
4
/384EI
= 5(0.178)(1000)(30)
4
(12/)
3
/384(3,120,000)(2,228.2)
= 0.467

Compute the immediate deflection due to the service live load.
M
LL
= 15 kip-ft
w
LL
= 8M
LL
/L
2
= 8(15)/(30)
2
= 0.133 kip/ft
(
i
)
LL
= 5wL
4
/384EI
= 5(0.133)(1000)(30)
4
(12/)
3
/384(3,120,000)(2,228.2)
= 0.349

The total immediate DL + LL deflection is
(
i
)
TL
= (
i
)
DL
+ (
i
)
LL
= 0.467 + 0.349 = 0.816



7.16
Compute the long-term deflection (DL + sustained LL) multiplier

.
= 2.0 (for 5 years or more)
= 0 (no compression steel)

= /(1 + 50 ) = [2.0/(1 + 0)] = 2.0



Compute the additional long-term deflection.
The immediate dead load deflection due to the sustained service dead load
moment (M
DL
= 20 kip-ft) is 0.467.
The immediate live load deflection due to 50% of the sustained service live load
moment (50% M
LL
= 7.5 kip-ft) is 0.5(0.349).
The additional long-term deflection is

LT
=

i
=

[(
i
)
DL
+ 0.50(
i
)
LL
] = 2.0[0.467 + 0.5(0.349)]

LT
= 2.0 (0.64) = 1.28

A comparison of actual deflections to maximum permissible deflections [per ACI
Code, Table 9.5(b)] may now be made.
Case 1 applies to flat roofs not supporting or attached to nonstructural
elements likely to be damaged by large deflections.
Case 2 applies to floors not supporting or attached to nonstructural elements
likely to be damaged by large deflections.
Since the permissible deflection is not exceeded in Case 1 or Case 2, the beam
in Example 7-2 is limited to usage as defined by those two cases.

Permissible vs. Actual Deflections
Case
Maximum
allowable
deflection
Type of deflection Actual computed deflection
1
/180
= 30(12)/180
= 2.00
Flat roofs: Immediate deflection due to live
load.
LL = 0.349
2
/360
= 30(12)/360
= 1.00
Floors: Immediate deflection due to live
loads.
LL = 0.349
3
/480
= 30(12)/480
= 0.75
Roof or floors: The total deflection
occurring after attachment of nonstructural
elements (i.e. the sum of long-term
deflection due to the sustained loads and the
immediate deflection due to the live load).
LT + LL = 1.28 + 0.349
= 1.63
4
/240
= 30(12)/240
= 1.50
LT + LL = 1.28 + 0.349
= 1.63

7.17
7-6 Deflections for Continuous Spans
To compute deflections for continuous
spans subject to uniformly distributed
loads, the following approximate
approach may be used.
= 5 w
n
4
/384 E
c
I
e
M
n
2
/8 E
c
I
e

where
M = negative moment at supports (based on service loads) for span being
investigated; if values are different, use average moment.

n
= clear span
E
c
= modulus of elasticity for concrete (ref. Table A-6 for normal-weight
concrete)
w = uniformly distributed service load
I
e
= effective moment of inertia; use the average value of I
e
at positive moment
area and I
e
at negative moment area

In a similar manner, for long-term deflections the long-term deflection multiplier
should be averaged for the different locations.

7-7 Crack Control
With the use of higher strength reinforcing steels (where more strain is required
to produce the higher stresses), cracking of reinforced concrete flexural members
has become more of a problem.

It would seem that cracking would have an effect on the corrosion of reinforcing
steel.
However, there is no correlation between corrosion and surface crack widths
that are typical for structures with reinforcement stresses at service load
levels.
Further, there is no clear experimental evidence available regarding the crack
width beyond which a corrosion danger exists.
Exposure tests indicate that concrete quality, proper consolidation, and
adequate concrete cover may be more important in corrosion considerations
than is crack width.

For reasons of durability and appearance, many fine cracks are preferable to a few
wide cracks.

7.18
To achieve this, the current ACI Code (Section 10.6) directs that flexural
tension reinforcement must be well distributed in the maximum tension zones
of a member.
ACI Code (Section 10.6.4) contains a provision for the maximum spacing s that
is intended to control surface cracks to a width that is generally acceptable in
practice.
The maximum spacing is limited to
s = 15(40,000/f
s
) 2.5 c
c
12(40,000/f
s
) [ACI Eq. (10-4)]
where
s = center-to-center spacing of the flexural tension reinforcement nearest
to the tension face (inch)
f
s
= calculated stress (psi) based on service loads. This may be taken as 2/3
of the specified yield strength.
c
c
= clear cover from the nearest surface in tension to the surface of the
flexural tension reinforcement (inch)

ACI 318-08 (Section 10.6.5) cautions that if a structure is designed to be
watertight, or if it is to be subjected to very aggressive exposure,
The provisions of Section 10.6.4 are not sufficient.
Special investigations and precautions are required.


7.19
Example Crack Control

Example 7-3 (p. 240 of the textbook)

Given: The beam section shown.
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: Check the steel distribution to
determine if reasonable control of
flexural cracking is accomplished in
accordance with ACI Code Section 10.6.


Solution

1. Calculate the center-to-center spacing between the
#
9 bars.
s = (1/3)[15 2(1.5 + 0.375 + 1.128/2)] = 3.37

2. Assume positive moment and calculate the concrete clear cover from the
bottom (tension) face of the beam to the surface of the nearest tension
reinforcement.
c
c
= 1.50 + 0.375 = 1.875

3. Calculate f
s
using 2/3 of f
y
.
f
s
= (2/3)(60,000) = 40,000 psi

4. Calculate the maximum spacing allowed using ACI Eq. (10-4).
s = 15(40,000/f
s
) 2.5 c
c

= 15(40,000/40,000) 2.5(1.875) = 10.31
Check the upper limit of ACI Eq. (10-4).
12(40,000/f
s
) = 12(40,000/40,000) = 12 > 10.31
The maximum spacing = 10.31
The actual spacing of 3.37 < 10.31
Therefore, the steel distribution meets the requirements of ACI Code (Section
10.6) to provide reasonable control of flexural cracking.


7.20
Example Crack Control

Problem 7-7 (p. 244 of the textbook)

Given: The beam section shown.
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: Check the steel distribution to
determine if reasonable control of
flexural cracking is accomplished in
accordance with ACI Code Section 10.6.


Solution

1. Calculate the center-to-center spacing between the
#
10 bars.
s = (1/3)[15 2(1.5 + 0.375 + 1.27/2)] = 3.33

2. Assume positive moment and calculate the concrete clear cover from the
bottom (tension) face of the beam to the surface of the nearest tension
reinforcement.
c
c
= 1.50 + 0.375 = 1.875

3. Calculate f
s
using 2/3 of f
y
.
f
s
= (2/3)(60,000) = 40,000 psi

4. Calculate the maximum spacing allowed using ACI Eq. (10-4).
s = 15(40,000/f
s
) 2.5 c
c

= 15(40,000/40,000) 2.5(1.875) = 10.31
Check the upper limit of ACI Eq. (10-4).
12(40,000/f
s
) = 12(40,000/40,000) = 12 > 10.31
The maximum spacing = 10.31
The actual spacing of 3.33 < 10.31
Therefore, the steel distribution meets the requirements of ACI Code (Section
10.6) to provide reasonable control of flexural cracking.




7.21
When beams are relatively deep, there exists the possibility for surface cracking
in the tension zone areas away from the main reinforcing.
ACI Code 318-08 (Section 10.6.7)
requires that beams having depths in
excess of 36, longitudinal skin
reinforcing shall be uniformly distributed
along both side faces of the member for
a distance of h/2 from the tension face
of the beam.
The spacing s between these
longitudinal bars or wires shall not
exceed the spacing provided in ACI 318-
08, Section 10.6.4 (ACI Equation [10-4]).
Bar sizes ranging from
#
3 to
#
5 (or welded wire reinforcement with a minimum
area of 0.1 in
2
per foot of depth) are typically used.


7.22
Example Crack Control

Example 7-4 (p. 241 of the textbook)

Given: Beam section shown.
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: Check the skin reinforcement.

Solution

Because h > 36, skin reinforcement is required.
The skin reinforcing must cover the tension zone for a minimum of h/2
(41/2 = 20.5) up from the tension face of the beam and along both sides of
the member.

Assume
#
3 bars (A
b
= 0.11 in
2
) for skin reinforcing and calculate the maximum
spacing s as follows.
c
c
= 1.50 + 0.375 = 1.875
f
s
= (2/3)f
y
= (2/3)(60,000) = 40,000 psi
s = 15(40,000/f
s
) 2.5 c
c
= 15(40,000/40,000) 2.5 (1.875)
= 10.31

The distance from the tension face of the beam to the centroid of the tension
reinforcement is
1.50 + 0.375 + 1.128/2 = 2.44
Therefore, the required number of spaces N is
N = (20.5 2.44)/10.31 = 1.75 spaces (Use 2 spaces)

The actual spacing provided is
(20.5 2.44)/2 = 9.03 9 < 10.31 OK

Table A-4: A
s
(
#
3 @ 9) = 0.15 in
2
/ft
> 0.10 in
2
/ft OK
The design sketch is shown in Figure
7-11b (p. 241 of the textbook) and
shown at the right.

8.1
Chapter 8: Walls

8-1 Introduction
Walls are generally used to provide lateral support for an earth fill, embankment,
or some other material, and to support lateral loads.
Some of the more common types of walls are shown in Figure 8-1 (p. 246 of the
textbook) and include
- Gravity or semi-gravity wall
- Cantilever wall
- Counterfort wall
- Buttress wall
- Basement or foundation wall
- Bridge abutment
- Bearing wall
One primary purpose for a wall is to maintain a difference in elevation of the
ground surface on each side of the wall.
The earth whose ground surface is at the higher elevation is commonly called
the backfill, and the wall is said to retain this backfill.

All of the walls shown in Figure 8-1 (p. 246 of the textbook) have applications in
either building or bridge projects.
The walls do not necessarily behave in an identical manner under load.
The walls serve the same basic function of providing lateral support for a mass
of earth (or other material) that is at a higher elevation behind the wall than
the earth (or other material) in front of the wall.
All of the walls may be broadly termed retaining structures or retaining walls.
Some retaining walls may support vertical loads in addition to the lateral loads
from the retained materials.

Gravity wall. The gravity wall (Figure 8-1a) depends mostly on its own weight for
stability.
The wall is usually made of plain concrete and is used for walls up to
approximately 10 feet in height.
The semi-gravity wall is a modification of the gravity wall in which small
amounts of reinforcing steel are introduced.
Use of the steel reduces the massiveness of the wall.

8.2
Cantilever wall. The cantilever wall is the most common type of retaining structure.
The cantilever wall is used for heights in the range of 10 to 25 feet.
The cantilever wall is so named because its individual parts (toe, heel, and stem)
behave as, and are designed as, a cantilever beam.
The cantilever wall is very stable.
The capacity of the wall is a function of the strength of its individual parts.

Counterfort wall. The counterfort wall may be economical when the wall height is in
excess of 25 feet.
The counterforts are spaced at intervals and act as tension members to support
the stem.
The stem is designed as a continuous member spanning horizontally between the
counterforts.

Buttress wall. The buttress wall is similar to the counterfort wall except that the
buttresses are located on the side of the stem opposite to the retained material.
The buttresses act as compression members to support the stem.
The counterfort wall is used more often than the buttress wall.
- The counterfort wall has a clean, uncluttered exposed face.
- The counterfort wall allows for more efficient use of the space in front of
the wall.

Basement or foundation wall. The basement or foundation wall may act as a
cantilever retaining wall.
The first floor may provide an additional horizontal reaction similar to the
basement floor slab.
With the two reactions the wall acts as a vertical beam.
This wall is designed as a simply supported member spanning between the first
floor and the basement floor slab.

Bridge abutment. The bridge abutment is similar in some respects to the basement
wall.
The bridge superstructure induces horizontal as well as vertical loads on the
abutment, thus altering the normal cantilever behavior.




8.3
Bearing wall. The bearing wall may exist with or without lateral loads.
A bearing wall may be defined as a wall that supports any vertical load in
addition to its own weight.
Depending on the magnitudes of the vertical and lateral loads, the wall may have
to be designed for combined bending and axial compression.

8-2 Lateral Forces on Retaining Walls
The design of a retaining wall must account for all the applied loads.
The load that is of primary concern is the lateral earth pressure induced by the
retained soil.
The comprehensive earth pressure theories evolving from the original Coulomb
and Rankine theories can be found in almost any textbook on soil mechanics.

The magnitude, direction, and distribution of the pressure exerted by a soil
backfill upon a wall are affected by many variables, including, but not limited to
The type of backfill used.
The drainage (permeability) of the backfill material.
The level of the water table.
The slope of the backfill material.
The added loads applied on the backfill.
The degree of soil compaction.
The movement of the wall caused by the action of the backfill.

Water must be prevented from accumulating in the backfill material.
Walls are rarely designed to retain saturated material.
- Proper drainage must be provided.
- The best backfill material behind a retaining structure is a well-drained,
cohesionless material (e.g. sand).

The lateral earth pressure can exist and develop in three different categories.
Earth pressure at rest: If a wall is absolutely rigid, earth pressure at rest
develops.
Active earth pressure: If the wall deflects or moves a very small amount away
from the backfill, active earth pressure develops.
- The active state reduces the lateral earth pressure occurring in the at-rest
state.

8.4
Passive earth pressure: If the wall is forced to move toward the backfill for
some reason, passive earth pressure develops.
- The passive state increases the lateral earth pressure significantly above
that occurring in the at-rest state.

The magnitude of the at-rest earth pressure is somewhere between the active and
passive earth pressures.
Under normal conditions, earth pressure at rest is of such a magnitude that the
wall deflects slightly, thus relieving itself of the at-rest pressure.
- The active pressure results.
- For this reason, retaining walls are generally designed for active earth
pressure due to the retained soil.

Because of the involved nature of the rigorous analysis of an earth backfill and the
variability of the material and conditions, assumptions and approximations are made
with respect to the nature of the lateral pressures on a retaining structure.
It is common practice to assume linear active and passive earth pressure
distributions.
The pressure intensity is assumed to increase with depth based on the weight
of the soil.
- The pressure from a fluid increases with depth and is the same in all
directions.
- Unlike fluids, the pressure exerted by soil also increases with depth but is
different vertically and horizontally.
The vertical pressure is equal to the unit weight of the soil times the
depth below the ground surface (e.g. p = w
e
h
w
).
The horizontal pressure of the earth against the wall (frequently called
an equivalent fluid pressure) is equal to the unit weight of the soil times
the depth below the ground surface times a coefficient (e.g. p = K w
e
h
w
).
Walls designed based on these assumptions are safe and relatively economical.

8.5
Level Backfill
If we consider a level backfill (consisting of well-drained cohesionless soil), the
assumed active and passive pressure distributions are shown below.













Active earth pressure
The pressure intensity p
y
in any horizontal plane a distance y from the top of
the wall is
p
y
= K
a
w
e
y
- The maximum pressure at the base of the wall is
p
max
= K
a
w
e
h
w

The total active earth force H
a
acting on a one-foot wide section of wall is
H
a
= p
max
h
w
= K
a
w
e
h
w
2

where
K
a
= the coefficient of active earth pressure
= (1 sin )/(1 + sin ) = tan
2
(45 - /2)
K
a
varies from 0.27 to 0.40
= angle of internal friction (soil on soil)
w
e
= unit weight of earth (lb/ft
3
)
h
w
= the height of the wall
K
a
w
e
is called the equivalent fluid weight (units are lb/ft
3
)
The total active earth force H
a
is assumed to act through the centroid of the
triangular area.



8.6
Passive earth pressure
The total passive earth pressure acting on a one-foot wide section of wall is
H
p
= K
p
w
e
(h)
2

where
K
p
= the coefficient of passive earth pressure
= (1 + sin )/(1 - sin ) = tan
2
(45 + /2)
= 1/K
a
K
p
varies from 2.5 to 4.0
h = the height of earth
The total passive earth force H
p
is assumed to act through the centroid of the
triangular area.

Sloping Backfill
If we consider a sloping backfill, the assumed active earth pressure distribution is
shown below.















Active earth pressure
The total active earth force H
s
acting on a one-foot wide section of wall is
H
s
= K
a
w
e
h
b
2

where
K
a
= the coefficient of active earth pressure
= cos {[cos - (cos
2
cos
2
)]
1/2
/[cos + (cos
2
cos
2
)]
1/2
}
= slope angle of the backfill
= angle of internal friction (soil on soil)

8.7
The force H
s
acts parallel to the slope of the backfill.
For walls approximately 20 in height or less, the horizontal force component H
H

is assumed equal to H
s
and is assumed to act at h
b
/3 above the bottom of the
footing.
- The effect of the vertical force component H
V
is neglected (a conservative
approach).
Values of equivalent fluid weight (K
a
w
e
) for a sloping backfill are listed in Table
8-1 (p. 250 of the textbook).
- The values assume a well-drained, cohesionless soil backfill.
- The soil has a unit weight of 110 lb/ft
3
.
- The soil has an internal friction angle of 3340.

Level Backfill with Surcharge
Loads are often imposed on the backfill surface behind a retaining wall.
The loads may be either live loads or dead loads.
These loads are generally termed surcharge and theoretically may be
transformed into an equivalent height of earth.













A uniform surcharge over the adjacent area has the same effect as an additional
(equivalent) height of earth.
This equivalent height of earth h
su
is obtained by
h
su
= w
s
/w
e

where
w
s
= surcharge load (lb/ft
2
)
w
e
= unit weight of earth (lb/ft
3
)

8.8
The assumed additional (equivalent) active earth pressure acting on a one-foot
width of wall is calculated as follows.
H
su
= K
a
w
e
h
su
h
w

In effect, this adds a rectangle of pressure behind the wall with a total lateral
surcharge force H
su
assumed acting at its mid-height.
Surcharge loads far enough away from the wall cause no additional pressure
acting on the wall.

8-3 Design of Reinforced Concrete Cantilever Retaining Walls
A retaining wall must be stable as a whole, and it must have sufficient strength to
resist the forces acting on it.

Four possible modes of failure must be considered.
Overturning about the toe can occur due to lateral loads.
- The stabilizing moment (aka resisting moment) must be in excess of the
overturning moment so that an adequate factor of safety against
overturning is provided.
- The factor of safety should not be less than 1.5 and should preferably be
2.0 or more.
Sliding along the base of the footing can also occur due to lateral loads.
- The resisting force is based on an assumed coefficient of friction of
concrete on earth.
- The factor of safety against sliding should not be less than 1.5 and should
preferably be 2.0 or more.
Excessive soil pressure under the footing will lead to undesirable settlements
and possible rotation of the wall.
- Actual soil pressures should not exceed specified allowable pressures.
- The allowable soil pressures depend on the characteristics of the underlying
soil.
Structural failure of component parts of the wall (such as the stem, toe, and
heel).
- Each component part acts as a cantilever beam.
- Each component part must be designed to have sufficient strength to resist
all anticipated loads.



8.9
A general design procedure may be summarized as follows.
1. Establish the general shape of the wall based on the desired height and
function.
2. Establish the site soil conditions, loads, and other design parameters.
The allowable soil pressure.
Earth-fill properties for active and passive pressure calculations.
The amount of surcharge.
The desired factors of safety.
3. Establish the preliminary dimensions of the wall.
4. Analyze the stability of the wall.
Check factors of safety against overturning and sliding.
Compare actual soil pressure with allowable soil pressure.
5. Assuming that all previous steps are satisfactory, design the component parts
of the cantilever retaining wall, stem, toe, and heel as cantilever beams.

Using a procedure similar to that for one-way slabs, the analysis and design of
cantilever retaining walls is based on a 12 wide strip measured along the length of
the wall.

The preliminary dimensions of a cantilever retaining wall may be obtained from the
following rules of thumb.
1. Footing width L: Use h
w
/2 to 2h
w
/3.
2. Footing thickness h: Use h
w
/10.
3. Stem thickness G (at top of footing): Use h
w
/12.
4. Toe width A: Use L/4 to L/3.
5. Use a minimum wall batter of 0.25/foot to improve the efficiency of the stem
as a bending member and to decrease the quantity of concrete required.
6. The top of stem thickness D should not be less than 10 inches.

The given rules of thumb provide a reasonable basis for wall design.
Depending on the specific conditions, dimensions may have to be adjusted to
accommodate such design criteria as reinforcement limits, shear strength,
anchorage, and development.


8.10
Example Design of Reinforced Concrete Cantilever Retaining Walls

Example 8-1 (p. 253 of the textbook)

Given: The cantilever retaining wall shown.
h
w
= 18-0 with surcharge
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
Normal weight concrete

Find: Design the wall.

Solution

1. Select the type of wall.
The general shape of the wall, as shown, is that of a cantilever wall.
The overall height of 18 is within the range in which this type of wall is
normally economical.

2. Establish the design data.
Unit weight of earth, w
e
= 100 pcf
Allowable soil pressure = 4000 psf
Equivalent fluid weight K
a
w
e
= 30 pcf
Surcharge load w
s
= 400 psf
Minimum FS (overturning) = 2.0
Minimum FS (sliding) = 1.5

3. Establish preliminary dimensions for the wall.
a. Footing width L (h
w
/2 to 2h
w
/3):
L = 18/2 to 2(18)/3 = 9.0 to 12.0 feet Use L = 11 feet
b. Footing thickness h (h
w
/10):
h = 18/10 = 1.8 Use h = 1-9 (21)
c. Stem thickness at the top of the footing G (h
w
/12):
G = 18/12 = 1.50 Use G = 1-6 (18)
d. Toe width A (L/4 to L/3):
A = 11/4 to 11/3 = 2.75 to 3.67 Use A = 3.0
e. Use a batter for the rear face of wall per foot.

8.11
f. Top stem thickness D (no less than 10):
D = G (h
w
h) = 18 /ft (18 1.75)
= 18 8.13 = 9.87 Use D = 10
The actual batter is calculated as follows.
Batter = total batter/stem height
= (G D)/(h
w
h) = (18 10)/(18 1.75)
= 8/16.25 = 0.492 per foot ( > per foot) OK

4. Perform the stability analysis.
ACI Code (Section 15.2.2) permits the use of unfactored weights and loads
when analyzing for stability.
a. Determine the factor of safety against overturning.
The tendency of the wall to overturn is a result of the horizontal loads
acting on the wall.
- It is assumed that the wall tends to rotate about the toe.
- The horizontal loads create an overturning moment about the toe.
- The vertical forces resist the overturning moment and provide a
stabilizing moment.
The factor of safety (FS) against overturning is
FS = stabilizing moment/overturning moment
The passive earth pressure in front of the wall is generally neglected in
stability analysis because of the possibility of its removal by erosion or
excavation.
The surcharge is converted into an equivalent height of earth.
h
su
= w
s
/w
e
= 400/100 = 4.0 feet
The surcharge adds a rectangular pressure behind the wall.












8.12
Stabilizing moments (vertical forces)

Force Magnitude (lb) Lever arm (ft) Moment (lb-ft)
W1 (18 1.75)(10/12)(1)150 = 2031.25
3.0 + 5/12 =
3.42
6946.9
W2 (18 1.75 + 4.0)(6.5 + 8/12)(1)100 = 14,512.50
3.0 + 10/12
+ 7.17/2 = 7.42
107,682.8
W3 (18 1.75)(8/12)(1)(150 100) = 270.83
3.0 + 10/12 +
(1/3)(8/12) =
4.06
1099.6
W4 11(1.75)(1)150 = 2887.50 11.0/2 = 5.50 15,881.3
W = 19,702.08 M = 131,610.6
W
1
= weight of the rectangular portion of the stem
W
2
= weight of the soil block, including the surcharge
W
3
= weight of the triangular portion of the stem (unit weight is the
difference between the unit weight of the concrete and the unit weight
of the soil)
W
4
= weight of the footing

Overturning moments (horizontal forces)

Force Magnitude (lb) Lever arm (ft) Moment (lb-ft)
H1 (30 psf)(18)
2
= 4860.0 18.0/3 = 6.0 29,160.0
H2 (30 psf) (4)(18) = 2160.0 18.0/2 = 9.0 19,440.0
W = 7020.0 M = 48,600.0
H
1
= force due to active soil pressure = K
a
w
e
h
w
2

H
2
= force due to the surcharge = K
a
w
e
h
su
h
w


The factor of safety against overturning is
FS = 131,610.6/48,600 = 2.71 > 2.0 OK

b. Determine the factor of safety against sliding.
The tendency of the wall to slide is a result of the horizontal forces.
The vertical forces cause the frictional resistance against sliding.
- The total frictional force (i.e. the resisting force) is expressed as
follows.
F = f (W)

8.13
where
f = coefficient of friction between the concrete and the soil
= 0.50 (typical value)
W = the summation of the vertical forces
The factor of safety against sliding is expressed as
FS = resisting force F/actual horizontal force H

The factor of safety against sliding is determined as follows.
Total horizontal force = 4,860.0 + 2,160.0 = 7,020.0 lb
The summation of the vertical forces = W = 19,702.08 lb
FS = 0.50(19,702.08)/7,020.0 = 1.40 < 1.5 NG
The required minimum factor of safety for this problem is 1.5.
Therefore, resistance against sliding is not adequate.
Possible remedies to increase the factor of safety include
- Change the wall dimensions.
- Use a base shear key to mobilize the passive resistance of the soil and
increase the resisting force.

c. Determine the soil pressures and location of the resultant force.
The soil pressure under the footing of the wall is based on the location of
the resultant force.
For walls on soil, the resultant of all the forces acting on the wall should
lie within the middle third of the base.
- When this occurs, the soil is in compression under the entire width of
the footing.
- When this does not occur, there is a tendency for uplift over a
portion of the base and the remaining portion of the soil must resist
higher compressive stresses.
The resulting soil pressure distribution can be
- Triangular when the result occurs at the third point.
- Rectangular when the resultant occurs at the midpoint.
- Trapezoidal when the resultant occurs within the middle third of the
base.
The resulting maximum soil pressure must not exceed the safe bearing
capacity of the soil.

8.14
First, locate the point at which the resultant (R) of the vertical forces (W)
and the horizontal forces (H) intersects the bottom of the footing (ref.
Figure 8-9, p. 258 of the textbook) by summing moments about the toe
(point O).
Because the resultant R may be moved anywhere along its line of action,
it is moved to the bottom of the footing so that the horizontal
component of R passes through point O.
Then, the moment caused by the vertical forces is equal to the
difference between the stabilizing moment and the overturning moment:
W(x) = stabilizing moment overturning moment
(19,702.08) x = 131,610.6 48,600.0 = 83,010.6
x = 83,010.6/19,702.08 = 4.21 from the toe
The resultant lies within the middle third of the base of the retaining
wall (i.e. 4.21 > L/3 = 3.67).
- The resulting pressure distribution is trapezoidal.
- If x = 3.67, the pressure distribution would be triangular.
- If x = 5.50, the pressure distribution would be rectangular.
The eccentricity e with respect to the centerline of the footing is
e = 11.0/2 4.21 = 1.29

The soil pressures may now be calculated considering the vertical loads (W)
applied as an eccentric load on a rectangular section 11 long by 1 wide (i.e. a
typical one-foot wide strip of the wall footing).
The pressures are obtained using the basic equations for combined
bending and axial compression.
p = P/A Mc/I
where
p = the unit soil pressure intensity under the footing
P = the total vertical load (W)
= 19,702.08 lb
A = footing cross sectional area
= [L(1.0)] = 11.0 ft
2

M = moment due to the eccentric load
= (W) e = 19,702.08(1.29) = 25,415.7 lb-ft
c = distance from the centerline of the footing to the outside edge
= (L/2) = 5.50

8.15
I = moment of inertia of the footing with respect to its centerline
= (1.0) L
3
/12 = (1.0)(11.0)
3
/12 = 110.9 ft
4


p = 19,702.08/(11.0) 25,415.7(5.50)/110.9
= 1791.1 1260.5
p
min
= 530.6 psf < 4000 psf OK
p
max
= 3051.6 psf < 4000 psf OK



8.16
5. Design the component parts.
a. Design of the heel.
The load on the heel is primarily earth dead load and surcharge, if any,
acting vertically downward.
With the assumed straight-line pressure distribution under the footing,
the downward load is reduced by the upward-acting pressure.
For design purposes, the heel is assumed as a one-foot wide cantilever
beam.
- The span length is equal to the
distance from the outside edge
to the stem (i.e. 6 - 6).
- The heel is assumed as fixed at
the rear face of the wall.

The weight of the footing is
1.75 (6.5)(1) 150 pcf
= 1706.3 lb

The earth and surcharge weight is
6.5 (16.25 + 4.0)(1) 100 pcf
= 13,162.5 lb

All analysis performed so far has been based on service (unfactored) loads,
because
Allowable soil pressures are determined using a factor of safety against
reaching pressures that will cause unacceptable settlements.

Reinforced concrete is designed based on factored loads.
The ACI Code (Section 9.2.1) specifies that where lateral earth pressure
H must be included in the design, the strength U shall be at least equal to
1.2D + 1.6L + 1.6H.
A conservative approach to the design of the heel is to use factored
loads, as required, and to ignore the relieving effect of the upward
pressure under the heel.
- This unlikely condition would occur with a lateral force overload (and
no associated increased vertical load) causing uplift of the heel.



8.17
The maximum moment (based on service loads) is obtained by taking a
summation of moments about point A.
M = (13,162.5 + 1706.3)(6.5/2) = 48,323.6 lb-ft
The bending of the heel is such that tension occurs in the top of the
footing.

The maximum shear (based on service loads) is obtained by summing vertical
forces on the heel side of point A.
V = 13,162.5 + 1706.3 = 14,868.8 lb

The maximum moment and shear must be modified for strength design.
The loads on the heel are primarily dead load; a load factor of 1.2 is used.
- This considers the surcharge to be a dead load.
- This is acceptable because of the conservative nature of the design.
M
u
= 1.2 (48,323.6) = 57,988.3 lb-ft (58.00 kip-ft)
V
u
= 1.2(14,868.8) = 17,842.6 lb (17.84 kips)

Shear reinforcement: The shear reinforcement (for the heel) is determined
next.
Shear strength is likely the controlling factor and will be checked first.
- The heel effective depth (assuming 2 cover per ACI Code, Section
7.7.1 for concrete exposed to earth) and
#
8 bars, is
d = 21 2 1.0/2 = 18.5
- No shear reinforcing is required if the practical shear strength of the
concrete (V
c
) is no less than shear force due to factored loads (V
u
).
V
c
= 2 f
c
b d = 0.75 (2) 3000 (12) (18.5)
= 18,239.2 lb > V
u
= 17,842.6 lb OK
Therefore, V
c
> V
u
and no shear reinforcement is required.
ACI Code (Section 11.4.6.1)

Tensile reinforcement: The tensile reinforcement (for the heel) is
determined in the normal way. Assuming = 0.90,
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2
= 58.00(12)/(0.90)(12)(18.5)
2
= 0.1883 ksi
From Table A-8: k = 0.1903, = 0.0033,
t
> 0.005, and = 0.90.
- The section is tension-controlled; = 0.90 is valid.


8.18
The required steel area is
A
s
= b d = 0.0033(12)(18.5) = 0.73 in
2

Using Table A-5, the minimum area of steel required by the ACI Code
(Section 10.5.1) is
(A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 b d = 0.0033(12)(18.5) = 0.73 in
2

Possible selections (ref. Table A-4):
#
4 bars @ 3 c/c (A
s
= 0.80 in
2
)
#
5 bars @ 5 c/c (A
s
= 0.74 in
2
)
#
6 bars @ 7 c/c (A
s
= 0.75 in
2
)
#
7 bars @ 9 c/c (A
s
= 0.80 in
2
)
#
8 bars @ 13 c/c (A
s
= 0.73 in
2
)
#
9 bars @ 16 c/c (A
s
= 0.75 in
2
)
Select
#
7 bars @ 9 c/c (A
s
= 0.80 in
2
)

Notes:
The minimum area of steel must be provided wherever reinforcement is
needed, except where such reinforcement is at least one-third greater
than that required by analysis (ref. ACI Code, Section 10.5.3).
The ACI Code permits the use of a minimum reinforcement equal to that
required for shrinkage and temperature steel in structural slabs of
uniform thickness as furnished in the ACI Code (Section 7.12).
- The required area for shrinkage and temperature steel will always be
less than that required by the ACI Code (Section 10.5.1) and Table A-
5.
- For footings, the shrinkage and temperature steel area requirement
for slabs of uniform thickness is used as an absolute minimum in this
text.

b. Design of toe.
The load on the toe is primarily a result of the soil pressure distribution
on the bottom of the footing acting in an upward direction.
- The bending of the toe is such that tension occurs in the bottom of
the footing.
For design purposes, the toe is assumed as a one-foot wide cantilever
beam.
- The span length is equal to the distance from the outside edge to the
stem (i.e. 3 - 0).

8.19
- The toe is assumed as fixed at the front face of the wall.
The soil on the top of the toe is conservatively neglected.

The weight of the footing is
1.75(3.0)(1)150 pcf = 787.5 lb
The soil pressure directly under point B is
3051.6 3[(3051.6 530.6)/11.0]
= 3051.6 3(229.2) = 2364.0 lb/ft

Forces and pressures are calculated
based on the pressure distribution
shown at the right.



The design moment M
u
is obtained by summing moments about point B (at the
face of the wall).
Both the moment and shear must be modified for strength design.
- According to the ACI Code (Section 9.2.1), a load factor of 1.6 should
be used for horizontal earth pressure and for live load.
- A load factor of 1.2 is used for dead load.
- Because the soil pressure under the toe is largely the result of
horizontal earth pressure, a conservative procedure of using 1.6 is
recommended.
The weight of the footing reduces the effect of the horizontal earth
pressure.
- A load factor of 0.9 is used for the footing dead load (as
recommended by the ACI Code, Section 9.2.1).

The design moment M
u
is
M
u
= 1.6[(3051.6)(3.0)(2/3)(3.0) + (2364.0)(3.0)(1/3)(3.0)]
0.9(787.5)(3.0/2)
= 1.6(9154.8 + 3546.0) - 0.9(1181.3)
= 19,258.1 lb-ft (19.26 kip-ft)




8.20
The design shear V
u
is obtained by summing vertical forces on the toe side
of point B and applying load factors.
V
u
= 1.6[(3,051.6)(3.0) + (2,364.0)(3.0)] 0.9(787.5)
= 1.6(4,577.4 + 3,546.0) 0.9(787.5)
= 12,288.7 lb (12.29 kips)

Shear reinforcement: The shear reinforcement (for the toe) is determined
next.
Shear strength is likely the controlling factor and will be checked first.
- The toe effective depth (assuming 3 cover per ACI Code, Section
7.7.1 for concrete cast against and permanently exposed to earth) and
#
8 bars, is
d = 21 3 1.0/2 = 17.5
- No shear reinforcing is required if the practical shear strength of the
concrete (V
c
) is no less than shear force due to factored loads (V
u
).
V
c
= 2 f
c
b d = 0.75(2) 3000 (12) (17.5)
= 17,253.3 lb > V
u
= 12,288.7 lb
Therefore, V
c
> V
u
and no shear reinforcement is required.
ACI Code (Section 11.4.6.1)

Tensile reinforcement: The tensile reinforcement (for the toe) is
determined in the normal way. Assuming = 0.90,
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2
= 19.26(12)/(0.90)(12)(17.5)
2
= 0.0699 ksi
From Table A-8: k = 0.0710, = 0.0012,
t
> 0.005, and = 0.90.
- The section is tension-controlled; = 0.90 is valid.
The required steel area is
A
s
= b d = 0.0012 (12)(17.5) = 0.25 in
2

Using Table A-5, the minimum area of steel required by the ACI Code
(Section 10.5.1) is
(A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 b d = 0.0033(12)(17.5) = 0.69 in
2
> 0.25 in
2


Because the required A
s
< (A
s
)
min
, other minimum steel criteria should be
checked to establish the controlling minimum value.
1. Provide one-third additional reinforcing (ACI Code, Section 10.5.3).
(A
s
)
min
= 1.33(0.25) = 0.33 in
2


8.21
2. The required steel area based on the absolute minimum of shrinkage
and temperature steel required for structural slabs of uniform
thickness (ACI Code, Section 7.12).
Required A
s
= 0.0018 b h = 0.0018(12)(21) = 0.45 in
2


Since the shrinkage and temperature steel requirement is considered as
an absolute minimum, the required A
s
is 0.45 in
2
.

Possible selections (Table A-4):
#
4 bars @ 5 c/c (A
s
= 0.48 in
2
)
#
5 bars @ 8 c/c (A
s
= 0.46 in
2
)
#
6 bars @ 11 c/c (A
s
= 0.48 in
2
)
#
7 bars @ 16 c/c (A
s
= 0.45 in
2
)
#
8 bars @ 18 c/c (A
s
= 0.53 in
2
)
Select
#
7 bars @ 16 c/c (A
s
= 0.45 in
2
)

c. Design of stem.
The load on the stem is primarily the lateral earth pressure.
- The bending of the stem is such that tension occurs on the backfill
side of the stem.
For design purposes, the stem is assumed as a one-foot wide vertical
cantilever beam.
- The span length is equal to the height of the stem (16 3).
- The base of the stem is assumed as fixed at the top of the footing.

Forces and pressures are calculated based on the pressure distribution
shown.

H
s1
= K
a
w
e
h
s
2

= (30)(16.25)
2

= 3960.9 lb

H
s2
= K
a
w
e
h
su
h
s

= (30)(4.0)(16.25)
= 1950.0 lb




8.22
The design moment M
u
is obtained by summing moments about the top of the
footing.
Both the moment and shear must be modified for strength design.
- The forces are due to lateral earth pressure, a load factor of 1.6
should be used (per ACI Code Section 9.2.1).

The design moment M
u
is
M
u
= 1.6[(3960.9)(1/3)(16.25) + 1950.0(16.25/2)]
= 1.6(21,454.9 + 15,843.8)
= 59,677.9 lb-ft (59.68 kip-ft)

The design shear V
u
is obtained by summing horizontal forces acting on the
stem and above the footing and applying load factors.
V
u
= 1.6(3960.9 + 1950.0) = 9,457.4 lb (9.46 kips)

Shear reinforcement: The shear reinforcement (for the stem) is determined
next.
It is not practical to reinforce the stem for shear.
- Thus, V
c
V
u
.
- If the shear strength of the concrete alone is not adequate, the stem
thickness must be increased.
The effective depth of the stem at the top of the footing (assuming 2
cover per ACI Code, Section 7.7.1 for concrete exposed to earth) and
#
8
bars, is
d = 18 2 1.0/2 = 15.5
The shear strength V
c
of the stem (at the top of the footing) is
V
c
= 2 f
c
b d = 0.75 (2) 3000 (12)(15.5)
= 15,281.5 lb > V
u
= 9457.4 lb
Therefore, V
n
> V
u
and no shear reinforcement is required.
ACI Code (Section 11.4.6.1)

Tensile reinforcement: The tensile reinforcement (for the stem) is
determined in the normal way. Assuming = 0.90,
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2
= 59.68(12)/(0.90)(12)(15.5)
2
= 0.2760 ksi
From Table A-8: k = 0.2771, = 0.0049,
t
> 0.005, and = 0.90.
- The section is tension-controlled; = 0.90 is valid.


8.23
The required steel area is
A
s
= b d = 0.0049 (12)(15.5) = 0.91 in
2

Using Table A-5, the minimum area of steel required by the ACI Code
(Section 10.5.1) is
(A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 b d = 0.0033(12)(15.5) = 0.61 in
2
< 0.91 in
2
OK
Possible selections (Table A-4):
#
4 bars @ 2 c/c (A
s
= 0.96 in
2
)
#
5 bars @ 4 c/c (A
s
= 0.93 in
2
)
#
6 bars @ 5 c/c (A
s
= 0.96 in
2
)
#
7 bars @ 7 c/c (A
s
= 0.96 in
2
)
#
8 bars @ 10 c/c (A
s
= 0.95 in
2
)
#
9 bars @ 13 c/c (A
s
= 0.92 in
2
)
#
10 bars @ 16 c/c (A
s
= 0.95 in
2
)
Select
#
7 bars @ 7 c/c (A
s
= 0.96 in
2
)

Next, determine bar cut-off locations for the stem reinforcement.
As the moment varies along the height of the wall, the steel
requirements also vary.
Some of the stem reinforcement may be cutoff where it is no longer
required.

First, define moment M
u
for the full height of the stem.
The load diagram is shown at
the right.
Write an equation for
moment (referenced from
the top of the wall) based on
factored loads.
M
u
= 1.6 [(30)(4) y (y/2)
+ (30 y) y (y/3)]
M
u
= 1.6 (60 y
2
+ 5 y
3
)


M
u
= 96 y
2
+ 8y
3


The moment strength M
n
of the stem at various locations is computed from
the expression
M
n
= b d
2
k


8.24
Because we are attempting to establish a cutoff location for the vertical
stem reinforcement, the moment strength is based on a pattern of alternate
vertical bars being cut off.
With alternate bars cutoff, the remaining reinforcement pattern is
#
7
bars at 15 c/c, furnishing a steel area A
s
= 0.48 in
2
.
Spacing of the remaining bars must not exceed three times the wall
thickness (3h), or 18, whichever is less.
- The wall thickness at the top is 10.
- Thus, the spacing must not exceed 18.
- Bars spaced at 15 c/c satisfy this requirement.
The theoretical cutoff occurs where M
u
= M
n
.

Determine the moment strength at various locations along the stem.

y Units 8 10 12 12.25
d inches 11.50 12.48 13.46 13.59
in
2
/in
2
0.0035 0.0032 0.0030 0.0029
k ksi 0.2014 0.1848 0.1736 0.1681
M
n
lb-ft 23,972 25,904 28,306 27,941
M
u
lb-ft 10,240 17,600 27,648 29,112
where
y = distance from the top of the wall
d = 10 + 0.492 y 2 0.875/2 = 0.492 y + 7.56
= A
s
/b d = 0.48/12 d = 0.04/d
k (Table A-8)
M
n
= b d
2
k (1000/12)
M
u
= 96 y
2
+ 8 y
3

The theoretical cutoff point is approximately 12 from the top of the wall
(or 4.25 from the top of the footing).
The
#
7 bars must be extended past this theoretical cutoff point a
distance equal to the effective depth of the member or 12 bar
diameters, whichever is greater.
12 d
b
= 12(0.875) = 10.5 < d = 13.46
The required length of bar above the top of the footing is
4.25 + 13.46/12 = 5.37 (Use 5 5)
Check the required minimum area of steel at the theoretical cutoff point.
A
s,min
= 0.0033 b d = 0.0033(12)(13.46) = 0.53 in
2
> 0.48 in
2


8.25
This is unsatisfactory; the steel area provided is less than required.
- A simple solution is to move the cutoff point upward to where the
reinforcing provided is one-third greater than that required (and the
minimum steel requirement does not apply).

Determine the moment strength at various locations along the stem.

y Units 12 11 10 10.5 10.25
d inches 13.46 12.97 12.48 12.73 12.60
in
2
/in
2
0.0030 0.0031 0.0032 0.0031 0.0032
k ksi 0.1736 0.1792 0.1848 0.1792 0.1848
M
n
lb-ft 28,306 27,131 25,904 26,136 26,405
1.33M
u
lb-ft 36,772 29,611 23,408 26,394 24,872
where
y = distance from the top of the wall
d = 10 + 0.492 y 2 0.875/2 = 0.492 y + 7.56
= A
s
/b d = 0.48/12 d = 0.04/d
M
n
= b d
2
k (1000/12)
M
u
= 96 y
2
+ 8 y
3

The theoretical cutoff point is approximately 10.5 from the top of the wall
(or 5.75 from the top of the footing).
The
#
7 bars must be extended past this theoretical cutoff point a
distance equal to the effective depth of the member or 12 bar
diameters, whichever is greater.
12 d
b
= 12(0.875) = 10.5 < d = 12.73
The required length of bar above the top of the footing is
5.75 + 12.73/12 = 6.81 (Use 6 10)

The ACI Code (Section 12.10.5) requires that flexural reinforcement must
not be terminated in a tension zone unless one of several conditions is
satisfied.
One of those conditions is that the shear at the cutoff point does not
exceed two-thirds of the shear permitted.
Check the shear at the actual cutoff point (6.83 above the top of the
footing, which is y = 9.42 from the top of the wall).




8.26
Based on the load diagram, write an equation for shear based on the
factored loads.
V
u
= 1.6[30(4) y + (30) y (y)] = 1.6 (120 y + 15 y
2
)
V
u
= 192 y + 24 y
2

The shear force at the cutoff point (y = 9.42 from the top of the wall) is
V
u
= 192(9.42) + 24(9.42)
2
= 3,938.3 lb
If (2/3) V
c
V
u
, then the bar cutoff is satisfactory.
d = 0.492 y + 7.56 = 0.492(9.42) + 7.56 = 12.19
(2/3) V
c
= (2/3) (2f
c
)(b d)
= (2/3)(0.75)(23000)(12)(12.19)
= 8012.1 lb > V
u
= 3938.3 lb OK
Thus, alternate stem reinforcing bars may be stopped at 6-10 above the
top of the footing.

d. Additional design details.
Check the anchorage length requirements for the stem steel (
#
7 bars at
7 c/c).
Assume all steel is uncoated.

Anchorage length requirements into the stem and into the footing may
differ for these bars.
The difference in the bar spacing due to bar cutoffs may affect the
value for c
b
.
- The anchorage length required in the stem is equal to or greater than
that required in the footing (depending on the results of c
b
).
The anchorage length affects the splice length.
- Since the footing is usually poured separately from the stem, bars in
the stem are spliced to bars extending from the footing.

Check the anchorage length in the stem.
1. Determine K
D
.
From Table 5-1, K
D
= 82.2
2. Establish values for the factors
t
,
e
,
s
, and .
a.
t
= 1.0 (The bars are not top bars.)
b.
e
= 1.0 (The bars are not epoxy-coated.)
c.
s
= 1.0 (The bars are
#
7.)
d. = 1.0 (Normal weight concrete is used.)

8.27
3. Check the product
t
x
e
1.7.

t
x
e
= 1.0 (1.0) = 1.0 < 1.7 OK
4. Determine c
b
.
Based on cover (center of bar to nearest concrete surface):
c
b
= 2 + 0.875/2 (one-half of the bar diameter of the
#
7)
= 2.44
Based on bar spacing (one-half the center-to-center distance):
c
b
= 0.5 (7.5) = 3.75
Therefore, c
b
= 2.44
5. Check K
tr
= 40A
tr
/(sn).
K
tr
= 0. There is no transverse steel.
6. Check (c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
2.5.
(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
= (2.44 + 0)/0.875 = 2.79 > 2.5 (Use 2.5)
7. Calculate K
ER
if applicable.
K
ER
= A
s
required/A
s
provided = 0.91/0.96 = 0.948
8. Calculate
d
.
a. Omitting the factor for excess reinforcing:

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+K
tr
)/d
b
]} d
b

= (82.2/1.0)[(1.0)(1.0)(1.0)/2.5](0.875)

d
= 28.8 > 12 OK
b. Including the factor for excess reinforcing:

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+K
tr
)/d
b
]} K
ER
d
b

= (82.2/1.0)[(1.0)(1.0)(1.0)/2.5] (0.948)(0.875)

d
= 27.3 > 12 OK
Use
d
= 28 (minimum)

With the footing thickness equal to 21 and a minimum of 3 of cover
required for the steel at the bottom of the footing, the anchorage length
available is only 18 (21 3 = 18).
This anchorage length in the footing is not adequate.
The bars will be extended into a footing base shear key that will be used
to increase the sliding resistance of the wall.

The length of splice required for the main stem reinforcing steel is
calculated recognizing that the Class B splice is applicable for this condition
(ref. Section 5-7, p. 181 of the textbook).

8.28
The area of reinforcement provided is not twice that required for the
length of the splice.
- The required length of the splice is 1.3
d
.
1.3
d
= 1.3(28.8) = 37.4 (Use 38)
- The calculation omits the effect of excess reinforcement.

Stem face steel: Stem face steel in the form of horizontal and vertical
reinforcement must be provided as per the ACI Code (Section 14.3).
Section 14.3.3 specifies the required minimum horizontal reinforcement.
Section 14.3.2 specifies the required minimum vertical reinforcement
requirement.
- Section 14.3.2 does not strictly apply to reinforced concrete
cantilever retaining walls (ref. ACI Code, Section 14.1).
- It is good practice to provide some vertical bars in the exposed face
of the wall.
Per Section 14.3, the minimum recommended steel (for deformed bars
not larger than
#
5 with yield strength of not less than 60,000 psi) is as
follows.
- Horizontal bars (per foot of height of wall): A
s
= 0.0020bt
- Vertical bars (per foot of wall horizontally): A
s
= 0.0012bt
where
t = the thickness of the wall
The Code also stipulates that walls more than 10 thick, except basement
walls, must have reinforcement for each direction placed in two layers
parallel with the faces of the wall.
- The exposed face must have a minimum of one-half and a maximum of
two-thirds the total steel required for each direction.
- The steel must be placed not less than 2 or more than one-third the
thickness of the wall from the exposed face.
- The maximum spacing of the steel must not exceed three times the
wall thickness or 18 (ACI Code, Section 14.3.5) for both vertical bars
and horizontal bars.

For the front face of the wall (exposed face), use two-thirds of the total
steel reinforcement required and an average stem thickness (14).
For horizontal steel reinforcement consisting of deformed bars not
larger than
#
5,

8.29
A
s
= (2/3)[0.0020(12)(14)] = 0.23 in
2
/ft of height
Use
#
4 bars at 10 (A
s
= 0.24 in
2
)

For vertical steel reinforcement consisting of deformed bars not larger
than
#
5,
A
s
= (2/3)[0.0012(12)(14)] = 0.14 in
2
/ft of horizontal length
Use
#
4 bars at 17 (A
s
= 0.14 in
2
) in the front face.

For the rear face of the wall (not exposed face),
No additional vertical steel reinforcement is needed in the rear face of
the wall.
- Vertical reinforcement has been provided based on strength
requirements.
For horizontal reinforcement consisting of deformed bars not larger than
#
5, use the balance (one-third) of the total steel reinforcement required
and an average stem thickness (14).
A
s
= (1/3)[0.0020(12)(14)] = 0.11 in
2
/ft of height
Use
#
4 bars at 18 (A
s
= 0.13 in
2
)

Longitudinal reinforcement in the footing: The longitudinal reinforcement in
the footing should provide a steel area equal to that required for shrinkage
and temperature in slabs.
This is a conservative and acceptable approach because temperature and
shrinkage exposure are ordinarily less severe for footings than for slabs.
These bars serve mainly as bar supports and spacers to hold the main
steel in place during construction.
Per ACI Code (Section 7.12.2.1), the required steel area is
Required A
s
= 0.0018 b h
= 0.0018(11)(12/)(21) = 4.99 in
2

Use 12 -
#
6 bars (A
s
= 5.28 in
2
), as shown in Figure 8-20 (p. 280 of the
textbook).

Transverse reinforcement in the footing: The transverse reinforcement in
the footing was previously designed based on strength (flexural)
requirements.
Proper anchorage length must be provided from the point of maximum
tensile stress.


8.30
Check the anchorage for the top transverse (heel) steel in the footing (i.e.
the
#
7 bars at 9 c/c).
1. Determine K
D
.
From Table 5-1, K
D
= 82.2
2. Establish values for the factors
t
,
e
,
s
, and .
a.
t
= 1.3 (The bars are top bars.)
b.
e
= 1.0 (The bars are not epoxy-coated.)
c.
s
= 1.0 (The bars are
#
7.)
d. = 1.0 (Normal weight concrete is used.)
3. Check the product
t
x
e
1.7.

t
x
e
= 1.3 (1.0) = 1.3 < 1.7 OK
4. Determine c
b
.
Based on cover (center of bar to nearest concrete surface):
c
b
= 2 + 0.875/2 (one-half of the bar diameter of the
#
7)
= 2.44
Based on bar spacing (one-half the center-to-center distance):
c
b
= 0.5 (9) = 4.5
Therefore, c
b
= 2.44
5. Check K
tr
= 40A
tr
/(sn).
K
tr
= 0. There is no transverse steel crossing the potential plane of
splitting.
6. Check (c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
2.5.
(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
= (2.44 + 0)/0.875 = 2.79 > 2.5 (Use 2.5)
7. Calculate K
ER
if applicable.
K
ER
= A
s
required/A
s
provided = 0.73/0.80 = 0.913
8. Calculate
d
.

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+K
tr
)/d
b
]} K
ER
d
b

= (82.2/1.0)[(1.3)(1.0)(1.0)/2.5] (0.913)(0.875)

d
= 34.1 > 12 OK
Use
d
= 34 (minimum)

Check the anchorage for the bottom transverse (toe) steel in the footing
(i.e. the
#
7 bars at 16 c/c).
1. Determine K
D
.
From Table 5-1, K
D
= 82.2

8.31
2. Establish values for the factors
t
,
e
,
s
, and .
a.
t
= 1.0 (The bars are not top bars.)
b.
e
= 1.0 (The bars are not epoxy-coated.)
c.
s
= 1.0 (The bars are
#
7.)
d. = 1.0 (Normal weight concrete is used.)
3. Check the product
t
x
e
1.7.

t
x
e
= 1.0 (1.0) = 1.0 < 1.7 OK
4. Determine c
b
.
Based on cover (center of bar to nearest concrete surface):
c
b
= 3 + 0.875/2 (one-half of the bar diameter of the
#
7)
= 3.44
Based on bar spacing (one-half the center-to-center distance):
c
b
= 0.5 (16) = 8.0
Therefore, c
b
= 3.44
5. Check K
tr
= 40A
tr
/(sn).
K
tr
= 0. There is no transverse steel crossing the potential plane of
splitting.
6. Check (c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
2.5.
(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
= (3.44 + 0)/0.875 = 3.93 > 2.5 (Use 2.5)
7. Calculate K
ER
if applicable.
K
ER
= A
s
required/A
s
provided = 0.45/0.45 = 1.0
8. Calculate
d
.

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+K
tr
)/d
b
]} K
ER
d
b

= (82.2/1.0)[(1.0)(1.0)(1.0)/2.5] (1.0)(0.875)

d
= 28.8 > 12 OK
Use
d
= 29 (minimum)

Shear key: The stem and footing are cast at different times and a shear key
may be used between the two.
A depressed shear key is formed using a 2 x 6 plank.
The need for a shear key is debatable.
- Considerable slip is required to develop the key for purposes of lateral
force transfer.
- It may be considered as an added mechanical factor of safety.


8.32
Shear-friction design: The shear-friction design method of the ACI Code
(Section 11.6) should be used to design for the transfer of the horizontal
force between the stem and the footing.
This approach eliminates the need for the traditional shear key.
The shear-friction approach assumes that all of the horizontal force will
be transferred through friction that develops on the contact surface
between the two elements.
The magnitude of the force that can be transmitted depends on
- The characteristics of the contact surfaces.
- The existence of adequate shear-friction reinforcing A
vf
crossing
those surfaces.
- The angle at which the shear-friction reinforcing crosses the contact
surface.
For this example, dowels are placed perpendicular to the top of the
footing.

The Code allows for two possible contact-surface conditions that could exist
between stem and footing in the retaining wall.
Not intentionally roughened (though clean and free of laitance).
Intentionally roughened.
- This assumption requires the interface to be roughened to a full
amplitude of approximately inch.
This may be accomplished by raking of the fresh concrete or by
some other means.

Assuming the use of normal-weight concrete and shear-friction
reinforcement placed perpendicular to the interface, the nominal shear
strength (or friction force that resists sliding) is computed from
V
n
= A
vf
f
y
[ACI Eq. (11-25)]
where
A
vf
= the area of shear-friction reinforcement
= coefficient of friction between the footing and the stem, in
accordance with the ACI Code (Section 11.2.4.3)
= 1.0 for normal-weight concrete placed against hardened concrete
roughened as described previously
Note that A
vf
is steel reinforcement that is provided for the shear-friction
development.

8.33
This steel is in addition to any steel already provided.
The additional steel is provided in the form of dowels (a short bar that
connects two separately cast sections of concrete).
The dowels are placed approximately perpendicular to the shear plane.
As a limit, let V
u
= V
n

where
V
u
= the shear force applied at the cracked plane
Substituting for V
n
,
V
u
= A
vf
f
y

and solving for A
vf
,
A
vf
= V
u
/f
y
= 9,457.4/0.75(60,000)(1.0) = 0.21 in
2

where
V
u
= the design shear force previously determined by summing the
horizontal forces acting on the stem above the top of the footing

It is desirable to distribute the shear-friction reinforcement across the
width of the contact surface.
Therefore, half of the required reinforcement (i.e. 0.21 in
2
) is provided
at each face of the stem.
Use
#
4 bars at 18 c/c at each face of the stem.
- This provides 0.13 in
2
/ft in each face (for a total reinforcement of
0.26 in
2
/ft).
The shear strength is then
Shear strength V
n
= A
vf
f
y
= 0.26(60,000)(1.0)
= 15,600 lb > 9457.4 lb

The ACI Code (Section 11.6.5) stipulates that the maximum V
n
for concrete
placed monolithically or against hardened concrete intentionally roughened
as previously described, shall not exceed the smallest of
0.2 f
c
A
c

(480 + 0.08f
c
) A
c
, or
1600 A
c

where
A
c
= the contact area resisting the shear transfer



8.34
For all other cases, V
n
shall not exceed the smaller of
0.2 f
c
A
c

800 A
c


Thus, checking the upper limit for V
n
:
0.2 f
c
A
c
= 0.2(3000)(12)(18) = 129,600 lb
(480 + 0.08f
c
) A
c
= [480 + 0.08(3000)](12)(18) = 155,520 lb
1600 A
c
= 1600(12)(18) = 345,600 lb
Calculated V
n
= 15,600 lb << 129,600 lb OK

The development length for the
#
4 dowels (18 c/c) must be furnished into
both the stem and footing.
These are considered as tension bars.
The calculation for
d
follows the eight-step procedure presented in
Chapter 5.
1. Determine K
D
.
From Table 5-1, K
D
= 82.2
2. Establish values for the factors
t
,
e
,
s
, and .
a.
t
= 1.0 (The bars are not top bars.)
b.
e
= 1.0 (The bars are not epoxy-coated.)
c.
s
= 0.8 (The bars are
#
4.)
d. = 1.0 (Normal weight concrete is used.)
3. Check the product
t
x
e
1.7.

t
x
e
= 1.0 (1.0) = 1.0 < 1.7 OK
4. Determine c
b
.
Based on cover (center of bar to nearest concrete surface):
c
b
= 2 + 0.5/2 (one-half of the bar diameter of the
#
4)
= 2.25
Based on bar spacing (one-half the center-to-center distance):
c
b
= 0.5 (18) = 9.0
Therefore, c
b
= 2.25
5. Check K
tr
= 40A
tr
/(sn).
K
tr
= 0. There is no transverse steel crossing the potential plane of
splitting.
6. Check (c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
2.5.
(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
= (2.25 + 0)/0.5 = 4.50 > 2.5 (Use 2.5)

8.35
7. Calculate K
ER
if applicable.
K
ER
= A
s
required/A
s
provided = 0.21/0.26 = 0.808
8. Calculate
d
.

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+K
tr
)/d
b
]} K
ER
d
b

= (82.2/1.0)[(1.0)(1.0)(0.8)/2.5] (0.808)(0.50)

d
= 10.6 < 12
Use
d
= 12 (minimum)
The
#
4 dowels are shown in Figure 8-17 (p. 277 of the textbook).

6. Design the footing base shear key.
The footing base shear key (sometimes called a bearing lug) is used to prevent a
sliding failure.
The magnitude of the additional resistance to sliding offered by the key is
debatable and is a function of the subsoil material.
- The excavation for the key disturbs the subsoil during construction and
conceivably will do more harm than good.
The key, cast in a narrow trench below the bottom of the footing elevation,
becomes monolithic with the footing.

An acceptable design approach is to use the passive earth resistance H
p
in front
of the key (from the bottom of the footing to the bottom of the key) as the
additional resistance to sliding.
This neglects any earth in front of the footing.
- This reflects the case where excavation or scour has removed the earth
to the level of the bottom of the footing.

The passive earth pressure may be expressed in terms of an equivalent fluid
weight.
K
a
w
e
= 30 lb/ft
3
and w
e
= 100 lb/ft
3

Thus, K
a
= 30/100 = 0.30
The coefficient of passive earth
pressure = 1/K
a

1/K
a
= 1/0.30 = 3.33
K
p
w
e
= 3.33(100)
= 333 lb/ft
3

H
p
= K
p
w
e
h
k
2
= (333) h
k
2



8.36
The unfactored horizontal force H = 7,020 lb (ref. the stability analysis).
Therefore, the required resistance to sliding that will furnish a factor of
safety of 1.5 is
1.5(7020) = 10,530.0 lb
The frictional resistance furnished is 0.5(19,702.08) = 9,851.0 lb (from the
stability analysis).
The resistance that must be furnished by the passive earth resistance
provided by the base shear key is
10,530.0 9851.0 = 679.0 lb
The height required to furnish this resistance may be obtained by
establishing horizontal equilibrium (H = 0).
H
p
= (333) h
k
2
= 679.0
h
k
2
= 4.08
Required h
k
= 2.02 (Use 2-0)

The key must be designed for moment and shear.
The worst case would be the situation where excavation had not taken place
and the full height of earth in front of the wall was available to develop
passive pressure (ref. Figure 8-19, p. 279 of the textbook).
A one-foot depth of earth is assumed on top of the footing.
The passive pressures acting on the key are
- At the top of the key = K
p
w
e
h
k
= (333)(2.75) = 916 psf
- At the bottom of the key: H
p
= K
p
w
e
h
k
= (333)(4.75) = 1582 psf
Assume the key is a vertical cantilever beam.
- Sum moments about the plane
of the bottom of the footing,
applying a load factor of 1.6.
M
u
= 1.6()(916)(2.0)(1/3)(2.0)
+ 1.6()(1582)(2.0)(2/3)(2.0)
= 977.1 + 3374.9
= 4352.0 lb-ft

Assume a 10 wide key and
#
8 bars.
The effective depth d = 10 3 1.0/2 = 6.5
Assume = 0.90.

8.37
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2
= 4,352.0(12/)/0.90(12)(6.5)
2

= 114.5 psi (0.1145 ksi)
From Table A-8: k = 0.1172, = 0.0020,
t
> 0.005, and = 0.90.
The required steel area A
s
= b d = 0.0020(12)(6.5) = 0.16 in
2

The minimum area of steel required by the ACI Code (Section 10.5.1) may be
obtained using Table A-5.
(A
s
)
min
= 0.0033bd = 0.0033(12)(6.5) = 0.26 in
2
> 0.16 in
2

Therefore, (A
s
)
min
controls.

This is a very small amount of steel.
It is more practical to extend some existing stem bars into the key than to
provide additional bars.
All stem bars must be extended into the key for anchorage reasons anyway.
Therefore, all stem bars will be extended to within 3 of the bottom of the
key.
This provides 42 of anchorage below the bottom of the stem for the
#
7 bars and exceeds the required 28.
The steel furnished in the key, therefore, is
#
7 bars at 7 c/c (that is,
A
s
= 0.96 in
2
).

If we conservatively neglect the effect of the greater cover (3.0) in the key,
calculations for the required anchorage length at the top of the key are
identical to those for the stem, except that the excess reinforcement factor
K
ER
= 0.26/0.96 = 0.271, from which the final
d
calculation yields

d
= 28.8(0.271) = 7.8 < 12 Use
d
= 12
The available anchorage length is 24 3 = 21, which exceeds the
requirements of 12.

The shear strength of the key is
V
n
= V
c
= 2 f
c
b d = 0.75(2)(1.0) 3000 (12)(6.5) = 6408 lb

The factored shear force is
V
u
= 1.6()(916)(2.0) + 1.6()(1,582)(2.0)
= 1465.6 + 2531.2 = 3996.8 lb
V
n
= 6408 lb > V
u
= 3996.8 lb OK


8.38
8-4 Design Considerations for Bearing Walls
Bearing walls carry vertical loads in addition to their own weight.
The empirical design method for bearing walls is presented in Chapter 14 of the
ACI Code.
The provisions of Chapter 14 apply to short walls and subject to vertical (axial)
loads only.
- The vertical loads include loads such as those resulting from the reactions
of floor or roof systems supported by the walls.

Walls, other than short walls carrying axial loads, are designed as compression
members for axial load and flexure in accordance with ACI Code Chapter 10.
For example, cantilever retaining walls are designed according to flexural design
provisions of ACI Code Chapter 10.

The design axial load strength (or the capacity) of a bearing wall is given by the
following equation.
P
n
= 0.55f
c
A
g
[1 (k
c
/32h)
2
] [ACI Eq. (14-1)]
where
= strength-reduction factor corresponding to compression-controlled
sections in accordance with ACI Code (Section 9.3.2.2)
= 0.75 for members with spiral reinforcement
= 0.65 for other reinforced concrete members
h = thickness of wall (inches)

c
= vertical distance between supports (inches)
A
g
= gross area of section (in
2
)
k = effective length factor
Values for the effective length factor k shall be as follows.
1. For walls braced top and bottom against lateral translation and
a. Restrained against rotation at one or both ends
(top, bottom, or both) 0.8
b. Unrestrained against rotation at both ends 1.0
2. For walls not braced against lateral translation 2.0

The following requirements applicable to bearing walls are stated by the ACI Code
(Chapter 14).
1. The horizontal length of wall considered as effective for each concentrated
load shall not exceed the smaller of the center-to-center distance between

8.39
loads, and the bearing width plus four times the wall thickness. ACI Code,
Section 14.2.4.
2. Walls shall be anchored to intersecting elements, such as floors and roofs; or
to columns, pilasters, buttresses, of intersecting walls; and to footings. ACI
Code, Section 14.2.6
3. Minimum ratio of vertical reinforcement area to gross concrete area,

, shall
be:
a) 0.0012 for deformed bars not larger than No. 5 with f
y
not less than 60,000
psi (i.e. A
s
= 0.0012 b h); or
b) 0.0015 for other deformed bars (i.e. A
s
= 0.0015 b h).
where b = 12, and h is the wall thickness. ACI Code, Section 14.3.2
4. Minimum ratio of horizontal reinforcement area to gross concrete area of the
wall,
t
, shall be:
a) 0.0020 for deformed bars not larger than No. 5 with f
y
not less than 60,000
psi (i.e. A
s
= 0.0020 bh); or
b) 0.0025 for other deformed bars (i.e. A
s
= 0.0025 bh).
where b = 12, and h is the wall thickness. ACI Code, Section 14.3.3
5. Walls more than 10 inches thick, except basement walls, shall have
reinforcement for each direction placed in two layers parallel with faces of wall
in accordance with the following:
a) One layer consisting of not less than one-half and not more than two-thirds
of total reinforcement required for each direction shall be placed not less
than 2 inches nor more than one-third the thickness of the wall from the
exterior surface;
b) The other layer, consisting of the balance of required reinforcement in that
direction, shall be placed not less that inch nor more than one-third the
thickness of the wall from the interior surface. ACI Code, Section 14.3.4
6. Vertical and horizontal reinforcement shall not be spaced farther apart than
three times the wall thickness, nor farther apart than 18 inches. ACI Code,
Section 14.3.5
7. The thickness of bearing walls shall not be less than 1/25 the supported height
or length, whichever is shorter, nor less than 4 inches. ACI Code, Section
14.5.3.1
8. Thickness of exterior basement walls and foundation walls shall not be less
than 7 inches. ACI Code, Section 14.5.3.2

8.40
9. The thickness of nonbearing walls shall not be less than 4 inches, nor less than
1/30 times the least distance between members that provide lateral support.
ACI Code, Section 14.6.1
10. Vertical reinforcement need not be enclosed by lateral ties if vertical
reinforcement area is not greater than 0.01 times gross concrete area, or
where vertical reinforcement is not required as compression reinforcement.
ACI Code, Section 14.3.6

Additionally, from the ACI Code (Section 10.14.1), the design-bearing strength of
concrete under a bearing plate may be taken as
(0.85f
c
A
1
)
where
A
1
= the loaded area.

An exception occurs when the supporting surface is wider on all sides than the
loaded area.
In that case, the expression for bearing strength may be multiplied by
(A
2
/A
1
)
1/2
2.0
where
A
2
= a concentric and geometrically similar support area that is the lower
base of a frustum (upper base of which is A
1
) of a pyramid having 1:2
sloping sides and fully contained within the support.


8.41
Example Bearing Walls

Example 8-2 (p. 283 of the textbook)

Given: Reinforced concrete bearing wall to
support a series of steel wide-flange
beams at 8 c/c.
Bearing plates: 6 x 12
Wall is braced top and bottom against
translation.
Bottom end is fixed against rotation.
Wall height = 15
P
u
= 115 kips (for each beam)
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: Design the wall.

Solution

1. Assume an 8 thick wall with full concentric bearing.

2. The bearing strength of the concrete under the bearing plate, neglecting the
(A
2
/A
1
)
1/2
multiplier, is
(0.85f
c
A
1
) = 0.65(0.85)(3000)(6)(12)
= 119,340 lb (119.3 kips) > P
u
= 115 kips OK

3. The effective length of the wall (ACI Code, Section 14.2.4) must not exceed
the center-to-center distance between loads nor the width of bearing plus four
times the wall thickness.
Beam spacing = 8 (96)
12 + 4(8) = 44
Use 44.

4. The minimum thickness is 1/25 times the shorter of the unsupported height or
width.
Assume that the width does not control.

8.42
Then,
h
min
=
c
/25 = 15(12/)/25 = 7.2 < 8
Also, h
min
= 4
Therefore, the 8 wall is satisfactory.

5. The capacity of the wall is
P
n
= 0.55f
c
A
g
[1 (k
c
/32h)
2
]
= 0.55(0.65)(3.0)(44)(8){1 [ 0.8(15)(12/)/32(8)]
2
}
= 377.5 (1 0.316)
P
n
= 258.1 kips > P
u
= 115 kips OK

6. The reinforcing steel (ACI Code, Section 14.3), assuming
#
5 bars or smaller, can
be found.
For the vertical reinforcement per foot of wall length,
Required A
s
= 0.0012 b h = 0.0012(12)(8) = 0.12 in
2

For the horizontal reinforcement per foot of wall height,
Required A
s
= 0.0020 b h = 0.0020(12)(8) = 0.19 in
2

The maximum spacing of reinforcement must not exceed three times the wall
thickness nor 18 (ACI Code, Section 14.3.5).
3(8) = 24 > 18
Use 18 for the maximum spacing.

Select the reinforcing:
Vertical steel: Use
#
4 bars at 18 c/c (A
s
= 0.13 in
2
)
Horizontal steel: Use
#
4 bars at 12 c/c (A
s
= 0.20 in
2
)

The steel may be placed in one layer, as the wall is less than 10 thick.

The final design sketch is shown at the
right (ref. Figure 8-22, p. 285 of the
textbook).


8.43
8-5 Design Considerations for Basement Walls
A basement wall is a type of retaining wall in which lateral support is provided at
the bottom by the basement floor slab and at the top by the first floor
construction.
The wall is designed as a simply supported member.
The active pressure diagram is shown in Figure 8-23 (p. 285 of the textbook).

If the wall also acts as a bearing wall, the vertical load will relieve some of the
tension in the vertical reinforcement.
If the vertical load is of a permanent nature and of significant magnitude, its
effect should be considered in the design.
The effect of the vertical load may also be neglected.
- The effect may be small compared with the uncertainties in the assumed
loads.
- The vertical load may not be permanent.

When part of a basement wall is above ground, the lateral bending moment may be
small.
The active pressure diagram is shown in Figure 8-24 (p. 286 of the textbook).
- The computation of moment shown in Figure 8-24 assumes that the wall is
spanning in a vertical direction.
- Depending on the type of construction, the basement wall may span in a
horizontal direction.
If the wall design assumes two horizontal reactions, the two supports must be
in place prior to backfilling behind the wall.


8.44
8-6 Shear Walls
Concrete or masonry walls fixed at their base are used to resist lateral wind and
seismic loads, in addition to supporting gravity loads.
These lateral load-resisting elements may consist of single walls located
- Internally within the building, or
- On the exterior face of the building, or
- Lateral-resisting elements can be the stair and elevator core walls.
Shear walls are very efficient lateral load resisting elements that resist lateral
loads by acting as a (deep) vertical cantilever.
Sometimes, the walls may be perforated by door and window openings, or by
corridors.
When the walls are joined together with deep beams spanning the openings or
corridor, the walls are called coupled shear walls.

Figures 8-25 and 8-26 (pp. 286 288 of the textbook) show some typical shear
wall layout and typical shear wall elevations, respectively, in building structures.
Single shear walls can be laid out between column lines (ref. Figure 8-26, p. 288
of the textbook).
- The columns at both ends of the wall serve as the boundary members for
the shear wall.
- The vertical reinforcement in the columns serves as the vertical end
reinforcement in the shear wall.

The lateral load acting on the building is distributed to the lateral force resisting
elements parallel to the lateral load (e.g. a shear wall) in proportion to the
stiffness of the lateral force-resisting element.
For shear walls, the stiffness K, consists of a flexural stiffness component and
a shear stiffness component, and is calculated as
K = 3EI/h
w
3
+ GA/1.2h
w

If the total lateral force on the building at level x is F
x
, the lateral force at
level x is distributed to each shear wall that is parallel to the lateral load as
follows.
F
shear wall, x
= (K
wall
/K
wall
)F
x

where
h
w
= overall or total height of shear wall from top of footing to the top of
the wall (see Figure 8-27a, p. 291 of the textbook)

8.45
E = modulus of elasticity
I = moment of inertia of the wall about the strong axis = h
w
3
/12

w
= overall length of shear wall (see Figure 8-27a, p. 291 of the
textbook)
h = wall thickness (minimum practical wall thickness is 8)
A = gross cross-sectional area of the wall = h
w

G = shear modulus of elasticity = E/[2(1 + )]
= Poissons ratio for concrete 0.20
K
wall
= stiffness of the shear wall being considered
K
wall
= sum of the stiffnesses of all the shear walls parallel to the
lateral load

The following practical considerations should be taken into account when laying out
shear walls in concrete buildings.
Locate shear walls to minimize the effect on architectural features in the
building such as doors and windows.
Utilize stair and elevator shaft walls as shear walls.
Shear walls may be located on the outer perimeter of a building.
- However, this may reduce the number of available windows in a building and
therefore lead to a reduction in natural light and exterior views.
Locate shear walls in each orthogonal direction as symmetrically as possible to
minimize twisting or torsional deformations of the building from lateral loads.
Shear walls or other forms of lateral force resisting systems are required in
both orthogonal directions of the building.

Shear Wall Design Considerations
The provisions for the design of shear walls are outlined in the ACI Code, Section
11.9.
These provisions pertain to ordinary reinforced concrete shear walls.
The design considerations for ductile or special shear walls used in seismic
zones are presented in ACI Code (Section 21.9).

The following load effects should be considered in the design of shear walls.
The horizontal shear force varies and is maximum at the base of the wall.
The bending moment is maximum at the base of the wall.

8.46
- This produces compression at the end zone at one end of the wall and
tension at the end zone at the opposite end.
- The location of the tension and compression forces will change depending on
the direction of the lateral load.
The gravity or vertical loads (i.e. roof and floor dead and live loads) cause
compression on the wall.

Low-rise concrete buildings
The effect of the interaction of the gravity loads with the shear and bending
moment capacity of the wall is minimal.
Therefore, it is practical to consider the load effects just listed separately for
low-rise buildings.

High-rise buildings
The gravity load on the wall can be substantial.
The interactions between the axial load and the bending moment and shear
capacities of the wall should be considered.
Generally, the shear wall is designed as a column with combined axial load and
moment.
- A column-type interaction diagram is used.

Reinforcement in Shear Walls
The reinforcement in shear walls consists of
Distributed horizontal reinforcement used to resist shear forces in the wall,
Distributed vertical reinforcement used to resist gravity loads and to control
shrinkage and cracking.
Concentrated vertical end reinforcement used to resist the bending moment
due to lateral loads.

The typical shear wall reinforcement is shown in the wall elevation and section in
Figure 8-27 (p. 291 of the textbook).

The typical reinforcement details at the corners and the ends of the shear walls
are shown in Figure 8-28 (p. 292 of the textbook).




8.47
Minimum Reinforcement in Shear Walls
The minimum ratio of the distributed transverse or horizontal reinforcement,
t
in
the wall to the gross cross-sectional area of the wall perpendicular to the
reinforcement is given in the ACI Code (Section 11.9.9.2).

t
= A
v
/s h 0.0025

The minimum ratio of distributed vertical or longitudinal reinforcement,

in the
wall to the gross cross-sectional area of the wall perpendicular to the
reinforcement is given in the ACI Code (Section 11.9.9.4), but need not be greater
than
t
.

= A
v
/s
2
h = 0.0025 + 0.5(2.5 h
w
/
w
)(
t
0.0025) 0.0025
where
A
v
= area of distributed transverse reinforcement
s = center-to-center spacing of the transverse or horizontal reinforcement
s
2
= center-to-center spacing of the vertical reinforcement
h
w
= overall or total height of shear wall from top of footing to the top of
the wall (see Figure 8-27a, p. 291 of the textbook)

w
= overall length of shear wall (see Figure 8-27a, p. 291 of the textbook)
h = wall thickness (minimum practical wall thickness is 8)

The size of the distributed horizontal and vertical reinforcement is usually
#
4 or
larger bars.
The maximum spacing of the horizontal reinforcement allowed by the Code (i.e.
s maximum) is the smallest of the following.
-
w
/5
- 3h, or
- 18
The maximum spacing of the vertical reinforcement allowed by the Code (i.e. s
2

maximum) is the smallest of the following.
-
w
/3
- 3h, or
- 18

For 8 and 10 thick walls, the ACI Code (Section 14.3.4) implies that the
horizontal and vertical reinforcement be placed at the center of the wall.

8.48
It is common in design practice to use two layers of reinforcement (i.e.
reinforcement on both faces of the wall) for 8 and 10 thick shear walls.

Strength of Shear Walls
The ACI Code requires the design shear strength, V
n
to be greater than or equal
to the required shear strength or factored shear, V
u
.
V
n
V
u

where
= 0.75
V
n
= nominal shear strength = V
c
+ V
s
10 f
c
h d (ACI 11.9.3)
V
c
= concrete shear strength = 2 f
c
h d
V
s
= shear strength of shear reinforcing
d = effective depth = 0.8
w
(ACI 11.9.4)
= light-weight concrete modification factor
= 1.0 for normal-weight concrete

When V
u
V
c
, minimum horizontal reinforcing should be provided in the shear
wall (per ACI Sections 11.9.9.2 and 11.9.9.3).
Section 11.9.9.2:
t
= A
v
/s h 0.0025
Section 11.9.9.3: The maximum spacing of the horizontal reinforcement allowed
by the Code (i.e. s maximum) is the smallest of the following.
-
w
/5
- 3h, or
- 18

When V
u
V
c
, the required horizontal reinforcing is calculated as follows.
The design equation for shear requires that
V
n
= V
c
+ V
s
V
u


Therefore,
V
s
V
u
- V
c
,
and
V
s
= (V
u
- V
c
)/


From Chapter 4, the strength of any shear reinforcing is determined from
V
s
= A
v
f
y
d/s


8.49
Therefore,
(V
u
- V
c
)/ = A
v
f
y
d/s and A
v
/s = (V
u
- V
c
)/f
y
d


By selecting the size of the horizontal reinforcement (usually
#
4 or larger bars),
the cross-sectional area of the horizontal reinforcement, A
v
is known.
The required spacing of the reinforcement is determined using the above
equation.

The end zone vertical reinforcement due to the bending moment in the shear wall
is determined using the rectangular beam design procedure in Chapter 2.


8.50
Example Shear Wall Design

Example 8 3 (p. 293 of the textbook)

Given: The shear wall layout for a three-
story building and the unfactored north-
south lateral seismic loads acting on the
building.
Normal weight concrete
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: Design the north-south walls for the
seismic loads shown.

Solution

1. The maximum load factor is 1.0 for seismic loads and 1.6 for wind loads (ACI
Section 9.2.1).
Because this is a low-rise building, the effect of the vertical loads on the
moment capacity of the shear walls is minimal.
The interaction between the gravity loads and the moment is assumed as
negligible.
- The load effects on the wall are considered separately.

2. The length, thickness, and total height of the north-south shear walls, W1 and
W2, are equal.
The stiffnesses, K, are equal.
The factored seismic load forces for shear walls W1 and W2, including the
seismic load factor, are calculated as follows.
Roof: F
r
= 1.0 x (K/2K)(50 kips) = 25 kips
Third floor: F
3
= 1.0 x (K/2K)(50 kips) = 25 kips
Second floor: F
2
= 1.0 x (K/2K)(100 kips) = 50 kips
The factored shear wall lateral loads and load effects are shown in Figure 8-
30 (p. 295 of the textbook).


8.51
For high-rise buildings, the wall reinforcement is typically specified or designed
for two or three story lifts.

For this low-rise building, only the reinforcement at the base of the wall will be
designed.
This reinforcement will be used for the full height of the shear wall.

3. Select the wall thickness.
Assume h = 8 (The reinforcing will be placed on both sides of the wall).

4. Check the maximum allowed shear strength of the wall.
The effective depth, d = 0.8 x length of shear wall = 0.8(8)(12/) = 76.8
The total maximum allowable shear strength = V
n
= 10 f
c
h d
V
n
= 10 (0.75) 4000 (8)(76.8) = 291,436 lb (291.4 kips)
Required shear strength V
u
at the base of the shear wall,
V
u
= 100 kips < V
n
= 291.4 kips OK

5. Calculate the shear strength provided by the concrete alone.
V
c
= 2 f
c
h d = 2 (0.75) 4000 (8)(76.8) = 58,287 lb (58.3 kips)
Because V
u
= 100 kips > V
c
= 58.3 kips, shear reinforcement is required in the
wall.

6. Determine the required horizontal shear reinforcement, A
v
.
A
v
/s = (V
u
- V
c
)/f
y
d = (100 58.3)/0.75(60.0)(76.8) = 0.0121
Try
#
4 bars on each face of the wall.
A
v
= 2 faces x 0.20 in
2
= 0.40 in
2
.
The required spacing of the horizontal reinforcement for strength is
Required s = A
v
/(A
v
/s) = 0.40/0.0121 = 33.1
The maximum spacing of the horizontal reinforcement that is allowed by the
ACI Code (s maximum) is the smallest of the following.

w
/5 = 96/5 = 19.2
3h = 3(8) = 24
18 (Controls)
The corresponding horizontal reinforcement ratio provided is

t
= A
v
/s h = 0.40/(18)(8) = 0.0028 > 0.0025 OK


8.52
For the distributed horizontal reinforcement, provide
#
4 at 18 c/c (i.e.
#
4 HEF
@ 18, HEF = horizontal each face of wall).

7. Determine the distributed vertical shear reinforcement.
The required vertical reinforcement ratio is

= A
v
/s
2
h = 0.0025 + 0.5(2.5 h
w
/
w
)(
t
0.0025) 0.0025
= 0.0025 + 0.5(2.5 32/8)(0.0028 0.0025)

= 0.00228

must not be less than 0.0025 and need not be greater than
t
.
Therefore, use

= 0.0025 = A
v
/s
2
h.
A
v
/s
2
=

h = (0.0025) h = 0.0025(8) = 0.020 in


Try
#
4 bars on both faces of the wall.
A
v
= 2 faces x 0.20 in
2
= 0.40 in
2

The required spacing of the vertical reinforcement is
Required s
2
= A
v
/(A
v
/s
2
) = 0.40/0.020 = 20.0

The maximum spacing of the vertical reinforcement that is allowed by the Code
(s
2
maximum) is the smallest of the following.

w
/3 = 96/3 = 32.0
3h = 3(8) = 24
18 (Controls)

For the distributed vertical reinforcement,
Provide
#
4 at 18 c/c (i.e.
#
4 VEF @ 18, VEF = vertical each face of wall).

8. Design the shear wall for flexure or bending and determine the end zone
vertical reinforcement.
The maximum factored bending moment at the base of the wall due to the
factored seismic lateral load is
M
u
= 1950 kip-ft
The design equation for flexure requires that
M
n
= h d
2
k M
u


Initially assume = 0.90 (this will be checked later after
t
is determined), and
then calculate the required k as follows.
Required k = M
u
/ h d
2
= 1950(12)/0.9(8)(76.8)
2
= 0.5510


8.53
From Table A-10: = 0.0101 and
t
> 0.005, and = 0.90 as assumed.
The vertical reinforcement required at each end zone of the shear wall is
Required A
s
= h d = 0.0101 (8) (76.8) = 6.21 in
2

The minimum area of concentrated steel required for bending at the ends of
the shear wall (ref. Table A-5) is
(A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 h d = 0.0033(8)(76.8) = 2.03 in
2
< 6.21 in
2
OK
Use 8 -
#
8 bars (A
s
= 6.32 in
2
) as vertical reinforcement at each end of the
wall (i.e. 4 -
#
8 VEF).
- Since the bars are placed at each face, select an even number of bars.
- The total area of steel provided at each end of the wall,
Area provided = 6.32 in
2
> Required A
s
= 6.21 in
2
OK

A plan detail showing the reinforcement provided in the shear walls is shown in
Figure 8-31 (p. 298 of the textbook).
An end zone length of 16 is assumed. (This will be checked below.)
The concentrated vertical reinforcement is provided at both ends of the shear
wall.
- The lateral load can reverse direction.
- Each end of the shear wall can be subjected to tension or compression
forces depending on the direction of the lateral load.
The required clear spacing must conform to the following.
- Not less than 1.5 x bar diameter for tied reinforced compression members
(ACI Code, Section 7.6.3)
- Not less than 1.5 (ACI Code, Section 7.6.3)
- Not greater than 6 (Figure 8-28, p. 292 of the textbook)

From Figure 8-31, the clear spacing between the concentrated vertical bars is
[16 0.75(cover) 0.5(tie) 0.5(tie) 4 bars (1 dia.)]/3 spaces
= 10.25/3 = 3.42 > 1.5 (1 diameter) = 1.5 OK
< 6 maximum OK
Therefore, the assumed end zone length of 16 is adequate.

9.1
Chapter 9: Columns

9.1 Introduction
The main vertical load-carrying members in buildings are called columns.
The ACI Code defines a column as a member used primarily to support axial
compressive loads and with a height at least three times its least lateral
dimension.
The Code further defines a pedestal as an upright compression member having a
ratio of unsupported height to least lateral dimension of 3 or less.
The Code definition for columns includes members subjected to combined axial
compression and bending moment (i.e. eccentrically applied compressive loads).

The three basic types of reinforced concrete columns are shown in Figure 9-1
(p. 302 of the textbook).
Tied columns are reinforced with longitudinal bars enclosed by horizontal, or
lateral, ties placed at specified spacings.
- Tied columns are generally square or rectangular.
- However, circular tied columns do exist.
Spiral columns are reinforced with longitudinal bars enclosed by a continuous,
closely spaced, steel spiral.
- Spiral columns are normally circular.
- The spiral is made of either wire or bar and is formed in the shape of a
helix.
Composite columns are compression members reinforced longitudinally with
structural steel shapes, pipes, or tubes with or without longitudinal bars.
- Code requirements for composite columns are found in Section 10.13.
Columns of other shapes, such as octagonal and L-shaped columns, also exist.

A column is said to be short when its length is such that lateral buckling need not
be considered.
The length of a column is a design consideration for the ACI Code.
As length increases, the useable strength of a given cross section decreases
due to buckling.
Concrete columns are more massive and stiffer than their structural steel
counterparts.
- As a result, slenderness is less of a problem in reinforced concrete columns.

9.2
It is estimated that more than 90% of typical reinforced concrete columns
existing in braced frame buildings may be classified as short columns, and
slenderness effects may be neglected.

9-2 Strength of Reinforced Concrete Columns: Small Eccentricity
If a compressive load P is applied along the longitudinal axis of a symmetrical
column, the load theoretically induces a uniform compressive stress over the cross-
sectional area.
If the compressive load is applied a small distance e away from the
longitudinal axis, there is a tendency for the column to bend due to the moment
M = Pe.
- The distance e is called the eccentricity.
Unlike the zero eccentricity condition, the compressive stress is not uniformly
distributed over the cross section.
- Because of the eccentric load, the stress is greater on one side than on the
other.

Earlier Codes defined small eccentricity as follows.
For spirally reinforced columns: e/h 0.05
For tied columns: e/h 0.10
where
h = the column dimension perpendicular to the axis of bending

The fundamental assumptions for the calculation of column axial strength (for
small eccentricities) are that at nominal strength
The concrete is stressed to 0.85f
c
.
The steel is stressed to f
y
.
The nominal axial load strength at small eccentricity is a straightforward sum
of the forces existing in the concrete and the longitudinal steel when each of
the materials is stressed to its maximum.

The following ACI notation is used.
A
g
= gross area of the column section (in
2
)
A
st
= total area of the longitudinal reinforcement (in
2
)
P
0
= nominal, or theoretical, axial load strength at zero eccentricity
P
n
= nominal, or theoretical, axial load strength at a given eccentricity
P
u
= factored applied axial load at given eccentricity

9.3
The following longitudinal steel ratio is used.

g
= ratio of longitudinal reinforcement area to cross-sectional area of the
column
= A
st
/A
g


The nominal, or theoretical, axial load strength for the special case of zero
eccentricity is written as
P
0
= 0.85f
c
(A
g
A
st
) + f
y
A
st


This nominal or theoretical strength is further reduced to a maximum usable load
strength using strength reduction factors.

Extensive testing has shown that spiral columns are tougher than tied columns.
Both types of columns behave similarly up to the column yield point.
- At the column yield point, the outer shell spalls off.
Above the column yield point, the columns behave differently.
- The tied column fails by crushing, shearing of the concrete, and outward
buckling of the bars between the ties.
- The spiral column has an inner core area within the spiral that is laterally
supported and continues to withstand load.
Failure of the spiral column occurs when the steel yields following large
deformation of the column.
The Code recognizes the greater strength of the spiral column (Section 9.3.2)
by the assigned strength reduction factors.
- Spiral column: strength reduction factor = 0.75
- Tied column: strength reduction factor = 0.65

The Code requires that the basic load-strength relationship is
P
n
P
u

where
P
n
= the nominal axial load strength at a given eccentricity
P
n
= the design axial load strength

The ACI Code recognizes that no practical column can be loaded with zero
eccentricity.
If zero eccentricity could exist, then P
n
= P
0
.

9.4
Because eccentricity does exist, the ACI Code imposes the following
requirements.
- The strength reduction factor () is imposed.
- The nominal strengths are further reduced by factors of 0.80 and 0.85 for
tied and spiral columns, respectively.
This results in the following expressions for usable axial load strengths.
- For spiral columns:
P
n(max)
= 0.85[0.85 f
c
(A
g
A
st
) + f
y
A
st
] [ACI Eq. (10-1)]
- For tied columns:
P
n(max)
= 0.80[0.85 f
c
(A
g
A
st
) + f
y
A
st
] [ACI Eq. (10-2)]

These expressions provide the magnitude of the maximum design axial load
strength that may be realized from any column cross section.
This is the design load strength at small eccentricity.
Should the eccentricity (and the associated moment) become larger, P
n
is
reduced further (ref. Section 9-9 of the textbook).
The Code equations for P
n(max)
provide for an extra margin of axial load
strength.
- This provides some reserve strength to carry small moments.

9-3 Code Requirements Concerning Column Details
Steel area: Main (longitudinal) reinforcing should have a cross-sectional area so
that the steel ratio
g
is between 0.01 and 0.08.

Minimum number of bars: The minimum number of longitudinal bars per ACI Code
(Section 10.9) is
Within rectangular or circular ties: 4
Within triangular ties: 3
Bars enclosed by spirals: 6
No minimum bar size is mentioned in the present Code (the 1963 code
recommended a minimum bar size of
#
5).

Clear distance: The clear distance between longitudinal bars must not be less than
1.5 times the nominal bar diameter nor 1 (ACI Code, Section 7.6.3).
This requirement holds true where bars are spliced.

9.5
Table A-14 (p. 497 of the textbook) may be used to determine the maximum
number of bars allowed in one row around the periphery of circular or square
columns.

Cover: Cover shall be 1 minimum over primary reinforcement, ties, or spirals (ACI
Code, Section 7.7.1).

Tie bars: Tie bar requirements are discussed in detail in the ACI Code (Section
7.10.5).
Tie bar sizes:
- The minimum size tie is
#
3 for longitudinal bars
#
10 and smaller.
- The minimum size tie is
#
4 for longitudinal bars larger than
#
10.
- The maximum size tie is usually a
#
5 bar.
Tie bar spacing: The center-to-center spacing of ties should not exceed the
smaller of
- 16 longitudinal bar diameters, or
- 48 tie-bar diameters, or
- The least column dimension.
The ties should be arranged so that
- Every corner bar and alternate longitudinal bar has lateral support provided
by the corner of a tie having an included angle of not more than 135, and
- No bar is farther than 6 clear on each side from such a laterally supported
bar.
Typical tie arrangements are shown in Figure 9-3 (p. 307 of the textbook).

Spiral requirements: Spiral requirements are discussed in the ACI Code (Sections
7.10.4 and 10.9.3).
The minimum spiral size is
#
3 for cast-in-place construction (
#
5 is usually the
maximum).
Clear space between spirals must not exceed 3 or be less than 1.
The spiral steel ratio
s
must not be less than the value given by

s(min)
= 0.45(A
g
/A
ch
1)(f
c
/f
yt
) [ACI Eq. (10-5)]
where

s
= (volume of spiral steel in one turn)/(volume of column core in height s)
s = center-to-center spacing of spiral (inch) (called the pitch)
A
g
= gross cross-sectional area of the column (in
2
)

9.6
A
ch
= cross section area of the core (in
2
) (out-to-out of spiral)
f
yt
= spiral steel yield stress (psi) 60,000 psi
f
c
= compressive strength of concrete (psi)

The minimum spiral steel ratio results in a spiral that makes up the strength
lost due to spalling of the outer shell.

An approximate formula for the calculated spiral steel ratio in terms of physical
properties of the column cross section may be determined as follows.
From the definition of
s

- The volume of spiral steel in one turn = A
sp
D
s

- The volume of the column core in height (s) = ( D
ch
2
/4)(s)

s
= A
sp
D
s
/( D
ch
2
/4)(s)
where
A
sp
= the cross-sectional area of the spiral bar
D
s
= the spiral diameter (center-to-center)
D
ch
= the overall core diameter (out-to-out of spiral)

If the small difference between D
ch
and D
s
is neglected, then the spiral steel
ratio, expressed in terms of D
ch
, is
Calculated
s
= 4 A
sp
/D
ch
s

9-4 Analysis of Short Columns: Small Eccentricity
The analysis of short columns carrying axial loads will small eccentricities involves
the following.
Checking the maximum design load strength and
Checking the various details of the reinforcing.

The procedure is illustrated in the following examples.


9.7
Example Analysis of Short Columns with Small Eccentricity

Example 9-1 (p. 308 of the textbook)

Given: Column cross section shown.
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: The maximum design load;
check ties.

Solution

1. Check the steel ratio for the longitudinal steel.

g
= A
st
/A
g
= 8.00/(16)(16) = 0.0313
0.01 < 0.0313 < 0.08 OK
2. Check the maximum number of bars.
From Table A-14, 13 core (column size less cover on each side):
The maximum number of
#
9 bars is 8.
Therefore, the number of longitudinal bars is satisfactory.
3. Calculate the maximum design axial strength.
P
n(max)
= 0.80[0.85 f
c
(A
g
A
st
) + f
y
A
st
]
= 0.80(0.65)[0.85(4.0)(256 8.00) + 60.0(8.00)]
P
n(max)
= 688.1 kips
4. Check the ties.

#
3 ties are acceptable for longitudinal bars size up to
#
10 bars.
The spacing of the ties must not exceed the smallest of the following.
48 tie-bar diameters = 48(0.375) = 18
16 longitudinal-bar diameters = 16(1.128) = 18
The least column dimension = 16
Use 16 (which matches the tie spacing).
Therefore, the tie spacing of 16 is OK.





9.8
Check the tie arrangement to ensure that the clear spacing does not exceed 6.
Clear space in excess of 6 would require additional ties in accordance with
ACI Code (Section 7.10.5.3).
The clear space = [16 2(1.5) 2(0.375) 3(1.128)] = 4.4 < 6 OK
Therefore, no extra ties are needed.

9.9
Example Analysis of Short Columns with Small Eccentricity

Problem 9-4 (p. 340 of the textbook)

Given: Column cross section shown.
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 40,000 psi

Find: The maximum design load;
check the spiral.

Solution

1. Check the steel ratio for the longitudinal steel.
A
st
= 8(1.00) = 8.00 in
2
A
g
= (18)
2
/4 = 254.5 in
2


g
= A
st
/A
g
= 8.00/254.5 = 0.0314
0.01 < 0.0314 < 0.08 OK
2. Check the maximum number of bars.
From Table A-14, 15 core (column size less cover on each side):
The maximum number of
#
9 bars is 10.
Therefore, the number of longitudinal bars is satisfactory.
3. Calculate the maximum design axial strength.
P
n(max)
= 0.85[0.85 f
c
(A
g
A
st
) + f
y
A
st
]
= 0.85(0.75)[0.85(3.0)(254.5 8.00) + 40.0(8.00)]
P
n(max)
= 604.7 kips
4. Check the spiral.
Spiral size: 3/8 inch spiral OK
Clear space: 2 2(0.375/2) = 1.625 1 < 1.625 < 3 OK
Thus, 3/8 diameter spiral @ 2 spacing OK
Spiral steel ratio:
Minimum:
s(min)
= 0.45(A
g
/A
ch
1)(f
c
/f
yt
)
= 0.45(254.5/176.7 1)(3.0/40.0) = 0.0149
Actual:
s
= 4A
sp
/D
ch
s = 4(0.11)/(15)(2) = 0.0147 0.0149
The spiral is slightly under-designed.



9.10
9-5 Design of Short Columns: Small Eccentricity
The design of reinforced concrete columns involves
The proportioning of the steel and concrete areas.
The selection of properly sized and spaced ties or spirals.

Because the ratio of steel to concrete area must fall with a given range (that is,
0.01
g
0.08), the strength equation is modified to include this term.

g
= A
st
/A
g
from which A
st
=
g
A
g

For a tied column,
P
n(max)
= 0.80 [0.85 f
c
(A
g
A
st
) + f
y
A
st
]
= 0.80 [0.85 f
c
(A
g

g
A
g
) + f
y

g
A
g
]
P
n(max)
= 0.80 A
g
[0.85 f
c
(1
g
) + f
y

g
]

Because P
u
P
n(max)
, an expression can be written for required A
g
in terms of the
material strengths, P
u
, and
g
.
For tied columns,
Required A
g
= P
u
/0.80 [0.85 f
c
(1
g
) + f
y

g
]

For spiral columns,
Required A
g
= P
u
/0.85 [0.85 f
c
(1
g
) + f
y

g
]

There are many suitable choices for the size of column that will provide the
necessary strength to carry the load P
u
.
A low
g
will result in a larger required A
g
.
A high
g
will result in a smaller required A
g
.
Other considerations may affect the practical choice of column size.
- Architectural requirements.
- Constructability: The desire to maintain column size from floor to floor so
that forms may be reused.

The procedure for the design of short columns for loads at small eccentricities is
illustrated by the following examples.







9.11
Example Design of Short Columns with Small Eccentricity

Example 9-3 (p. 311 of the textbook)

Given: A square tied column.
DL = 320 kips
LL = 190 kips
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
Use
g
= 0.03

Find: Design the column.

Solution

1. Material strengths and approximate
g
are given.

2. Determine the factored axial load.
P
u
= 1.2P
DL
+ 1.6P
LL

= 1.2(320) + 1.6(190) = 688 kips

3. Calculate the required gross column area A
g
.
Required A
g
= P
u
/0.80 [0.85 f
c
(1
g
) + f
y

g
]
= 688/{0.80(0.65)[0.85(4.0) (1 0.03) + 60.0 (0.03)]}
= 259.5 in
2


4. The required size of a square column is
5 . 259 = 16.1
Use a 16 square column; this column size causes the actual
g
to be slightly
greater than 0.03.
Actual A
g
= (16)(16) = 256 in
2


5. Determine the loads on the concrete and steel areas.
Load on concrete = 0.80 A
g
[0.85 f
c
(1
g
)]
= 0.80(0.65)(256)[0.85(4.0)(1 0.03)]
= 439.0 kips (Approximate since
g
increases slightly)
Load on steel = 688 439 = 249 kips

9.12

Because the maximum design axial load strength of the steel is 0.80 (f
y
A
st
),
the required steel area is
0.80 (f
y
A
st
) = 249
A
st
= 249/0.80 f
yt
= 249/(0.80)(0.65)(60.0) = 7.98 in
2


Bars of the same size are distributed evenly around the perimeter of the
column.
Bars must be selected in multiples of 4.
Use 8 -
#
9 bars (A
st
= 8.00 in
2
)
Table A-14 indicates a maximum of 8 -
#
9 bars for a 13 core.

6. Design the ties.
Select a
#
3 tie (ref. Table A-14).
The spacing of the ties must not exceed the smallest of the following.
48 tie-bar diameters = 48(0.375) = 18
16 longitudinal-bar diameters = 16(1.128) = 18.0
The least column dimension = 16
Use
#
3 ties spaced at 16 c/c.

Check the tie arrangement to ensure that the clear spacing does not exceed 6.
Clear space in excess of 6 would require additional ties in accordance with
ACI Code (Section 7.10.5.3).
The clear space between adjacent bars in the same face is
[16 2(1.5) 2(3/8) 3(1.128)] = 4.43 < 6
Therefore, no additional ties are required by the ACI Code (Section
7.10.5.3).

7. Sketch the design.








9.13
9-6 Summary of Procedure for Analysis and Design of Short Columns with Small
Eccentricities
Analysis
1. Check the steel ratio
g
for the longitudinal steel.
0.01
g
0.08

2. Check the maximum number of longitudinal bars to ensure that the bars are
within acceptable limits for clear space (using Table A-14).
The minimum number of bars is
- For bars enclosed with rectangular or circular ties: 4
- For bars enclosed by spirals: 6

3. Calculate the maximum design axial load strength.
For tied columns: P
n(max)
= 0.80 [0.85 f
c
(A
g
A
st
) + f
y
A
st
]
For spiral columns: P
n(max)
= 0.85 [0.85 f
c
(A
g
A
st
) + f
y
A
st
]

4. Check the lateral reinforcing.
For ties: check size, spacing, and arrangement (clear spacing).
For spirals: check size,
s
, and clear distance.

Design
1. Establish the material strengths.

2. Determine the factored axial load P
u
.

3. Calculate the required gross column area A
g
.

4. Select the column dimensions. Use full-inch increments.

5. Determine the load carried by the concrete and the load carried by the
longitudinal steel. For a tied column,
Load on concrete = 0.80 A
g
[0.85 f
c
(1
g
)]
Load on steel = P
u
load on concrete
Determine the required longitudinal steel area.
A
st
= Load on steel/0.80 f
yt

Select the longitudinal steel.


9.14
6. Design the lateral reinforcing (ties or spiral).
Select a
#
3,
#
4, or
#
5 tie (ref. Table A-14).
The spacing of the ties must not exceed the smallest of the following.
48 tie-bar diameters
16 longitudinal-bar diameters
The least column dimension
Specify the tie size and spacing.
Check the tie arrangement to ensure that the clear spacing does not exceed 6.
Clear space in excess of 6 would require additional ties in accordance with
ACI Code (Section 7.10.5.3).

7. Sketch the design.



9.15
Example Design of Short Columns with Small Eccentricity

Problem 9-10 (p. 341 of the textbook)

Given: A short, circular spiral column.
DL = 175 kips
LL = 325 kips
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
Use
g
= 0.03

Find: Design the column.

Solution

1. Material strengths and approximate
g
are given.

2. Determine the factored axial load.
P
u
= 1.2 P
DL
+ 1.6 P
LL

= 1.2(175) + 1.6(325) = 730 kips

3. Calculate the required gross column area A
g
.
Required A
g
= P
u
/0.85 [0.85 f
c
(1
g
) + f
y

g
]
= 730/{0.85(0.75)[0.85(4.0)(1 0.03) + 60.0(0.03)]}
= 224.6 in
2


4. The required size of a circular column is
D = (4A
g
/)
1/2
= [4(224.6)/]
1/2
= 16.91
Use a 18 circular column; this column size causes the actual
g
to be smaller
than 0.03.
Actual A
g
= D
2
/4 = (18)
2
/4 = 254.5 in
2


5. Determine the loads on the concrete and steel areas.
Load on concrete = 0.85 A
g
[0.85 f
c
(1
g
)]
= 0.85(0.75)(254.5)[0.85(4.0)(1 0.03)]
= 535 kips (Approximate since
g
decreases slightly)
Load on steel = 730 - 535 = 195 kips


9.16
Because the maximum design axial load strength of the steel is 0.85 (f
y
A
st
),
the required steel area is
0.85 (f
y
A
st
) = 195
A
st
= 195/0.85 f
yt
= 195/(0.85)(0.75)(60.0) = 5.10 in
2


Bars of the same size are distributed evenly around the perimeter of the
column.
A minimum of 6 bars are required.
The maximum numbers of bars (depending on the size of the core, the size
of the spiral, and the size of the bar) are listed in Table A-14.
Possible selections (required A
st
= 5.10 in
2
, core = 15):
6 -
#
9 A
st
= 6.00 in
2
(maximum 10 -
#
9 bars) OK
7 -
#
8 A
st
= 5.53 in
2
(maximum 12 -
#
8 bars) OK
9 -
#
7 A
st
= 5.40 in
2
(maximum 13 -
#
7 bars) OK
12 -
#
6 A
st
= 5.28 in
2
(maximum 14 -
#
6 bars) OK
17 -
#
5 A
st
= 5.27 in
2
(maximum 15 -
#
5 bars) NG
Select 7 -
#
8 bars (A
st
= 5.53 in
2
)
A little larger A
st
is selected due to the selected column size.
Check
g
= A
st
/A
g
= 5.53/254.5 = 0.0217
0.01 < 0.0217 < 0.08 OK

6. Design the lateral reinforcing (spiral).
Select spiral size and determine the spacing: Try a
#
3 spiral
A
g
= D
2
/4 = (18)
2
/4 = 254.5 in
2

D
ch
= 18 2(1.5) = 15
A
ch
= D
ch
2
/4 = (15)
2
/4 = 176.7 in
2


Spiral steel ratio:
Minimum spiral steel ratio:

s(min)
= 0.45 (A
g
/A
ch
1)(f
c
/f
yt
)
= 0.45 (254.5/176.7 1)(4.0/60.0) = 0.0132
Maximum spiral spacing:
s
max
= 4A
sp
/
s
D
ch
= 4(0.11)/0.0132(15) = 2.22
Use 2 spacing.
Check the actual spiral steel ratio:

s
= 4A
sp
/D
ch
s = 4(0.11)/(15)(2) = 0.0147 > 0.0132 OK

9.17
Check the spiral clear spacing:
2 2(0.375/2) = 1.625 1 < 1.625 < 3 OK

Thus, 3/8 diameter spiral @ 2 spacing OK

7. Sketch the final design.
The final design is shown below.





9.18
9-7 The Load-Moment Relationship
If a force P
u
is applied to a cross section at a distance e (eccentricity) from the
centroid, a moment equal to P
u
e is also applied.
M
u
(where M
u
= P
u
e) is defined as the factored moment that is applied on a
compression member along with the factored axial load of P
u
.

To prevent the column from being
overloaded when subjected to a load
with an eccentricity,
The load P
u
must be reduced so
that the column can carry both P
u

and P
u
e.
The required reduction in the load
P
u
depends on the magnitude of
the eccentricity.

9-8 Columns Subjected to Axial Load at Large Eccentricity
As previously seen, under the 2008 ACI Code, the maximum design axial load
strength P
n(max)
is given by ACI Equations (10-1) and (10-2).
For spiral columns:
P
n(max)
= 0.85 [0.85 f
c
(A
g
A
st
) + f
y
A
st
] [ACI Eq. (10-1)]
For tied columns:
P
n(max)
= 0.80 [0.85 f
c
(A
g
A
st
) + f
y
A
st
] [ACI Eq. (10-2)]

These two equations apply for columns with small eccentricities, that is,
eccentricities no greater than
0.10 h for tied columns and
0.05 h for spiral columns.
where
h = the overall dimension of the column

For large eccentricities,
ACI Equations (10-1) and (10-2) no longer apply.
P
n
must be reduced below P
n(max)
.

The occurrence of columns subjected to eccentricities sufficiently large so that
moment must be a design consideration is common.

9.19
Interior columns supporting beams of equal spans receive unequal loads from
the beams due to applied live load patterns (ref. Figure 9-10a, p. 317 of the
textbook).
- The unequal loads mean that the column must carry both load and moment.
- The resulting eccentricity could be greater than the small eccentricity.
In a rigid frame, the rigidity of the joint requires the column to rotate along
with the end of the beam that the column supports (ref. Figure 9-10b, p. 317 of
the textbook).
The beam reaction may be eccentrically applied on the column through a column
bracket (ref. Figure 9-10c, p. 317 of the textbook).

9-9 Factor Considerations
Columns discussed so far have strength-reduction factors applied in a
straightforward manner.
= 0.65 for tied columns.
= 0.75 for spiral columns

These factors correspond to the compression-controlled strain limit or net
tensile strain in the extreme tension reinforcement,
t
0.002.

Eccentrically loaded columns carry both axial load and moment.

For values of
t
> 0.002, the equations from the ACI Code (Section 9.3.2) give
higher values than indicated above (ref. p. 40 of the textbook).
For tied columns: = 0.65 + (
t
0.002)(250/3)
0.65 0.90

For spiral columns: = 0.75 + (
t
0.002)(200/3)
0.75 0.90

9-10 Analysis of Short Columns: Large Eccentricity
The first step in the investigation of short columns carrying loads with a large
eccentricity is to determine the strength of the given column cross section that
carries loads at various eccentricities.
This may be thought of as an analysis process.
For this development, the design axial strength P
n
will be found (where P
n
is
the nominal axial load strength at a given eccentricity).


9.20
Example Analysis of Short Columns with Large Eccentricity

Example 9-5 (p. 318 of the textbook)

Given: Tied column with cross section shown.
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
Bending is about the y-axis.

Find: Column strength for the following
conditions.
a) Small eccentricity (e = 0 to 0.10 h)
b) e = 5
c) The compression-controlled strain limit (balanced condition),
t
= 0.002
d)
t
= 0.004
e) The tension-controlled strain limit,
t
= 0.005
f) Pure moment

Solution

A
g
= 20(14) = 280 in
2

A
st
= 6(1.0) = 6.0 in
2


a) Small eccentricity (e = 0 to 0.10 h)
P
n
= P
n(max)
= 0.80 [0.85 f
c
(A
g
A
st
) + f
y
A
st
]
= 0.80(0.65)[0.85(4.0)(280 6.0) + 60.0(6)]
= 671.6 kips
The maximum small eccentricity is
e
max
= 0.10 h = 0.10(20) = 2.0
The corresponding maximum moment is
M
u
= M
n
= P
n
e = 671.6(2.0) = 1343.2 kip-inch (111.9 kip-ft)

b) e = 5
In part a), all steel is in compression.
As the eccentricity increases, the steel on the side of the column away from
the load is subjected to less compression.

9.21
There is a certain value of eccentricity at which the stress in the steel
changes from compression to tension.
The value of eccentricity where this change takes place is not known.
- The strain situation must be assumed and verified by calculation.

The assumptions at nominal strength are
1. Maximum concrete strain = 0.003
2. Compression steel:
s
>
y
, therefore f
s
= f
y

3. Tension steel:
s
<
y
, therefore f
s
< f
y

The unknown quantities are P
n
and c.

Compression force in the concrete:
C
1
= 0.85f
c
a b = 0.85(4.0)(0.85c)(14) = 40.46c (kips)

Compression force in the steel (accounting for the area of concrete displaced
by the steel):
C
2
= f
y
A
s
0.85 f
c
A
s
= 60.0(3)(1.0) 0.85(4.0)(3)(1.0) = 169.8 kips

Tension force in the steel:
By similar triangles: 0.003/c =
s
/(d c)
So
s
= (0.003/c)(d c) = (0.003/c)(17 c)
T = f
s
A
s
=
s
E
s
A
s
= (0.003/c)(17 c)(29,000)(3)(1.0)
= 261(17 c)/c

Summing forces:
P
n
= C
1
+ C
2
- T = 40.46c + 169.8 261(17 c)/c
P
n
= 40.46c + 169.8 4,437.0/c + 261.0
P
n
= 430.8 + 40.46c 4,437.0/c

Summing moments (M
T
= 0):
P
n
(12) = C
1
(d a/2) + C
2
(14) = 40.46c(17 0.85c/2) + 169.8(14)
P
n
(12) = 687.82c 17.20c
2
+ 2,377.2
P
n
= 198.1 + 57.32c 1.433c
2







9.22
Equate the two equations for P
n
and solve for c.
430.8 + 40.46c 4,437.0/c = 198.1 + 57.32c 1.433c
2

430.8c + 40.46c
2
4,437.0 = 198.1c + 57.32c
2
1.433c
3

1.433c
3
16.86c
2
+ 232.7c - 4,437.0 = 0

c 10.0 12.0 14.0 15.0 14.85 14.90 14.86
f(c) -2363.0 -1596.2 -551.6 +96.4 -6.68 +27.43 + 0.12
Use c = 14.86

Solve for P
n

P
n
= 430.8 + 40.46c 4,437.0/c
= 430.8 + 40.46(14.86) 4,437.0/14.86 = 733.4 kips

Calculate the tensile strain in the extreme tensile reinforcement.
0.003/c =
t
/(d c)
0.003/14.86 =
t
/(17 14.86)

t
= (0.003/14.86)(17 14.86) = 0.00043 < 0.002

For
t
0.002, the corresponding tied column strength-reduction factor is
= 0.65.
Therefore, P
n
= 0.65(733.4) = 476.7 kips

Check the assumptions that were made.
Compression steel:
s
>
y

By similar triangles
s
/(c 3) = 0.003/c

s
/(14.86 3) = 0.003/14.86

s
= (14.86 3)(0.003/14.86)
= 0.0024 >
y
= 0.00207 (Table A-1)
Since
s
=
y
, then f
s
= f
y
OK
Tension steel:
t
<
y
, therefore f
s
< f
y
.

t
= 0.00043 (as determined above) <
y
= 0.00207
f
s
=
t
E
s
= 0.00043(29,000) = 12.53 ksi < 60.0 ksi OK
All assumptions are verified.

The design moment strength for an eccentricity of 5 is
P
n
e = 476.7 (5) = 2,383.5 kip-inch (198.6 kip-ft)
Therefore, the column has a design load-moment combination strength of 476.7
kips axial load and 198.6 kip-ft moment (applied about the y-axis).

9.23
c) The compression-controlled strain limit (balanced condition).
The compression-controlled strain limit (balanced condition) exists when the
concrete reaches a strain of
c
= 0.003 at the same time the extreme
tension steel reaches a strain of
t
= 0.002 (ACI Code, Section 10.3.3).
- P
b
is the nominal axial load strength at the balance condition.
- e
b
is the associated eccentricity.
- c
b
is the distance from the compression face to the balanced neutral
axis.

Using the strain diagram shown below, we can calculate the value of c
b
.
Using similar triangles,
0.003/c
b
= 0.002/(d c
b
)
0.003/c
b
= 0.002/(17 c
b
)
0.003 (17 c
b
) = 0.002 c
b

0.051 0.003 c
b
= 0.002 c
b

0.005 c
b
= 0.051
c
b
= 10.20

For
t
= 0.002, the tied column strength reduction factor = 0.65.

Using similar triangles, we can determine the strain and stress in the
compression steel,
s
.
0.003/c
b
=
s
/(c
b
3)
0.003/10.20 =
s
/(10.20 3)

s
= (0.003/10.20)(10.20 3) = 0.00212
Because
s
>
y
= 0.00207, the compression steel has yielded and
f
s
= f
y
= 60.0 ksi

Determine the forces acting on the section.
Compression force in the concrete:
C
1
= 0.85 f
c
a b = 0.85(4.0)[0.85(10.20)](14) = 412.7 kips
Compression force in the steel (accounting for the area of concrete
displaced by the steel):
C
2
= f
y
A
s
0.85 f
c
A
s

= 60.0(3)(1.0) 0.85(4.0)(3)(1.0) = 169.8 kips
Tension force in the steel:
T = f
s
A
s
=
s
E
s
A
s
= (60.0)(3)(1.0) = 180.0 kips


9.24
The nominal axial load strength is
P
b
= C
1
+ C
2
T = 412.7 + 169.8 180.0 = 402.5 kips

The value e
b
may be established by summing moments about T:
P
b
(e
b
+ 7) = C
1
(d a/2) + C
2
(d 3)
402.5(e
b
+ 7) = 412.7[17 0.85(10.20)/2] + 169.8(17 3)
402.5 e
b
+ 2,817.5 = 5,226.8 + 2,377.2
402.5 e
b
= 4,786.5
e
b
= 11.89

At the balanced condition,
Axial load strength: P
b
= 0.65(402.5) = 261.6 kips
Moment strength: P
b
e
b
= 261.6(11.89) = 3,110.4 kip-inch (259.2 kip-ft)

d)
t
= 0.004
Find the neutral axis using similar triangles.
0.003/c = 0.004/(d c)
0.003/c = 0.004/(17 c)
0.003(17 c) = 0.004c
0.051 0.003c = 0.004c
0.007c = 0.051
c = 0.051/0/0.007 = 7.29

Find the strain in the compression steel, using similar triangles:
0.003/c =
s
/(c 3)
0.003/7.29 =
s
/(7.29 3)

s
= (0.003/7.29)(7.29 3) = 0.00177 <
y
= 0.00207

Find the stress in the compression steel:
f
s
=
s
E
s
= 0.00177(29,000) = 51.3 ksi

Determine the forces acting on the section:
Compression force in the concrete:
C
1
= 0.85 f
c
a b = 0.85(4.0)[0.85(7.29)](14) = 295.0 kips
Compression force in the steel (accounting for the area of concrete
displaced by the steel):
C
2
= f
s
A
s
0.85 f
c
A
s
= 51.3(3)(1.0) 0.85(4.0)(3)(1.0) = 143.7 kips
Tension force in the steel:
T = f
s
A
s
=
s
E
s
A
s
= (60.0)(3)(1.0) = 180.0 kips

9.25
The nominal axial load strength is
P
n
= C
1
+ C
2
T = 295.0 + 143.7 180.0 = 258.7 kips

The value e may be established by summing moments about T:
P
n
(e + 7) = C
1
(d a/2) + C
2
(d 3)
258.7(e + 7) = 295.0[17 0.85(7.29)/2] + 143.7(17 3)
258.7e + 1,810.9 = 4,101.0 + 2,011.8
258.7 e = 4,301.9
e = 16.63

For
t
= 0.004,
= 0.65 + (
t
0.002)(250/3) = 0.65 + (0.004 0.002)(250/3) = 0.817
0.65 < 0.817 < 0.90 OK
Therefore, at
t
= 0.004,
Axial load strength: P
n
= 0.817(258.7) = 211.4 kips
Moment strength: M
n
= P
n
e = 211.4(16.63)
= 3,515.6 kip-inch (293.0 kip-ft)

e) The tension-controlled strain limit,
t
= 0.005
Find the neutral axis using similar triangles.
0.003/c = 0.005/(d c)
0.003/c = 0.005/(17 c)
0.003(17 c) = 0.005c
0.051 0.003c = 0.005c
0.008c = 0.051
c = 0.051/0.008 = 6.38

Find the strain in the compression steel, using similar triangles:
0.003/c =
s
/(c 3)
0.003/6.38 =
s
/(6.38 3)

s
= (0.003/6.38)(6.38 3) = 0.00159 <
y
= 0.00207

Find the stress in the compression steel:
f
s
=
s
E
s
= 0.00159(29,000) = 46.1 ksi

Determine the forces acting on the section:
Compression force in the concrete:
C
1
= 0.85 f
c
a b = 0.85(4.0)[0.85(6.38)](14) = 258.1 kips


9.26
Compression force in the steel (accounting for the area of concrete
displaced by the steel):
C
2
= f
s
A
s
0.85 f
c
A
s
= 46.1(3)(1.0) 0.85(4.0)(3)(1.0) = 128.1 kips
Tension force in the steel:
T = f
s
A
s
=
s
E
s
A
s
= (60.0)(3)(1.0) = 180.0 kips

The nominal axial load strength is
P
n
= C
1
+ C
2
T = 258.1 + 128.1 180.0 = 206.2 kips

The value e may be established by summing moments about T:
P
n
(e + 7) = C
1
(d a/2) + C
2
(d 3)
206.2(e + 7) = 258.1[17 0.85(6.38)/2] + 128.1(17 3)
206.2e + 1,443.4 = 3,687.9 + 1,793.4
206.2 e = 4,037.9
e = 19.58

For
t
= 0.005, = 0.90
Therefore, at
t
= 0.005,
Axial load strength: P
n
= 0.90(206.2) = 185.6 kips
Moment strength: M
n
= P
n
e = 185.6(19.58)
= 3,634.0 kip-inch (302.8 kip-ft)

f) Pure moment
The analysis of pure moment condition is similar to the analysis of the case
where the eccentricity is infinite.
We will determine the design moment strength M
n
.
P
u
and P
n
are both zero.

For pure moment, the bars on the load side are in compression; the bars on the
side away from the load are in tension.
The total tensile and compressive forces must be equal to each other.
- The total tensile force T = A
s
f
y

- The total compressive force consists of the force in the steel and
concrete (i.e. C
1
and C
2
).
C
1
= 0.85 f
c
a b
C
2
= A
s
f
s

Since A
s
= A
s
, A
s
must be at a stress less than yield.


9.27
Assume the tensile steel A
s
is at yield stress.
Find the strain in the compression steel using similar triangles,
0.003/c =
s
/(c 3)

s
= (0.003/c)(c 3)
f
s
=
s
E
s
= (0.003/c)(c 3) 29,000 = (87/c)(c 3)

Determine the forces acting on the section:
Compression force in the concrete:
C
1
= 0.85 f
c
a b = 0.85(4.0)(0.85)c(14) = 40.46c (kips)
Compression force in the steel (accounting for the area of concrete
displaced by the steel):
C
2
= f
s
A
s
0.85f
c
A
s

= (87/c)(c 3)(3)(1.0) 0.85(4.0)(3)(1.0)
= 261.0 783.0/c 10.2
C
2
= 250.8 783.0/c
Tension force in the steel:
T = f
s
A
s
= (60.0)(3)(1.0) = 180.0 kips

For equilibrium, C
1
+ C
2
= T
40.46c + 250.8 783.0/c = 180.0
40.46c
2
+ 250.8c 783.0 = 180.0c
40.46c
2
+ 70.8c 783.0 = 0
c = 3.61

Determine the forces acting on the section:
Compression force in the concrete:
C
1
= 40.46c = 146.1 kips
Compression force in the steel (accounting for the area of concrete
displaced by the steel):
C
2
= 250.8 783.0/c = 250.8 783.0/3.61 = 33.90 kips
Tension force in the steel:
T = f
s
A
s
=
s
E
s
A
s
= (60.0)(3)(1.0) = 180.0 kips

Summarizing the forces (recall P
n
= 0):
F = C
1
+ C
2
T = 146.1 + 33.90 180.0 = 0




9.28
Compute the internal moment by summing moments about T:
M
n
= C
1
(d a/2) + C
2
(d 3)
M
n
= 146.1[17 (0.85)(3.61)/2] + 33.90(17 3)
= 2,259.5 + 474.6 = 2,734.1 kip-inch (227.8 kip-ft)

For
t
0.005, the strength reduction factor = 0.90.
Moment strength: M
n
= 0.90(227.8) = 205.0 kip-ft

The results of the six parts of this example may be plotted to form an interaction
diagram (ref. Figure 9-18, p. 328 of the textbook).
The diagram applies only to this example.
- Axial load strengths P
n
are plotted along the vertical scale.
- Moment strength M
n
are plotted along the horizontal scale.
Any point on the solid line represents an allowable load-moment combination.
Any point within the solid line also represents an allowable load-moment
combination (for which the column is overdesigned).
Any point outside the solid line represents an unacceptable load-moment
combination.

Radial lines from the origin represent various eccentricities.
The intersection of the e = e
b
line with the solid line represents the balanced
condition.
- Any eccentricity less than e
b
results in a compression-controlled column.
- Points above the e = e
b
line and within the solid line represent compression-
controlled load-moment combinations.
Points between the e = e
b
line and the e = 19.6 line, the column is in the
transition zone (i.e. 0.002
t
0.005).
For eccentricities greater than 19.6, the column is tension-controlled.









9.29
The calculations involved with column loads at large eccentricities are involved and
tedious.
The previous example was an analysis.
The design of a cross section using the calculation approach is a trial-anderror
method and is extremely tedious.

Design and analysis aids have been developed to shorten the process.
These aids are found in the form of tables and charts (i.e. ACI interaction
diagrams).
The design aids are developed in a manner done in Example 9-5.
No strength reduction factors are incorporated into the diagrams.
Eight interaction diagrams are included in Appendix A Diagrams A-15 through
A-22, pp. 498-501 of the textbook).

The diagrams take on the general form of the diagram developed for Example 9-5,
but are generalized to be applicable to more situations.
The following definitions are useful:

g
= A
st
/A
g

h = column dimension perpendicular to the bending axis
= ratio of distance between centroids of outer rows of bars and column
dimension perpendicular to the axis of bending

Note that the vertical axis and horizontal axis of Diagrams A-15 through A-22 are
in general terms of K
n
and R
n
, where
K
n
= P
n
/f
c
A
g

R
n
= P
n
e/f
c
A
g
h
P
n
is the nominal axial load strength.
P
n
e is the nominal moment strength.
The slope of the radial line from the origin can be represented as
slope = rise/run = K
n
/R
n
= (P
n
/f
c
A
g
)/( P
n
e/f
c
A
g
h) = h/e

Notice the following features of the diagrams.
Curves (concentric with the origin) are shown for the range of allowable
g

values from 0.01 to 0.08.
A line near the horizontal axis labeled
t
= 0.005 indicates the limit for tension-
controlled sections.

9.30
- Columns with load-moment-strength combinations below this line are tension-
controlled ( = 0.90).
The line labeled f
s
/f
y
= 1.0 indicates the balanced condition.
- The balanced condition (i.e. compression-controlled strain limit) occurs when
the concrete reaches a strain of 0.003 at the same time the extreme tensile
steel reaches a strain of 0.002.
- Columns with load-moment-strength combinations above this line area
compression-controlled ( = 0.65 for tied columns; = 0.75 for spiral
columns).
Columns with load-moment-strength combinations between these two lines are
in the transition zone.
The line labeled K
max
indicates the maximum allowable nominal load strength
[P
n(max)
] for columns loaded with small eccentricities.
- A horizontal line drawn through the intersection of the K
max
line and a
g

curve corresponds to the horizontal line near the top of the interaction
diagram in Figure 9-18 (p. 328 of the textbook).

The following examples illustrate the use of the ACI interaction diagrams for
analysis and design of short reinforced concrete columns.


9.31
Example Analysis of Short Columns with Large Eccentricity (using the ACI
interaction diagrams)

Example 9-6 (p. 329 of the textbook)
Note: This example revisits Example 9-5.
Given: Column cross section shown.
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
e = 5


Find: a) The axial load strength P
n.
b) The moment strength M
n
.
c) Compare the results with Example 9-5b.

Solution

First, determine which interaction diagram to use.
Select the diagram based on the type of cross section, material strengths, and
the factor .
= h/h = distance between outer rows of bars
column dimension perpendicular to the bending axis
= h/h = 14/20 = 0.7
Therefore, use interaction diagram A-15 (p. 498 of the textbook).

Calculate
g
to establish a curve value.

g
= A
st
/A
g
= 6(1)/20(14) = 0.0214
0.01 0.0214 0.08 OK

Calculate the slope of the radial line from the origin, which relates h and e.
Slope = K
n
/R
n
= h/e = 20/5 = 4

Draw a radial line from the origin to an estimated
g
= 0.0214 curve.
Select convenient values (e.g. K
n
= 1.0 and R
n
= 0.25 that form a slope of 4 with
the origin).
Use a straight edge to draw the radial line from the origin to intersect with an
estimated
g
= 0.0214 curve.


9.32
At the intersection, read the following values.
K
n
0.64
R
n
0.16
Because this combination of load and moment is above the f
s
/f
y
= 1.0 line, this is
a compression-controlled section and = 0.65.

Calculate the axial load strength and the moment strength.
P
n
= K
n
f
c
A
g
= 0.65(0.64)(4.0)(20)(14) = 465.9 kips
M
n
= R
n
f
c
A
g
h = 0.65(0.16)(4.0)(20)(14)(20)
= 2,329.6 kip-inch (194.1 kip-ft)
or M
n
= P
n
e = 465.9(5) = 2,329.5 kip-inch (194.1 kip-ft)

These results compare reasonably well with the previous results from Example 9-5.
P
n
= 476.7 kips
M
n
= 198.6 kip-ft


9.33
Example Analysis of Short Columns with Large Eccentricity (using the ACI
interaction diagrams)

Example 9-7 (p. 331 of the textbook)

Given: Circular column cross section.
P
u
= 1100 kips
M
u
= 285 kip-ft
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: Design a circular spirally
reinforced concrete column.

Solution

Estimate the column size based on
g
= 0.01 and axial load only.
Required A
g
= P
u
/{0.85 [0.85 f
c
(1 -
g
) + f
y

g
]}
A
g
= 1100/{0.85(0.75)[0.85(4.0)(1 0.01) + 60.0(0.01)]}
= 435.1 in
2

Required diameter = (4A
g
/)
1/2
= [4(435.1)/]
1/2
= 23.5

Try a 24-diameter column (A
g
= D
2
/4 = 452.4 in
2
), 3/8 spiral, and
#
9 bars.
Distance between the outer rows of bars (h):
h = 24 2(1.5) 2(3/8) 2(1.128/2) = 19.12

= h/h = distance between outer rows of bars
column dimension perpendicular to the bending axis
= h/h = 19.12/24 = 0.797
Use ACI Interaction Diagram A-21 from Appendix A (p. 501 of the textbook).

Determine the required
g
.
Assume that the column is compression-controlled ( = 0.75), subject to a later
check.
Calculate the values of required K
n
and R
n
.
- The required nominal axial load P
n
= P
u
/
- The nominal moment P
n
e = M
u
/

9.34
Required K
n
= P
n
/f
c
A
g
= P
u
/f
c
A
g
= 1100/[0.75(4.0)(452.4)] = 0.810
Required R
n
= P
n
e/f
c
A
g
h = M
u
/f
c
A
g
h = 285(12)/[0.75(4.0)(452.4)(24)] = 0.105
From Diagram A-21,
g
= 0.024.
- Note that this is well above the f
s
/f
y
= 1.0 line. Therefore,
The column is compression-controlled.
The assumption that = 0.75 is OK.

The required area of steel is
Required A
s
=
g
A
g
= 0.024(452.4) = 10.86 in
2


Select 11 -
#
9 bars (A
s
= 11.00 in
2
).
Check the maximum number of
#
9 bars from Table A-14.
- Based on a core size of 24 2(1.5) = 21,
the maximum number of bars is 15 . OK

Design the spiral.
Use 3/8-inch diameter spiral.
The concrete core diameter and area are
D
ch
= 24 2(1.5) = 21
A
ch
= D
ch
2
/4 = (21)
2
/4 = 346.4 in
2

The required steel ratio is
Required
s
= 0.45(A
g
/A
ch
1)(f
c
/f
yt
)
= 0.45(452.4/346.4 1)(4.0/60.0) = 0.0092
The required spacing is
Required s = 4A
sp
/D
ch

s
= 4(0.11)/21(0.0092) = 2.28
Use 2-1/4 spacing.

Sketch the final design.
The final design is shown at the
right (ref. Figure 9-21, p. 332 of
the textbook).



9.35
Example Analysis of Short Columns with Large Eccentricity (using the ACI
interaction diagrams)

Example 9-8 (p.332 of the textbook)

Given: Square tied column cross section.
P
u
= 1300 kips
M
u
= 550 kip-ft
f
c
= 4000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi

Find: Design a square tied reinforced
concrete column.

Solution

Estimate the column size based on
g
= 0.01 and axial load only.
Required A
g
= P
u
/{0.80 [0.85 f
c
(1 -
g
) + f
y

g
]}
A
g
= 1300/{0.80(0.65)[0.85(4.0)(1 0.01) + 60.0(0.01)]}
= 630.4 in
2

Required column size = A
g
= (630.4)
1/2
= 25.1

Try a 26-square column (A
g
= 676.0 in
2
),
#
3 ties, and
#
9 bars.
Distance between the outer rows of bars (h):
h = 26 2(1.5) 2(0.375) 2(1.128/2) = 21.12

= h/h = distance between outer rows of bars
column dimension perpendicular to the bending axis
= h/h = 21.12/26 = 0.812
Use ACI Interaction Diagram A-18 from Appendix A (p. 499 of the textbook).

Determine the required
g
.
Assume that the column is compression-controlled ( = 0.65), subject to a later
check.
Calculate the values of required K
n
and R
n
.
- The required nominal axial load P
n
= P
u
/
- The nominal moment P
n
e = M
u
/

9.36
Required K
n
= P
n
/f
c
A
g
= P
u
/f
c
A
g
= 1300/[(0.65)(4.0)(676.0)] = 0.740
Required R
n
= P
n
e/f
c
A
g
h = M
u
/f
c
A
g
h = 550(12)/[0.65(4.0)(676.0)(26)] = 0.144
From Diagram A-18,
g
= 0.023.
- Note that this is well above the f
s
/f
y
= 1.0 line. Therefore,
The column is compression-controlled.
The assumption that = 0.65 is OK.

The required area of steel is
Required A
s
=
g
A
g
= 0.023(676.0) = 15.55 in
2


Select 16 -
#
9 bars (A
s
= 16.00 in
2
).
Check the maximum number of
#
9 bars from Table A-14.
- Based on a core size of 26 2(1.5) = 23,
the maximum number of bars is 20 . OK

Design the ties.
Use
#
3 tie since the longitudinal bars are
#
10 or smaller.
The maximum tie spacing is the smallest of the following.
- 16 bar diameters = 16(1.128) = 18.0
- 48 tie diameters = 48(0.375) = 18
- The least column dimension = 26
Use
#
3 ties at 18 spacing.

Sketch the final design.
The final design is shown at the
right (ref. Figure 9-23, p. 334 of
the textbook).



9.37
9-11 The Slender Column
Thus far, the design and analysis have been limited to short columns that require
no consideration of strength due to the possibility of buckling.
All compression members experience buckling as they become longer and more
flexible.
A column may be categorized as slender if the cross-sectional dimensions are
small in comparison to the unsupported length.
The degree of slenderness is expressed in terms of a slenderness ratio k
u
/r,
where
k = effective length factor for compression members

u
= the unsupported length of a compression member, taken as the clear
distance between floor slabs, beams, or other members capable of
providing lateral support (ACI Code, Section 10.1.1).
r = radius of gyration of the cross section of the compression members (ACI
Code, Section 10.1.2)
= 0.30 h, where h is the overall dimension of a rectangular column in the
direction of the moment
= 0.25 D, where D is the diameter of a circular column

The numerator k
u
is termed the effective length.
The effective length is a function of
- The unsupported length
- End conditions
- Sidesway
Sidesway (a.k.a. lateral drift) is a deformation that occurs when one end
of a member moves laterally with respect to another.

For compression members braced against sidesway, the ACI Code (Section 10.6.3)
states that k may be taken as 1.0.
Compression members free to buckle in a sidesway mode are weaker than when
braced against sidesway.

Actual structures are rarely completely braced (non-sway) or completely unbraced
(sway).
Sidesway may be minimized in a number of ways.
- The common approach is to use walls or partitions sufficiently strong and
rigid in their own planes to prevent horizontal displacement.

9.38
- Another method is to use a rigid central core that is capable of resisting
lateral loads and lateral displacements due to unsymmetrical loading
conditions.

For cases when it is not readily apparent whether a structure is braced or
unbraced, the ACI Code (Sections 10.10.1 and 10.10.5) provides analytical methods
to aid in the decision.
For braced columns, the effect of sidesway can be neglected when
k
u
/r 34 12(M
1
/M
2
) 40 [ACI Eq. (10-7)]
where
M
1
is the smaller end moment
M
2
is the larger end moment
M
1
/M
2
is positive if the column is bent in single curvature
M
1
/M
2
is negative if the column is bent in double curvature
For columns in sway frames (not braced against sidesway), slenderness effects
may be neglected when k
u
/r < 22 (ACI Code, Section 10.10.1).

Fortunately, for ordinary beam and column sizes and typical story heights of
concrete framing systems, effects of slenderness may be neglected in
More than 90% of columns in braced (non-sway) frames, and
About 40% of columns in unbraced (sway) frames.

In cases where slenderness must be considered, the ACI Code gives the methods
that can be used.
An approximate method (ACI Code, Section 10.10.5).
More rigorous methods using computer analysis.

The design of slender reinforced concrete columns is one of the more complex
aspects of reinforced concrete design and is not within the intended scope of the
textbook.



10.1
Chapter 10: Footings

10-1 Introduction
The purpose of the structural portion of every building is to transmit applied loads
safely from one part of the structure to another.
The loads pass from their point of application into the superstructure, then to
the foundation, and then into the underlying supporting material.
The foundation is generally considered the entire lowermost supporting part of
the structure.
Normally, a footing is the last structural element of the foundation through
which the loads pass.
- A footing spreads out the superimposed load so as not to exceed the safe
capacity of the underlying material, usually soil, to which it delivers the load.

The more common types of footings may be categorized as follows (ref. Figure
10-1, p. 343 of the textbook).
1. Individual column footings (i.e. isolated spread footings).
Individual column footings are generally square.
- If space limitations exist, the footing may be rectangular in shape.
2. Wall footings.
Wall footings support bearing or nonbearing walls.
3. Combined footings.
Combined footings support two or more columns.
Combined footings may be rectangular or trapezoidal in shape.
If two isolated footings are joined by a strap beam, the footing is called a
cantilever footing.
4. Mat foundations.
Mat foundations are large continuous footings that support all columns and
walls of a structure.
Mat foundations are often used where poor soil conditions prevail.
5. Pile caps or pile footings.
Pile caps or pile footings serve to transmit loads to a group of piles.
- The piles transmit the loads to the supporting soil through friction
and/or end bearing.



10.2
10-2 Wall Footings
Wall footings are commonly required to support direct concentric loads.
A wall footing may be constructed of plain or reinforced concrete.
- Because a wall footing has bending in one direction, it is generally designed in
the same way as a one-way slab, by considering a 12 wide strip along the
length of the wall.
Footings that carry relatively light loads on well-drained cohesionless soils are
often made of plain concrete (i.e. no reinforcing).

All footings under concentric loads behave similarly to a cantilever beam.
The cantilever extends out from the wall and is loaded in an upward direction by
the soil pressure.
- The flexural tensile stresses induced in the bottom of the footing are
generally small and acceptable for plain concrete.

From the ACI Code (Section 22.5), the nominal flexural design strength of a plain
concrete cross section is calculated from the following expressions.
If tension controls: M
n
= 5 f
c
S
m

If compression controls: M
n
= 0.85 f
c
S
m

where
= the modification factor reflecting the lower tensile strength of light-
weight concrete
= 1.0 for normal weight concrete
S
m
= the elastic section modulus

These formulas are based on the flexural formula
f
b
= Mc/I rewritten in the form M = f
b
S
where
5 f
c
is the limiting stress f
b
value in tension.
0.85 f
c
is the limiting stress f
b
values in compression.

Similarly, nominal shear strength for beam action for a plain concrete member is
calculated from the following expression.
V
n
= (4/3) f
c
b h
This formula is based on the general shear formula for a rectangular section.
f
v
= 3V/2bh rewritten in the form V = (2/3) f
v
b h

10.3
where
2f
c
= the limiting shear stress value (a familiar value from previous
discussions of shear in flexural members)
= the modification factor reflecting the lower tensile strength of light-
weight concrete
= 1.0 for normal weight concrete

In each case, the basis for the design must be
M
n
M
u
and V
n
V
u


The strength reduction factor for plain concrete is
= 0.60 (ACI Code, Section 9.3.5)

In a reinforced concrete wall footing, the behavior (i.e. the cantilever beam) is
identical to that for a plain concrete footing.
Reinforcing steel is placed in the bottom of the footing in a direction
perpendicular to the wall.
The reinforcing steel resists the induced flexural tension, similar to a
reinforced concrete beam or slab.

In either case, the cantilever action is based on the maximum bending moment.
The maximum bending moment occurs at the face of the wall, if the footing
supports a concrete wall.
The maximum bending moment occurs at a point halfway between the middle of
the wall and the edge of the wall if the footing supports a masonry wall.
- A masonry wall is less rigid than a concrete wall.

For each type of wall, the critical section for shear in the footing may be taken a
distance from the face of the wall equal to the effective depth of the footing.


10.4
Example Wall Footings

Example 10-1 (p. 346 of the textbook)

Given: The plain normal-weight concrete wall
footing carries a 12 concrete block
masonry wall shown.
w
DL
= 10 kips/ft (including the weight
of the wall)
w
LL
= 20 kips/ft
f
c
= 3000 psi
Allowable soil pressure = 5.0 ksf
Weight of earth, w
e
= 100 pcf


Find: Design a plain concrete footing.

Solution

1. Compute the factored load.
w
u
= 1.2w
DL
+ 1.6w
LL
= 1.2(10) + 1.6(20) = 44.0 kips/ft

2. Calculate the net allowable soil pressure for the superimposed service loads.
Calculate the weight of the footing.
- Assume a footing thickness of 3-0 and compute the footing weight.
- The footing thickness will be checked later.
The weight of the footing = 3 (150 pcf) = 450 psf (0.450 ksf)
Calculate the weight of the soil on top of the footing.
- Assume the bottom of the footing is 4 below the finished ground line.
The weight of the soil on top of the footing
= 1 (100 pcf) = 100 psf (0.100 ksf)

The net allowable soil pressure for the superimposed service loads
= 5.0 0.45 0.100 = 4.45 ksf

3. Calculate the maximum allowable soil pressure for strength design.
The soil pressure must be modified (factored) in a manner consistent with
the modification of the service loads.

10.5
- This is accomplished by multiplying by the ratio of the total design load
(44 kips) to the total service load (30 kips).
Modified (factored) soil pressure = [44/(10 + 20)] 4.45 = 6.53 ksf

4. Determine the required footing width.
Width = factored load/modified (factored) soil pressure = 44.0/6.53 = 6.74
Use 6-9

5. Determine the factored soil pressure that will be used for the footing design
based on a footing width of 6-9.
Factored load/footing width = 44.0/6.75 = 6.52 ksf < 6.53 ksf OK

6. Calculate the factored bending moment in the footing.
For concrete block walls, the critical
section for moment is taken halfway
between the middle of the wall and the
edge of the wall (ref. ACI Code, Section
15.4.2b).
The distance from the edge of the
footing to the critical section is
(2 10) + 3 = 3 1 (3.125)
Assuming the footing to be a
cantilever beam, the maximum
factored moment is
M
u
= 6.52(3.125)(3.125/2) = 31.8 kip-ft (381,600 lb-inch)

7. Find the required footing thickness based on the required moment strength.
Assuming tension controls:
S
m
= I/c = (bh
3
/12)/(h/2) = bh
2
/6
M
n
= 5 f
c
S
m
= 5 (1.0) f
c
(bh
2
/6)

Setting M
n
= M
u
and considering a typical 12 wide strip, solve for the
footing thickness h.
5 (1.0) f
c
(12) (h
2
/6) = 381,600 lb-inch
(0.60) 5 (1.0) 3000 (12) (h
2
/6) = 381,600
328.6 h
2
= 381,600
h
2
= 381,600/328.6 = 1161.3
h = 34.1

10.6
8. Determine the total required footing thickness.
It is common practice to assume that the bottom 1 or 2 of concrete placed
against the ground may be of poor quality and therefore may be neglected
for strength purposes.
Total required footing thickness = 34.1 + 2 = 36.1
Use h = 38

9. Check the shear strength.
Shear is generally of little significance in plain concrete footings because of
the large concrete footing thickness.
Note that the critical section is outside the edge of the footing.
- The critical section for shear is located a distance equal to the depth of
the member (i.e. h) from the face of the wall.
- For a depth of 34.1 (the required h), the critical section is outside the
edge of the footing.
Therefore, the shear check may be neglected.

10. Determine the required longitudinal steel.
It is common practice to use some longitudinal steel in continuous wall
footings whether or not transverse steel is present.
- The longitudinal steel improves the integrity of the footing.
- The longitudinal steel limits differential movement between parts of the
footing in case transverse cracking occurs.
- The longitudinal steel also provides some flexural strength in the
longitudinal direction.
- The use of longitudinal steel addresses the many uncertainties that exist
in the supporting soil and the applied loads.

The area of longitudinal steel may be computed in a manner similar to that for
temperature and shrinkage steel in a one-way slab.
Required A
s
= 0.0018 b h (using f
y
= 60,000 psi)
= 0.0018(6.75)(12/)(38) = 5.54 in
2

Use 13-
#
6 bars (A
s
= 5.72 in
2
).

The large steel requirement does not provide an economical footing design.
The use of plain concrete wall footings should be questioned when superimposed
loads are heavy.

10.7
Example Wall Footings

Example 10-2 (p. 349 of the textbook)
Repeat the previous example using a reinforced concrete wall footing.

Given: The reinforced normal-weight
concrete wall footing carries a 12
concrete block masonry wall shown.
w
DL
= 10 kips/ft (including the weight
of the wall)
w
LL
= 20 kips/ft
f
c
= 3000 psi
f
y
= 60,000 psi
Allowable soil pressure = 5.0 ksf
Weight of earth, w
e
= 100 lb/ft
3

Find: Design a reinforced concrete footing.

Solution

1. Compute the factored load.
w
u
= 1.2w
DL
+ 1.6w
LL
= 1.2(10) + 1.6(20) = 44.0 kips/ft

2. Calculate the net allowable soil pressure for the superimposed service loads.
Calculate the weight of the footing.
- Assume a footing thickness of 18 and compute the footing weight.
- The footing thickness will be checked later.
The weight of the footing = 1.5(150 pcf) = 225 psf (0.225 ksf)
Calculate the weight of the soil on top of the footing.
- Assume the bottom of the footing is 4 below the finished ground line.
The weight of the soil on top of the footing
= 2.5(100 pcf) = 250 psf (0.250 ksf)

The net allowable soil pressure for the superimposed service loads
= 5.0 0.225 0.250 = 4.53 ksf



10.8
3. Calculate the maximum allowable soil pressure for strength design.
The soil pressure must be modified (factored) in a manner consistent with
the modification of the service loads.
- This is accomplished by multiplying by the ratio of the total design load
(44 kips) to the total service load (30 kips).
Modified (factored) soil pressure = [44/(10 + 20)] 4.53 = 6.64 ksf

4. Determine the required footing width.
Width = factored load/modified (factored) soil pressure = 44.0/6.64 = 6.62
Use 6-8

5. Determine the factored soil pressure to be used for the footing design based
on a footing width of 6-8.
Factored load/footing width = 44.0/6.67 = 6.60 ksf < 6.64 ksf OK

6. Estimate the effective depth (with 3 cover and assuming
#
8 bars).
d = 18 3 1.0/2 = 14.5

7. Check shear requirements.
Shear is checked first since reinforced
concrete footings are usually controlled by
shear requirements.
The wall footing carries shear in a
manner similar to that of a one-way slab
or beam.
The critical section is taken a distance
equal to the effective depth of the
footing (ACI Code, Section 11.1.3).
- In this example, the critical section is 14.5 from the face of the wall and
1-7 (1.63) from the edge of the footing.
The factored shear force at the critical section is
V
u
= (6.60)(1.0)(1.63) = 10.76 kip/ft of wall
The total nominal shear strength V
n
is the sum of the shear strength of the
concrete V
c
and the shear strength of any shear reinforcing V
s
.
V
n
= V
c
+ V
s
and V
n
= V
c
+ V
s

With no shear reinforcing, V
n
= V
c
.
In footings, shear reinforcing is not required if V
c
> V
u
.

10.9
Compute V
c
and compare with V
u
.
V
c
= 2 f
c
b d = 0.75(2) 3000 (12)(14.5)
= 14,296 lb/ft of wall (14.3 kips/ft of wall) > V
u
= 10.76 kip/ft of wall
Therefore, V
c
> V
u
.
The assumed thickness of footing is satisfactory for shear.
- No revisions are necessary with respect to footing weight.

8. Calculate the factored bending moment in the footing.
For concrete block walls, the critical
section for moment is taken halfway
between the middle of the wall and the
edge of the wall (ref. ACI Code, Section
15.4.2b).
The distance from the edge of the
footing to the critical section is
(2 10) + 3 = 3 1 (3.08)
The maximum factored moment,
assuming the footing to be a
cantilever beam, is
M
u
= 6.60(3.08)(3.08/2) = 31.3 kip-ft

9. Find the required resistance coefficient k and area of steel A
s
(assuming a
tension-controlled section, = 0.90).
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2
= 31.3(12)/0.9(12)(14.5)
2
= 0.1654
From Table A-8: k = 0.1681, = 0.0029,
t
> 0.005, and = 0.90.
A
s
= b d = 0.0029(12)(14.5) = 0.50 in
2
/ft of wall

Check minimum steel (A
s
)
min
(assuming it is applicable to footings).
(A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 b d = 0.0033(12)(14.5) = 0.57 in
2
/ft of wall

Check temperature and shrinkage steel requirements.
Required A
s
= 0.0018 b h = 0.0018(12)(18) = 0.39 in
2
/ft of wall

Therefore, A
s
= 0.57 in
2
/ft of wall




10.10
Select the flexure reinforcing.
Possible selections:

#
8 @ 16 A
s
= 0.59 in
2
/ft of wall
#
7 @ 12 A
s
= 0.60 in
2
/ft of wall
#
6 @ 9 A
s
= 0.59 in
2
/ft of wall
#
5 @ 6 A
s
= 0.57 in
2
/ft of wall
Maximum spacing (3h or 18): 3h = 3(18) = 54 > 18
The maximum spacing = 18
Use
#
6 bars at 9 c/c (A
s
= 0.59 in
2
/ft of wall)
The smaller bar size requires a shorter development length.

10. Check the development length.
1) Determine K
D
from Table 5-1 (p. 167 of the textbook).
K
D
= 82.2
2) Determine applicable factors.
a.
t
= 1.0 (not top reinforcement)
b.
e
= 1.0 (bars are not coated)
c. Use
s
= 0.8 (bars are
#
6)
3) Check
t x

e
1.7.

t x

e
= 1.0 1.7 OK
4) Determine c
b
, the smaller of cover or half-spacing (both referenced to the
center of the bar).
Based on cover: c
b
= 3.0 + 0.75/2 = 3.38
Based on half-spacing: c
b
= 9/2 = 4.5
Use c
b
= 3.38
5) Check K
tr
= 40A
tr
/(sn), or use K
tr
= 0 (conservative).
K
tr
= 0 (no transverse reinforcing)
6) Check (c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
2.5.
(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
= (3.38 + 0)/0.75 = 4.51 > 2.50 (Use 2.50)
7) Calculate K
ER
if applicable.
K
ER
= A
s
required/A
s
provided = 0.57/0.59 = 0.966
8) Calculate
d
.

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+K
tr
)/d
b
]} K
ER
d
b

= (82.2/1.0)[(1.0)(1.0)(0.8)/2.50](0.966)(0.75)

d
= 19.1 > 12 OK

10.11
The development length provided (measured from the critical section for
moment and allowing 3 cover) is
37 3 = 34 > 19.1
Thus, the development length is adequate.

11. Determine the required longitudinal steel.
Longitudinal steel is provided on the same basis as for one-way slabs
(Section 7.12), although not specifically required in footings by the ACI
Code.
Required A
s
= 0.0018 b h
= 0.0018(6.67)(12)(18) = 2.59 in
2
/ft of wall
Use 9-
#
5 bars (A
s
= 2.79 in
2
) spaced equally.

The final design sketch is shown below (ref. Figure 10-6, p. 353 of the textbook).












10.12
10-3 Wall Footings Under Light Loads
A relatively common situation is one in which a lightly loaded wall is supported on
average soil.
An actual design would result in a very small footing thickness and width.

Footings that support plain concrete walls or block masonry walls, the minimum
recommended dimensions that should be used are shown in the figure below (ref.
Figure 10-7, p. 354 of the textbook).
The minimum depth or thickness of the
footing should be 8, but not less than
the wall thickness.
The minimum width of the footing should
equal twice the wall thickness.


10.13
10-4 Individual Reinforced Concrete Footings for Columns
An individual reinforced concrete footing for a column (aka isolated spread
footing) is probably the most common, simplest, and most economical type of
footing.
The footing is a slab that directly supports a column.
- At times, a pedestal is placed between a column and a footing so that the
base of the column is not set below grade.
Individual column footings are generally square in plan.
- Rectangular shapes may be used where dimensional limitations exist.

The footing behavior under concentric load is that of a two-way cantilever
extending out from the column or pedestal.
The footing is loaded in an upward direction by the soil pressure.
Tensile stresses are induced in each direction in the bottom of the footing.
The footing is reinforced by two layers of steel perpendicular to each other
and parallel to the edges.
The required footing-soil contact area is based on the allowable soil bearing
pressure and the column loads applied to the footing.

Shear
Because the footing is subject to two-way action, two different types of shear
strength must be considered: two-way shear and one-way shear.
The footing thickness is generally established by the shear requirements.
- It is general practice to design footings based solely on the shear strength
of the concrete.
- The use of shear reinforcement in footings is impractical and undesirable on
an economic basis.

For both one-way and two-way action, if there is no shear reinforcement, the basis
for the shear design is
V
n
> V
u
, where V
n
= V
c
.

Two-way Shear
The two-way shear (commonly termed punching shear since the column or pedestal
tends to punch through the footing) induces stresses around the perimeter of the
column or pedestal.


10.14
The critical section for two-way shear is taken perpendicular to the plane of the
footing (ref. ACI Code, Section 11.11.1.2 and Figure 10-8, p. 356 of the textbook).
The critical section is located so that the perimeter, b
O
, is a minimum.
- Concrete column or pedestal: The critical section is located a distance equal
to one-half the effective depth of the footing from the edge of the column
or pedestal.
- Steel column: The critical section is located a distance equal to one-half the
effective depth of the footing from a point halfway between the face of the
column and the edge of the steel base plate.

The design of the footing for two-way action is based on the shear strength V
n
.
V
n
must not be greater than V
c
unless shear reinforcement is provided.
V
c
is determined from the smallest of the following (ref. ACI Code,
Section 11.11.2).
V
c
= (2 + 4/
c
) f
c
b
O
d [ACI Eq. (11-31)]
V
c
= (
s
d/b
O
+ 2) f
c
b
O
d [ACI Eq. (11-32)]
V
c
= 4 f
c
b
O
d [ACI Eq. (11-33)]
where

c
= ratio of the long side to the short side of the concentrated load or
reaction area (loaded area)
b
O
= perimeter of the critical section for two-way shear action in the
footing

s
= 40, for interior columns
= 30, for edge columns
= 20, for corner columns
and V
c
, f
c
, and d are as previously defined.

The terms interior, edge, and corner columns [ref. ACI Code, Section
11.11.2.1(b)] refer to the location of the column relative to the edges of the
spread footing.
- Interior, edge, and corner columns have four-, three-, and two-sided
critical sections, respectively.

One-way Shear
The one-way (or beam) shear may be compared with the shear in a beam or one-way
slab.

10.15
The critical section for one-way shear is taken on a vertical plane extending
across the entire width of the footing.
The critical section is located as follows (ref. ACI Code, Section 11.1,
Figure 10-8, p. 356 of the textbook).
- Concrete column or pedestal: The critical section is located a distance equal
to the effective depth of the footing from the edge of the column or
pedestal.
- Steel column: The critical section is located a distance equal to the
effective depth of the footing from a point halfway between the face of the
column and the edge of the steel base plate.
As in a beam or one-way slab, the shear strength provided by the footing
concrete is
V
c
= 2 f
c
b
w
d [ACI Eq. (11-3)]

Moment and Development of Bars
The size and spacing of the footing reinforcing steel depends on the bending
moment induced by the net upward soil pressure.
The footing behaves as a cantilever beam in two directions.
The footing is loaded by soil pressure.
The critical section for bending moment is taken perpendicular to the plane of
the footing (ref. ACI Code, Section 15.4.2 and Figure 10-8, p. 356 of the
textbook).
- Concrete column or pedestal: The critical section is located at the edge of
the column or pedestal.
- Steel column: The critical section is located at a point halfway between the
face of the column and the edge of the steel base plate.

The ACI Code (Section 15.6.3) stipulates that the critical section for development
length of footing reinforcement is the same location as the critical section for
bending moment.

Transfer of Load from Column into Footing
All loads from a column must be transferred to the top of the footing (through a
pedestal, if applicable) by compression in the concrete, by compression in the
reinforcing steel, or by both.


10.16
According to the ACI Code (Section 10.14.1), the design bearing strength of the
loaded concrete area must not exceed the following.
(0.85 f
c
A
1
)
When the supporting surface is wider on all sides than the loaded concrete
area, the design-bearing strength on the loaded area may be multiplied by
(A
2
/A
1
)
1/2
2.0
- In no case can the design-bearing strength for the loaded area be greater
than (0.85 f
c
A
1
) (2).
where
A
1
= the loaded area
A
2
= the area of the lower base of
a pyramid contained wholly
within the support and having
for its upper base the loaded
area, and having side slopes of 1
vertical to 2 horizontal.
= 0.65 for bearing on concrete

It is common for the concrete in the footing to be of a lower strength (f
c
) than
the concrete in the column.
Both the supporting and supported members must be considered in determining
load transfer.

Where a reinforced concrete column cannot transfer the entire load by bearing on
the concrete, the excess load must be transferred by the reinforcing steel.
The required area of reinforcement is
Required A
s
= excess load/f
y

The transfer of the excess load may be accomplished by furnishing dowels.
- One dowel per column bar if necessary
- Dowels are to be no larger than
#
11 bars (ACI Code, Section 15.8.2.3).

To provide a positive connection between a reinforced concrete column and the
footing (whether dowels are required or not), the ACI Code (Section 15.8.2.1)
requires the use of reinforcement.
For cast-in-place columns and pedestals, the minimum area of reinforcement
crossing the bearing surface is defined as follows.
0.005A
g
where A
g
= the gross area of the supported member

10.17
The use of a minimum of four bars is recommended.
- Preferably, these four bars are the dowels for the four corner bars of a
square column.
The development length of the dowels must be sufficient on both sides of the
bearing surface to provide the necessary development length
dc
for bars in
compression.
When the dowel carries excess load into the footing, it must be spliced to the
column bar using the necessary compression splice.

Where structural steel columns and column base plates are used, the total load is
usually transferred by bearing on the concrete contact area.
The design bearing strength of the loaded concrete contact area is the same as
noted above, that is, (0.85 f
c
A
1
).
Adjustments of the column base detail may be made to assure adequate
transfer of the entire load.
- Increase the dimensions of the column base plate.
- Use higher strength concrete (f
c
) for the pedestal or footing.
- Increase the dimensions of the supporting area until the ratio (A
2
/A
1
)
1/2

reaches the maximum allowed by the ACI Code.

In building design, it is common practice to use a concrete pedestal between the
footing and the column.
The pedestal, in effect, distributes the column load over a larger area of the
footing, thereby contributing to a more economical footing design.
- The pedestal reduces the length of the cantilevered portion of the footing.
- The pedestal increases the perimeter considered for two-way shear.
Pedestals may be either plain or reinforced concrete.
- If the ratio of height to least lateral dimension is greater than 3, the
member is by definition a column and must be designed and reinforced as a
column.
- If the ratio is less than 3, the member is categorized as a pedestal and
theoretically may not require any reinforcement.

The cross-sectional area of a pedestal is usually established by the following.
The concrete-bearing strength as stipulated in the ACI Code (Section 10.14), or
The size of the steel column base plate, or
The desire to distribute the column load over a larger footing area.

10.18
It is common practice to design a pedestal in a manner similar to the design of a
column.
Using a minimum of four corner bars (for a square or rectangular cross section)
anchored into the footing and extending up through the pedestal.
Ties should be provided in pedestals according to the requirements for columns.

10-5 Square Reinforced Concrete Footings
In isolated square footings, the reinforcement should be uniformly distributed
over the width of the footing in each direction.
The bending moment is the same in each direction.
The reinforcing bar size and spacing should be the same in each direction.

In reality, the effective depth is not the same in both directions.
The bars in one direction pass above the bars in the other direction.
It is common practice to use the same average effective depth for design
computations for both directions.

It is also common practice to assume the minimum tensile reinforcement for beams
is applicable to two-way footings for each of the two directions.
If the reinforcement provided is one-third greater than that required by
strength, the minimum reinforcement is not required (ACI Code, Section
10.5.3).
Minimum reinforcement may be determined using Table A-5 (p. 486 of the
textbook.
- The use of minimum reinforcement based on Table A-5 is conservative for
footings.
The ACI Code (Section 10.5.4) permits the use of a minimum reinforcement
equal to that required for shrinkage and temperature steel in structural slabs
of uniform thickness.
- The shrinkage and temperature steel will always be less than that required
by (A
s
)
min
but not necessarily less than that specified by the ACI Code
(Section 10.5.3)
- In this textbook, shrinkage and temperature steel criteria is used in isolated
footing cases only as an absolute minimum of steel area to be provided.


10.19
Example Square Reinforced Concrete Footings

Example 10-3 (p. 358 of the textbook)

Given: Square reinforced concrete
footing to support an 18 square
tied typical interior column as
shown.

Find: Design the footing.

1. Design data
Service loads: DL = 225 kips, LL = 175 kips
Allowable soil pressure = 5000 psf (5.0 ksf)
f
c
= 4000 psi (column)
f
c
= 3000 psi (footing)
f
y
= 60,000 psi (all steel)
Longitudinal column steel:
#
8 bars
Weight of earth = 100 pcf
Normal weight concrete

2. Calculate the footing weight, the weight of the earth, the net allowable soil
pressure for the applied loads, and the required area of the footing.
Assume a total footing thickness = 24
Footing weight = 2 (150 pcf) = 300 psf (0.300 ksf)
The bottom of the footing is 4 below finished grade.
- There will be 2 of earth on top of the footing.
Weight of earth = 2 (100 pcf) = 200 psf (0.200 ksf)
The net allowable soil pressure = 5.0 0.300 0.200 = 4.5 ksf
Required area of footing = service loads/net allowable pressure
Required area = (225 + 175)/4.5 = 88.9 SF
Width of the footing = 9 . 88 = 9.43
Use a 9 - 6 square footing (A = 90.25 SF).

3. Determine the factored soil pressure from the applied loads.
p
u
= P
u
/A = [1.2(225) + 1.6(175)]/90.25 = 6.09 ksf

10.20
4. Determine the average effective depth.
The effective depth is based on 3 cover for the bottom steel and
#
8 bars in
each direction.
d = 24 3 1 = 20

5. The footing thickness is usually determined by shear strength requirements.
The shear strength of individual column footings is governed by the more
severe of two conditions: two-way action (punching shear) or one-way action
(beam shear).
The location of the critical section for each condition is depicted in
Figure 10-10 (p. 360 of the textbook).

Two-way shear action
The location of the critical section
B = column width + 2 (d/2) = 18 + 2 (20/2)
B = 38.0 (3.17)
The total factored shear acting on the critical section is
V
u
= p
u
(W
2
B
2
) = 6.09 [(9.5)
2
(3.17)
2
]
V
u
= 488.4 kips
The shear strength of the concrete is taken as the
smallest of the following.
V
c
= (2 + 4/
c
) f
c
b
O
d [ACI Eq. (11-31)]
= (2 + 4/1)(1.0) 3000 (38)(4)(20)
V
c
= 999,046 lb (999.0 kips)
V
c
= (
s
d/b
O
+ 2) f
c
b
O
d [ACI Eq. (11-32)]
= [40(20)/38(4) + 2](1.0) 3000 (38)(4)(20)
V
c
= 1,209,371 lb (1,209 kips)
V
c
= 4 f
c
b
O
d [ACI Eq. (11-33)]
= 4(1.0) 3000 (38)(4)(20)
V
c
= 666,031 lb (666 kips)
Use V
c
= 666 kips
V
n
= V
c
= 0.75(666) = 500 kips > V
u
= 488.4 kips OK
When V
u
is close to the shear strength of the concrete (V
c
), the assumed
footing thickness is approximately equal to that required for shear.
If these two values are significantly different, the assumed footing
thickness should be modified.

10.21
One-way shear action
The location of the critical section (a distance d
from the face of the column) is determined as follows.
G = (W 18 column) d = (9.5 1.5) (20/12)
G = 2.33
The total factored shear acting on the critical section is
V
u
= p
u
W G = 6.09(9.5)(2.33) = 134.8 kips

The shear strength of the concrete is
V
c
= 2 f
c
b
w
d [ACI Eq. (11-3)]
= 2 (1) 3000 (9.5)(12/)(20)
V
c
= 249,761 lb (249.8 kips)
V
n
= V
c
= 0.75(249.8) = 187.4 kips > V
u
= 134.8 kips OK

The 24 deep footing is satisfactory with respect to shear.
The assumptions in Step 2 regarding the weight of the footing and soil are
satisfactory.

6. Compute the factored design moment at the critical
section (face of the column).
The location of the critical section for moment is
at the face of the column.
F = (W 18 column) = (9.5 1.5) = 4.0
The total factored moment acting on the critical
section is determined as follows.
M
u
= p
u
F (F/2) W = 6.09(4.0)(4.0/2)(9.5)
M
u
= 462.8 kip-ft

7. Design the tension steel (assume = 0.90).
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2
= 462.8(12)/[(0.90)(9.5)(12/)(20)
2
] = 0.1353 ksi
Table A-8: k = 0.1399, = 0.0024,
t
> 0.005, and = 0.90
Required A
s
= b d = 0.0024(9.5)(12/)(20) = 5.47 in
2

Check (A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 b d = 0.0033(9.5)(12/)(20) = 7.52 in
2
> 5.47 in
2

Use A
s
= 7.52 in
2




10.22
Note: The author has disregarded the provisions of ACI Code, Section 10.5.3.
Per ACI Code, Section 10.5.3, the minimum steel requirements need not be applied if, at
every section along the member, at least 33% more steel than is required by analysis is
provided.
1.33 x Required A
s
= 1.33 (5.47) = 7.28 in
2
Shrinkage and Temperature: A
s
= 0.0018 b h = 0.0018 (9.5 x 12) 24 = 4.92 in
2
< 7.28 in
2

The minimum steel requirements can be met by providing an area of steel of 7.28 in
2
rather than
7.52 in
2
.
Because the footing is square and an average effective depth was used, the
steel requirement in the other direction is assumed as identical.
Possible selections (check the bar spacing):
5 -
#
11 A
s
= 7.80 in
2
Spacing = 9.0/4 spaces = 2.25 (27)
6 -
#
10 A
s
= 7.62 in
2
Spacing = 9.0/5 spaces = 1.8 (22)
8 -
#
9 A
s
= 8.00 in
2
Spacing = 9.0/7 spaces = 1.29 (15)
10 -
#
8 A
s
= 7.90 in
2
Spacing = 9.0/9 spaces = 1.0 (12)
13 -
#
7 A
s
= 7.80 in
2
Spacing = 9.0/12 spaces = 0.75 (9)
18 -
#
6 A
s
= 7.92 in
2
Spacing = 9.0/17 spaces = 0.53 (6)
Maximum spacing in a slab (3h or 18): 3h = 3(24) = 72 > 18 (Use 18)
Use 13 -
#
7 bars each way (A
s
= 7.80 in
2
in each direction) and distribute the
bars uniformly across the footing in each direction (ref. Figure 10-12a,
p. 363 of the textbook).

Check the development length for the
#
7 bars.
1) Determine K
D
.
From Table 5-1: K
D
= 82.2
2) Establish values for the factors
t
,
e
,
s
, and .
a.
t
= 1.0 (The bars are not top bars.)
b.
e
= 1.0 (The bars are not epoxy-coated.)
c.
s
= 1.0 (The bars are
#
7.)
d. = 1.0 (Normal weight concrete is used.)
3) Check
t

e
1.7.

t

e
= 1.0 (1.0) = 1.0 < 1.7 OK
4) Determine c
b
.
Based on cover (center of bar to nearest concrete surface):
c
b
= 3 + 0.875/2 (one-half of the bar diameter of the
#
7) = 3.44

10.23
Based on bar spacing (one-half the center-to-center distance):
c
b
= (9) = 4.50
Therefore, c
b
= 3.44
5) Check K
tr
= 40A
tr
/(sn).
K
tr
= 0 (There is no transverse reinforcement.)
6) Check (c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
2.5.
(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
= (3.44 + 0)/0.875 = 3.93 > 2.5 (Use 2.5)
7) Calculate K
ER
if applicable.
K
ER
= 7.52/7.80 = 0.964
8) Calculate
d
.

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+K
tr
)/d
b
]} K
ER
d
b

= (82.2/1.0)[(1.0)(1.0)(1.0)/2.5] (0.964)(0.875)

d
= 27.7 > 12 OK
Use
d
= 28 (minimum)
Actual development length (from the face of the column)
= 48 3 (cover) = 45 > 27.7 OK

8. Calculate the concrete bearing strength.
The concrete bearing strength at the base of the column cannot exceed
(0.85 f
c
A
1
)
If the supporting surface is wider on all sides than the loaded area, then the
concrete bearing strength of the supporting surface cannot exceed
(0.85 f
c
A
1
)(A
2
/A
1
)
1/2

A
2
is the lower base of the fulcrum of
a pyramid having 1:2 sloping sides and
fully contained within the support as
shown at the right.
- In this case, A
2
is the same as the
area of the footing.

(A
2
/A
1
)
1/2
= (90.25/2.25)
1/2
= 6.33 > 2.0 (Use 2.0)
The footing bearing strength = (0.85 f
c
A
1
)(A
2
/A
1
)
1/2

= 0.65(0.85)(3.0)(18)
2
(2.0)
= 1074.1 kips

10.24
The column bearing strength = (0.85 f
c
A
1
)
= 0.65(0.85)(4.0)(18)
2

= 716.0 kips

The factored design bearing load from the column is determined as follows.
P
u
= 1.2DL + 1.6LL = 1.2(225) + 1.6(175) = 550 kips
Because 550 < 716.0 < 1074.1, the entire load can be transferred by concrete
alone.

9. Select the dowels and determine the development length for the dowels.
The ACI Code requires a minimum dowel area of
Required A
s
= 0.005 A
g
= 0.005 (18)
2
= 1.62 in
2

Use a minimum of 4 bars so that one bar can be placed at each corner of the
column.
- The use of 4 -
#
6 bars (A
s
= 1.76 in
2
) is satisfactory.
It is general practice to use dowels of the same diameter as the column
steel.
- Use 4 -
#
8 bars (A
s
= 3.16 in
2
).
- Place one dowel bar in each corner.

The development length for dowels into the column and footing must be
adequate even though full load transfer can be made without the dowels.
The bars are in compression.
The compression development length for
#
8 dowels into the footings is

dc
= 21.9 (ref. Table A-12, 496 of the textbook).
- Based on
#
8 bars and f
c
= 3000 psi for the footing.
The development length may be reduced by any applicable modification
factors (ref. p. 173 of the textbook).
- The only applicable modification factor is reinforcement in excess of
that required.
Required A
s
/provided A
s
= 1.62/3.16 = 0.51
The required development length
dc
= 0.51(21.9) = 11.2 (Use 12)
- For bars in compression
dc
must not be less than 8 inches.
Because f
c
(4000 psi) for the column concrete is higher than for the
footing, the required development length for the bars into the column is less
than that into the footing (ref. Table A-12, p. 496 of the textbook).

10.25

dc
= 19.0 x MF = 19.0(0.51) = 9.7
Note: The author uses
dc
= 12 for both the column and the footing which is
conservative for the column.
The dowels are placed adjacent to the corner longitudinal bars.
Generally, these dowels are furnished with a 90 hook at their lower ends
and are placed on top of the main footing reinforcement.
- The use of hooks ties the dowel in place and reduces the possibility of
the dowel being dislodged during construction.
- The hook is not considered effective as part of the required development
length (ACI Code, Section 12.5.5).

The final sketch is shown below (ref. Figure 10-12b, p. 363 of the textbook).
The final sketch shows the actual anchorage that is used.


10.26
10-6 Rectangular Reinforced Concrete Footings
Rectangular footings are generally used where space limitations do not permit the
use of square footings.
The design of rectangular footings is similar to the design of square column
footings.
- Except, each direction of the rectangular footing must be investigated
independently.
Shear must be checked.
- For two-way action, shear is checked in the same manner as for the square
footing.
- For one-way action, shear is checked across the shorter side.
Bending moment must be considered separately for each direction.
- Each direction will generally require a different area of steel.
- The reinforcing steel running in the long direction should be placed below
the steel running in the short direction.
Such steel placement provides a larger effective depth to carry the
larger bending moments in the long direction.

In rectangular footings, the distribution of the reinforcement is different from
that for square footings (ACI Code, Section 15.4.4).
The reinforcement in the long direction should be uniformly distributed over
the shorter footing width.
A part of the reinforcement in the short direction is placed in a band equal to
the length of the short side of the footing (ref. Figure 10-14, p. 366 of the
textbook).
- The portion of the total required steel that should go in this band is
2/( + 1)
where
= the ratio of the long side to the short side of the footing
The balance of the reinforcement is uniformly distributed in the outer portions
of the footing.
Other features of the design are similar to those for the square footing.


10.27
Example Rectangular Reinforced Concrete Footings

Example 10-4 (p. 366 of the textbook)

Given: Rectangular reinforced concrete
footing to support an 18 square
tied typical interior column as
shown.

Find: Design the footing.

Solution

1. Design data
One footing dimension = 7
Service loads: DL = 175 kips, LL = 175 kips
Allowable soil pressure = 5000 psf (5.0 ksf)
f
c
= 3000 psi (column and footing)
f
y
= 60,000 psi (all steel)
Longitudinal column steel:
#
8 bars
Weight of earth = 100 pcf
Normal weight concrete

2. Calculate the footing weight, the weight of the earth, the net allowable soil
pressure for the applied loads, and the required area of the footing.
Assume a total footing thickness = 24
Footing weight = 2 (150 pcf) = 300 psf (0.300 ksf)
The bottom of the footing is 4 below finished grade.
- There will be 2 of earth on top of the footing.
Weight of earth = 2 (100 pcf) = 200 psf (0.200 ksf)
The net allowable soil pressure = 5.0 0.300 0.200 = 4.5 ksf
Required area of footing = service loads/net allowable pressure
Required area = (175 + 175)/4.5 = 77.8 SF
Width of the footing = 77.8/7 = 11.11
Use a rectangular footing 7 - 0 x 11 - 6 (A = 80.5 SF).


10.28
3. Determine the factored soil pressure from the applied loads.
p
u
= P
u
/A = [1.2(175) + 1.6(175)]/80.5 = 6.09 ksf

4. Determine the average effective depth.
The effective depth is based on 3 cover for the bottom steel and
#
8 bars in
each direction.
d = 24 3 1 = 20
The average depth is used for design calculations for both directions.

5. The footing thickness is usually determined by shear strength requirements.
The shear strength of individual column footings is governed by the more
severe of two conditions: two-way action (punching shear) or one-way action
(beam shear).
The location of the critical section for each condition is shown below (ref.
Figure 10-16, p. 368 of the textbook).

Two-way shear action
The critical section is located a distance d/2 from the face of the column.













The width and length B of the section supporting the column load is
determined as follows.
B = column width + 2 (d/2) = 18 + 2 (20/2) = 38.0 (3.17)
The total factored shear acting on the critical section is
V
u
= p
u
(A B
2
) = 6.09 [80.5 (3.17)
2
] = 429.0 kips



10.29
The shear strength of the concrete is taken as the smallest of the following.
V
c
= (2 + 4/
c
) f
c
b
O
d [ACI Eq. (11-31)]
= (2 + 4/1)(1.0) 3000 (38)(4)(20)
V
c
= 999,046 lb (999.0 kips)
V
c
= (
s
d/b
O
+ 2) f
c
b
O
d [ACI Eq. (11-32)]
= [40(20)/38(4) + 2](1.0) 3000 (38)(4)(20)
V
c
= 1,209,371 lb (1,209 kips)
V
c
= 4 f
c
b
O
d [ACI Eq. (11-33)]
= 4(1.0) 3000 (38)(4)(20)
V
c
= 666,031 lb (666 kips)
Use V
c
= 666 kips
V
n
= V
c
= 0.75(666) = 500 kips > V
u
= 429.0 kips OK
When V
u
is relatively close to the shear strength of the concrete (V
c
), the
assumed footing thickness is approximately equal to that required for shear.
If these two values were significantly different, the assumed footing
thickness should be modified.

One-way shear action
Shear is considered across the short side only.
The location of the critical section is a distance d from the face of the
column.








The length G of the loaded section is determined as follows.
G = (W 18 column) d = (11.5 1.5) (20/12) = 3.33
The total factored shear acting on the critical section is
V
u
= p
u
W G = 6.09(7.0)(3.33) = 142.0 kips

10.30
The shear strength of the concrete is
V
c
= 2 f
c
b
w
d [ACI Eq. (11-3)]
= 2(1) 3000 (7.0) (12/) (20)
V
c
= 184,035 lb (184.0 kips)
V
n
= V
c
= 0.75 (184.0) = 138.0 kips < V
u
= 142.0 kips NG

The 24 deep footing is unsatisfactory with respect to shear.
Determine the required effective depth d based on one-way shear using
V
c
= V
u
.
V
c
= 2 f
c
b
w
d = V
u
= 142.0 kips
0.75(2)(1.0) 3000 (7.0)(12/) d = 142.0(1000)
6901.3 d = 142,000
d = 142,000/6901.3 = 20.58
The required h = 20.58 + 3 + 1.0 = 24.58 (Use 25)
The assumptions in Step 2 regarding the weight of the footing and soil are
considered by the author to be satisfactory since the change (previously
using h = 24) is small.
New d = 25 3 1 = 21.0

6. Compute the factored design moment at the critical section (face of the
column) for each direction.
Long direction
The location of the critical section is the face of the column.













The length F of the loaded section is determined as follows.
F = (L 18 column) = (11.5 1.5) = 5.0

10.31
The total factored moment acting on the
critical section is
M
u
= p
u
F (F/2) W
= 6.09(5.0)(5.0/2)(7.0)
M
u
= 532.9 kip-ft




Short direction
The location of the critical section is the face of the column.











The length F of the loaded section is determined as follows.
F = (W 18 column) = (7.0 1.5) = 2.75
The total factored moment acting on the
critical section is
M
u
= p
u
F (F/2) L
= 6.09 (2.75)(2.75/2)(11.5)
M
u
= 264.8 kip-ft




7. Design the tension steel (assume = 0.90) for each direction.
Long direction
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2
= 532.9(12/)/{(0.90)[(7.0)(12/)](21)
2
} = 0.1918 ksi
Table A-8: k = 0.1958, = 0.0034,
t
> 0.005, and = 0.90

10.32
Required A
s
= b d = 0.0034(7.0)(12)(21) = 6.00 in
2

(A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 b d = 0.0033[(7.0)(12/)](21) = 5.82 in
2
< 6.00 in
2

Use A
s
= 6.00 in
2

Possible selections (check the bar spacing):
4 -
#
11 A
s
= 6.24 in
2
Spacing = 6.5/3 spaces = 2.17 (26)
5 -
#
10 A
s
= 6.35 in
2
Spacing = 6.5/4 spaces = 1.63 (19)
6 -
#
9 A
s
= 6.00 in
2
Spacing = 6.5/5 spaces = 1.30 (16)
8 -
#
8 A
s
= 6.32 in
2
Spacing = 6.5/7 spaces = 0.93 (11)
10 -
#
7 A
s
= 6.00 in
2
Spacing = 6.5/9 spaces = 0.72 (9)
14 -
#
6 A
s
= 6.16 in
2
Spacing = 6.5/13 spaces = 0.50 (6)
Maximum spacing in a slab (3h or 18): 3h = 3(25) = 75 > 18 (Use 18)
Use 10 -
#
7 bars (A
s
= 6.00 in
2
).
Distribute the bars uniformly across the 7.0 width.
The reinforcement is placed in the bottom layer for the advantage of a
slightly greater effective depth.

Check the development length for the
#
7 bars.
1) Determine K
D
.
From Table 5-1: K
D
= 82.2
2) Establish values for the factors
t
,
e
,
s
, and .
a.
t
= 1.0 (The bars are not top bars.)
b.
e
= 1.0 (The bars are not epoxy-coated.)
c.
s
= 1.0 (The bars are
#
7.)
d. = 1.0 (Normal weight concrete is used.)
3) Check
t

e
1.7.

t

e
= 1.0 (1.0) = 1.0 < 1.7 OK
4) Determine c
b
.
Based on cover (center of bar to nearest concrete surface):
c
b
= 3 + 0.875/2 (one-half of the bar diameter of the
#
7) = 3.44
Based on bar spacing (one-half the center-to-center distance):
c
b
= (9) = 4.50
Therefore, c
b
= 3.44
5) Check K
tr
= 40A
tr
/(sn).
K
tr
= 0 (There is no transverse reinforcement.)

10.33
6) Check (c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
2.5.
(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
= (3.44 + 0)/0.875 = 3.93 > 2.5 (Use 2.5)
7) Calculate K
ER
if applicable.
K
ER
= 6.00/6.00 = 1.00
8) Calculate
d
.

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+K
tr
)/d
b
]} K
ER
d
b

= (82.2/1.0)[(1.0)(1.0)(1.0)/2.5] (1.00)(0.875)

d
= 28.8 > 12 OK
Use
d
= 28.8 (minimum).
Actual development length (from the face of the column)
= (11.5)(12/)/2 18/2 3 (cover) = 57 > 28.8 OK

Short direction
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2
= 264.8(12/)/{(0.90)[(11.5)(12/)](21)
2
} = 0.0580 ksi
Table A-8: k = 0.0593, = 0.0010,
t
> 0.005, and = 0.90
Required A
s
= b d = 0.0010[(11.5)(12/)](21) = 2.90 in
2

Check (A
s
)
min
= 0.0033 b d = 0.0033[(11.5)(12/)](21) = 9.56 in
2
> 2.90 in
2

The (A
s
)
min
requirement need not be applied if the area of steel provided is at
least one-third greater than that required (ACI Code, Section 10.5.3).
Required A
s
= 1.33(2.90) = 3.86 in
2

Check the requirements for shrinkage and temperature steel (ACI Code,
Section 10.5.4).
Required A
s
= 0.0018 b h = 0.0018[(11.5)(12/)](25) = 6.21 in
2
> 3.86 in
2

Use A
s
= 6.21 in
2

Possible selections
4 -
#
11 A
s
= 6.24 in
2

5 -
#
10 A
s
= 6.35 in
2

7 -
#
9 A
s
= 7.00 in
2

8 -
#
8 A
s
= 6.32 in
2

11 -
#
7 A
s
= 6.60 in
2

15 -
#
6 A
s
= 6.60 in
2

Select 15-
#
6 bars (A
s
= 6.60 in
2
).
The reinforcement is placed in the top layer.

10.34
These bars will run the in the short direction and will be distributed as
prescribed by the ACI Code, Section 15.4.4.
- A portion of the reinforcement must be placed in a band centered on the
column and having a width equal to the short side.
The portion of the required steel that goes into this band is
determined as follows.
2/( + 1)
where
= long-side dimension/short-side dimension
= 11.5/7.0 = 1.643
from which
2/( + 1) = 2/(1.643 + 1) = 0.757 (75.7%)
Therefore, 75.7% of the 15 -
#
6 bars must be placed within a band-
width equal to 7.0 feet.
0.757(15) = 11.4 bars
Use 12 bars in the 7-foot band-width and centered under the column.
- The balance of the reinforcement is uniformly distributed in the outer
portions of the footing and placed symmetrical with respect to the
centerline of the footing.
Therefore, use 2 -
#
6 bars on each side of the 7-foot band.
Use a total of 16 -
#
6 bars (A
s
= 7.04 in
2
) in the short direction.
The bar arrangement is shown below (ref. Figure 10-18, p. 373 of the textbook).

Check the development length for the
#
6 bars.
1) Determine K
D
.
From Table 5-1: K
D
= 82.2
2) Establish values for the factors
t
,
e
,
s
, and .
a.
t
= 1.0 (The bars are not top bars.)
b.
e
= 1.0 (The bars are not epoxy-coated.)
c.
s
= 0.8 (The bars are
#
6.)
d. = 1.0 (Normal weight concrete is used.)
3) Check
t

e
1.7.

t

e
= 1.0 (1.0) = 1.0 < 1.7 OK



10.35
4) Determine c
b
.
Based on cover (center of bar to nearest concrete surface):
c
b
= 3 + 0.75/2 (one-half of the bar diameter of the
#
6) = 3.38
Based on bar spacing (one-half the center-to-center distance):
c
b
= [7.0(12/)/11] = 3.81
Therefore, c
b
= 3.38
5) Check K
tr
= 40A
tr
/(sn).
K
tr
= 0 (There is no transverse reinforcement.)
6) Check (c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
2.5.
(c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
= (3.38 + 0)/0.75 = 4.51 > 2.5 (Use 2.5)
7) Calculate K
ER
if applicable.
K
ER
= 6.21/7.04 = 0.882
8) Calculate
d
.

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+K
tr
)/d
b
]} K
ER
d
b

= (82.2/1.0)[(1.0)(1.0)(0.8)/2.5] (0.882)(0.75)

d
= 17.4 > 12 OK
Use
d
= 17.4 (minimum).
Actual development length (from the face of the column)
= (7.0)(12/)/2 18/2 - 3 (cover) = 30 > 17.4 OK

8. Calculate the concrete bearing strength.
The concrete bearing strength at the base of the column cannot exceed
(0.85 f
c
A
1
)
If the supporting surface is wider on all sides than the loaded area, then the
concrete bearing strength of the supporting surface cannot exceed
(0.85 f
c
A
1
)(A
2
/A
1
)
1/2

A
2
is the lower base of the fulcrum of
a pyramid having 1:2 sloping sides and
fully contained within the support as
shown at the right.
- In this case, A
2
is a square with
7.0 on each side.

(A
2
/A
1
)
1/2
= (49.0/2.25)
1/2
= 4.67 > 2.0 (Use 2.0)

10.36
The footing bearing strength = (0.85 f
c
A
1
)(A
2
/A
1
)
1/2

= 0.65(0.85)(3.0)(18)
2
(2.0)
= 1074.1 kips
The column bearing strength = (0.85 f
c
A
1
)
= 0.65(0.85)(3.0)(18)
2

= 537.0 kips

The factored design bearing load from the column is determined as follows.
P
u
= 1.2DL + 1.6LL = 1.2(175) + 1.6(175) = 490 kips
Because 490 < 537.0 < 1074.1, the entire column load can be transferred by
concrete alone.

9. Select the dowels and determine the development length for the dowels.
The selection of the dowels and the determination of the development
length are identical to that of Example 10-3.
The ACI Code requires a minimum dowel area of
Required A
s
= 0.005 A
g
= 0.005(18)
2
= 1.62 in
2

- Use 4 -
#
8 bars (A
s
= 3.16 in
2
) to match the diameter of the bar in the
column.
- Place one dowel bar in each corner.

The required development length for the bars into the footing and into the
column is the same since f
c
is the same for both.
The bars are in compression.
The compression development length for
#
8 dowels into the footings is

dc
= 21.9 (ref. Table A-12, 496 of the textbook).
- Based on
#
8 bars and f
c
= 3000 psi for the footing.
- The development length may be reduced by any applicable modification
factors (ref. p. 173 of the textbook).
The only applicable modification factor is reinforcement in excess of
that required.
Required A
s
/provided A
s
= 1.62/3.16 = 0.51
The required development length
dc
= 0.51(21.9) = 11.2 (Use 12)
- For bars in compression
dc
must not be less than 8 inches.
- Use
dc
= 12 in both the column and the footing.



10.37
The final design sketch is shown below (ref. Figure 10-18, p. 373 of the textbook).

10.38
10-7 Eccentrically Loaded Footings
Where footings are subject to eccentric vertical loads or to moments transmitted
by the supported column, the design is somewhat different from that of the
preceding sections.
The soil pressure is no longer uniform across the footing width.
- The soil pressure is assumed to vary linearly.
- The resultant force should be within the middle one-third of the footing
base to ensure positive contact between the footing and the soil (i.e. no
lifting tendency).
With the soil pressure distribution known, the footing must be designed to
resist all moments and shears, as were the concentrically loaded footings.

The effects of load eccentricity on isolated footings may result in an undesirable
large rotation of the footing.
This can be mitigated by connecting (or strapping) the eccentrically loaded
footing to an adjacent concentrically loaded footing (ref. Section 10-9 of the
textbook).

10-8 Combined Footings
Combined footings support more than one column or wall.
The two-column-type of combined footing is common and results from necessity.
For example,
- An exterior column that is immediately adjacent to a property line where it
is impossible to use an individual column footing.
- Two columns that are closely spaced, causing their individual footings to be
closely spaced.
A rectangular or trapezoidal combined footing may be used.
- The choice of which shape to use is based on the following.
The difference in column loads.
Physical (dimensional) limitations.

The physical dimensions (except thickness) of the combined footing are generally
established by the allowable soil pressure.
The centroid of the footing should coincide with the line of action of the
resultant of the two column loads.
These dimensions are usually determined using service load in combination with
an allowable soil pressure.


10.39
Example Combined Footings (Rectangular)

Example 10-5 (p. 375 of the textbook)

Given: The combined footing (rectangular)
subject to two column loads.

Find: Determine the shape and dimensions of
the combined footing.

Solution

1. Design data
Service loads
Column A: 300 kips
Column B: 500 kips
Allowable soil pressure = 6.0 ksf
Edge of footing (Z) at property line

2. Locate the resultant column load by a summation of moments about point Z (ref.
Figure 10-18, p. 376 of the textbook).
M
Z
: 300(2) + 500(18) = 800 x
x = 12.0 (measured from Z)

3. Assuming a rectangular shape (with the edge of the footing at the property
line), establish the length of footing L so that the centroid of the footing area
coincides with the line of action of the resultant force R.
Required L = 12(2) = 24

4. Compute the weight of the footing. Assume a footing thickness of 3.
Footing weight = 3 (150 pcf) = 450 psf (0.450 ksf)
Net allowable soil pressure = 6.0 0.45 = 5.55 ksf
This neglects any soil on the footing.

5. Compute the required footing area.
R/5.55 = 800/5.55 = 144.1 SF



10.40
6. Compute the footing width W (given L = 24).
W = A/L = 144.1/24 = 6.01 (Use 6-3)

7. Check the actual soil pressure.
Soil pressure = 800/(24)(6.25) + 0.45 = 5.78 ksf < 6.0 ksf OK


10.41
Example Combined Footings (Trapezoidal)

Example 10-6 (p. 376 of the textbook)

Given: The combined footing (trapezoidal)
subject to two column loads.

Find: Determine the shape and dimensions of
the combined footing.

Solution

1. Design data
Service loads
Column A: 300 kips
Column B: 500 kips
Allowable soil pressure = 6.0 ksf
Edge of footing (Z) at property line
Length L 22

2. Locate the resultant column load by a summation of moments about point Z (ref.
Figure 10-18, p. 376 of the textbook).
M
Z
: 300(2) + 500(18) = 800 x
x = 12.00 (measured from Z)

3. Compute the weight of the footing. Assume a footing thickness of 3.
Footing weight = 3 (150 pcf) = 450 psf (0.450 ksf)
Net allowable soil pressure = 6.0 0.45 = 5.55 ksf
This neglects any soil on the footing.

4. Compute the required footing area.
Area: A = R/5.55 = 800/5.55 = 144.1 SF

5. Assume a trapezoidal shape.
The area A of the trapezoid is A = (b + b
1
) L/2.
b + b
1
= 2 A/L = 2(144.1)/22 = 13.10 feet
b + b
1
= 13.10 feet

10.42
6. Find the location of the center of gravity.
The center of gravity of the
trapezoid and the resultant force of
the column are to coincide.
- That is, C = x = 12.00
b
1
L (L/3) + 2 [( b) L (2L/3)] = 12.00 A
b
1
L
2
/6 + bL
2
/3 = 12 (144.1) = 1729.2
(b
1
+ 2b)(L
2
/6) = 1729.2
b
1
+ 2b = 1729.2 (6/L
2
) = 10,375.2/(22)
2
= 21.44

7. Combining the two equations to find b and b
1
.
b + b
1
= 13.10
2b + b
1
= 21.44
- b = - 8.34
b = 8.34 (Use b = 8-6)
b
1
= 13.10 b = 13.10 8.50 = 4.60 (Use b
1
= 4 - 9)
Actual area = (b + b
1
) L = (8.50 + 4.75)(22)
= 145.75 ft
2
> 144.10 SF OK


10.43
The structural design of the rectangular and trapezoidal combined footings is
generally based on a uniform soil pressure.
However, loading combinations will usually introduce some eccentricity with
respect to the centroid of the footing.
The determination of the footing thickness and reinforcement must be based
on factored loads and soil pressure to be consistent with the ACI strength
method approach.

The assumed footing behavior is a generally used approach to simplify the design
of the footing.
The columns are positioned relatively close to the ends of the footing.
The columns are assumed as supports and the footing is subjected to an upward,
uniformly distributed load caused by the uniform soil pressure.
- In effect, the combined footing acts as a wide rectangular beam in the
longitudinal direction.
Moments that create tension in the top of the footing predominate in the
longitudinal direction.
- The principal reinforcement is placed in the top of the footing equally
distributed across the footing width.
Smaller moments in the transverse direction cause compression in the top of
the footing.
- Transverse steel is placed under each column in the bottom of the footing to
distribute the column load in the transverse direction using the provisions
for individual column footings.
The footing is designed using the ACI Code provisions for flexure.

Pertinent design considerations may be summarized as follows.
1. Main reinforcement (uniformly distributed) is placed in a longitudinal direction
in the top of the footing.
The footing is assumed as a longitudinal beam.
2. Shear should be checked.
Consider one-way shear at a distance d from the face of the column.
Consider two-way (punching) shear on a perimeter d/2 from the face of the
column.
3. Stirrups or bent bars are frequently required to maintain an economical footing
thickness.
The shear effect is assumed as uniform across the width of the footing.

10.44
4. Transverse reinforcement is generally uniformly placed in the bottom of the
footing.
The reinforcement is placed within a band having a width no greater than
the column width plus twice the effective depth of the footing.
The design treatment in the transverse direction is similar to the design
treatment of the individual column footing.
- Dimensions are assumed equal to the band-width as previously described
and the transverse footing width.
5. Longitudinal steel is also placed in the bottom of the footing.
Longitudinal steel ties together and position the stirrups and transverse
steel.
The required steel areas may be small; however, the effects of the
cantilever moments in the vicinity of the columns should be checked.

10-9 Cantilever or Strap Footings
A third type of combined footing is called a cantilever or strap footing.
This is an economical type of footing when the proximity of the property line
precludes the use of other types. For example,
- An isolated column footing may be too large for the available area.
- The nearest column is too distant to allow a rectangular or trapezoidal
combined footing to be economical.
The strap footing may be regarded as two individual column footings connected
by a strap beam.

A strap footing is shown in Figure 10-22 (p. 380 of the textbook).
The exterior footing is placed eccentrically under the exterior column so that it
does not violate property line limitations.
The eccentricity produces a non-uniform pressure distribution under the
footing.
- Non-uniform bearing can lead to footing rotation.
- To balance this rotational or overturning effect, the exterior footing is
connected by a stiff beam (or strap) to the nearest interior footing.
Uniform soil pressures under the footings are assumed.

The strap (categorized as a flexural member) is subjected to both bending moment
and shear, resulting from the exterior column load P
e
and the soil pressure force R
e

acting on the exterior footing.

10.45
A moment is induced to the strap due to the eccentricity between the exterior
column load and the resultant soil pressure force.
- Additional pressure is induced into the soil at the exterior footing.
- Pressure at the interior footing is reduced.

At the interior column, there is no eccentricity between the interior column load P
i

and the resultant soil pressure force R
i
.
Therefore, no moment is induced in the strap at the interior column.

Let V be the difference between the interior column load and the resultant soil
pressure force at the interior footing (i.e. V = P
i
R
i
).
V is also the vertical shear force in the strap.

The exterior column load P
e
and the interior column load P
i
are known.
The values for V and R
e
may be calculated
using the principles of statics.
- Summing moments about R
e
yields the
following:
P
e
e = V (L - e)
V = P
e
e/(L - e)
- Summing the vertical forces yields:
R
e
= P
e
+ V
R
i
= P
i
V
R
e
is greater than P
e
by a magnitude equal to V.
R
i
is less than P
i
by a magnitude equal to V.

The required footing areas are determined by taking the reactions R
e
and R
i
based
on service loads and dividing by the net allowable soil pressure.
The footing areas are based on an assumed trial eccentricity e.
The footing areas may have to be recomputed until the trial eccentricity e and
the actual eccentricity e are the same.

The structural design of the interior footing follows the design of an isolated
column footing subject to a load R
i
.
The exterior footing is generally considered as under one-way transverse
bending similar to a wall footing with longitudinal steel furnished by extending
the strap steel into the footing.

10.46
The selection of footing thickness and reinforcement should be based on
factored loads to be consistent with the ACI strength design approach.

The strap beam is assumed as a flexural member with no bearing on the soil
underneath.
Many designers make a further simplifying assumption that the beam weight is
carried by the underlying soil.
The strap is designed as a rectangular beam subject to a constant shearing
force and a linearly varying negative bending moment based on factored loads.


10.47
Example Cantilever or Strap Footings

Example 10-7 (p. 381 of the textbook)

Given: The strap footing shown.

Find: The size of the exterior and interior
footings.

Solution

1. Design data:
Service loads:
Column A: P
e
= 150 kips
Column B: P
i
= 250 kips
Allowable soil pressure = 4.0 ksf

2. Calculate the weight of the footing.
Assume the footing thickness = 24.
Footing weight = 2 (150 pcf) = 300 psf (0.300 ksf)

3. Compute the net allowable soil pressure.
Net allowable soil pressure = 4.0 0.30 = 3.70 ksf

4. Determine the strap beam shear V (assume e = 2).
V = P
e
e/(L e) = 150(2)/(20.0 2) = 16.67 kips

5. Find the footing reactions.
R
e
= P
e
+ V = 150 + 16.67 = 166.67 kips
R
i
= P
i
V = 250 16.67 = 233.33 kips

6. Determine the footing areas.
Exterior footing
Required area = R
e
/net allowable soil pressure
= 166.67/3.70 = 45.05 SF
Use a 6 - 9 square footing (A = 45.56 SF)
Actual e = 6.75/2 1.0 = 2.375 > assumed e = 2.0 NG



10.48
Redo Steps 4 6
4. Determine the strap beam shear V (assume e = 2 - 6).
V = P
e
e/(L e) = 150(2.5)/(20.0 2.5) = 21.43 kips

5. Find the footing reactions.
R
e
= P
e
+ V = 150 + 21.43 = 171.43 kips
R
i
= P
i
V = 250 21.43 = 228.57 kips

6. Determine the footing areas.
Exterior footing
Required area = R
e
/net allowable soil pressure
= 171.4/3.70 = 46.32 SF
Use a 7 - 0 square footing (A = 49.0 SF)
Actual e = 7.0/2 1.0 = 2.5 (assumed e = 2.5) OK

Interior footing
Required area = R
i
/net allowable soil pressure
= 228.6/3.70 = 61.78 SF
Use an 8 - 0 square footing (A = 64.0 SF)



Chapter 2: Analysis for Nominal Moment Strength

1 of 2
Design Reference
Analysis for the nominal moment strength M
n


Given: f
c
, f
y
, b, d, A
s


Find: The nominal moment strength M
n
.
The nominal moment strength M
n
represents the ultimate capacity of the member when the
member is on the verge of failure.

Solution

1. Calculate the depth of the stress block a.
Assume that the stress in the steel is equal to f
y
and the maximum strain in the concrete is 0.003.
By equilibrium, H = 0; so, N
C
= N
T
.
N
C
= (0.85 f
c
) a b and N
T
= A
s
f
y

So, (0.85 f
c
) a b = A
s
f
y

a = A
s
f
y
/(0.85 f
c
) b

2. Calculate the length of the lever arm Z.
Z = d a/2

3. Calculate the nominal moment strength M
n
.
Based on the concrete (M
n
= N
C
Z): M
n
= N
C
Z = (0.85 f
c
) a b Z
Based on the steel (M
n
= N
T
Z): M
n
= N
T
Z = A
s
f
y
Z

4. Check the assumption made in Step 1 that the stress in the steel is equal to f
y
and that the
maximum strain in the concrete is 0.003.
The location of the neutral axis (i.e. c) is determined as follows.
a =
1
c (ACI Code, Section 10.2.7)

1
= 0.85 when 2500 psi f
c
4000 psi

1
= 0.65 (0.05/1000)(f
c
4000) 0.65 for f
c
> 4000 psi

c = a/
1

By similar triangles in the strain diagram, determine the strain in the steel when the maximum
strain in the concrete is 0.003.
0.003/c =
t
/(d - c)

t
= (d - c) (0.003/c)



Chapter 2: Analysis for Nominal Moment Strength

2 of 2

The strain at which steel yields (
y
) is determined as follows.

y
= f
y
/E
s

where
f
y
= the yield stress for the specified grade of steel
E
s
= 29,000,000 psi (29,000 ksi)
See Table A-1, p. 483 of the textbook for yield strain
y
associated with the specified
grade of steel.

If the computed strain in the steel (that is,
t
) is greater than the yield strain (that is,
y
), then
the steel reaches its yield stress before the concrete reaches its strain of 0.003, and the
assumption that the stress in the steel is equal to the yield stress is correct.


Chapter 2: Rectangular Beam Analysis for Moment

1 of 2
Design Reference
Rectangular Beam Analysis for Moment
(Tension Steel Only)

Given: f
c
, f
y
, b, d, h, A
s


Find: Determine the practical moment strength for a reinforced concrete rectangular beam.
If M
n
M
u
, then the reinforced concrete rectangular beam section is adequate.

Solution

Determine the nominal moment M
n
using the coefficient of resistance k and Tables A-7 through A-11,
as appropriate.
1. Determine the factored loads.
Calculate the beam weight (lb/ft) =
c
b h
Calculate the beam loading.
w
u
= 1.2 w
D
+ 1.6 w
L

P
u
= 1.2 P
D
+ 1.6 P
L


2. Determine the maximum bending moment due to factored loads (M
u
) from the moment diagram, or
from the following equations.
M
u
= w
u
L
2
/8 for a uniform load
M
u
= P
u
L/4 for a concentrated load at mid-span

3. Check the minimum steel (A
s
)
min
that is required using Table A-5 (p. 486 of the textbook) and
compare with A
s
.
(A
s
)
min
= (Design constant) b
w
d A
s
(A
s
)
min
?

4. Calculate the reinforcement ratio: = A
s
/b d

5. Determine k based on using Tables A-7 through A-11, as appropriate.
If no value of
t
is listed for the value of and k , then
t
> 0.005 and the section is tension-
controlled ( = 0.90).
If
y

t
0.005, then is determined from the following equation.
= 0.65 + (
t
0.002)(250/3)

6. Calculate M
n
.
M
n
= b d
2
k

Alternative Analysis
Determine the nominal moment M
n
using the internal couple method.

Perform Steps 1 3 above.

Chapter 2: Rectangular Beam Analysis for Moment

2 of 2
4. Determine the nominal moment M
n
from N
C
Z or N
T
Z.
Assume a tension-controlled section (i.e. the steel reaches its yield stress,
t
0.005, and = 0.90);
solve for the depth of the stress block (a) and the length of the lever arm Z.
N
T
= A
s
f
y
N
C
= 0.85 f
c
a b and N
T
= N
C

a = A
s
f
y
/0.85 f
c
b
Z = d a/2
Calculate M
n
.
Based on the concrete (M
n
= N
C
Z): M
n
= N
C
Z = (0.85 f
c
) a b Z
Based on the steel (M
n
= N
T
Z): M
n
= N
T
Z = A
s
f
y
Z

5. Determine the practical moment strength M
n
.
Assume = 0.90 for tension-controlled sections.
If M
n
M
u
, then the beam is adequate.

6. Check the assumption regarding the steel stress and a tension-controlled section.
Determine the location of the neutral axis (i.e. c).
a =
1
c (ACI Code, Section 10.2.7)

1
= 0.85 when 2500 psi f
c
4000 psi

1
= 0.85 (0.05/1000)(f
c
4000) 0.65 when f
c
> 4000 psi
c = a/
1

By similar triangles in the strain diagram, the strain in the steel can be determined when the
maximum strain in the concrete is 0.003 using the following formula.
0.003/c =
t
/(d - c)

t
= (d - c) (0.003/c)

The strain at which steel yields (
y
) is determined as follows.

y
= f
y
/E
s

where
f
y
= the yield stress for the specified grade of steel
E
s
= 29,000,000 psi (29,000 ksi)
See Table A-1, p. 483 of the textbook for yield strain
y
associated with the specified
grade of steel.
If the computed strain in the steel is greater than the yield strain (that is,
t
>
y
), then the steel
reaches its yield stress before the concrete reaches its strain of 0.003, and the assumption that
the stress in the steel is equal to the yield stress is correct.
If
t
> 0.005 the assumption regarding the steel stress is confirmed and the section is a tension-
controlled section.
If
y

t
0.005, then is determined from the following equation.
= 0.65 + (
t
0.002)(250/3)

Chapter 2: Rectangular Beam Design for Moment

1 of 2
Design Reference
Rectangular Beam Design for Moment
(Tension Steel Only)

A. Beam cross-section dimensions (b and h) are known.
Given: f
c
, f
y
, b, h

Find: The required A
s
.

Solution

1. Determine the factored design moment M
u
(including the beam weight).
2. Based on the given h, estimate the effective depth d and calculate the required coefficient of
resistance k .
d = h 1.5 (cover) 0.375 (
#
3 stirrup) 1.41/2 (half the diameter of
#
11 bar)
The
#
11 bar is the largest practical bar size (although
#
14 and
#
18 bars may be used).
This method of estimating d provides a tighter design than that suggested by the author.
The author suggests the following estimate for d: d = h 3*
* The assumed effective depth accounts for the clear distance, stirrups, and half of the
diameter of the reinforcing steel.
Calculate the required k using an assumed = 0.90, subject to a later check.
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2

3. Determine the required steel ratio corresponding with the required coefficient of resistance
k (calculated above) using Tables A-7 through A-11, as appropriate; ensure that
t
0.005 and
that = 0.90.
If
t
is within the range 0.004
t
0.005, then will have to be reduced.
= 0.65 + (
t
0.002)(250/3)
4. Compute the required A
s
and check (A
s
)
min
.
Required A
s
= b d
Check (A
s
)
min
using Table A-5.
5. Select the reinforcing bars using Tables A-2 and A-3.
One layer is preferred.
Check the actual effective depth and compare with the estimated effective depth (from
Step 2).
If the actual effective depth is slightly greater than the estimated effective depth, the
design is slightly conservative (on the safe side).
If the actual depth is less than the estimated effective depth, the design is not
conservative and should be revised.
6. Sketch the design.


Chapter 2: Rectangular Beam Design for Moment

2 of 2
B. Beam cross-section dimensions are not known.
Given: f
c
, f
y


Find: The beam dimensions (b and h) and the required A
s
.

Solution

1. Determine the factored design moment M
u
(neglecting the beam weight).
2. Select a steel ratio (use Table A-5 for recommended values).
3. From Table A-5 (or Tables A-7 through A-11), find the k value corresponding to the selected
steel ratio .
4. Establish a value for the beam width b and compute the required effective depth d.
Required d = (M
u
/ b k )
1/2

Check the d/b ratio.
If the d/b ratio is reasonable (1.5 to 2.2), use these values for the beam.
If the d/b ratio is not reasonable, increase or decrease b and compute the new required
effective depth d.
5. Estimate h (assuming 1.5 cover,
#
3 stirrups,
#
11 reinforcing bars) and compute the dead load
due to the beam weight.
6. Revise the factored design M
u
to include the additional moment due to the beam weight.
7. Calculate the required coefficient of resistance k , using b and d previously determined
along with the new factored design M
u
.
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2

Find the steel ratio corresponding with the required k .
8. Determine the required A
s
and check (A
s
)
min
.
Required A
s
= b d
Check (A
s
)
min
using Table A-5.
9. Select the steel reinforcing (ref. Table A-2 and A-3).
Check to ensure that the bars fit into the beam width b in one layer (preferable).

10. Determine the final beam depth h (round up to the nearest inch); compute the actual
effective depth d and compare with the estimated effective depth previously computed.
d = h 1.5 (cover) 0.375 (
#
3 stirrup) (bar diameter of the selected bar)
If the actual effective depth d is greater than the estimated effective depth (from Step 4),
then the design is slightly conservative (on the safe side).

Check the final d/b ratio (1.5 < d/b < 2.2).

11. Sketch the design.
Chapter 3: Doubly Reinforced Beam Analysis
1 of 2
Design Reference: Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beam Analysis

Given: Beam section dimensions (b, h, d, d
t
), the main reinforcing steel (A
s
and A
s
), f
c
, and f
y
.

Find: Determine the practical moment strength for a doubly reinforced rectangular beam.
If M
n
M
u
, then the doubly reinforced rectangular beam section is adequate.

Solution

1. Assume that all the steel yields, f
s
= f
s
= f
y
.
Therefore A
s2
= A
s
.

2. Using the concrete-steel couple and A
s1
= A
s
A
s
, determine the depth of the compression stress
block a.
a = A
s1
f
y
/(0.85 f
c
) b = (A
s
A
s
) f
y
/(0.85 f
c
) b

3. Determine the location of the neutral axis: c = a/
1
.
This value of c is based on the assumption in Step 1; that assumption will be verified in Step 4.

4. Check the strain in the compression reinforcement and the tensile strain in the extreme tensile
reinforcement to determine whether the assumption in Step 1 is valid.
Compression reinforcement: 0.003/c =
s
/(c d)

s
= 0.003(c d)/c
Tensile reinforcement: 0.003/c =
t
/(d
t
- c)

t
= 0.003(d
t
- c)/c
It is required that
t
0.004.
Therefore, the tensile steel has yielded (even
t
= 0.004 >
y
).
Either of the following two conditions may exist.
a. Condition I:
s

y
. This indicates that the assumption of Step 1 is correct and the compression
steel has yielded.
b. Condition II:
s
<
y
. This indicates that the assumption of Step 1 is not correct and the
compression steel has not yielded.
In each of the two cases, the strength-reduction factor must be determined.

Condition I
5. If
s
and
s
both exceed
y
, compute the nominal moment strengths M
n1
and M
n2
.
Sum the individual couples to determine the nominal moment strength M
n
.
For the concrete-steel couple: M
n1
= A
s1
f
y
(d a/2)
For the steel-steel couple: M
n2
= A
s
f
y
(d d)
M
n
= M
n1
+ M
n2





Chapter 3: Doubly Reinforced Beam Analysis
2 of 2
6. Compute the practical moment strength M
n
.
If
t
0.005, = 0.90.
If
t
is within the range 0.004
t
0.005, then must be reduced.
= 0.65 + (
t
0.002)(250/3)

Condition II
5. If
s
is less than
y
and
s

y
, find the location of the neutral axis by re-computing c using the
following formula.
(0.85 f
c
b
1
) c
2
+ (87 A
s
A
s
f
y
) c 87 d A
s
= 0
Solve the quadratic equation for c.

6. With this value of c, compute the compressive steel stress f
s
(to be less than f
y
).
f
s
= 87(c d)/c

7. Solve for a using a =
1
c.
Calculate the net tensile strain to check ductility.

t
= 0.003 (d
t
c)/c
Compute the strength-reduction factor (see Step 10).

8. Compute the compressive forces N
C1
and N
C2
.
N
C1
= (0.85 f
c
) b a
N
C2
= A
s
f
s

Check these by computing the tensile force.
N
T
= A
s
f
y

Check: N
T
= N
C1
+ N
C2


9. Compute the resisting moment strengths of the individual couples M
n1
and M
n2
.
Sum the individual couples to determine the nominal moment strength M
n
.
M
n1
= N
C1
(d a/2)
M
n2
= N
C2
(d d)
M
n
= M
n1
+ M
n2

10. Compute the practical moment strength M
n
.
If
t
0.005, = 0.90.
If
t
is within the range 0.004
t
0.005, then must be reduced.
= 0.65 + (
t
0.002)(250/3)


Chapter 3: Doubly Reinforced Beam Design
1 of 3
Design Reference: Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beam Design

Given: Beam section dimensions (b, h), f
c
and f
y
.

Find: Design a doubly reinforced rectangular beam.

Solution

1. Estimate the effective depth d assuming two rows of steel using the following formula.
d = h 4 for two rows of steel.
Estimate d
t
assuming 1 of cover,
#
3 stirrup, and
#
8 reinforcing bars using the following formula.
d
t
= h 1.5 0.375 1.0/2

2. Determine the factored design moment M
u
.

3. Determine the practical moment strength M
n
for a singly reinforced beam.
Assume a tension-controlled section.
Find the maximum steel ratio for a net tensile strain
t
= 0.005 from the appropriate table in
Appendix A (i.e. Tables A-7 through A-11).
If d
t
> d (typical for two rows of tensile steel), then increase the maximum steel ratio as
follows.

max
= (
max
from the appropriate table)(d
t
/d)
Find the corresponding k from the appropriate table in Appendix A (i.e. Tables A-7 through
A-11).
Assuming a tension-controlled section (
t
0.005, = 0.90), calculate the maximum practical
moment strength M
n
for a singly reinforced beam.
M
n
= b d
2
k

4. Compare the practical moment strength M
n
for a singly reinforced beam with the factored design
moment M
u
.
If M
n
< M
u
, design the beam as a doubly reinforced beam.
If M
n
M
u
, the beam can be designed as a beam reinforced with tension steel only.

For a Doubly Reinforced Beam
5. Find the required steel area A
s1
to provide a concrete-steel couple having a practical moment
strength of M
n
determined in Step 3.
The concrete-steel couple is M
n1
= M
n

Using from Step 3, find the steel area A
s1
required for the concrete-steel couple.
Required A
s1
= b d
6. Determine the steel-steel couple M
n2
.
The moment-strength M
n2
is equal to the balance of the factored design moment M
u
.
Required M
n2
= M
u
- M
n1


Chapter 3: Doubly Reinforced Beam Design
2 of 3
7. Find the required compressive force in the steel for the steel-steel couple.
Assume that d = 2 unless a value is given.
N
C2
= M
n2
/ (d d)

8. Determine the location of the neutral axis (i.e. c), check the strain
s
in the compression steel,
and compute the compression stress f
s
.
a = A
s1
f
y
/0.85 f
c
b
c = a/
1


0.003/c =
s
/(c d)

s
= (0.003/c)(c d)
If
s

y
, then the compression steel yields before the concrete strain reaches 0.003 and f
s
= f
y
.
If
s
<
y
, then the compression steel does not yield before the concrete strain reaches 0.003 and
f
s
=
s
E
s
, where E
s
= 29,000 ksi.

9. Determine the required compression steel A
s
.
Because N
C2
= A
s
f
s
,
Required A
s
= N
C2
/f
s


10. Determine the required A
s2
.
Required A
s2
= f
s
A
s
/f
y
Note: If f
s
= f
y
, then the required A
s2
= required A
s


11. Compute the total tension steel required.
A
s
= A
s1
+ A
s2


12. Select the compression steel (A
s
).

13. Select the tension steel (A
s
).
Check the required beam width.
Place the bars in one layer, if possible.

14. Check the actual effective depth d and compare it with the assumed effective depth d.
Determine the actual effective depth d to the centroid of the bar group.
If the actual effective depth d is slightly in excess of the assumed effective depth d, then the
design will be slightly conservative (on the safe side).
If the actual effective depth d is less than the assumed effective depth d, then the design may
be on the unconservative side and an analysis and possible revision should be considered.

15. Check d
t
and compare with the assumed d
t
.




Chapter 3: Doubly Reinforced Beam Design
3 of 3

16. Check the value assumption of Step 3 ( = 0.90); check M
n
and compare with M
u
.
Compute d: d = 1.5 + 0.375 (
#
3 stirrup) + d
b
/2
where d
b
= one-half the bar diameter used for the compression steel
Assume f
s
= f
s
= f
y
; A
s2
= A
s

Compute a: a = (A
s
A
s
) f
y
/0.85 f
c
b
Compute c: c = a/
1

Check
s
:
s
= (0.003/c)(c d)
Check
t
:
t
= (0.003/c)(d
t
c)
If
s

y
and
t

y
, then continue checking by following the Condition I analysis for doubly
reinforced concrete beams (cf. Design Reference: Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beam Analysis).
If
s
<
y
and
t

y
, then continue checking by following the Condition II analysis for doubly
reinforced concrete beams (cf. Design Reference: Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beam Analysis).

17. Sketch the design.


Chapter 3: T-Beam Analysis
1 of 3
Design Reference: T-Beam Analysis

Given: T-beam section dimensions (h
f
, b
w
, d, d
t
), main reinforcing steel, and f
c
, f
y
.

Find: Determine the practical moment strength for a reinforced concrete T-beam.
If M
n
M
u
, then the reinforced concrete T-beam section is adequate.

Solution

1. Determine the effective flange width b based on ACI criteria.
b = one-fourth of the span length (not applicable if the span is not given), or
b = b
w
+ 16h
f
, or
b = center-to-center beam spacing
The smallest of the three values controls.

2. Check (A
s
)
min
(ref. Table A-5) and compare with the given A
s
.
(A
s
)
min
= (coefficient from Table A-5) b
w
d

3. Assume that the steel yields and find the tensile force N
T
.
N
T
= A
s
f
y


4. Assume that the flange alone is fully stressed to 0.85 f
c
.
Calculate the compressive force N
Cf
and compare the compressive force N
Cf
with the tensile
force N
T
(found in Step 3 above).
N
Cf
= 0.85 f
c
h
f
b

5. Compare the tensile force N
T
with the compressive force N
Cf
.
If N
Cf
N
T
, then the stress block is completely within the flange and the beam behaves as a
rectangular beam of width b.
- Continue the analysis following the Rectangular T-Beam Analysis.
If N
Cf
< N
T
, then the compression stress block extends into the web. The beam behaves as a
true T-beam and the remaining compression (N
T
N
Cf
) is furnished by the web area.
- Continue the analysis following the True T-Beam Analysis.

Rectangular T-Beam Analysis
6. Determine the depth of the compression stress block a in the flange.
a = A
s
f
y
/0.85 f
c
b

7. Check ductility (i.e. determine the net tensile strain
t
).
Determine the location of the neutral axis (i.e. c) using the relationship a =
1
c.
c = a/
1
where

1
= 0.85 when 2500 psi f
c
4000 psi

1
= 0.85 (0.05/1000)(f
c
4000) 0.65 when f
c
> 4000 psi

Chapter 3: T-Beam Analysis
2 of 3

Calculate the tensile strain in the extreme tensile reinforcement.

t
/(d
t
c) = 0.003/c
If
t
0.005, then the assumption that the steel yields is confirmed and the section is a
tension-controlled section.

8. Determine the strength reduction factor .
For a tension-controlled section (i.e.
t
0.005), = 0.90.
If
y

t
0.005, then is determined from the following equation.
= 0.65 + (
t
0.002)(250/3)

9. Calculate the practical moment strength M
n
.
M
n
= N
T
Z = A
s
f
y
(d a/2)
If M
n
M
u
, then the T-beam section is adequate.

Alternative Rectangular T-Beam Analysis
6. Calculate .
= A
s
/b d

7. Obtain k and
t
(ref. Tables A-7 through A-11, as appropriate).

8. Determine the strength reduction factor .
For a tension-controlled section (i.e.
t
0.005), = 0.90.
If
y

t
0.005, then is determined from the following equation.
= 0.65 + (
t
0.002)(250/3)

9. Calculate the practical moment strength M
n
.
M
n
= b d
2
k
If M
n
M
u
, then the T-beam section is adequate.

True T-Beam Analysis
6. Determine the depth of the compression area in the web.
The remaining compression (N
T
N
Cf
) is furnished by the web area.
a = (N
T
N
Cf
)/(0.85 f
c
b
w
) + h
f


7. Check ductility (i.e. determine the net tensile strain
t
).
Determine the location of the neutral axis c using the relationship a =
1
c.
c = a/
1
where

1
= 0.85 when 2500 psi f
c
4000 psi

1
= 0.85 (0.05/1000)(f
c
4000) 0.65 when f
c
> 4000 psi


Chapter 3: T-Beam Analysis
3 of 3
Calculate the tensile strain in the extreme tensile reinforcement.

t
/(d
t
c) = 0.003/c

If
t
0.005, then the assumption that the steel yields is confirmed and the section is a
tension-controlled section.

8. Determine the strength reduction factor .
For a tension-controlled section (i.e.
t
0.005), = 0.90.
If
y

t
0.005, then is determined from the following equation.
= 0.65 + (
t
0.002)(250/3)

9. Calculate the nominal moment strength M
n
and the practical moment strength M
n
.
The internal couple is composed of two component couples, including a flange couple (N
Cf
Z
f
) and
a web couple (N
Cw
Z
w
).
N
Cw
= 0.85 f
c
b
w
(a h
f
)
M
n
= flange couple + web couple
= N
Cf
Z
f
+ N
Cw
Z
w

= N
Cf
(d h
f
/2) + N
Cw
[d h
f
(a h
f
)/2]

The practical moment strength is M
n
.
If M
n
M
u
, then the T-beam section is adequate.



Chapter 3: T-Beam Design
1 of 3
Design Reference: T-Beam Design

Given: T-beam section dimensions (h
f
, b
w
, h) and f
c
, f
y
.

Find: The required A
s
.

Solution

1. Compute the factored loads and the factored design moment M
u
.

2. Assume an effective depth d.
d = h 1.50 (cover) 0.375 (
#
3 stirrup) 1.41/2 (half diameter of
#
11 bar)

3. Determine the effective flange width based on the following three ACI criteria.
One-fourth of the span length of the beam, or
b
w
+ 16h
f
, or
Center-to-center spacing of the beams.
Use the smallest value for the effective flange width b.

4. Assume a tension-controlled section (i.e. the steel yields, the tensile strain
t
0.005, and the
strength reduction factor = 0.90).

5. Determine whether the beam behaves as a rectangular beam or as a true T-beam.
Compute the practical moment strength M
nf
with the full effective flange assumed to be in
compression.
M
nf
= N
C
Z = (0.85 f
c
) b h
f
(d h
f
/2)

6. If M
nf
> M
u
, the beam behaves as a rectangular T-beam of width b.
Continue the design following the Rectangular T-Beam Design.
If M
nf
< M
u
, the beam behaves as a true T-beam.
Continue the design following the True T-Beam Design.

Rectangular T-Beam Design
7. Design as a rectangular beam (b is known; d is estimated).
Compute the required k value.
Required k = M
u
/ b d
2


8. From the tables in Appendix A (Tables A-7 through A-11, as appropriate), determine the required
steel ratio to provide k no less than that computed in Step 7.
Confirm that
t
0.005 and = 0.90.

9. Compute the required steel area A
s
.
Required A
s
= b d


Chapter 3: T-Beam Design
2 of 3
10. Select bars (using Tables A-2 and A-3); check the effective depth d.
Check the beam width.
Check the actual effective depth d and compare it with the assumed effective depth d from
Step 2.
d = h 1.5 (cover) 0.375 (
#
3 stirrup) d
b
/2
where
d
b
= diameter of selected reinforcing bar

If the actual effective depth d is slightly larger than the assumed effective depth d, then
the design will be slightly conservative (on the safe side).
If the actual effective depth d is less than the assumed effective depth d, then the design
may be on the non-conservative side and should be evaluated for possible revision.

11. Check minimum steel requirements (A
s
)
min
(using Table A-5).

12. Check
t
to ensure a tension-controlled section (i.e.
t
0.005) if
t
and were not confirmed in
Step 8.
Compute a and c.
a = A
s
f
y
/0.85 f
c
b
c = a/
1

1
= 0.85 when 2500 psi f
c
4000 psi

1
= 0.85 (0.05/1000)(f
c
4000) 0.65 for f
c
> 4000 psi
Compute
t
: 0.003/c =
t
/(d
t
c)

t
= (0.003/c)(d
t
c)
Check the assumed value of .
If
t
is within the range 0.004
t
0.005, then will have to be reduced.
= 0.65 + (
t
0.002)(250/3)

13. Sketch the design.

True T-Beam Design
7. Using an estimated d
f
and Z
f
= d
f
h
f
/2, determine the steel area A
sf
required for the flange
couple.
d
f
= h 1.50 (cover) 0.375 (
#
3 stirrup) 1.41/2 (half dia. of
#
11 bar)
Required A
sf
= M
nf
/ f
y
Z
f


8. Determine the required steel area A
sw
due to the additional web couple acting on a rectangular
reinforced concrete beam.
Compute the depth of the web h
w
: h
w
= h h
f

Compute an estimated effective depth of the web d
w
.
d
w
= h
w
1.50 (cover) 0.375 (
#
3 stirrup) 1.41/2 (half dia. of
#
11 bar)

Chapter 3: T-Beam Design
3 of 3
Compute the required k for the web couple.
Required k = (M
u
- M
nf
)/ b
w
d
w
2

Determine the corresponding steel ratio (ref. Tables A-7 through A-11, as appropriate).
Compute the required steel area A
sw
: A
sw
= b
w
d
w


9. Determine the total required steel area.
Total required A
s
= A
sf
+ A
sw
.

10. Select bars (using Tables A-2 and A-3); check the effective depth d.
Check the beam width.
Check the actual effective depth d and compare it with the assumed effective depth d from
Step 2.
d = h 1.5 (cover) 0.375 (
#
3 stirrup) d
b
/2
where
d
b
= diameter of selected reinforcing bar

If the actual effective depth d is slightly larger than the assumed effective depth d, then
the design will be slightly conservative (on the safe side).
If the actual effective depth d is less than the assumed effective depth d, then the design
may be on the non-conservative side and should be evaluated for possible revision.

11. Check minimum steel requirements (A
s
)
min
(using Table A-5).

12. Check
t
to ensure a tension-controlled section (i.e.
t
0.005).
Compute a.
N
T
= A
s
f
y
N
Cf
= 0.85 f
c
h
f
b
N
Cw
= N
T
N
Cf

a
w
= N
Cw
/0.85 f
c
b
w

a = h
f
+ a
w

Compute c.
c = a/
1

1
= 0.85 when 2500 psi f
c
4000 psi

1
= 0.85 (0.05/1000)(f
c
4000) 0.65 for f
c
> 4000 psi
Compute
t
.

t
/(d
t
c) = 0.003/c
Check the assumed value of .
If
t
is within the range 0.004
t
0.005, then will have to be reduced.
= 0.65 + (
t
0.002)(250/3)

13. Sketch the design.

Chapter 4: Shear Reinforcement (Stirrups)

1 of 5
Reference Guide: Shear Reinforcement (Stirrups)

Given: Beam section dimensions (b, d, and h), main reinforcing steel, and f
c
, f
y
.

Find: Determine the required shear reinforcement (stirrups).

Solution

1. Determine the shear values due to the factored loads based on clear span.
For non-prestressed members, sections located less than a distance d from the face of
support are designed for V
u
(also designated as V
u
*) computed at a distance d.
ACI Code (Section 11.1.3.1)

Action: Draw the factored shear (V
u
) diagram.

2. Determine if stirrups are required. ACI Code (Section 11.4.6.1)
Shear reinforcement is required where V
u
> V
c
for flexural members.
where
V
u
= the design shear force, determined from factored loads
= strength-reduction factor for shear
= 0.75
V
c
= nominal shear strength provided by concrete = 2 f
c
b
w
d [ACI Eq. (11-3)]
= 1.0 for normal-weight concrete
f
c
= concrete compressive strength (psi)
b
w
= width of the web for T-beams (inches)
= b, the beam width for rectangular beams (inches)
d = effective depth of the beam section
Note: When determining the shear strength V
c
of reinforced or prestressed concrete beams
and concrete joist construction, the value of f
c
is limited to 100 psi unless minimum web
reinforcement is provided. (This requires f
c
to be 10,000 psi or greater, so not a concern for
the purposes of this course.)

Actions:
1) Calculate V
c
and V
c
.
2) Compare V
c
to V
u
.

3. If stirrups are required, determine the portion of the span over which stirrups are needed.
Stirrups are required where V
u
> V
c
.
A minimum area of shear reinforcement must be provided where V
c
< V
u
V
c
.
Shear reinforcement, as required by strength, must be provided where V
u
> V
c
.
a. Minimum shear reinforcement (i.e. maximum spacing) is required where
V
c
< V
u
V
c
.

Chapter 4: Shear Reinforcement (Stirrups)

2 of 5
The ACI Code requires a minimum area of shear reinforcement in all reinforced concrete
flexural members where V
u
exceeds V
c
, except as follows.
In slabs and footings.
In concrete joist construction (as defined by the ACI Code, Section 8.13).
In beams with a total depth of not greater than 10, or 2 times the flange thickness, or
one-half the width of the web, whichever is greater.

Actions:
1) Draw the horizontal V
u
* line on the shear diagram.
V
u
* is the value on the shear diagram at a distance d from the face of the support.
2) Mark the location where V
u
= V
c
and note the value of V
c
on the shear diagram.
3) Mark the location where V
u
= V
c
and note the value of V
c
on the shear diagram.

4. On the V
u
diagram, determine the area representing the required shear strength that must be
provided by the shear reinforcement, that is, required V
s
.
The required V
s
is the area between the V
c
line, the V
u
* line, and the sloping V
u
line on the
V
u
diagram.
Generally, an equation to determine the required V
s
may be written as follows:
Required V
s
= maximum V
u
- V
c
mx
where
m = slope of the shear diagram
= intensity of the distributed load (i.e. w
u
)
x = the distance measured from the face of the left support
V
u
= shear force at the face of the support.

Actions:
1) Cross-hatch the area between the V
c
line, the V
u
* line, and the sloping V
u
line as the required
V
s
on the V
u
diagram.
2) Develop the equation required V
s


= maximum V
u
- V
c
mx

5. Select the size of the stirrup and determine the spacing that is required at the critical section (i.e.
the point on the beam located a distance d from the face of the support) based on the required
V
s
*.
Assume a
#
3 stirrup (A
v
= 0.22 in
2
).
Stirrup spacing should be no closer than 4.
- If the minimum spacing calculated is less than 4 using a
#
3 stirrup, then try using a
#
4
stirrup (A
v
= 0.40 in
2
).
Sections located between the face of the support and a distance d from the face of the support
are designed for the same V
u
as that at the critical section (i.e. V
u
*).
The stirrup spacing that is determined in this step is the minimum spacing for the stirrups in
the portion of the beam where the actual V
u
V
u
* (This is the section of the beam between the
face of the support and the critical section.)

Chapter 4: Shear Reinforcement (Stirrups)

3 of 5
Stirrup spacing should be constant from the critical section back to the face of the support and
based on the spacing requirements determined at the critical section.
Required s* = A
v
f
yt
d/required V
s
*
= A
v
f
yt
d/(V
u
* - V
c
)
where
s* = spacing of the shear reinforcement in the region where V
u
V
u
*.
= strength-reduction factor for shear
= 0.75
A
v
= area of shear reinforcement
= 2A
s

s = center-to-center spacing of shear reinforcement in a direction parallel to the
longitudinal reinforcement (inch)
f
yt
= yield strength of shear reinforcement steel (psi)
d = effective depth
Required V
s
* = V
u
* - V
c
(calculated at the critical section)

Action: Determine the spacing s* based on the equation shown above.

6. Determine the ACI Code maximum spacing requirements for minimum shear reinforcement in the
region where V
c
< V
u
V
c
.
If V
s
< 4 f
c
b
w
d, the maximum spacing for vertical stirrups must not exceed d/2 or 24,
whichever is smaller. ACI Code (Section 11.4.5.1)
If V
s
> 4 f
c
b
w
d, the maximum spacing for vertical stirrups must not exceed d/4 or 12,
whichever is smaller. ACI Code (Section 11.4.5.3)
The value of V
s
must not exceed 8 f
c
b
w
d no matter the amount of web reinforcement.
ACI Code (Section 11.4.7.9)
where
V
s
= the required nominal shear strength provided by shear reinforcement
= V
s
* = (V
u
* - V
c
)/

Actions:
1) Calculate 4 f
c
b
w
d
2) Calculate V
s
* = V
u
* - V
c
.
3) Calculate V
s
* = V
s
*/.
4) Compare V
s
* with 4 f
c
b
w
d.
5) Determine the maximum spacing.
a) If V
s
* < 4 f
c
b
w
d, then the maximum stirrup spacing is d/2 or 24, whichever is smaller.
b) If V
s
* > 4 f
c
b
w
d, then the maximum stirrup spacing is d/4 or 12, whichever is smaller.
c) Calculate s
max
= (A
v
f
yt
)/(0.75 f
c
b
w
) [ACI Eq. (11-13)]
d) Calculate s
max
= (A
v
f
yt
)/(50 b
w
) [ACI Eq. (11-13)]

The maximum spacing is the smallest of the calculated values.

Chapter 4: Shear Reinforcement (Stirrups)

4 of 5
where
A
v
= total cross-sectional area of the web reinforcement within a distance s.
= 2A
s
for single-loop stirrups
A
s
= the cross sectional area of the stirrup bar (in
2
)
b
w
= web width
= b for rectangular sections (inch)
s
max
= maximum center-to-center spacing of shear reinforcement in a direction parallel to
the longitudinal reinforcement (inch)
f
yt
= yield strength of web reinforcement steel (psi)
Note: When f
c
4444 psi, the minimum area of shear reinforcement is controlled by 50 b
w
s/f
yt
.
6) Calculate 8 f
c
b
w
d and compare with V
s
*.
a) The concrete strength f
c
or the beam dimensions b
w
and/or d must be increased if V
s
*
exceeds 8 f
c
b
w
d.

7. Determine the spacing requirements based on the shear strength that is furnished by the shear
reinforcing.
For the balance of the span (i.e. the portion of the beam where V
c
< V
u
< V
u
*), the stirrup
spacing depends on the shear strength that must be provided by the stirrups (i.e. the required
V
s
), or by the maximum spacing limitations determined above.
The formula to determine the required spacing uses the expression for required V
s
that was
developed in Step 4.
Required s = A
v
f
yt
d/required V
s

= A
v
f
yt
d/(maximum V
u
- V
c
mx)
A plot (such as that shown in Figure 4-8, p. 134 of the textbook) may be developed for the
required spacing at various distances from the face of the support by solving for s at various
values of x (i.e. locations along the beam).
- For plotting purposes, the required spacing is arbitrarily found at 1-foot intervals beyond
the critical section until the required spacing exceeds the maximum spacing.
Develop a table to establish a final spacing pattern.
- The table that was developed for Example 4-3 is shown below, using the following equation.
Required s = A
v
f
yt
d/(maximum V
u
- V
c
mx)
= 0.75(0.22)(60.0)(25)/(77.1 11.5x)
= 247.5/(77.1 11.5x)
Spacing
(inches)
Theoretical
stopping point
(from FOS)
Length
required to
cover (inch)
Number of
spaces to use
Actual length
covered
(inches)
Actual
stopping
point (inches
from FOS)
2 - - 1 2 2
4 2.4 = 29 27 7 28 30
5 4.9 = 59 29 6 30 60
12 8.35 = 101 41 4 48 108

Chapter 4: Shear Reinforcement (Stirrups)

5 of 5
As an alternative, the theoretical stopping points for various spacings may be determined based on
the formula by solving for x at various values of spacing s.
Spacing values (s) should be made to no less than 1-inch increments.
Spacing values (s) should be no greater than the maximum spacing determined above.
Develop a table showing s and corresponding x values.
- The table that was developed for Example 4-3 is shown below, using the following formula.
Required s = A
v
f
yt
d/(maximum V
u
- V
c
mx)
= 0.75(0.22)(60.0)(25)/(77.1 11.5x)
= 247.5/(77.1 11.5x)
x = (1/11.5)(77.1 247.5/s)
s 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12
x
1.32 =
16
2.40 =
29
3.11 =
37
3.63 =
44
4.01 =
48
4.31 =
52
4.55 =
55
4.75 =
57
4.91 =
59
Develop a table to establish the final spacing pattern.
- A sample table is shown on the previous page.

Actions:
1) Develop a plot of stirrup spacing vs. location along the member.
2) Develop a table to establish a final spacing pattern.
Alternatively,
1) Develop a table showing s and corresponding x values.
2) Develop a table to establish a final spacing pattern.

8. Sketch the stirrup pattern.
The first stirrup should be placed at a maximum distance of s*/2 from the face of the support.
(A distance of 2 is commonly used.)
Stirrups may be provided across the full length of the member. This is common practice and
conservative.
No more than two or three different spacings should be used within a pattern.
- Example of a two spacing pattern: Use the minimum spacing to the point where the
maximum spacing may be used.
- Example of a three spacing pattern: Use the minimum spacing to the point where the
spacing can be increased by 1 or 2; continue using the wider spacing to the point where the
maximum spacing may be used.
The stirrup pattern is generally symmetrical with respect to the centerline of the span.

Action: Sketch the final stirrup pattern.

Chapter 4: Torsion Reinforcement (Stirrups)

1 of 4
Reference Guide: Torsion Reinforcement (Stirrups)

Given: Beam section dimensions (b, d, and h), main reinforcing steel, and f
c
, f
y
.

Find: Determine the required torsion reinforcement (stirrups) and additional longitudinal reinforcing.

Solution

1. Determine the maximum factored concentrated or uniformly distributed torsional load (w
tu
) and the
corresponding factored gravity load (w
u
) that occurs simultaneously.

2. Determine the factored torsional moment (T
u
), the factored shear (V
u
), and the factored bending
moment (M
u
).
The critical section for torsion may be taken at a distance d from the face of the support
provided no concentrated torque occurs within a distance d from the face of the support.
T
u
= w
tu
/2 and T
u
* = T
u
- (w
tu
) d
V
u
= w
u
/2 and V
u
* = V
u
- (w
u
) d
M
u
= w
u

2
/8
If a concentrated torque occurs within a distance d from the face of the support, the critical
section is at the face of the support. ACI Code (Section 11.5.2.4)

3. Determine the reinforcement required to resist the factored bending moment M
u
.

4. Calculate the concrete shear strength V
c
and determine the portion of the beam over which
stirrups are required due to vertical shear.
V
c
= 2 f
c
b
w
d
Determine the portion of the beam over which stirrups are required due to vertical shear.
x = (V
u
- V
c
)/w
u

where
x = the distance measured from the face of the support

5. Determine if torsion can be neglected.
If torsion cannot be neglected, determine the portion of the beam over which stirrups are
required due to torsional shear.
Torsion can be neglected if T
u
* 0.25 T
cr

Calculate 0.25 T
cr
and compare with T
u
.
where
T
cr
= 4 f
c
(A
cp
)
2
/P
cp

= 0.75 (ACI Code, Section 9.3.2.3)
f
c
= concrete compressive strength


Chapter 4: Torsion Reinforcement (Stirrups)

2 of 4
A
cp
= area of outside perimeter of the beam cross section
= b h for rectangular beams not cast monolithically with a slab
For isolated beams cast monolithic with a slab, the area A
cp
can be determined from
ACI Sections 11.5.1.1 and 13.2.4.
P
cp
= outside perimeter of the beam cross section
= 2(b + h) (ref. Figure 4-15, p. 141 of the textbook)
= the lightweight aggregate factor
= 1.0 for normal-weight concrete
Determine the portion of the beam over which stirrups are required due to torsional shear.
Theoretical cut-off point: x = (T
u
0.25T
cr
)/w
tu

Torsional reinforcement must be provided a distance of at least (b
t
+ d) beyond the point
required by analysis (i.e the theoretical cut-off point).
ACI Code (Section 11.5.6.3)
where
b
t
= the width of that part of the cross section containing the closed stirrups resisting
torsion
x = the distance measured from the face of the support

6. Determine if the torsion in the member is caused by compatibility torsion or by equilibrium torsion
(ref. pp. 142-144 of the textbook).
a. For compatibility torsion, design the member for a reduced torque of T
cr
.
b. For equilibrium torsion, design the member for the full torsional moment (T
u
*) calculated in
Step 2.

7. Check the dimensions of the member cross section to assure that crushing is prevented.
For solid sections, the dimensions must satisfy the following:
{(V
u
*/b
w
d)
2
+ [T
u
* p
h
/1.7(A
oh
)
2
]
2
}
1/2

(V
c
/b
w
d + 8f
c
) = (V
c
/b
w
d + 8 f
c
) ACI Eq. (11-18)
For hollow sections, the dimensions must satisfy the following:
V
u
*/b
w
d + T
u
* p
h
/1.7(A
oh
)
2

(V
c
/b
w
d + 8 f
c
) = (V
c
/b
w
d + 8 f
c
) ACI Eq. (11-19)
where
V
c
= 2 f
c
b
w
d
A
oh
= area enclosed by the centerline of the outermost closed stirrup
= x
1
y
1
(ref. Figure 4-19, p. 146 of the textbook)
x
1
= width measured to the centerline of the outermost stirrup
y
1
= height measured to the centerline of the outermost stirrup
p
h
= perimeter along the centerline of the outermost closed stirrup
= 2 (x
1
+ y
1
)


Chapter 4: Torsion Reinforcement (Stirrups)

3 of 4
8. Determine the required torsional stirrup area (A
t
/s), the stirrup area required for shear (A
v
/s), and
the total stirrup area required for combined shear and torsion (A
vt
/s).
The required torsional stirrup area is determined by the following equation.
A
t
/s = T
u
*/(2 A
o
f
yt
cot )
where
A
t
= the area of one leg of the torsional or outermost closed stirrup (inches
2
)
s = stirrup spacing
= 30 to 60; use 45 for non-prestressed members (ACI Code, Section 11.5.3.6[a])
f
yt
= yield strength of stirrups (60,000 psi)
T
u
* = factored torque at the critical section
A
o
0.85 A
oh
= 0.85 x
1
y
1

The stirrup area required for shear (A
v
/s) is obtained from the following equation.
A
v
/s = (V
u
V
c
)/ f
yv
d
where
= 0.75 (ACI Code, Section 9.3.2.3)
V
c
= 2 f
c
b
w
d
f
yv
= yield strength of stirrups (60,000 psi)
d = beam depth
The total stirrup area required for combined shear and torsion is obtained from the following
equation.
A
vt
/s = A
v
/s + 2A
t
/s 50 b
w
/f
yt
ACI Code (Section 11.5.5.2)
0.75 f
c
(b
w
/f
yt
)
where
A
vt
= area of two legs of closed stirrups required for combined shear plus torsion
A
t
= area of one leg of closed stirrups required for torsion
A
v
= area of two legs of closed stirrups required for shear
A
o
0.85 A
oh
= 0.85 x
1
y
1

f
yt
= yield strength of stirrups (60,000 psi)
b
w
= width of beam stem
s = spacing of stirrups
p
h
= perimeter along the centerline of the outermost closed stirrup
= 2(x
1
+ y
1
)
Determine the maximum stirrup spacing.
- The maximum spacing is given by the following equations.
s = selected A
vt
/(A
vt
/s)
p
h
/8
12 (ACI Code, Section 11.5.6.1)

Chapter 4: Torsion Reinforcement (Stirrups)

4 of 4
where
p
h
= perimeter along the centerline of the outermost closed stirrup
= 2(x
1
+ y
1
)
Selected A
vt
= 0.40 in
2
for
#
4 stirrups
= 0.22 in
2
for
#
3 stirrups
Check the minimum stirrup area.
A
vt
/s 50 b
w
/f
yt
and
A
vt
/s 0.75 f
c
(b
w
/f
yt
)
Using the torsional diagram and the shear force diagram, the required spacing can be laid out to
match the variation in shear and torsional moment.

9. Determine the additional longitudinal reinforcement required for torsion.
Additional longitudinal reinforcement required to resist torsion is obtained from the following
equations:
A

= (A
t
/s) p
h
(f
yt
/f
y
) cot
2
[ACI Eq. (11-22)]
5f
c
(A
cp
/f
y
) (A
t
/s) p
h
(f
yt
/f
y
) [ACI Eq. (11-24)]
where
A
t
/s = torsional stirrup area determined in Step 8.
25 b
w
/f
yt

p
h
= 2 (x
1
+ y
1
)
A
cp
= b h
b
w
= width of beam stem
f
yt
= stirrup yield strength (psi)
f
y
= longitudinal steel yield strength (psi)
The longitudinal reinforcement required for torsion must be distributed around the perimeter
of the closed stirrups with a maximum spacing of 12 inches (ACI Code, Section 11.5.6.2).
The minimum diameter of the longitudinal reinforcement is the largest of the following (ACI
Code, Section 11.5.6.2).
- 0.042 times the stirrup spacing (i.e. 0.042 s)
- 3/8

10. Draw the detail of the reinforcement.





Chapter 5: Development Length
1 of 4
Reference Guide: Determination of Development Length
d

Tension Bars, Compression Bars, Standard Hooks for Deformed Bars in Tension

Tension Bars
Given: Beam section dimensions (b, d, and h), main reinforcing steel, and f
c
, f
y
.

Find: Determine the required development length
d
.

Solution

1. Determine K
D
from Table 5-1 (p. 167 of the textbook).

2. Determine applicable factors.
a. Determine the reinforcement location factor.

t
= 1.3 for top reinforcement, when applicable.

t
= 1.0 for other reinforcement.
b. Determine the reinforcement coating factor.
The coating factor
e
applies only to epoxy-coated bars.

e
= 1.5 if cover < 3d
b
or clear space < 6d
b

e
= 1.2 if cover or clear space is other than that noted above.

e
= 1.0 if bars are not coated.
c. Determine the reinforcement size factor.

s
= 0.8 for
#
6 bars and smaller.

s
= 1.0 for
#
7 bars and larger.
d. Determine the applicability of the light-weight concrete factor.
= 0.75 for lightweight concrete with f
ct
not specified.
= f
ct
/(6.7f
c
) 1.0 for lightweight concrete with f
ct
specified.
= 1.0 for normal-weight concrete.

3. Check the product
t x

e
1.7.

4. Determine c
b
.
a. Calculate c
b
based on cover (from the center of the bar to the nearest concrete surface).
b. Calculate c
b
based on half-spacing for the bars being developed (referenced to the center of
the bar).
Use the smaller of the two values.

5. Check K
tr
= 40A
tr
/(sn), or use K
tr
= 0 (conservative).
A
tr
= the total cross-sectional area of all transverse reinforcement that is within the spacing s and
that crosses the potential plane of splitting through the reinforcement being developed
(inches
2
).
s = the maximum center-to-center spacing of transverse reinforcement within
d
.

Chapter 5: Development Length
2 of 4
n = the number of bars or wires being developed along the plane of splitting.
To simplify the design, the ACI Code permits the use of K
tr
= 0.

6. Check (c
b
+ K
tr
)/d
b
2.5

7. Calculate the excess reduction factor K
ER
if applicable:
K
ER
= A
s
required/A
s
provided

8. Calculate
d
:

d
= (K
D
/){
t

s
/[(c
b
+K
tr
)/d
b
]} K
ER
d
b


d
12

Compression Bars
Given: Beam section dimensions (b, d, and h), main reinforcing steel, and f
c
, f
y
.

Find: Determine the required development length
dc
.

Solution

1. Calculate
dc
:

dc
= (0.02f
y
/f
c
) d
b
0.0003 f
y
d
b

dc
8
where
f
y
= the tensile strength of the steel
f
c
= concrete compressive strength
= the light-weight concrete factor
= 0.75 for lightweight concrete with f
ct
not specified
= f
ct
/(6.7f
c
) 1.0 for lightweight concrete with f
ct
specified
= 1.0 for normal-weight concrete
d
b
= diameter of the reinforcing steel being developed
Values of development length
dc
may also be selected from Table A-12 (p. 496 of the textbook) for
= 1.0, f
y
= 60,000 psi, and various values of f
c
.

The required compression development length may be reduced by multiplying
dc
by the following
modification factors.
1. Reinforcement in excess of that required.
A
s
required/A
s
provided
2. A reduction factor = 0.75 may be used when
Bars are enclosed within a spiral that is not less than inch in diameter and not more than 4
inch in pitch or
Bars are enclosed within
#
4 ties in conformance with ACI (Section 7.10.5), and spaced not more
than 4 inches on center.


Chapter 5: Development Length
3 of 4
Standard Hooks for Deformed Bars in Tension
Given: Beam section dimensions (b, d, and h), main reinforcing steel, and f
c
, f
y
.

Find: Determine the required development length
dh
.

Solution

1. Calculate
dh
.

dh
= [0.02
e
f
y
/ f
c
] d
b
where

e
= a coating factor reflecting the effects of epoxy coating
= 1.2 for epoxy-coated reinforcing
= 1.0 otherwise
f
y
= the tensile strength of the steel
f
c
= concrete compressive strength
= the light-weight concrete factor
= 0.75 for lightweight concrete with f
ct
not specified
= f
ct
/(6.7f
c
) 1.0 for lightweight concrete with f
ct
specified
= 1.0 for normal-weight concrete
d
b
= diameter of the reinforcing steel being developed
Values of development length
dh
may also be selected from Table A-13 (p. 496 of the textbook) for
= 1.0,
e
= 1.0, f
y
= 60,000 psi, and various values of f
c
.

2. Modification factors (ACI Section 12.5.3).
The length
dh
may be reduced by multiplication by the following modification factors.
- Cover (modification factor = 0.7)
For bars
#
11 and smaller, with side cover (normal to the plane of the hook) not less than
2.
For a 90 hook with cover on the bar extension beyond the hook not less than 2.
- Enclosed 90 hooks (modification factor = 0.8) (See note below.)
For hooks of
#
11 and smaller bars enclosed within ties or stirrups perpendicular to the
bar being developed, spaced not more than 3d
b
along
dh
.
For hooks of
#
11 and smaller bars enclosed within ties or stirrups parallel to the bar
being developed, spaced not more than 3d
b
along the length of the tail extension of the
hook plus the bend.
- Enclosed 180 hooks (modification factor = 0.8) (See note below.)
For hooks of
#
11 and smaller bars enclosed within ties or stirrups perpendicular to the
bar being developed, spaced not more than 3d
b
along
dh
of the hook.
- Excess reinforcement: Where anchorage or development of f
y
is not specifically required,
reinforcement in excess of that required by analysis.
A
s(required)
/A
s(provided)


Chapter 5: Development Length
4 of 4
Note: For the 90 and 180 hook, the first tie or stirrup must enclose the bent portion of
the hook, within 2d
b
of the outside of the bend (ref. Figure 5-6, p. 175 of the textbook).
where
d
b
= diameter of the reinforcing steel being developed
The final
dh
(i.e.
dh
x MF) shall not be less than 8d
b
nor less than 6 inches. That is,
Final
dh
=
dh
x MF
Final
dh
8d
b
Final
dh
6

The ACI Code (Section 12.5.4) establishes criteria for hooked bars that terminate at the discontinuous
ends of members with both side cover and top (or bottom) cover over the hook less than 2.
Cases where hooks may require ties or stirrups for confinement at discontinuous ends of members
include
- Simply supported beams.
- Free ends of cantilevers, and
- The ends of members that frame into a joint where the member does not extend beyond the
joint.
Provisions for hooked bars that terminate at the discontinuous ends of members require
- The hooked bar must be enclosed within ties or stirrups, perpendicular to the bar being
developed, spaced at not greater than 3d
b
along the developed length
dh
.
- The first tie or stirrup must enclose the bent portion of the hook, within 2d
b
of the outside of
the bend.
- The modification factors of ACI Section 12.5.3 do not apply.
This provision does not apply for hooked bars at the discontinuous ends of slabs with concrete
confinement provided by the slab continuous on both sides perpendicular to the plane of the hook.




Chapter 9: Design of Short Columns with Large Eccentricity

1 of 3
Design Reference: Design of Short Columns with Large Eccentricity

Square tied column
Given: P
u
, M
u
, f
c
, and f
y


Find: Design a square tied reinforced concrete column.

Solution

Estimate the column size based on
g
= 0.01 and axial load only.
Required A
g
= P
u
/{0.80 [0.85 f
c
(1 -
g
) + f
y

g
]}
where
= 0.65
Required column size: h = A
g
(round up to the nearest inch)

Try a square column using
#
3 ties and
#
9 bars.
Distance between the outer rows of bars ( h)
h = column size 2(cover) 2(tie diameter) 2(diameter of longitudinal steel/2)

Calculate :
= distance between outer rows of bars = h
column dimension perpendicular to the bending axis h

Select the appropriate ACI interaction diagram from Appendix A based on the values for , f
c
, and f
y
.
Diagram A-15 for two rows of steel, = 0.7, f
c
= 4 ksi, and f
y
= 60 ksi
Diagram A-16 for two rows of steel, = 0.8, f
c
= 4 ksi, and f
y
= 60 ksi
Diagram A-17 for three rows of steel, = 0.7, f
c
= 4 ksi, and f
y
= 60 ksi
Diagram A-18 for three rows of steel, = 0.8, f
c
= 4 ksi, and f
y
= 60 ksi
Diagram A-19 for three rows of steel, = 0.7, f
c
= 4 ksi, and f
y
= 60 ksi

Determine the required
g
.
Assume that the column is compression-controlled ( = 0.65), subject to a later check.
Calculate the required values of K
n
and R
n
.
Required K
n
= P
u
/ f
c
A
g
Required R
n
= M
u
/ f
c
A
g
h
From the selected interaction diagram, determine
g
.
If the value of
g
is above the f
s
/f
y
= 1.0 line. Then,
- The column is compression controlled.
- The assumption that = 0.65 is verified.

Determine the required steel area.
Required A
s
=
g
A
g



Chapter 9: Design of Short Columns with Large Eccentricity

2 of 3
Select the size and number of bars.
Use a minimum of four bars (one in each corner).
- If additional bars are required, select the bars in pairs or in groups of four to allow the bars to
be evenly distributed around the perimeter of the column.
Check the maximum number of bars from Table A-14 (based on the core size)

Design the ties.
Select the tie size.
- A minimum
#
3 tie is required if the longitudinal bars are
#
10 or smaller.
- A minimum
#
4 tie is required if the longitudinal bars are larger than
#
10.
- A
#
5 tie is largest size tie permitted.
Determine the maximum tie spacing.
- 16 longitudinal-bar diameters
- 48 tie-bar diameters
- least column dimension
Use the smallest of the determined values for the maximum tie spacing.

Sketch the final design.

Circular spiral column
Given: P
u
, M
u
, f
c
, and f
y


Find: Design a circular spiral reinforced concrete column.

Solution

Estimate the column size based on
g
= 0.01 and axial load only.
Required A
g
= P
u
/{0.85 [0.85 f
c
(1 -
g
) + f
y

g
]}
where
= 0.75
Required column diameter: h = (4A
g
/)

(round up to the nearest inch)



Try a circular column using 3/8 spiral and
#
9 bars.
Distance between the outer rows of bars ( h)
h = column diameter 2(cover) 2(spiral diameter) 2(diameter of longitudinal steel/2)

Calculate :
= distance between outer rows of bars = h
column diameter h





Chapter 9: Design of Short Columns with Large Eccentricity

3 of 3
Select the appropriate ACI interaction diagram from Appendix A based on the values for , f
c
, and f
y
.
Diagram A-20 for = 0.7, f
c
= 4 ksi, and f
y
= 60 ksi
Diagram A-21 for = 0.8, f
c
= 4 ksi, and f
y
= 60 ksi
Diagram A-22 for = 0.9, f
c
= 4 ksi, and f
y
= 60 ksi

Determine the required
g
.
Assume that the column is compression-controlled ( = 0.75), subject to a later check.
Calculate the required values of K
n
and R
n
.
Required K
n
= P
u
/ f
c
A
g
Required R
n
= M
u
/ f
c
A
g
h
From the selected interaction diagram, determine
g
.
If this value is above the f
s
/f
y
= 1.0 line. Then,
- The column is compression controlled.
- The assumption that = 0.75 is verified.

Determine the required steel area.
Required A
s
=
g
A
g


Select the size and number of bars.
Use a minimum of six bars.
Check the maximum number of bars from Table A-14 (based on the core size)

Design the spiral.
Select the spiral size.
- The minimum spiral size is 3/8-inch.
- The maximum spiral size is 5/8-inch.
Determine the concrete core diameter (D
ch
) and core area (A
ch
).
D
ch
= column diameter 2(cover)
A
ch
= D
ch
2
/4
Determine the required steel ratio for the spiral.
Required
s
= 0.45(A
g
/A
ch
1)(f
c
/f
yt
)
Determine the required spiral spacing.
- Required s = 4A
sp
/D
ch

s

- The clear space between spirals must not exceed 3 or be less than 1.
If the clear spacing exceeds these limits, try a different spiral size.

Sketch the final design.

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