HL Bohr model, electron arrangement and the

electromagnetic spectrum:
The Bohr model of an atom is the solar system model with the large heavy nucleus and the orbiting
electrons in shells.
The quantum atom model of an atom builds on Bohrs model, but takes considers electrons to be wave
functions. This explains atom orbitals etc.
The electromagnetic spectrum, emission and absorption spectra
Light is both a wave and a particle (photon) according to quantum theory.
(http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/higher/physics/images/waves1.gif)
wavelength
c speed of light = 300 000 000 ms
-1
f frequency

When white light is passed through a prism, a continuous spectrum is produced (no gaps).

(http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/c/cf/EM_Spectrum_Properties_edit.svg)

When white light is passed through hydrogen gas, a line spectrum is produced. This is the Hydrogen absorption
spectrum. If enough energy (electrical/light) is provided to the gas, it will shine out an emission line spectrum.
Line spectra are not continuous.
( http://www.astronomyknowhow.com/pics-res/hydrogen-spectra.jpg)
Notice how the absorption spectrum (light shone upon the material without the absorbed colours) lack those
colours that are present in the emission spectrum (light that the material gives off when provided with energy).
When a ground-level electron is hit by a photon or otherwise provided with a quantum of energy, it becomes
excited. This means that it jumps to a higher energy level than it normally belongs to. It is, however, unstable there,
and therefore falls back down to its ground state. It gives off the appropriate quantum of energy (a photon).

h Planck constant; h = 6.626 x10
-34
Js
The Plancks equation states that:

This equation allows us to determine the change in energy the electron has undergone based on the frequency of
light emitted (can be determined through colour). This is addressed by the Lyman, Balmer and Paschen series.

(http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/thumb/b/b2/Hydrogen_transitions.svg/400px-Hydrogen_transitions.svg.png)

(http://www.daviddarling.info/images/hydrogen_spectrum.gif)
The hydrogen spectrum and the Lyman, Balmer and Paschen series show what colour light is given off when an
electron jumps between various oxidation states.
As the gaps between shells get smaller the further away from the nucleus we are, the Lyman series is all in UV, as
there is a large energy difference between the shells. The Paschen series is all in infra-red light, because the energy
differences between the levels is quite low.
The absorption and emission spectra support the Bohr model by showing that electrons are arranged in energy
levels in the atom and that these levels are closer together the further away from the nucleus. It also supports the
quantum theory in showing that energy is quantized (photons).

Ionization energies
The first ionization energy is the minimum energy needed to remove 1 mol of electrons from 1 mol of atoms. (It can
be worked out by calculating the energy needed for an atom to jump to a shell outside the Bohr radius.)
The second ionization energy is the minimum energy needed to remove 1 mol of electrons from 1 mol of ions with a
single positive charge.
Patterns in successive ionization energies are one of the proofs for the Bohr
model. It can be seen that within one electron shell, the successive ionization
energies of a given element grow quite linearly, but there are significant jumps
between levels:



(http://fce-study.netdna-ssl.com/images/upload-flashcards/back/0/2/18620191_m.jpg)
This shows us that it is more difficult to remove electrons closer to the nucleus due to greater electromagnetic
attraction between the negative electron and positive nucleus. It also shows that within a level, there are no huge
jumps, that all electrons within a main energy level are very close in energy.
When we take a closer look at successive ionization energies, we can see that even within a level there are jumps.

(http://www.chemguide.co.uk/atoms/properties/moreies.html)
The jumps within one level give us proof that there are not only main energy levels, but also energy sub-levels
(orbitals), which also differ in energy.
FIRST IONIZATION ENERGIES OF ELEMENTS:
(http://chemlinks.beloit.edu/Stars/images/IEexpand.gif)
Notice how the first ionization energies of successive elements grow in a similar way as the successive ionization
energies of one element. That is because for each next element, one electron is added. Notice how there is always
growth within the row and then a fall between periods.
Notice that between K and Ga, there is little increase. This is where the first period of transition metals is found.
Little change in ionization energy occurs there, because the electrons added across the row are all found in the 3d
sub-level, but the electron removed in ionization comes from the 4s orbital. The inner 3d electron mostly nullifies
the pull of the additional 1 proton. Because of this, the ionization energies (as well as atomic radii) of transition
metals are very similar within one row.
The Atom and the Quantum Theory
The quantum theory has proposed that all particles can be both particles and waves. This gave us a new way of
looking at an atom and understanding energy sub-levels.
(http://www.clickandlearn.org/images/debroglie.jpg)
As electron shells can be expressed through wave function, the wave theory (by means of interference etc.) shown
us sub-levels as this: (http://natickhighwebdesign.com/tyler/images/scrodingeratom.jpg)
Werner Heisenbergs Uncertainty principle is any of a variety of mathematical inequalities asserting a fundamental
limit to the precision with which certain pairs of physical properties of a particle known as complementary variables,
such as position x and momentum p, can be known simultaneously (Wikipedia). For us it means that we cannot
know with 100% certainty where an electron lies within an atom.
Erwin Schrdinger calculated that there are areas within an atoms electron shell, in which an electron will be found
with 90% probability. We now call these orbitals and they correspond to the energy sub-levels we saw in ionization
energies.
ORBITALS
s orbitals
The s atom orbital has 0 nodes of symmetry and is therefore a sphere. It
can contain a maximum of 2 electrons.


p orbitals
The p sub-levels contain three degenerate (equal in energy) p atomic
orbitals, each of which can hold a maximum of 2 electrons (maximum of
6 electron all together). They have a dumbbell shape with different
orientations in space.




d orbitals
Have 5 degenerate d orbitals.



f orbitals
Have 7 degenerate f orbitals. The shape is virtually impossible to imagine.

QUANTUM NUMBERS
Principal quantum number (n)
o main energy level (number of shell away from nucleus)
o n = 1, 2, 3, (but >7 was never found)
Azimuthal quantum number (l)
o defines rotational symmetry of an orbital => its shape
o l = <0; n-1>
o 0 means a sphere, 1 means a p orbital,
Magnetic quantum number (m)
o organization of orbital in space
o m = <-l; l>
o For p orbitals, m = -1, 0, 1. This shows the three degenerate orbitals!
Spin quantum number (s)
o Parametric angular momentum of an electron
o Two fermions (electrons are fermions) cannot have the same 4 characteristics and therefore 2
electrons within the same orbital must have opposite spin.
o s =

The max number of electrons of an atom is 2n
2
.
The n
th
level of the Bohr atom is divided into n sub-levels!
Building an atom
AUFBAU PRINCIPLE
Electrons occupy orbitals with the lowest energy first.
ORBITAL ENERGY ORDER
(http://staff.norman.k12.ok.us/~cyohn/index_files/activity8_files/image004.jpg)
HUNDS RULE (OF MAXIMUM MULTIPLICITY)
Electrons occupying energetically degenerate orbitals fill them up with unpaired electrons having the same
spin first.
The empty bus rule
PAULIS EXCLUSION PRINCIPLE
no 2 fermions can have all 4 quantum numbers the same
=> electrons within the same orbital have an opposite spin
Electron configuration and stability of orbitals
S ELEMENTS: ns
1-2
P ELEMENTS: ns
2
np
1-6

D ELEMENTS: ns
2
(n-1)p
6
(n-1)d
1-10

F ELEMENTS: ns
2
(n-1)p
6
(n-2)d
10
(n-2)f
1-14

Orbitals are:
most stable when full
less stable when half-full
less stable when empty
least stable when partially filled
Because of this, some elements are an exception to the electron configuration rules.
How it seems:
` 29
Cu:[
18
Ar] 4s
2
3p
9
How it is:
29
Cu:[
18
Ar] 4s
1
3p
10