Geophysics 424, January 2014

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D2: Theory of magnetotellurics over a 2-D Earth
D2.1 Transverse electric (TE) and Transverse magnetic (TM) modes

- Consider a 2-D Earth where the geological strike is parallel to the x-axis.
- Electrical resistivity varies in only the y and z directions
- Resistivity does not vary in the x-direction and all structures extend to x =
- In contrast to a 1-D Earth, vertical field components (E
z
and H
z
) can be non-zero.



Starting from Maxwells equations :
. V B = E and . V E = -
t c
cB

These can be written in component form as


x
y
z
E
z
B
y
B
o =
c
c

c
c
;
y
z x
E
x
B
z
B
o =
c
c

c
c
;
z
x
y
E
y
B
x
B
o =
c
c

c
c
;

x
y
z
B i
z
E
y
E
e =
c
c

c
c
;
y
z x
B i
x
E
z
E
e =
c
c

c
c
;
z
x
y
B i
y
E
x
E
e =
c
c

c
c
;

In these equations, all six components are mutually dependent. For the 2-D resistivity
structure shown above, there is no variation in the x-direction so 0 =
c
c
x
which gives:


x
y
z
E
z
B
y
B
o =
c
c

c
c
;
y
x
E
z
B
o =
c
c
;
z
x
E
y
B
o =
c
c
;

x
y
z
B i
z
E
y
E
e =
c
c

c
c
;
y
x
B i
z
E
e =
c
c
;
z
x
B i
y
E
e =
c
c
;

These 6 equations can now be separated into two independent subsets:

Geophysics 424, January 2014
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Set 1 : E
x
, B
y
and B
z
: Transverse Electric mode


x
y
z
E
z
B
y
B
o =
c
c

c
c


y
x
B i
z
E
e =
c
c


z
x
B i
y
E
e =
c
c


- Electric field polarized parallel to the strike direction.
- Magnetic field components are confined to the y-z plane.
- This is called the Transverse Electric (TE) mode or E-polarization
- Can show that a single equation can be derived for E
x


) , ( ) , (
) , ( ) , (
2
2
2
2
z y E z y i
z
z y E
y
z y E
x
x x
eo =
c
c
+
c
c


- This equation cannot be solved analytically unless (y,z) is a very simple function.
A numerical solution is required using techniques such as finite elements or finite
differences. This requires that the Earth is divided into a grid and the electric field
is computed at every point. See Physics 699 notes for details.

Set 2 : B
x
, E
y
and E
z
: Transverse Magnetic mode

The other thee field components are completely independent of the TE-mode.


x
y
z
B i
z
E
y
E
e =
c
c

c
c


y
x
E
z
B
o =
c
c


z
x
E
y
B
o =
c
c


- Magnetic field is polarized parallel to the strike direction.
- Electric field components are confined to the y-z plane
- This called the Transverse Magnetic (TM) mode or B-polarization
- Can show that a single differential equation can be derived for B
x
(y,z)

) , (
) , ( ) , (
2
2
2
2
z y B i
z
z y B
y
z y B
x
x x
eo =
c
c
+
c
c

Geophysics 424, January 2014
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- Consider the case of the TM mode electric fields being measured at the surface of
the Earth (z = 0). From previous equations, showed that:

) , (
) , (
z y E
y
z y B
z
x
o =
c
c


When
air
= 0 then this means that no electric current can flow into the air



Thus at the surface (z =0) this requires E
z
= 0.

0
) 0 , ( 1
) 0 , ( =
c
c
=
y
y B
y E
x
z
o


Integrating with respect to y we can show that = ) 0 , ( y B
x
constant value

In principle this means that ) 0 , ( y B
x
does not vary with y.


Magnetotelluric impedance tensor for a 2-D Earth

Over a two-dimensional Earth, it can be shown that in general
yx xy
Z Z = and the
impedance tensor can be written

(

=
(

y
x
yx
xy
y
x
H
H
Z
Z
E
E
0
0


Thus different values of apparent resistivity will result when the instrument is rotated
through 90. These are called
xy
and
yx
. In fieldwork both are measured simultaneously
with multiple electric and magnetic field sensors. The corresponding phases are
xy
and

yx

xy
and
xy
Computed from the electric field parallel and magnetic field orthogonal
to strike. (i.e. the TE mode)

yx
and
yx
Computed from the magnetic field parallel and electric field orthogonal
to strike. (i.e. the TM mode)
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D2.2 Vertical magnetic fields


Vertical section


Map view of induction vector


- The along-strike electric current
in the TE mode generates vertical
magnetic fields.
- Consider the case of a conductive
cylinder, oriented in the x-
direction. The current induced in
the cylinder will flow in and out
of the plane of the paper. At the
instant shown in the diagram, the
magnetic field is up on one side
and down on the other.
- This magnetic field behavior can
be used to image subsurface
structure.
- Induction vectors are computed
with components:

I
y
= H
z
/H
y
and I
x
= H
z
/H
x


- In the Schmucker (German) convention they point away from conductors.

- In the Parkinson convention, induction vectors will point at conductors.

- Measuring vertical magnetic fields requires a lot of
physical effort. Burying an induction coil requires a
1+ m hole to be dug vertically downwards.

- The location of the reversal denotes the center of
the conductor.

- Vertical magnetic field data have good horizontal
resolution for conductors

- They have lower resolution when it comes to
determining the depth of a conductor.



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Example from uranium exploration with AMT (audio-magnetotellurics)



- Tuncer et al., (2006) show an
example of an induction vector
reversal above a uranium deposit
in Northern Saskatchewan.

- AMT signal frequency = 10 Hz
and vectors plotted in Parkinson
convention.

- The basement conductor is
caused by graphite that is
deposited in the same location as
the uranium oxide.







Example from kimberlite exploration with AMT (audio-magnetotellurics)





- Induction vectors can also be
used when the subsurface is 3D.
- Figure shows 500 Hz induction
vectors above a Siberian
kimberlite pipe (plotted in the
Parkinson convention).
- The top of the kimberlite
weathers to form a low resistivity
zone (clay).
- Induction vectors point at pipe.
- AMT data courtesy of the
Nordwest company.

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Examples in long-period magnetotelluric data (LMT)



Example above from Central Alberta. A reversal of the induction arrows occurs above the
Red Deer Conductor. See explanation and context of the Red Deer conductor in C4.2.5

Figure on left shows an induction vector reversal
in Northern Tibet at period of
3000 s

This is caused by a large east-west conductor in
the lower crust and upper mantle.

See Unsworth et al., (2004) for details.










Geomagnetic coast effect
- Induction vectors will point at the ocean, since this is a strong conductor. MT data
analysis from coastal areas needs to account for the presence of the conductive
seawater. See example below from Taiwan for T = 3000-10000 s. This led Sir
Edward Bullard to comment in the 1960s that geomagnetic induction is a good
way to find coastlines . But there are easier ones.
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ZTEM : As we will see later in the class, EM methods that can be used from an airborne
platform have great efficiency and can cover large areas very quickly. Conventional MT
requires that contact is made with the ground to measure the electric fields, and thus
cannot be used from the air. However the magnetic fields can be measured from an
airborne sensor.


This approach was originally called AFMAG (Audio-frequency magnetic) as described
by Labson et al., (1985).

Recently this method has been further
developed by Geotech with an airborne
sensor flown under a helicopter that
measures the vertical magnetic field in the
frequency band 30 - 360 Hz. The horizontal
magnetic fields are measured at a fixed
ground station. It is being applied to
mineral exploration, geothermal exploration
and other studies (Legault et al., 2009a and
2009b). Inversion of ZTEM data is
described by Holtham and Oldenburg,
2010).


More details : http://www.geotech.ca/ztem

Geophysics 424, January 2014
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D2.3 Pseudosection display of magnetotelluric data

- The pseudosection is a contour plot with distance on the horizontal scale and
frequency on the vertical scale. It allows apparent resistivity and phase at many
MT stations to be shown in a single figure. The vertical ticks are the locations of
the MT stations.

- Plotting frequency on the vertical axis gives an impression of how the resistivity
varies with depth (lower frequency is equivalent to greater depth).





Apparent resistivity (
xy
)


Phase (
xy
)


Geophysics 424, January 2014
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- As the layer thickens to the right, the frequency needed to pass through the 100
m layer decreases.

- Verify this effect quantitatively. Use the skin depth equation to compute the
frequency at which EM signals will penetrate the 100 m layer.

Depth = 1.2 km f = ______ Hz Depth = 6 km f = ______ Hz

- The phase can also be displayed in a pseudosection. The phase and apparent
resistivity should be consistent, as previously discussed. Is this the case in the
example above?
- Trial-and-error forward modelling (or automated inversion) is needed to convert
the MT data into a resistivity model with true depth (e.g. the 1-D modeling used
in class and Assignment 2). This is analogous to seismic data processing where
time is converted to depth.
- Apparent resistivity can be computed for both TE (xy) and TM (yx) modes. If the
resistivity structure varies very slowly with horizontal distance, then
xy
~
yx
and

xy
~
yx
. This is the case in the above example where the layer thickens 5 km
over a distance of 60 km.

- In general
xy

yx
as the TE and TM modes will interact differently with the 2-D
resistivity model.

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D2.4 MT pseudosections of conductive/resistive prism

TE-mode

- x-direction is along strike (into paper) and y-direction is along MT profile.

- In the TE mode, electric currents never cross boundaries between regions of
differing resistivity. Thus since E
x
is spatially continuous with respect to y,
xy
is
also spatially continuous.

- At highest frequencies the apparent resistivity equals the true resistivity of the
shallow structure (100 m).

- In the TE mode, electric currents are induced in the conductive prism, but not in
the resistive prism. Physics is dominated by inductive effects that will not be
observed at zero frequency.

- The conductive prism (10 m) produces a low apparent resistivity, with the
maximum response around 1 Hz.

- Resistive prism (1000 m) hardly changes the apparent resistivity. It will not be
easily detected by the TE mode.

- Response of conductive prism disappears at low frequency (0.001 Hz) because
induction is sensitive to rate of change of magnetic fields. Inductive effects
disappear at low frequency.

- Note that phase and apparent resistivity are consistent, as described in C4.1.4



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TM mode

- In the TM mode, electric currents cross the boundaries between regions of
differing resistivity. As shown in C3.2, this causes electric charges develop on
the boundaries.

- Thus physics of this mode includes both inductive and galvanic effects.
Galvanic effects, such as charge build up on boundaries, will be observed at all
frequencies (including direct current). In contrast, inductive effects decrease at
low frequencies and are absent at zero frequency.

- Since E
y
is spatially discontinuous with respect to y, the apparent resistivity
(
yx
) can also spatially discontinuous at resistivity boundaries.

- Both prisms have an effect on the apparent resistivity pseudosection.

- Effect on apparent resistivity does not disappear at low frequency (galvanic
effect).


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Tipper (vertical magnetic field transfer function)


- Induction vectors are part of the TE mode and the component at 90 to the strike
also be plotted as a pseudosection.

- This quantity is also called the tipper or vertical magnetic field transfer function.
This is a dimensionless quantity and equals the ratio of vertical to horizontal
magnetic field.

- Note reversal in sign above the conductive prism. This is equivalent to a reversal
in the induction vectors.

- Almost no change in tipper is observed above the resistive prism. It will not be
detected by tipper data.

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D2.5 Real data MT pseudosections

- The crystalline basement rocks of Alberta have been studied using long-period
MT data collected by the LITHOPROBE project (Boerner et al., 1999).

- The station layout is shown in the map below. These basement rocks (igneous and
metamorphic) are composed of terranes of different ages that were joined together
as the North American continent was assembled.

- Boundaries of terranes are often associated with high conductivity features. One
such feature is the Red Deer conductor that follows the east side of the Lacombe
domain. These conductors are believed to be due to graphite that originated in
subduction zones as two terranes were joined together.



- Additional long-period MT data is being collected by the MT group at the
University of Alberta. New transect collected in 2008 passes just North of
Edmonton (red line).

- Pseudosections are shown below (note vertical logarithmic axis). In the apparent
resistivity pseudosections the resistivity is low at short period (1-10 s) reflecting
the sedimentary rocks of the basin. Resistivities increase at long-periods because
of the higher resistivities in the crystalline basement rocks.

- The Red Deer Conductor is located at y = 175 km and the following features can
be observed.

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TE mode Low apparent resistivity at T = 100-1000 s. Note the high
phase low phase that occurs at this location. Apparent
resistivity and phase are consistent

TM mode No anomaly present. This mode cannot detect a major
conductor.

HZ mode (tipper) Reversal in the real component above the conductor.
Relatively small response in the quadrature (imaginary
component). Suggests this is a strong conductor (see C5.4
on controlled source EM).




Geophysics 424, January 2014
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References

Boerner DE, RD Kurtz, JA Craven, GM Ross, FW Jones and WJ Davis, Electrical conductivity in
the pre-Cambrian lithosphere of Western Canada, Science, 283, 668, 1999

Holtham E, DW Oldenburg, Three-dimensional inversion of ZTEM data, Geophys. J. Int., 182,
168182, 2010

Labson VF, A Becker, HF Morrison, U Conti, Geophysical exploration with audiofrequency
magnetic fields, Geophysics, 50(4), 656-664, 1985

Legault JM, H Kumar, B Milicevic, L Hulbert, ZTEM airborne tipper AFMAG test survey over a
magmatic copper-nickel target at Axis Lake in Northern Saskatchewan, 79
th
Annual
International Meeting, Houston, SEG, Expanded Abstracts 1272-1276, 2009a

Legault JM, H Kumar, B Milicevic, PE Wannamaker, ZTEM tipper AFMAG and 2D inversion
results over an unconformity uranium target in Northern Saskatchewan, 79
th
Annual
International Meeting, Houston, SEG, Expanded Abstracts 1277-1281, 2009b

Tuncer V, MJ Unsworth, W Siripunvaraporn and JA Craven, Exploration for unconformity type
uranium deposits with audio-magnetotelluric data: A case study from the McArthur River
Mine, Saskatchewan (Canada), Geophysics, 71 (6), B201-B209, 2006

Unsworth MJ, W Wei, AG Jones, S Li, PA Bedrosian, JR Booker, S Jin, and M Deng, Crustal
and upper mantle structure of Northern Tibet imaged with magnetotelluric data, J. Geophys.
Res., 109, doi:10.1029/2002JB002305, 2004