Chemical Bonding

Inorganic Chemistry Inorganic Chemistry Inorganic C
anic Chemistry Inorganic Chemistry Inorganic Chemis

CBSE-i
Classification of Elements
and
Periodicity in Properties
UNIT - 4 (CLASS XI)
Student Manual
18
8A
p block
13
3A
14
4A
15
5A
16
6A
17
7A
2p
10
3p
13
14
15
16
17
18
4p
31
32
33
34
35
36
5p
49
50
51
52
53
54
6p
81
82
83
84
85
86
7p
113
114
115
116
117
118
Central Board of Secondary Education

Shiksha Kendra, 2 Community Centre,
Preet Vihar, Delhi - 110092
CBSE-i
Inorganic Chemistry
Classification of Elements
and
Periodicity in Properties
UNIT - 4 (CLASS XI)
Student Manual

The CBSE-International is grateful for permission to reproduce

and/or translate copyright material used in this publication. The
acknowledgements have been included wherever appropriate and
sources from where the material may be taken are duly mentioned. In
case any thing has been missed out, the Board will be pleased to rectify
the error at the earliest possible opportunity.
All Rights of these documents are reserved. No part of this publication
may be reproduced, printed or transmitted in any form without the
prior permission of the CBSE-i. This material is meant for the use of
schools who are a part of the CBSE-International only.
Preface
Education plays the most important role in acquiring professional and social skills and a positive attitude to face
the challenges of life.Curriculum is a comprehensive plan of any educational programme. It is also one of the
means of bringing about qualitative improvement in an educational system. The Curriculum initiated by Central
Board of Secondary Education -International (CBSE-i) is a progressive step in making the educational content
responsive to global needs. It signifies the emergence of a fresh thought process in imparting a curriculum which
would restore the independence of the learner to pursue the learning process in harmony with the existing
personal, social and cultural ethos.
The CBSE introduced the CBSE-i curriculum as a pilot project in few schools situated outside India in 2010 in
classes I and IX and extended the programme to classes II, VI and X in the session 2011-12. It is going to be
introduced in classes III, VII and for Senior Secondary classes with class XI in the session 2012-13.
The Senior Secondary stage of education decides the course of life of any student. At this stage it becomes
extremely important for students to develop the right attitude, a willingness to learn and an understanding of the
world around them to be able to take right decisions for their future. The senior secondary curriculum is expected
to provide necessary base for the growth of knowledge and skills and thereby enhance a student's potential to
face the challenges of global competitiveness. The CBSE-i Senior Secondary Curriculum aims at developing
desired professional, managerial and communication skills as per the requirement of the world of work. CBSE-i is
for the current session offering curriculum in ten subjects i.e. Physics Chemistry, Biology, Accountancy, BusinessStudies, Economics, Geography, ICT, English, Mathematics I and Mathematics II. Mathematics at two levels
caters to the differing needs of students of pure sciences or commerce.
The Curriculum has been designed to nurture multiple intelligences like linguistic or verbal intelligence, logicalmathematical intelligence, spatial intelligence, sports intelligence, musical intelligence, inter-personal intelligence
and intra-personal intelligence.
The Core skills are the most significant aspects of a learner's holistic growth and learning curve. The objective of
this part of the core of curriculum is to scaffold the learning experiences and to relate tacit knowledge with formal
knowledge. This involves trans-disciplinary linkages that would form the core of the learning process.
Perspectives, SEWA (Social Empowerment through Work and Action), Life Skills and Research would be the
constituents of this 'Core'.
The CBSE-i Curriculum evolves by building on learning experiences inside the classroom over a period of time.
The Board while addressing the issues of empowerment with the help of the schools' administering this system
strongly recommends that practicing teachers become skilful and lifelong learners and also transfer their learning
experiences to their peers through the interactive platforms provided by the Board.
The success of this curriculum depends upon its effective implementation and it is expected that the teachers will
make efforts to create better facilities, develop linkages with the world of work and foster conducive environment
as per recommendations made in the curriculum document.
I appreciate the effort of Dr.Sadhana Parashar, Director (Training), CBSE, Dr. Srijata Das, Education Officer,
CBSE and their teams involved in the development of this document.
The CBSE-i website enables all stakeholders to participate in this initiative through the discussion forums. Any
further suggestions on improving the portal are always welcome.
Vineet Joshi
Chairman, CBSE
Acknowledgements
Advisory
Shri Vineet Joshi, Chairman, CBSE
Dr. Sadhana Parashar, Director (Training), CBSE
Ideators Classes XI and XII
Prof. A K Bakshi
Dr. N K Sehgal
Prof. Kapil Kapor
Ms. Renu Anand
Dr. Barkatullah Khan
Ms. Avnita Bir
Ms. P Rajeshwari
Ms. Gyatri Khanna
Mrs. Anita Makkar
Prof. Biswajit Nag
Dr. Jacqueline Symss
Ms. Usha Sharma
Conceptual Framework
Shri G. Balasubramanian, Former Director (Acad), CBSE
Ms. Abha Adams, Consultant, Step-by-Step School, Noida
Dr. Sadhana Parashar, Director (Training), CBSE
Dr. Niti Nandini Chatnani
Dr. Anil K Bali
Dr. Preeti Tewai
Dr. Deeksha Bajpai
Mr. S K Agarwala
Ms. Neeta Rastogi

Dr. Anshu
Dr. Rajesh Hassija
Mr. Mukesh Kumar
Dr. Om Vikas
Material Production Groups: Classes XI-XII

English :
Ms. Gayatri Khanna
Ms. Renu Anand
Ms. P Rajeshwary
Ms. Sandhya Awasthi
Ms. Manna Barua
Ms. Veena Bhasin
Ms. Urmil Guliani
Ms. Sudha Ravi
Mr. Anil Kumar
Ms. Vijaylaxmi Raman
Ms. Neerada Suresh
Ms. Himaal Handoo
Chemistry :
Dr. G S Sodhi
Dr. Vimal Rarh
Dr. Shalini Baxi
Dr. Vinita Arora
Dr. Vandana Soni
Ms. Charu Maini
Ms. Rashmi Sharma
Ms. Kavita Kapoor
Biology :
Dr. Ranjana Saxena
Dr. Neeraja Sood
Dr. P Chitralekha
Ms. Mridula Arora
Ms. Lucy Jad
Ms. Priyanka Choudhury
Ms. Prerna Gosain
Ms. Malini Sridhar
Physics :
Dr. B. Biswal
Ms. Namarata Alwadhi
Mr. Dhirender Sharma
Ms. Vandana Banga
Mr. Vivek
Mathematics :
Dr. Sushil Kumar
Mrs. Monica Talwar
Mrs. Charu Dureja
Mrs. Seema Juneja
Dr. H L Bhatia
Dr. Sushma Bansal
Mrs. Neeru Aggarwal
Dr. Saroj Khanna
Dr. Sushma Bansal
Geography:
Ms. K Jaya
Dr. Preeti Tewari
Ms. Rupa Das
Mr. S Fazal Daoud Firdausi
Ms. Neena Phogat
Ms. Sujata Sharma
Ms. Deepa Kapoor
Ms. Bharti Malhotra
Ms. Isha Kaushik
Mr. Riyaz Khan
Economics:
Mr. S K Agarwala
Ms. Ambika Gulati
Ms. Nidhi Singh
Ms. Malti Modi
Ms. Sapna Das
Ms. Ingur Agarwal
Ms. Shankar Kulkarni
Mr. Sandeep Sethi
Accountancy :
Mr. S S Sehrawat
Dr. K Mohna
Dr. Balbir Singh
Ms. Bhupendra Kriplani
Ms. Shipra Vaidya
Mr. Sandeep Sethi
Business Studies :
Dr. S K Bhatia
Ms. Meenu Ranjan Arora
Mrs. Shegorika
Mr. Sandeep Sethi
Ms. Usha Sharma
Ms. Komal Bhatia
Ms. Ravisha Aggarwal
ICT :
Mr. Mukesh Kumar
Ms. Nancy Sehgal
Ms. Purvi Srivastava
Ms. Gurpreet Kaur
Cheif - Coordinator: Dr. Srijata Das, E.O

Coordinators:
Ms. Sugandh Sharma, EO
Dr Rashmi Sethi, EO
Ms. S. Radha Mahalakshmi, EO Mr. Navin Maini, RO (Tech)
Ms. Madhuchhanda, RO (Inn) Shri Al Hilal Ahmed, AEO
Ms. Anjali Chhabra, AEO
Shr. R. P. Singh, AEO
Shri R. P. Sharma,
Consultant (Science)
Ms. Reema Arora,

Consultant (Chemistry)
Mr. Sanjay Sachdeva, SO
Ms. Neelima Sharma,

Consultant (English)
Topics
Page No.
1.
Syllabus Coverage
2.
Learning Outcomes
3.
Lesson Plan Matrix
4.
Cross-Curricular Links
5.
Mind Map
6.
Content
Introduction- Warm up
Historical Classification of Elements
11
Modern Periodic Table
18
Periodic Trends-
31
Physical Properties
Chemical Properties
7.
Summary
57
8.
Crossword Puzzle
59
9.
Common Misconceptions
61
10.
Mnemonics
63
11.
Student Worksheets
65
12.
Acknowledgment of Web-links
79
SYLLABUS COVERAGE
4.1
General Introduction
l
Pattern of atomic masses and chemical properties
4.2
Historical Attempts Towards Classification

l
Dobereiner triads
l
Newlands law of octaves
l
Lothar Meyer atomic volume curves
l
Mendeleev periodic table
4.3
Modern Periodic Table

l
Periodicity of properties
l
Divisions of periodic table
l
Nomenclature of elements with atomic numbers greater than 100
4.4
Periodic Trends in Physical and Chemical Properties

l
Periodic patterns of atomic radii
l
Periodic patterns of ionic radii
l
Periodic patterns of energy ionization enthalpy
l
Electron gain enthalpy
l
Electronegativity
l
Chemical properties of element
l
Valence
Learning Outcomes
At the end of this unit students would be able to l

Comprehend the necessity of classifying the elements.
l
Know that the earliest attempts towards classification were made by Dobereiner
and Newlands, but these had inherent drawbacks.

l
Realize
that Mendeleev's classification system too had shortcomings, yet it came

closest to the modern periodic table.
l
Appreciate
that the present day periodic table classifies the elements on the
basis of atomic number and not atomic mass.
l
Identify the groups and periods of periodic table.
l
Understand
the importance of electronic configuration in classifying the
elements.
l
Classify s-, p-, d- and f-blocks in modern periodic table.
l
Segregate metals, non-metals and metalloids in the periodic table.
l
Write the nomenclature of elements with atomic numbers greater than 100.
l
Know
how the atomic and ionic radii vary along a group and a period of periodic
table.
l
Calculate
the atomic radii from the internuclear distance in simple molecules

and vice versa.
l
Specify the reason for lanthanide contraction.
l
Highlight the significance of Vander Waal radii for elements of Group 18.
l
Understand
how the ionic radii vary with respect to the quantum of charge on
the cation or anion.
l
Understand the significance of ionization enthalpy.
l
Know
how ionization enthalpy varies along a group and a period of periodic table
and identify where exceptions to periodicity occur.
l
Identify
the factors on which ionization enthalpy depends, with particular

reference to the quantum of charge on the cation.
Understand the significance of electron gain enthalpy.

l
Know
l
how electron gain enthalpy varies along a group and a period of periodic
table and understand where exceptions to periodicity occur.
State the significance of electronegativity.

l
Differentiate between electron gain enthalpy and electronegativity.
l
Know how electronegativity varies along a group and a period of periodic table.
l
Define valence and explain its variation in a group and a period of periodic table.
l
Highlight
l
the significance of variable valence concept with reference to

transition elements.
Know
l
the reasons for the anomalous properties of the elements of second

period, taking lithium as a representative case.
Appreciate
l
the reasons for diagonal relationship, taking the similarity between

lithium and magnesium as a representative case.
Know
l
the trends of reactivity in periodic table, taking alkali metals at one

extreme and noble gases as the other.
Lesson Plan Matrix
Steps to be followed
Content
A.
Students Tip
If you were given

samples of different
elements (some are
given in figure 3.1). You
would probably find
many ways of arranging
them. You could classify
them on the basis of
their states (solid, liquid
or gas) or as metals or
non-metals or other
chemicals. Would you
try linking the
properties to their
atomic masses?
Grasp the periodicity of

physical and chemical
properties of elements
belonging to a particular
group or period. Even
without knowing the
quantitative value of any
parameter, you will be able
to predict the behaviour of a
particular element vis--vis
its neighbours. If you have
studied the metallic
elements lithium, sodium
and potassium, you will
know that they have similar
reactions with oxygen,
water and chlorine and form
similar compounds.
How to group
the elements on
the basis of their
similar physical
and chemical
properties.
B. Prerequisite
Define elements. Briefly

inform the students that
most of the elements
were formed in nature,
by a process called
nucleosynthesis,
although a few have
been synthesized by
artificial transmutation.
Learn that one of the

simplest ways to classify the
elements is to group these as
metals and non-metals.
However, since the metals
are more numerous than
non-metals, this
classification is not fruitful.
An idea as to
h o w
t h e
e l e m e n t s
originated.
4.1 General
Introduction
Highlight why it was Know that the properties of a

thought pertinent to particular element may be
close to those of another
classify the elements.
element, but different from
several others. Grouping of
An attempt to
group together
similar elements
on the basis of a
Warm Up
Activity
Teachers Tip
SKILL
DEVELOPED
elements on the basis of parameter like

their similarities will reactivity or
simplify their comparative state of matter.
assessment.
4.2 Historical
Attempts
Towards
Classification
Inform how each

historical attempt
towards classification of
elements was an
improvement over the
previous endeavour in
this direction.
Understand that though the

historical attempts towards
classification of elements
had inherent drawbacks, yet
these later paved the way for
the development of modern
periodic table.
Why the system

of classification
based on atomic
masses did not
prove useful.
Student Worksheet 4.1

4.3 Modern
Periodic Table
Enlighten that periodicity is governed by

atomic number and not
by atomic mass.
Highlight the sub -classification of elements
within the periodic
table.
Student Activity 4.1
Grasp how the modern I d e n t i f y t h e

periodic table evolved and g r o u p s a n d
what are its advantages.
periods in the
periodic table.
Identify the s-,
p-, d-, and fblock elements
in the periodic
table.

4.4 Periodic
Trends in
Physical and
Chemical
Properties
Explain the concepts of

atomic radii, ionic radii,
ionization enthalpy,
electron gain enthalpy
and electronegativity, as
well as the variations
of these physical
parameters in groups
and periods of periodic
Understand the general

trends in periodicity of
various physical parameters.
Know where possible break
in regularity is likely to
occur.
Explanation as
to why physical
and chemical
properties of
elements are a
p e r i o d i c
function of
a t o m i c
numbers. Know
table. Also emphasize Student Worksheet 4.3

the correlation of
electronic configuration
with valence and
chemical reactivity.
w h y s o m e
elements are
highly reactive,
while others are
relatively inert.
C. Summary
Discuss the main

highlights of the
chapter, laying special
emphasis on periodicity
of properties.
D. Interlinked
Content
Explain by means of
activities and problems
that the periodic trends
of physical or chemical
properties are
interrelated.
Solve the crossword puzzle
Review the
necessity of
classifying the
elements and
h o w
t h e
classification
has systematized the study
of periodicity of
properties.
Identify the parameters that The periodicity

correlate one physical o f a n y o n e
property to another.
physical or
c h e m i c a l
property need
not be studied in
isolation.
Cross Curricular Links
Biology- Knowledge of elements helps the learner to comprehend the importance

of elements, their therapeutic nature, and their toxicity.
Mathematics- Knowledge of Mathematics to understand graphs for variation of

atomic/ionic radii, ionization enthalpy, electron gain enthalpy and
electronegativity against atomic numbers and note the periodicity of these
properties.
Environment- The understanding of elements helps the learners to draw out logical
elicits.
Physics- To identify the elements which are good conductors, semi-conductors and
insulators.
Computers- Knowledge of computer is necessary to understand the wave model of

the atoms of every element. The orbital diagrams and probability distribution curves
too can be drawn with the help of relevant software.
Mind Map
Periodic table
Blocks s, p, d and f
values of highest
energy occupied
orbital
is organized into
Periods
(rows)
which include
Groups(1-18)
columns
transition metals
(d block)
s-and p-blocks together
constitute the
the most important ones are

given the family names
alkali
metals
Chemical
periodicity
Major properties an d
trends to know are
lanthanides
(first f block)
representative elements
or main group elements
Alkaline
earth metals
refers
to
the
halogens
trends in
properties
noble gases
which mainly
depend on
ionization
energies
highest
energy
occupied
shell
nuclear charge
inner electrons screen the nuclear

charge , result in an effective
nuclear charge
Electron
affinities
Effective nuclear
charge
electro
negativities
atomic radii
actinides
(second f-block)
which are defined in

different ways for
Metallic elements
Covalently -bonded atoms
Atoms in ionic solids
4.1 General Introduction
Warm up Activity:
If you were given samples of different elements (some are given in figure 4.1). You would
probably find many ways of arranging them.
Calcium
Aluminium Foil
Bromine
Copper
Chlorine
Balloons Filled With Helium
Silver
Zinc
Oxygen
Figure 4.1
Sodium
Sodium
Nitrogen
Source : Google images
You could classify them on the basis of their states (solid, liquid or gas) or as metals or
non-metals or other chemicals. Would you try linking the properties to their atomic
masses?
By mid-nineteenth century, when the characteristics of a fairly large number of elements
and their compounds had been systematically recorded, the chemists noted two trends:
While some elements showed strong resemblance to one another and demonstrated
regularities in their physical and chemical characteristics, the others showed dissimilar
properties. For example, the characteristics of sodium are comparable to those of
potassium, those of magnesium bear closeness to calcium. On the other hand, oxygen is a
reactive element that combines readily with almost all other elements, but nitrogen is
rather inert and forms comparatively few compounds. Attempts to classify the elements
in terms of similarities and differences in their properties culminated in the development
of periodic table.
10
4.2 Historical Attempts Towards Classification
[Before any scientific endeavor becomes firmly established it passes through three
historical stages: Thesis, anti-thesis and synthesis. Thesis represents an arena where a
few scientists take a bold initiative to give practical shape to the idea they conceive. In
the anti-thesis stage, the concept is critically reviewed and its flaws are eradicated to
yield a model that is closer to reality. In the synthesis stage, the concept is correlated to
other scientific ventures so that it may have a wider range of applications. In this
section, we highlight the attempts made successively by Dobereiner, Newlands and
Mendeleev to classify the elements that were known till their times. As expected, their
thesis had inherent demerits, yet their attempts were praiseworthy, as these paved the
way for anti-thesis and synthesis stages in the development of periodic table.]
If you have studied the metallic elements lithium, sodium and
potassium, you will know that they have similar reactions with
oxygen, water and chlorine and form similar compounds.
At a time when earlier attempts towards classification of
elements into families having common sets of properties were
taking shape, the chemists had only a vague idea about atomic
numbers. However, the atomic masses of the elements then
known had been accurately elucidated. Therefore, it seemed
logical to correlate the physical and chemical behavior of the
elements with their atomic masses. As a result, the idea began to emerge that elements
with similar properties may be clubbed into distinct groups on the basis of their atomic
masses.
4.2.1 Dobereiner Triads

One such attempt towards classification of elements into groups of three was made by
Dobereiner. This scheme, which came to be called Dobereiner triads, was based on the
criteria that the central member of the group has an atomic mass that is roughly the
average of the atomic masses of the first and third members. Two triads are illustrated in
Table 4.1
11
Average atomic mass of

1st and 3rd member
Atomic Mass
Element
Lithium
6.9
Sodium
23.0
Potassium
39.1
Sulfur
32.1
Selenium
79.0
Tellurium
127.6
23.0
79.8
Table 4.1 Dobereiner triads
This pattern was first recorded by the German chemist Johann Dobereiner (17801849) as his "Law of triads". At the time few elements were known and values of their
atomic masses were uncertain.
4.2.2 Newlands Law of Octaves

Later on, more elements were known and atomic masses could be
measured more accurately. A British chemist, John Newlands (183798), suggested that, when the elements were arranged in the order
of increasing atomic mass, "the eighth element, starting from a
given one, is a kind of repetition of the first, like the eighth note in
an octave of music". The physical and chemical properties of a
particular member would be similar to those of the elements seven
places before and seven places after it. This scheme came to be
known as 'Law of Octaves'.
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org
Element Number
Element
Li
Be
Element Number
10
11
12
13
14
Element
Na
Mg
Al
Si
Element Number
15
16
17
Element
Cl
Ca
Table 4.2 Elements arranged in octaves
12
John Newlands
Figure: 3.2
As illustrated in Table 4.2, lithium, the second element has properties similar to sodium,
the ninth element in the list (2 + 7 = 9) and potassium, the sixteenth element in the list
(9 + 7 = 16). The same orderly arrangement also occurs with few other elements. For
example, beryllium, magnesium and calcium, the third, tenth and seventeenth elements
in Newlands list, are also separated by regular intervals of seven. Unfortunately, his
'octaves' only seemed to apply to the first 16 elements. He had not allowed space in his
table for new elements.
4.2.3 Lothar Meyer Atomic Volume Curve

Yet another attempt towards classification of elements was made by Lothar Meyer. He
showed that if atomic masses of elements are plotted as ordinates and their atomic
volumes as abscissa, the curve so obtained displayed a series of maxima and minima.
Lothar Meyer considered the volume of one mole of each element then known. He figured
that since the number of atoms in each case is same (Avogadro number), the ratio of the
volumes of different elements corresponds to the ratio of volumes of single atoms of
these elements. When these values of atomic volumes are plotted against atomic masses,
a recurring pattern, similar to waves with crests and troughs results. (Figure. 4.3)
Cs
70
Rb
60
K
Atomic volume
50
40
Na
P
20
N
O
10
He
Nc
Mg
Li
Br
Ar
30
Si
Cl
S
Al
Sr
Ba
Sc
Ti
Mn
V
Co Zn
Cr
Fe
Cu
Ni
Rh
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
Atomic Mass
Figure: 4.3 LOTHAR MEYER ATOMIC VOLUME CURVE

Source: http://chemmaster.co.in
13
Each fall and rise to a peak corresponds to a period. Hydrogen is a special case and can be
considered as making up the first period all by itself (noble gases were not discovered at
the time when Lothar Meyer atomic volume curve was constructed). The second period
included seven elements, from lithium to fluorine; the third period too included seven
elements, from sodium to chlorine. (Table: 4.3)
First period:
Second period:
Li
Be
Third period:
Na
Mg
Al
Si
Cl
Table: 4.3
The fourth period had seventeen elements, ranging from potassium to bromine. Thus
there are smaller periods to the left of Lothar Meyer curve and larger periods to its right.
The following are the salient features of Lothar Meyer arrangement.
The highly electropositive alkali metals occupy the peaks on the curve.
The lesser electropositive alkaline earth metals occupy the descending

positions on the curve.
The most electronegative halogens occupy ascending positions on the curve.

On the basis of these observations, Lothar Meyer proposed that the physical properties of
the elements are a periodic function of their atomic masses.
4.2.4 Mendeleev Periodic Table

There were a number of elements that appeared out of place in Newlands scheme. This
happened because these elements had yet not been discovered. Newlands arranged the
elements in increasing order of atomic masses, without leaving blank spaced for yet to be
discovered members. On the other hand, Dimitri Mendeleev, while devising a system of
classification, had the insight to leave out spaces for the hitherto undiscovered
elements. However, like Dobereiner and Newlands, Mendeleev too used atomic masses as
a guide to organize elements with similar characteristics into groups.
14
Mendeleev tabulated the elements in 12 horizontal rows and 8 vertical columns

(Figure. 4.4). Each vertical column was divided into sub groups. The elements of a
particular sub group showed similar physical and chemical properties. For example,
lithium, potassium, rubidium and cesium all displace hydrogen from water. Likewise,
calcium, strontium and barium show similar chemical behavior. On this basis, Mendeleev
proposed the periodic law according to which the properties of elements were
considered as being a periodic function of their atomic masses.
Series
Group
I
Group
II
1
2
3
4
H l
Li 7
Na 23
K 39
Be 9.4
Mg 24
Ca 40
Be11
C 12
A1 27.3
Si 28
44
Ti 48
N 14
P 31
V 51
5
6
Ca 63
Rb 85
Zn 65
Sr 87
68
Yt 88
72
Zr 90
As 75
Nb 94
7
8
9
10
Ag 108
Cs 133
Cd 112
Ba 137
In 113
Di 138
Sn 118
Ce 140
Er 178
La 180
11
12
Au 199
Hg 200
Group
III
Tl 204
Group
IV
Pb 207
Th 231
Group
V
Sb 112
Ta 182
Group
VI
Group
VII
Group
VIII
O 16
S 32
Cr 52
F 19
Cl 35.5
Fe 56, Co 59,
Mn 55
Ni 59, Cu 63
Se 78
Br 80
Mo 96
100
Ru 104, Rh 104,
Pd 106, Ag 108
I 127
Te 125
W 184
Os 195, Ir 197,
Pt 198, Au 199
Bi 208
U 240
Figure: 4.4 Mendeleev Periodic Table

Source: http://www.google.co.in/imgres?q=mendeleev+periodic+table
* The dashes represent the blank spaces left out by Mendeleev
Mendleev made several crucial decisions that ensured the success of his first periodic
table. The most important decisions were the following:
v
He left blank spaces in his periodic table for the elements yet to be discovered.
v
He not only predicted their existence, but also their properties. For example, the
blank space at atomic mass 72 was for an element of the same group as silicon.
Mendeleev called this element eka-silicon (eka is a Sanskrit word meaning first;
thus eks-silicon would be the first element under silicon in the same group).
Ultimately, this element turned out to be germanium. Its properties were found to
be remarkably close to those predicted by Mendeleev for eka-silicon. (Table 4.4)
15
Property
Predicted for eka-Silicon,
Observed for Germanium,
Es (1871)
Ge (1886)
Appearance
light-grey solid
dark-grey solid
Atomic mass
72
72.6
Density, g cm-3
5.5
5.47
Color
Dirty gray
Grayish white
Density of oxide, g cm-3
EsO2; 4.7
GeO2; 4.703
Boiling point of chloride
EsCl4; below 100 C
GeCl4; 86 C
Density of chloride, g cm-3
EsCl4; 1.9
GeCl4; 1.887
Table 4.4 Properties of germanium, predicted and observed
To place the elements at proper places in his periodic table, Mendeleev made
adjustments in the then accepted values of atomic masses of a number of elements. For
example, indium, in which had metallic properties, was assigned an atomic mass of
approximately 76. The reason is that its oxide ore occurred along with the oxide ore of
zinc. Since the composition of zinc oxide is ZnO that of indium oxide was assumed to be
InO. It was experimentally determined that the ore contained 82.6% indium. The atomic
mass of indium was calculated as follows:
x
100 =
82.6
x+
16
(3.1)
x=
75.5
(3.2)
(Atomic mass of oxygen = 16)

Going by this calculation, indium would be placed between arsenic and selenium, both
metalloids. Mendeleev proposed that although the ore in question contained 82.6%
indium, yet its composition was In2 O3. The atomic mass of indium may now be worked out
as follows.
16
2x
100 =
82.6
2x +
48
(3.3)
x=
113
(3.4)
On this basis, Mendeleev placed indium between cadmium and tin, both metals. The
actual atomic mass of indium is 114.8, quite close to that predicted by Mendeleev.
Although Mendeleev periodic table represented a schematic attempt to classify the
elements, yet it had inherent drawbacks. On the basis of atomic masses, various isotopes
of the same elements should have been assigned different places in the periodic table.
Mendeleev did not provide separate places for the isotopes. Moreover, in Mendeleev
periodic table, dissimilar elements were clubbed together. For example, copper, silver
and gold have been placed along with chemically dissimilar alkali metals. Likewise,
manganese and halogens are placed in the same group. Further, elements with similar
properties, like copper and mercury have been placed in separate groups.
Interesting Facts
v
Newlands law of octaves was initially criticized and even ridiculed by the Royal
Chemical Society of London. It is said that one member of the Society, Professor G.C.
Foster by name, in a researchers' meeting, asked Newlands sarcastically whether he
had ever examined the elements according to the alphabetical order of their initial
letters! However, a few years later it was realized that Newlands arrangement of
elements into a repeating pattern was a major breakthrough and the Royal Society
honored him with Davy medal. Incidentally, Professor Foster's foolish question is the
only reason that his name is still remembered.
v
Mendeleev did not receive instant recognition for his accomplishments. His request
for membership to St. Petersburg Academy of Science was turned down.
Nevertheless, Mendeleev was held in great esteem by his students. Once he
submitted a petition on behalf of the students and invited the ire of Ministry of
Education. He was asked to resign from the University of St. Petersburg, where he
had taught for more than thirty years. When, a few years later, Mendeleev died, his
former students followed his funeral to the Volkov Cemetery in St. Petersburg,
carrying the periodic table of the elements high above the procession.
v
Lothar Meyer was critical of Mendeleev periodic table. He criticized Mendeleev for
changing the atomic masses of existing elements with the sole purpose of holding
the periodic law.
17
4.3 Modern Periodic Table
[In the first quarter of twentieth century, the concept of atomic number was developed
and experimentally verified. It then became clear that the sequence of elements in the
periodic table is determined by atomic number, rather than atomic mass. This rendered
the Mendeleev periodic table obsolete and made way for the modern periodic table.
With that, the classification system of elements transitioned from thesis to anti-thesis
stage.]
Mendeleev's periodic table had a few glaring inconsistencies. For example, if elements
are arranged solely according to atomic masses, argon (atomic mass, 39.9) should follow
potassium (atomic mass, 39.1). As a consequence, argon would occupy the same group as
lithium and sodium, even though the properties of noble gases and alkali metals are
widely divergent. Such discrepancies suggested that some fundamental property other
than atomic mass is the basis of observed periodicity. This property turned out to be
atomic number.
4.3.1 Periodicity of Properties

The atomic number signifies the number of protons, and thus the number of electrons
which, in turn, determine the chemical behavior of elements. Therefore, when elements
having same number of electrons in the outermost shell are grouped together, the
periodicity becomes evident. This led to the modern periodic law which states that the
physical and chemical properties of the elements are a periodic function of their atomic
numbers. The electronic configurations of alkali and alkaline earth metals are depicted
in Table 4.5.
Alkali Metals
Alkaline Earth Metals
Li
[He]2s1
Be
[He]2s1
Na
[Ne]3s1
Mg
[Ne]3s1
[Ar]4s1
Ca
[Ar]4s1
Rb
[Kr]5s1
Sr
[Kr]5s1
Cs
[Xe]6s1
Ba
[Xe]6s1
Fr
[Rn]7s1
Ra
[Rn]7s1
Table 4.5 Electronic configuration of alkali and alkaline earth metals
18
All members of the alkali metal family have similar outer electron configuration; each
has a noble gas core and an ns1 configuration of the outer electron. Likewise, the alkaline
earth metals have a noble gas core and an ns2 configuration of outer electrons. The
electrons in an outermost shell of an atom are called valence electrons. The similarity of
the outer electron configurations is what makes the elements resemble one another in
chemical behavior.
Based on this criterion, the modern periodic table - also called the long form periodic
table - was developed. It is laid out in Figure. 4.4. Each element in the periodic table is
placed in a square. The atomic number is indicated above the symbol of the element and
the atomic mass (or the atomic weight) below it.
Figure: 4.4 Modern periodic table

Source : www.jirvine.co.uk
19
The sequence of elements in this system of classification was determined by atomic

number, rather than by atomic mass. As a result, the elements with similar valence shell
electronic configuration, and hence similar properties, came to be grouped in a common
vertical column. This turned out to be a major advantage. Instead of investigating the
properties of any one element in details, it is more fruitful and convenient to study the
comparative properties of the group to which it belongs.
As it became evident that the properties of the elements are a periodic function of
atomic number, the Mendeleev periodic law was done away with. Consequently, the
incorrect positions assigned to the elements in the Mendeleev periodic table were
rectified in the modern version. For example, potassium with atomic number 19 follows
argon with atomic number 18, although if atomic mass (or mass number) would have been
the criteria of sequencing, the placements would have been the other way round. Thus
potassium and argon are correctly clubbed with alkali metals and noble gases,
respectively.
4.3.2 Divisions of Periodic Table

The elements listed in periodic table may be sub classified in multiple ways.
Division into Groups and Periods

The long form of periodic table has 18 vertical columns, called groups and 7 horizontal
rows, called periods. The groups are numbered 1 to 18 from left to right, while the
periods are numbered 1 to 7 from top to bottom. The first period of the table consists of
only two elements, hydrogen (H) and helium (He). This is followed by two periods of eight
elements each, lithium (Li) to neon (Ne) and sodium (Na) to argon (Ar). The fourth and
fifth periods comprise eighteen elements each, ranging from potassium (K) to krypton
(Kr) and from rubidium (Rb) to xenon (Xe). The sixth period is a long one, having thirty
two members. Since the long form of periodic table has only 18 vertical columns, to fit in
the sixth period, fourteen out of the thirty two elements are taken out and placed at the
bottom of the table. These fourteen elements, starting with lanthanum (La) and ending
at ytterbium (Yb), are called lanthanoids or the rare earths. The seventh period too is a
long one, though it is incomplete. Three elements, francium (Fr), radium (Ra) and
lawrencium (Lr) are located in the main body of the periodic table. Between radium and
20
lawrencium, there are fourteen elements, ranging from actinium (Ac) to nobelium (No),
which is collectively referred to as actinoids. These are extracted from the main periodic
table and placed beneath the lanthanoid series. Beyond lawrencium, a few unstable
elements are known, although these are not well characterized. The scheme of naming
these elements is described in the next section.
Division into Blocks

We have already seen that elements in the same group have similar physical and chemical
properties because they possess similar valence shell electronic configuration.
As shown in Figure. 4.5a, Group 1 and 2 elements have their valence electrons in s
orbitals, and hence these elements are called s-block elements.
s block
The Group 1 elements, referred to as

S
the alkali metals are shiny solids and
good conductors of heat and
electricity. Unlike most metals,
however, they are soft enough to be
cut with a knife.
The Group 2 elements, called the
S
alkaline earth metals or simply
alkaline earths too have typical
metallic properties, but as compared
to the alkali metals, these are harder
and have higher melting and boiling
points.
1
1A
2
2A
2s
3s
11
12
4s
19
20
5s
37
38
6s
55
56
7s
87
88
Figure: 4.5a
21
Groups 13 to 18 of the periodic

table constitute the p-block
elements.
p block
13
3A
14
4A
15
5A
16
6A
17
7A
2p
10
3p
13
14
15
16
17
18
4p
31
32
33
34
35
36
5p
49
50
51
52
53
54
S
Their valence electrons are in
the s and p orbitals.
S
In Group 13, the first member,
boron, is a semimetal, while
all others are metals.
S
The elements of Group 14
show a transition from
nonmetallic carbon, to
semimetallic silicon and
germanium, to metallic tin
and lead.
18
8A
S
Amongst the Group 15
86
82
83
84
85
6p 81
elements, nitrogen, a gas,
and phosphorus, a solid, are
118
113
114
115
116
117
both nonmetals; arsenic and 7p
antimony are semimetals;
and bismuth is a metal.
Figure: 3.5b
Except for oxygen, which is a
gas, the elements of Group 16 are solids. These are referred to as chalcogens.
Oxygen, sulphur and selenium are nonmetals; tellurium is a semimetal; and
polonium is a metal. All the elements of Group 17, referred to as halogens are
nonmetals. Nevertheless, their physical forms differ - fluorine and chlorine are
gases; bromine is a liquid; and iodine and astatine are solids at room temperature.
S
Group 18 consists of noble gases which have completely filled s and p valence shells,
ns2np6 (except helium with 1s2 configuration). The s- and p-block elements are
collectively referred to as representative elements or main group elements.
22
d block
3
3B
4
4B
5
5B
6
6B
7
7B
8
8B
9
9B
10
8B
11
1B
12
2B
21
77
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
39
40
41
42
43
44
45
46
47
48
5d
71
72
73
71
75
76
77
48
79
80
6d
103
104
105
106
107
108
109
110
111
112
3d
4d
Figure: 4.5c
S
The elements from Group 3 to group 12 are called transition elements. The
properties of these elements are transitional or intermediate between those of sblock elements on their left and p-block elements on their right. They have partially
filled d orbitals in the valence shell and are, therefore, also called d-block
elements.
As shown in Figure. 4.5c, there are 3 series of transition elements:
(i)
3d or the 1st series, from scandium (Sc) to zinc (Zn), with valence shell electronic
configuration 3dn4s2.
(ii) 4d or the 2nd series, from yttrium (Y) to cadmium (Cd), with valence shell electronic
(iii) 5d or the 3rd series, from lutetium (Lu) to mercury (Hg), with valence shell electronic
f block
4f
5f
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
Fig : 4.5d
23
S
The lanthanoids and the actinoids are together called f-block elements or inner
transition elements. The lanthanoids have partially filled 4f orbitals, while the
actinoids have partially filled 5f orbitals.
Overall blocks can be represented in the periodic table as:

18
8A
p block
s block
1
1A
2
2A
2s
3s
11
12
4s
19
20
5s
37
38
55
56
5d
71
6s
7s
87
88
6d
103
d block
3d
4d
3
3B
4
4B
5
5B
6
6B
7
7B
8
8B
9
9B
10
8B
11
1B
12
2B
21
77
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
39
40
72
104
41
73
105
42
43
71
106
44
75
45
76
107
46
77
108
48
109
110
47
79
13
3A
14
4A
15
5A
16
6A
17
7A
2p
10
3p
13
14
15
16
17
18
4p
31
32
33
34
35
36
5p
49
50
51
52
53
54
6p
81
82
83
84
85
86
7p
113
114
115
116
117
118
48
80
111
112
f block
4f
5f
57
58
59
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
89
90
91
92
93
94
95
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
Figure: 4.6
Source: www.mpcfaculty.net/mark_bishop/periodic_table_blocks_alone
Read More:
http://www.freelecturevideos.com/tutorvista/the-periodic-tablevideo_4aa8a6819.html#axzz1nHOqJDPP
24
Extension: Other Forms of Periodic Tables

Apart from the modern long form periodic table, several modified versions of
classification of elements have evolved from time to time. Some of these are
described below:
Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Alternative_periodic_tables
1.
Galaxy form
25
2.
Circular
3.
Spiral form
Source : http:/www.meta_synthesis.com
26
4.3.3 Nomenclature of Elements with Atomic

Numbers Greater than 100
The elements having atomic numbers greater than 100 are not well characterized. These
are radioactive and hence unstable in nature. Although it is feasible to prepare some of
these, it is generally not possible to isolate them in weighable quantities.
The nomenclature of these elements, as of the others, are recommended and approved
by International Union of Pure and Applied Chemistry (IUPAC). Elements of atomic
numbers of 101 to 103 have trivial names and corresponding two letter symbols approved
by IUPAC. These are Mendelevium (Md), Nobelium (No) and Lawrencium (Lr),
respectively. For naming the subsequent elements, the IUPAC proposed the following
rules.
1.
Short and simple chemical names.
2.
At the end of the name the suffix 'ium' is added.
3.
The symbols for the systematically named elements consist of three letters. This is
necessary because any systematically derived set of two-letter symbols will tend to
duplicate some of the two-letter symbols of elements of atomic numbers less than
104.
4.
The symbols of the elements are derived directly from the atomic numbers by using
the numerical roots shown in Table 4.6.
Numerical Root
Numerical Root
nil
pent
un
hex
bi
sept
tri
oct
quad
enn
Table 4.6 Numerical roots used for nomenclature of elements
27
5.
The symbol of the element is composed of the initial letters of the numerical roots
which make up the name.
6.
The roots are put together in the order of the digits which make up the atomic
number and terminated by 'ium' to spell out the name.
7.
The second 'n' of enn is deleted if it occurs before nil; the 'i' of bi and tri is deleted if
it occurs before ium.
The names of a few representative elements with atomic numbers greater than hundred
are depicted in Table 4.7. Many of these elements are fictitious, yet they are listed to
explain the rules governing the IUPAC nomenclature.
Table 4.7 Nomenclature of some representative elements of atomic numbers more than 100
28
Points To Ponder
Hafnia is the Latin name for Copenhagen. Accordingly, the element hafnium is
]
named after Copenhagen, the capital of Denmark.
An American chemist, Glenn T. Seaborg, discovered or co-discovered the following
]
ten elements: Plutonium, americium, curium, berkelium, californium,
einsteinium, fermium, mendelevium, nobelium and element 106, which was
named seaborgium (IUPAC unnilhexium) in his honor while he was living. These
discoveries brought major changes in the appearance of periodic table. He shared
the Nobel Prize for chemistry with three other chemists in 1951.
The lightest element with a symbol not related to its English name is sodium.
]

Complete the following Table:
Atomic Number
Name of Element
Electronic
Configuration
Metal/Nonmetal/
Semimetal
12
25
14
9
19
34
Step 1 :
Write the electronic configuration.
Step 2 :
From the valence shell configuration judge whether the element belongs to
s-, p-, d-, or f- block of periodic table.
Step 3 :
Identify the group and period where it could be placed.
Step 4 :
Count the number of valence electrons and predict whether it is a metal, a

semimetal or a nonmetal.
29

There is a list of atomic masses of different elements. Let the learner fill color of the
respective element in the periodic table and complete the table given below:
Atomic Mass
Element
1.01
9.01
15.99
22.99
28.09
39.95
Figure: 4.7
Source: http://www.chem.wisc.edu/
30
4.4 Periodic Trends in Physical and Chemical Properties
Now, let us look into more detail at the physical properties of elements and electronic
configuration.
4.4.1 Periodic Patterns of Atomic Radii

The term atomic radius encompasses metallic radii for metals and covalent radii for
nonmetals and also for elements forming covalent bonds.
r
r
a Metallic Radius
b Covalent radius
Figure : 3.8a
Figure : 3.8b
In metallic crystals, 'metallic

radius' is half of the distance
between the neighbouring
atom nuclei.
Covalent radius is precisely

the same as atomic radius.
It is a measure of the distance from the center of the nucleus to the outermost shell of the
atom.
Outermost shell
O
Figure : 4.9 Atomic Radius
31
In Figure: 4.9, O is the center of the nucleus and OA is the atomic radius. However, since
the Heisenberg uncertainty principle states that it is impossible to precisely locate the
outermost electron, the distance OA cannot be measured. Yet, the internuclear distance
or the bond length between two adjacent atoms in a metallic crystal or in a covalent
molecule can be elucidated. If it is assumed that the atoms behave as spheres which are
barely in contact with each other, the distance between the centers of the two nuclei
gives the sum of atomic radii of the two atoms.
For example, to calculate the atomic radius of fluorine, the internuclear distance in a
gaseous fluorine molecule is measured. Assuming that the two fluorine atoms in the
molecule touch each other, the atomic radius is half the internuclear distance. As shown
in Figure. 4.10a, the internuclear or the bond distance in fluorine is 128 pm and
therefore, the atomic radius of a fluorine atom is 64 pm.
F
64 pm
64 pm
77 pm
128 pm
(a)
C
77 pm
154 pm
Si
(b)
117 pm 77 pm
194 pm
(c)
Figure: 4.10 Calculation of atomic radii of (a) fluorine (b) carbon and (c) silicon
Likewise the carbon-carbon internuclear distance in a crystal of diamond is 154 pm

(Figure. 4.10b). The atomic radius of carbon is half this value, that is 77 pm. In a molecule
of silicon carbide, the silicon-carbon bond distance is 194 pm. The atomic radius of silicon
may be obtained by subtracting the atomic radius of carbon from the silicon-carbon
internuclear distance. This gives a value of 117 pm (Figure. 4.10c).
32
0.24
0.22
Covalent radius (nm)
0.20
0.18
Ca
Na
0.16
0.14
Li
0.12
Be
B
0.10
0.08
Sc
Mg
Al
Si P
S
Cl
Ti
Ga
V Mn
As
Co Cu
Br
Zn
Ge
Se
Cr Fe Ni
CNOF
0.06
0.04
0.02
0
1 3 5 7 9 11 13 15 17 19 21 23 25 27 29 31 33 35
Atomic number
Figure: 4.11
The table for atomic (covalent) radii of elements 1 to 36, measured in nanometers.
The periodicity of the atomic radii is symbolically depicted in Figure. 4.12.
Periodic Table
decreases
increases
atomic
(covalent)
radii
Figure: 4.12 Periodicity of atomic (Covalent) radii
33
There is a progressive decrease in atomic radii along a period from left to right. This is
supported by the data presented in Table 4.8. The trends show that atomic radii:
Increases down a group.
Decreases across a period.
After some decrease, atomic radii remains constant across the transition
elements i.e. titanium to copper.
Element
Li
Be
Ne
Atomic Radius (pm)
152
111
88
77
70
66
64
160
Element
Na
Mg
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
Atomic Radius (pm)
186
160
143
117
110
104
99
192
Table 4.8 Variation of atomic radii of Period 2 and 3 elements
Within a period, the electrons are added in the same valence shell. However, as the
atomic number increases, the magnitude of the nuclear charge also increases.
Consequently, the outermost electrons are held progressively more tightly with
increasing atomic number.
On moving down the group the atomic radii increases. The atomic number and hence the
nuclear charge also increases down the group. However, within a group the valence
electrons are not added in the same shell. Rather more and more electrons are
incorporated on moving down the group and the valence electrons occupy progressively
higher principal quantum number shells. This, in turn, causes a progressive expansion in
size. The values for the covalent radii or atomic radii of alkali metals (Group 1) and
halogens (Group 17) are depicted in Table 4.9.
Element
Li
Na
Rb
Cs
Atomic Radius (pm)
152
186
231
244
267
Element
Cl
Br
Atomic Radius (pm)
64
99
114
133
Table 4.9 Variation of atomic radii of Group 1 and Group 17 elements
34
As shown in Table 4.8, the size of Neon atom is larger than that of fluorine, while that of
argon is larger than that of chlorine. In fact each noble gas is bigger in atomic size as
compared to the corresponding halogen. Due to their inert nature, the noble gases do not
form ionic or covalent bonds with other elements or among themselves. It is therefore
not possible to elucidate the values of internuclear distances from which the atomic radii
of the noble gases may be calculated. The best that can be done is to measure the
distance when two atoms of noble gases are in closest proximity to one another
(Figure. 4.13). However, this distance is larger than the internuclear distance between
two bonded atoms.
Figure: 4.13 Calculation of atomic radii of noble gases
A graphical representation of these elements is laid out in Figure. 4.14a and 4.14b,
respectively.
Cs
K
250
Na
200
Li
Cs
150
Ki
100
Rb
Radius (pm)
Radius (pm)
250
Rb
200
Cl
150
I
Cl
Br
Li
50
Br
100
Nai
50
10
20 30 40 50
Atomic number
(a)
60
10
20 30 40 50
Atomic number
(b)
60
Figure: 4.14 Variation of covalent and ionic radii with atomic numbers for
(a) Alkali metals and (b) Halogens
35
Structure and bonding of 1 to 36 elements in a nutshell.

Figure 4.15 represent elements 1(Hydrogen, H) to 36 (krypton, Kr)
He(g)
atoms
H2(g)
mols
Li(s) Be(s)
metal metal
B(s)
giant
mol
Na(s) Mg(s)
Metal metal
Al(s)
metal
C(s)
giant
mol
Si(s)
giant
mol
N2(g)
mols
O2(g)
mols
F2(g) Ne(g)
mols atoms
P4(s)
mols
S8(s)
mols
Cl2(g) Ar(g)
mols atoms
K(s) Ca(s) Sc(s) Ti(s) V(s) Cr(s) Mn(s) Fe(s) Co(s) Ni(s) Cu(s) Zn(s) Ga(s) Ge(s) As(s)
metal metal metal metal metal metal metal metal metal metal metal metal metal metal giant
mol
Se(s)
mol
Br2(l) Kr(g)
mols atoms
Figure: 4.15
Figure: 4.16 Calculation of atomic radii of noble gases
The atomic radius is taken to be half the value of the distance between the nuclei of two
atoms that are very close to each other, but not linked by a chemical bond. Obviously this
value will be higher than expected. Actually, this value does not represent the covalent
radius, as no covalent bond exists between the two atoms of the noble gas. It is referred
to as van der Waal radius, named after the van der Waal forces of attraction that bring the
noble gas atoms in close proximity to each other.
In the lanthanoid series, as the atomic number increases, the outermost shell is drawn
closer to the nucleus. As a result, there is a consistent decrease in the atomic radii from
lanthanum to lutetium (shown as member of Group 3 and Period 6 as shown in the
periodic table above). This decrease is called Lanthanoid contraction. The lanthanoids
intervene between the 4d and 5d series of transition elements. Due to lanthanoid
contraction, the expected increase in size on moving from a 4d element to a 5d element
of the same group is not observed. A representative example is outlined in Table 4.10.
36
4d Series
Zr
Nb
Atomic Radius (pm)
145
134
5d Series
Hf
Ta
Atomic Radius (pm)
144
134
Table 4.10 Comparison of the atomic radii of 4d and 5d series transition elements
The size of the 4d and 5d transition elements, therefore, remains nearly constant within
each group. We will learn more about lanthanoid contraction in Class XII, in the unit
dealing with inner transition elements
4.4.2 Metallic and Non-metallic character

The tendency of an element to lose electrons to form cations is called as electropositive
or metallic in nature and the reverse tendency of an element is called as electronegative
or non-metallic character.
loss of eE
Increasing Metallic Character
Increasing Metallic Character
Figure: 4.17 Metallic properties

Source: Google image
37
Student Activity: 4.3

Using the Periodic Table, find out why?
non-metallic character increases across in a period
metallic character increases down in a group
4.4.3 Periodic Patterns of Ionic Radii

The radii of the atoms are altered by the addition or loss of electrons. When electrons are
removed from an atom, a cation is formed. The radius of the cation is smaller than that of
the neutral atom. In the latter, the number of protons in the nucleus is exactly the same
as the number of electrons. However, in a cation, the number of electrons is less than the
number of protons. The effective nuclear charge of the cation is, therefore, more than
that of the neutral atom. As a result, the remaining electrons are held more tightly by the
nucleus, causing shrinkage in size. As more electrons are removed, the effective nuclear
charge increases progressively. Therefore, greater the charge on the cation, smaller is its
ionic radii. Ionic radii for elements in Periods are shown in Table 4.11. The radii of cations
Na+ Si4+ are smaller than the radii of the corresponding atoms. The radii of anions P3- to Clare larger than their corresponding atoms.
Element
Na
Fe
Atomic Radius (pm)
186
117
Ion
Na+
Fe2+
Fe3+
Ionic Radius (pm)
102
78
64
Table 4.11 Comparison of atomic radii of neutral atoms and ionic radii of their cations
When an anion is formed, one or more electrons are added to the neutral atom. The
number of valence electrons now exceeds the number of protons in the nucleus. The
effective nuclear charge decreases and therefore electrons in the outermost shell are
held less tightly. This causes the electron cloud to expand and the ionic radius to
38
increase. Hence the radius of an anion is larger than that of the corresponding neutral
atom. As the negative charge on the anion increases, the ionic radius too increases.
Representative examples are cited in Table 4.12.
Element
Cl
Atomic Radius (pm)
99
66
70
Ion
Cl-
O2-
N3-
Ionic Radius (pm)
184
140
138
Table 4.12 Comparison of atomic radii of neutral atoms and ionic radii of their anions
The periodic trends of ionic radii are the same as those of atomic radii - these increase
down the group since extra shells are added and decrease across a period due to increase
in nuclear charge and partly due to increase in the positive charge on the ion. This is
exemplified in Table 4.13.
Ion
Li+
Na+
K+
Ionic Radius (pm)
76
102
138
Ion
Na+
Mg2+
Al3+
Ionic Radius (pm)
102
72
53
Table 4.13 Periodic trends of ionic radii
Figure: 4.14a reveals two trends, firstly, the ionic radii of alkali metal cations are less
than the atomic radii of their neutral atoms and secondly, the radius of the cations
increases down the group. Likewise, Figure. 4.14b graphically depicts that the ionic radii
of halide anions are greater than the covalent radii of halogen atoms and on going down
the Group 17, the radii of halide ions increases.
39
4.4.4 Periodic Pattern of Energy and Ionization

Enthalpy
Ionization enthalpy, also called ionization energy or ionization potential, is the
minimum amount of energy required to remove the most loosely bound electron from an
isolated gaseous atom. It is possible to remove more than one electron from most atoms.
Accordingly, the first ionization enthalpy is the energy required to remove the first
electron and convert the atom into a univalent cation, the second ionization enthalpy is
the energy required to remove the second electron and convert the atom into a divalent
cation, and so on. Ionization is an endothermic phenomenon. Energy must be supplied to
the electron so that it can overcome the attractive influence of the nucleus and exit
from the atom.
first ionization energy (kJ/mol)
In Figure 4.18 is a plot of ionization enthalpies of elements against their atomic numbers.
It shows that in each period, the alkali metal has the lowest ionization enthalpy, while the
noble gas has the highest.
2500
He
Ne
2000
Ar
Kr
1500
Xe
H
Rn
1000
500
0
Li
Na
10
Rb
K
20
30
40
50
Atomic number (Z)
Cs
60
70
80
90
Figure: 4.18 Variation of ionization enthalpies with atomic numbers
Ionization energies/enthalpies of elements vs. atomic number.

The 'Peaks' elements of same group.
The 'Troughs' elements of Group I elements.
It is noted that there is an uneven increase in the ionization enthalpy across a period.
Ionization energy of neon is higher than that of fluorine as figured in Figure. 4.18. This
40
can be explained as ionization enthalpy mainly depends on atomic size and the nuclear
charge. In a small atom, the outermost electron is held more tightly than in a large atom.
Therefore, the ionization enthalpy decreases as the size of the atom increases. If two
atoms have nearly equal covalent radius, then the one with larger nuclear charge will
possess a higher ionization enthalpy.
The increase in ionization enthalpy in a period is attributed to decrease in atomic radii
and increase in nuclear charge while traversing from left to right. Both these factors
serve to hold the outermost electron more tightly. The first ionization enthalpies of the
elements in Period 2 are presented in Figure 4.19.
He
2370
H
1310
Li
519
Be
900
B
799
C
1090
N
1400
O
1310
F
1680
Ne
2080
Na
494
Mg
736
Al
577
Si
786
P
1060
S
1000
Cl
1260
Ar
1520
K
418
Ca
590
Ga
577
Ge
762
As
966
Se
941
Br
1140
Kr
1350
Sr
632
Ti
661
V
648
Cr
653
Mn
716
Fe
762
Co
757
Ni
736
Cu
745
Zn
908
Figure: 4.19. The ionization energies of elements 1 to 36 (kJ mol-1)
Ionization enthalpy (or ionization energy) increases from left to right in a period and
decreases from top to bottom in a group. This periodic trend is depicted in Figure. 4.20.
Periodic Table
increases
descreases
Ionization
energy
Figure: 4.20. Periodicity of ionization energy
41
Element
Ionization Enthalpy (kJmol-1)
Li
520
Be
899
801
1086
1403
1314
1681
Ne
2080
Table 4.14 First ionization enthalpies of Period 2 elements
It is clear from Table 4.14 that there are two irregularities. Boron has a higher nuclear
charge and smaller atomic radius than beryllium. Yet its ionization enthalpy is less than
that of beryllium. The latter has the electronic configuration, 1s22s2. Ionization of a
completely filled 2s shell requires higher energy since extra work has to be expended to
unpair the electrons before removing one of these. The second irregularity occurs at
nitrogen, which has a higher ionization enthalpy than oxygen. Nitrogen has a stable halffilled p shell in its electronic configuration (1s22s22p3). It requires comparatively higher
energy to remove an electron from a stable, half-filled valence shell. Conversely, oxygen
with the configuration 1s22s22p4, readily gives away one electron to achieve a stable halffilled 2p shell. This results in less than expected value of ionization enthalpy.
Down a group, the ionization enthalpy decreases. Two factors account for this trend.
Firstly, on moving from top to bottom, the atomic size increases and, therefore, the
distance between the nucleus and the outermost electron increases. Secondly, the
number of electronic shells increases on descending the group. The inner shells act as a
screen between the nucleus and the outermost electron, thereby decreasing the force of
attraction between the two. The combined effect of the two factors is that the force with
which the electron is held within the atom decreases, resulting in a decrease in ionization
enthalpy. Table 4.15 presents the ionization enthalpy data for the alkali metal group.
42
Element
Ionization Enthalpy (kJmol-1)
Li
520
Na
496
419
Rb
403
Cs
376
Table 4.15 Ionization enthalpies of alkali metals
4.4.5 Successive Ionisation Enthalpies and

Periodic Table:
After the removal of one electron from its valence shell, the atom is converted into a
unipositive cation, although the nuclear charge remains the same. However, more energy
is required to remove the second electron from the positively charged ion than from a
neutral atom. Therefore, the ionization enthalpy increases in the order.
1st Ionization Enthalpy < 2nd Ionization Enthalpy < 3rd Ionization Enthalpy ..
Thus the first and second ionization enthalpies of magnesium are 738 and 1447 kJ mol-1
respectively. For alkali metals, the 2nd Ionization enthalpy is almost ten times the 1st
ionization enthalpy. These metals have just one valence electron which is removed quite
easily. However, the second electron has to be removed from a completed octet and,
therefore, requires exceptionally high energy.
First ionization enthalpy across a period
Elements of period
43
Carbon
1s
2s
2p
Nitrogen
1s
2s
2p
Oxygen
1s
2s
2p
Fluorine
1s
2s
2p
Neon
1s
2s
2p
Figure: 4.21 Electronic configuration
It can be expected that across the period the ionization enthalpy of oxygen to be higher
than that of nitrogen. But nitrogen has higher ionization enthalpy. The reason being the
paired electron in oxygen results in higher repulsion increases the energy and makes it
easier to remove one of them and to ionize an atom of oxygen. Similar pattern is observed
for period and elements as depicted in Figure. 4.21.
44

Apply the idea and write ionization energy for elements 9, 10 and 11- Fluorine, neon and
sodium and represent it in electronic configuration form.
4.4.6 Electron Gain Enthalpy

The energy change involved when an electron is added to an isolated gaseous atom to
form an anion is called electron gain enthalpy. In some cases, energy is absorbed when an
electron is added to the atom, while in others energy is released. A positive value is
assigned to electron gain enthalpy when energy is absorbed and a negative value when
energy is released.
The electron gain enthalpies of magnesium and chlorine may be represented as follows:
Mg (g) + e
Mg(g)
Electron gain enthalpy = +230 kJ mol-1
Cl (g) + e
Cl(g)
Electron gain enthalpy = -348 kJ mol-1
The first proceeds with absorption of energy, the second with release of energy.
When one electron is added to an isolated oxygen atom, energy is released.
O (g) + e
O(g) Electron gain enthalpy = -142 kJ mol-1
However, the addition of second electron is accompanied by absorption of energy.

O(g) + e
O2(g) Electron gain enthalpy = +702 kJ mol-1
The reason is that the second electron has to be forced into the valence shell of a
uninegative anion, in which seven electrons are already present. Oxygen atom is small in
size and, therefore, strong electron-electron repulsions must be overcome before the
eighth electron is accommodated in the valence shell. Despite this the oxide ion exists as
a divalent anion (O2) and not a monovalent one (O) since the former stabilizes the ionic
oxides (for example, lithium oxide and magnesium oxide) to a greater extent than the
latter.
45
Table 4.16 lists the electron gain enthalpies of the second and third period elements. It
may be generalized that the negative value of this physical parameter increases from left
to right.
Element
Li
Electron Gain Enthalpy (kJ mol1)
-57
Element
Na
-53
Be
+241 -23
Mg
Ne
-121
31
-142
-33
329
Si
Cl
Ar
-120
-74
-200
-34
835
Al
+230 -44
Table 4.16 Variation of electron gain enthalpy of Period 2 and 3 elements
+400
+300
Be
Mg
Electron affinity (kl/mol)
+200
Ca
+100
He
0
100
B
H
Ar
Ne
Al
Na
Li
O
Si
200
S
300
F
Cl
400
5
10
15
20
Atomic number
Figure: 4.22 Variation of electron gain enthalpies with atomic numbers
Figure 4.22 plots the values of electron gain enthalpies of the first twenty elements
versus their atomic numbers. A reference to Table 4.16 and Figure. 4.22 reveals that
although the overall trend is that electron gain enthalpy values become more negative on
moving from left to right in a period, there are notable exceptions. Beryllium in the
second period and magnesium in the third period have positive values of electron gain
46
enthalpies since their valence shells, 2s2 and 3s2, respectively are already complete. The
incoming electron must occupy the high energy 2p or 3p shell and this explains the
unfavorable values of electron gain enthalpy for these elements. Nitrogen too has a
positive value of electron gain enthalpy. In this case there is a stable, half-filled set of 2p
orbitals in the valence shell. Addition of another electron would lead to a relatively less
stable electronic configuration. Similarly, phosphorus with a half-filled valence shell has
lower than expected value of electron gain enthalpy. Neon and argon, having completely
filled outer s and p orbitals, have no tendency to accept electrons and therefore possess
positive electron gain enthalpies.
The electron gain enthalpy decreases from top to bottom in a group. This periodic trend is
depicted in Table 4.17 which lists the values of electron gain enthalpies for the elements
of Groups 16 and 17.
Element
Se
Te
-142
-200
-195
-190
Element
Cl
Br
-333
-348
-324
-295
Table 4.17 Variation of electron gain enthalpy (kJ mol1) of Group 16 and 17 elements
The electron gain enthalpy of fluorine, however, is lower than that of chlorine. This is
attributed to the extremely small size of fluorine atom. With seven electrons already
spread over a small volume, the incoming eighth electron faces stiff repulsion. Chlorine,
with the same number of valence electrons, has a relatively large size. The valence
electrons are spread over a comparatively larger volume and, therefore, the incoming
electron is easily accommodated.
47
4.4.7 Periodic Patterns of Electronegativity

The term electronegativity refers to the tendency of an atom, within a molecule, to
attract electrons towards itself. In a polar covalent molecule, such as hydrogen fluoride,
the shared pair of electrons is not midway between the hydrogen and fluorine atoms.
Since fluorine has a greater nuclear charge than hydrogen, the bonding pair drifts closer
to fluorine. This is attributed to the greater electronegativity of fluorine as compared to
that of hydrogen.
Electronegativity is quite similar to electron gain enthalpy as both the properties reflect
the ability of an atom to attract electrons. Therefore, the periodic trends of
electronegativity are same as those of electron gain enthalpy. As shown in Table 4.17,
electronegativity increases from left to right in a period and as shown in Table 4.18, it
decreases from top to bottom.
Increases across the period
Period 2
Period 3
Li
1.0
Na
0.9
Be
1.5
Mg
1.2
2.0
Al
1.5
2.5
Si
1.8
3.0
2.1
3.5
2.5
4.0
CI
3.0
Table 4.18 Variation of electronegativity of Period 2 and 3 elements
Element
Se
Te
Cl
Br
Electronegativity
3.5
2.5
2.4
2.1
4.0
3.0
2.8
2.5
Table 4.19 Variation of electronegativity of Group 16 and 17 elements
48
The nucleus of a smaller atom can attract electrons more strongly. Hence, smaller the
atom, greater is its electronegativity. To a good approximation, metals have
electronegativity values of less than 2, while for nonmetals the value is more than 2. The
halogens are among the most electronegative elements - in fact, fluorine has the highest
electronegativity. The second most electronegative element is oxygen. The decrease in
electronegativity on descending the group is largest in Group 17 and smallest in Group 1.
Electronegativity and electron gain enthalpy differ from each other in two aspects. First,
electronegativity is the tendency of an atom within a molecule to attract electrons,
while electron gain enthalpy indicates a similar characteristic of an isolated atom.
Second, electron gain enthalpy means that the acquired electron enters the valence shell
of the concerned atom. Electronegativity, however, stipulates only a drift of electrons
towards the concerned atom.
The relationship between the different properties can be visualized as:
Figure: 4.23
Source: http://image.tutorvista.com/content/feed/tvcs/PERIODIC_TRENDS2.jpg
49
4.4.8 Chemical Properties of Elements

In this module we shall study the periodicity of valence state exhibited by elements and
their anomalous behavior (if any).
Valence or Oxidation States

The valence of an element represents its combining power for other elements. For
example, normally one atom of hydrogen combines with no more than one atom of any
other element. Therefore, hydrogen has a valence of 1. An oxygen atom combines with
two atoms of hydrogen to yield water molecule, H2O. The valence of oxygen is 2. A
nitrogen atom combines with three hydrogen atoms to give ammonia molecule, NH3,
while a carbon atom combines with four hydrogen atoms to give methane molecule, CH4.
Thus nitrogen and carbon are said to have valences of 3 and 4 respectively.
The valence of an element is related to its position in the periodic table. All elements
within a group have same valence. For example, all the alkali metals, the elements of
Group 1, have a valence of 1. Likewise, the Group 2 elements or the alkaline earth metals
have a valence of 2. The valences of the elements of Period 2 and 3 are depicted in
Table 4.19.
Group
13
14
15
16
17
18
Period 2
Li
Be
Ne
Period 3
Na
Mg
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
Valence
Table 4.20 Valences of Period 2 and 3 elements
In Table 4.20 the values of Neon and Argon have not been given since these have complete
octet and therefore no tenderness to attract electrons.
Knowing the valences, it is possible to predict the compositions of the compounds formed
by the concerned element. For example, all the second and third period elements form
binary compounds of hydrogen, called hydrides. The empirical formulas of the hydrides
of these elements are presented in Table 4.21.
50
Period 2
LiH
BeH2
BH3
CH4
NH3
H2O
HF
Period 3
NaH
MgH2
AlH3
SiH4
PH3
H2S
HCl
Table 4.21 Composition of hydrides of Period 2 and 3 elements
In Table 4.20, the values of neon and argon have not been given since these have
completed octet and therefore no tendency to attract electrons.
Like hydrogen, chlorine too has a valence of 1. As shown in Table 4.22, the compositions
of the chlorides may be written in an analogous manner.
Period 2
LiCl
BeCl2
BCl3
CCl4
NCl3
OCl2
ClF
Period 3
NaCl
MgCl2
AlCl3
SiCl4
PCl3
SCl2
Cl2
Table 4.22 Composition of chlorides of Period 2 and 3 elements
Oxygen, with a valence of 2, combines with two atoms of an element with a valence of 1,
such as hydrogen, to form H2O, and with one atom of an element with a valence of 2, such
as beryllium, to form BeO. In a compound of the type, ApBq, the values of p and q are such
that
p valence of A = q valence of B
On this basis, the compositions of the oxides of Group 1, 2 and 13 will have the
compositions, M2O, MO and M2O3, respectively.
Some of the s- and p-block elements have one or more valences in addition to those given
in Table 4.18. For example, phosphorus shows valence of 5 in addition to 3. It forms
chlorides having compositions PCl5 and PCl3.
H
He
mainly ionic chlorides
Li
mainly covalent chlorides
Be
chlorides often occure
in complexes
Ne
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
Na
Mg
Ca
Sc
Ti
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
Rb
Sr
Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
Xe
Cs
Ba
La
Hf
Ta
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
At
Rn
Fr
Ra
Ac
Figure: 4.24
51
Nitrogen forms oxides in valences ranging from 1 to 5. In group 13, thallium shows two
valence states, 1 and 3. The latter corresponds to the group valence. The former arises
because in the valence shell electronic configuration of thallium, 6s26p1, and the two
electrons in the 6s shell remains inert and do not participate in bonding. Only the 6p
electron enters into compound formation, implying that the combining capacity of
thallium is 1. The inability of the 6s electrons to enter into chemical reactions is called
inert pair effect. Due to inert pair effect, the predominant valence state for lead is 2,
although the valence shell electronic configuration, 6s26p2 suggests that valence state 4
should also be possible. However, the compounds of lead in valence state 4 are largely
unstable.
All the transition elements show more than one valence. For example, iron forms most of
its compounds in valence state 2 and 3, and a few in valence state 6 as well. Manganese is
known to have valences ranging from 2 to 7. The transition elements have the
configuration ns2 (n-1) dp (p = 1-10) in their valence shell. The energies of ns and (n-1)d
shells are comparable, and electrons may be lost from both the shells with almost equal
ease. The loss of two electrons from ns shell gives rise to valence 2. Subsequently,
electrons may ionize successively from the (n-1) d shell, giving rise to more valence
states. The existence of more than one valence for a particular element is referred to as
variable valence concept.
Hi
acidic oxides covalent

bonding
Li
Be
Ne
Na
Mg
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
Ca
Sc
Ti
Cr
Mn
Fe
Co
Ni
Cu
Zn
Ga
Ge
As
Se
Br
Kr
Rb
Sr
Zr
Nb
Mo
Tc
Ru
Rh
Pd
Ag
Cd
In
Sn
Sb
Te
Xe
Cs
Ba
La
Hf
Ta
Re
Os
Ir
Pt
Au
Hg
Tl
Pb
Bi
Po
Ar
Rn
Fr
Ra
Ac
predominately basic oxides.

ionic bonding
Figure. 4.25
52
He
amphoteric oxides

Draw a magnesium atom. Draw a chlorine atom. Use circles to represent electrons and
find out how many protons and neutrons are in the nucleus.
A comparison of the data presented in Tables 4.14 and 4.18 reveals that elements with
large ionization enthalpies, such as halogens, also have large electron gain enthalpies,
and elements with small ionization enthalpies, such as the alkali metals, also have small
electron gain enthalpies. Thus halogen atoms have a strong tendency to gain electrons;
the alkali metal atoms have a strong tendency to lose electrons. The elements having low
ionization enthalpies are highly reactive. Thus alkali metals rapidly tarnish in air due to
reaction with atmospheric water vapors and carbon dioxide. On descending Group 1, the
ionization enthalpy decreases and the reactivity increases. The reaction of alkali metal
with water, to produce the corresponding hydroxide and hydrogen gas shows the
gradation in reactivity.
2M + 2H2O
2MOH + H2
Thus lithium reacts with water slowly; sodium reacts vigorously; potassium and rubidium
catch fire during the reaction; and cesium explodes. The alkaline earth metals have
higher ionization enthalpies and lower chemical reactivity as compared to alkali metals.
The alkaline earth metals too react with water and like the alkali metals, their chemical
reactivity increases down the group. Such smooth variations in chemical trends occur
amongst Group 1 and 2 where all elements are metals or in Group 17 where all elements
are nonmetals. In Groups 13 to 16, where the elements change from nonmetals to
semimetals to metals, there are great variations in chemical properties even though the
members of the same group have similar outer electron configuration.
It has also been observed that the first member of each group, that is, the element in the
second period from lithium to fluorine, differs from the rest of the members of the same
group. This is attributed to the small size, high ionization enthalpy and large
electronegativity of the first member of each group. For example, lithium, while
exhibiting many of the properties characteristic of the alkali metals, differs in several
ways from rest of alkali metals. Its melting point, boiling point and hardness are
significantly higher than those of its congeners. It is least reactive of all alkali metals. The
halides of lithium have appreciable covalent character, while the halides of the
53
remaining members of the group are essentially ionic. Its oxyacid salts, such as
carbonate, sulphate and phosphate are sparingly soluble in water, whereas the oxyacid
salts of other alkali metals completely soluble in water. Likewise, in Group 2, beryllium
has lower chemical reactivity as compared to the remaining members. Its compounds
have appreciable covalent character in contrast to the essentially ionic compounds
formed by its congeners.
Another trend in chemical behavior of the main group elements is the diagonal
relationship. This refers to similarity between the first member of one group and the
second member of the succeeding group. Specifically, the first three members of the
second period, that is, lithium, beryllium and boron, exhibit closeness to those elements
that occupy a diagonal position below them in the periodic table. As shown in
Figure. 4.26, diagonal relationship holds for lithium and magnesium; beryllium and
aluminium; and boron and silicon.
Li
Be
Na
Mg
AI
Si
Figure: 4.26 Diagonal relationships in periodic table
The similarity of the diagonal elements arises due to their comparable polarizing power.
The latter is mathematically expressed as,
Polarizing power =
Ionic charge
Ionic radius
On moving from lithium to sodium, the ionic charge remains the same, the ionic radius
increases and, therefore, the polarizing power decreases. On moving from lithium to
beryllium, the ionic charge increases, the ionic radius decreases and, therefore, the
polarizing power increases. On going from beryllium to magnesium, the polarizing power
decreases, and becomes comparable to that of lithium. This means that the ratio of the
ionic charge to the square of ionic radius is nearly same for lithium and magnesium and so
are their characteristics. In fact the two elements have nearly same melting points,
boiling points, degree of hardness and electronegativity values. Both form their
54
respective nitrides or carbides when heated with nitrogen or carbon respectively. The
halides of both the elements are appreciably soluble in non-polar solvents. The oxyacid
salts of both lithium and magnesium are only sparingly soluble in water.
Extension:
It is stated that the atomic radius increases from top to bottom in a group of periodic
table. There is a regular increase of this parameter as we move from lithium to cesium in
Group 1 or from beryllium to barium in Group 2. However, in Group 13, the increase is not
regular. Although there is an expected increase in size on going from boron to aluminium,
the atomic radii of aluminium and gallium are the same. The 3d transition series
intervenes between these two elements. There is a decrease in size on traversing the 3d
series elements. This decrease negates the increase in atomic radius on moving from
aluminium to gallium. The atomic radius of thallium is slightly larger than that of indium.
The increase is much less than that expected by incorporation of an additional shell of
electrons. On moving from thallium to indium, one has to pass through 14 lanthanoids.
While traversing the lanthanoid series, there is a regular decrease in atomic radii the so
called lanthanoid contraction. The lanthanoid contraction nullifies, to a large extent,
the expected increase in atomic radii on moving from indium to thallium.

Plot the ionization enthalpy of magnesium against the number of ionization enthalpy
(1st, 2nd .). Identify the 1s, 2s, 2p and 3s electrons. What can you deduce about electron
shells from the breaks in the curve?
1st
Ionization
2nd
3rd
4th
5th
6th
7th
8th
9th
10th
11th
Enthalpy Number
+
Ion
Ionization
2+
3+
4+
5+
6+
Mg
7+
Mg
8+
Mg
9+
Mg
Mg1
0+
11+
Mg
Mg
Mg
Mg
Mg
Mg
738
1447
7718
10517
13604 18043 21709 25665 31647 35410 169911
-1
Enthalpy (kJ mol )
Step 1
: Take the values of ionization enthalpy on y-axis and the ionization enthalpy
number on the x-axis and plot the graph.
Step 2
: Identify the points where the curve shows a break.
55
Step 3
: At these points, the electron is being removed from a completely filled new
subshell.
Step 4
: Write the configuration of magnesium.
Step 5
: Knowing that removal of each successive electron requires greater energy

than its predecessor had required, correlate the values of ionization
enthalpies with the electron being ionized.

Refer to Table 4.14 and plot the electron gain enthalpy data for lithium to fluorine against
group number. Likewise, taking the values from Table 4.15, plot the electron gain
enthalpy data (on y-axis) for fluorine to iodine against period number (on x-axis). What
are your conclusions on the periodicity of electron gain enthalpy?
56
Step 1
Taking the values of electron gain enthalpies on y-axis and group/period

numbers on the x-axis, plot the graph.
Step 2
Identify the points where a break occurs in the curve.
Step 3
Explain the unusual behavior of the element having anomalous value of

electron gain enthalpy.
Summary
Even before the concept of atomic number was developed, chemists had begun to
arrange the elements according to atomic mass, so as to group together those that had
similar properties. What is now known as the modern periodic table or the long form
periodic table is the culmination of these efforts.
The modern classification system is based on the premise that the periodicity of
properties is regulated by atomic numbers, and thus by electronic configuration of the
elements. The configuration of the outermost electrons, called the valence electrons,
directly affects the physical and chemical properties of the elements. Accordingly, the
modern periodic table is demarcated into four blocks - the s-block, the p-block, the dblock and the f-block - depending on the type of atomic shell which houses the outermost
electrons. In addition, those elements which have exactly the same number of valence
electrons are clubbed together in vertical columns, called groups. The horizontal rows of
the periodic table are called periods.
The modern periodic table has 18 groups and 7 periods. As we move from left to right in a
period or from top to bottom in a group, periodic variations are found in the
characteristics of the elements. For example, the metallic character decreases across a
period, from metals through semimetals to nonmetals. The size, indicated by atomic or
ionic radii, decreases as we move across a period from left to right and increases from top
to bottom in a group.
Ionization enthalpy is a measure of the tendency of an atom to lose an electron, increases
across a period and decreases down a group. Electron gain enthalpy, a measure of the
tendency of an atom to gain an electron increases across a period and decreases in a
group. Metals usually have low ionization enthalpies, while nonmetals have high electron
gain enthalpies. The tendency of an atom in a combined state to withdraw electrons
towards itself is called electronegativity. It follows the same trends as electron gain
enthalpy.
The term valence or oxidation state refers to the combining capacity of an atom. The
s- and p-block elements usually have fixed valences, while the d- and f-block elements
exhibit variable valence states. The valences have a bearing on the chemical reactivities
of the elements. For metals, the reactivity increases from top to bottom in a group. The
d-block elements are, in general, less reactive than s-block elements, but more reactive
than p-block elements. The noble gases, with completely filled outer ns and np shells are
unreactive.
57
The first member of each group, that is the element in the second period, differs from the
rest of the members in chemical behavior. However, the first three members of the
second period, that is, lithium, beryllium and boron, exhibit many similarities to the
elements located diagonally below them in the periodic table.
The periodic table is a means to simplify the study of the properties of the elements and
to systematize the periodicity of their physical and chemical characteristics.
58
Crossword Puzzle
Across:
2.
A fertilizer for flowering plants. (9)
3.
Tendency of an atom in combined state to withdraw electrons. (17)
4.
A yellow colored component of gun powder. (7)
7.
To knock off an electron from an atom. (10)
9.
An element having 20 neutrons; a constituent of bones. (7)
10. The foil for wrapping the food items. (9)

11. A gas which makes up 78% of air. (8)
59
12. A metalloid used to make semi-conductors. (7)

13. A poisonous gas used in World War I. (8)
16. The combining capacity of an element. (7)
17. The element diamonds are made from. (6)
18. A metal which is in solid state in December, but liquid in June. (7)
19. The metal present in the core of earth along with iron. (6)
Down:
1.
The medal which a runner up hockey team gets in Olympics. (6)
2.
A non-metal which catches fire in air. (10)
5.
An element extracted from sea nodules. (9)
6.
A heavy metal used in paints, batteries and radiation shields. (4)
8.
The metal of which the filament of bulb is made of. (7)
14. The most abundant element in the universe. (8)

15. Inert gas used to make bright city lights. (4)
60
Common Misconceptions
Some common misconceptions pertaining to the classification of elements are depicted

in Table 4.22
S. No.
What the Common Belief is
What the Reality is
All lighter elements occur naturally,

while the heavier ones are artificially
synthesized.
Technetium, a relatively light element,

having atomic number 43, does not
occur naturally. In fact, it was the
first element to be made artificially.
The rare earths have extremely low
The lanthanoids are often referred to

as rare earths, but this term is a
misnomer. These are present in
greater abundance than several other
elements, including bismuth, arsenic
or mercury, which are not considered
rare. Rich deposits of monazite sand,
a mineral containing all the
lanthanoids in combined state, are
found in Kerala.
abundance in the earth crust.
Each element has a fixed value of

electronegativity.
The electronegativity of an element

varies from one compound to another.
It largely depends upon the type of
hybridization which the orbitals of the
element in question undergo in a
particular compound. Greater the
s- character of the hybrid orbitals,
greater is the electronegativity. For
example, in case of carbon, the
variation of electronegativity with
hybridization is as follows:
Table 4.22 Common misconceptions related to periodic trends
61
Hybridization:sp3sp2sp
% s Character:
25
33
50
Electronegativity: 2.48 2.75 3.29
The commonly accepted value of 2.5
is based on sp3 or tetrahedral
hybridization.
4
62
The noble gases are inert in nature.
The Group 18 elements are often

referred to as inert gases. However
this is not correct as xenon is known
to form a good number of compounds
with oxygen and fluorine. The term
rare gases too are not appropriate
since argon makes up 0.9% of the
atmosphere. A better common name
is noble gases, since just like noble
metals, such as gold and platinum,
these elements are reluctant to enter
into chemical combination, yet are
not totally unreactive.
Mnemonics
The following phrase has words reflecting the symbols of the first nine elements in
]
the periodic table.
Happy Henry Likes Beer But Could Not Obtain Food
1.
H - hydrogen
2.
He - helium
3.
Li - lithium
4.
Be - beryllium
5.
B - boron
6.
C - carbon
7.
N - nitrogen
8.
O - oxygen
9.
F - fluorine
The following is used to remember the first twenty elements of periodic table.
]
(Hindi and English words mixed)
Hi hey lithi ber bori.
Car nahin aur (or) foren nein nana mangao aloo.
Silly people should clear arithmetic ke cos.
Hi
Hey
Lithi
Ber
Bori
Car
He
Li
Be
Ne
10
Aloo
Silly
People Should Clear Arithmetic Ke
Cos
Nana Mangao
Nahin Aur (Or) Foren Nein
Na
Mg
Al
Si
Cl
Ar
Ca
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
Table : 4.23
63
The elements of Group 17 may be remembered with the aid of the following
]
mnemonics.
Frank Cleverly Brought Indian Attire
The elements from sodium to calcium may be remembered with the aid of the
]
following mnemonics.
NastyMagyAlways Sings PopSongs Clearly Around King's Cafeteria
The four elements that serve as life's building blocks are: Hydrogen, Oxygen,
]
Nitrogen and Carbon.
HONC if you like life
The elements of the 2nd Period may be remembered as follows.

]
Little Ben Became Charlie's Number One Fighting Nemesis
The elements of the 3rd Period may be remembered as follows.

]
Native Magpies Always Sit Peacefully Searching Clear Areas
64
Student Worksheets

1.
What did Newlands use as a basis for his classification system?

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
2.
Briefly describe the significance of Mendeleev periodic table.

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
3.
What is the importance of blank spaces in Mendeleev periodic table?

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
4.
Deduce whether chlorine, bromine and iodine, having atomic masses, 35.5, 79.9
and 126.9 can be grouped as a Dobereiner triad.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
5.
According to Newlands law of octaves, the element to which phosphorus should

show resemblance is _____________________.
6.
In Mendeleev periodic table, antimony is placed in Group V, even though its atomic
mass (112) is lower than that of tin (118), the latter being placed in Group IV.
65
Explain in one sentence.

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
7.
Which are the elements do you think would have been named by- Marie Curie?
____________________________________________________________________
66

1.
What is meant by the statement: Properties of the elements are periodic

functions of their atomic numbers?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
2.
Compare the physical properties of metals and nonmetals.

1.
Guided Solution
Parameter of
comparison
Metals
Non-metals
Position in periodic
table
Value
Electropositive/
electronegative
character
Lustre
Conductivity
67
3.
Given below is one of the elements as represented in the Modern periodic table.
Identify what does each of the information (1 to 4) depict?
4.
The element with atomic number 22 melts at 1668 C and boils at 3313 C. It
conducts electricity and is malleable and ductile. Giving reasons classify the
element as metal or nonmetal and identify it.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
5.
A teacher told her student Saurav to make a periodic table. He missed writing the
atomic number of some elements while making it. Given below is a part of the
periodic table Saurav made and the elements for which the atomic number missed
is highlighted. Write their atomic numbers.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
68
Element
Al
Ar
Br
Sb
Pb
Atomic Number
69
6.
Write the symbols and atomic numbers for the first 20 elements in the periodic
table.
7.
Write the names of the elements in the space given below.

Atomic
Number
8.
Name
Atomic
Number
Atomic
Number
Name
Atomic
Number
11
16
12
17
13
18
14
19
10
15
20
Name
What is the fundamental difference between the electronic structures of Group 1

and Group 13 elements?
Guided Steps
Write general electronic
configuration
The electron was filled

last in which orbital?
70
Name
Group 1 Elements
Group 13 Elements
9.
Given below is a vacant periodic table with some depictive elements labeled as A
to G.
10.
What do the elements grouped as 1, 2, 3 and 4 indicate?
1.
____________________________
2.
____________________________
3.
____________________________
4.
____________________________
Provide more information as required in the tabular format
71
Depictive Number of Number of

Group
Element
Period
11.
Electronic
configuration
of
outermost
shell
Common Name of
the group to
which it belongs,
if any
What do families of elements have in common besides similar properties?

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
12.
72
An element with atomic number A is a noble gas. What is the nature of elements
with atomic numbers A-2 and A+2?
Guided Steps
A-2
A+2
Write general electronic

configuration
The electron which will be
removed next is in which
orbital?
Metal/Non-metal
13.
Classify each of the following elements as a metal, a nonmetal or a semimetal:

Cu, O, K, S, Ga, Ge, F, Ar, Si.
Metal
14.
Non-Metal
Metalloid
Identify the following in context of periodic classification.

Identify
Group for
Answer
Alkali metals
Halogens
Noble gases
Period for
Actinoids
Position of element with
atomic number 107
Block for
Transition elements
Inner transition elements
73
15.
The elements having atomic numbers greater than 100 are radioactive and not
well characterized. The symbols for these elements should consist of three letters
as recommended and approved by International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC).
a. If the element mendelevium (Md), having atomic number 101, was to be
named by IUPAC system, it would be called _________________and its
symbol would be____________________
b. Complete the following.
Atomic number
106
107
109
110
117
118
120
74
IUPAC Name
Symbol

1.
Why does the size of atoms of the elements in any group increases from top to
bottom?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
2.
Why do the covalent radii of the atoms in any period of the periodic table generally
decrease on going from left to right?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
3.
Define ionic radius. How does the size change when an atom is converted to (a)
an anion and (b) a cation?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
4.
The bond length in bromine molecule (Br2) is 227 pm, and the covalent radius of
carbon is 77 pm. Predict the carbon-bromine bond length in carbon tetrabromide.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
5.
Given that: C C bond distance in diamond is 154 pm; P P bond distance in P4

is 220 pm; S S bind distance in S8 is 208 pm; and Cl Cl bond distance in Cl2 is
198 pm, calculate (a) atomic radii of carbon, phosphorus, sulphur and chlorine
and (b) expected bond length formed by the central atom in PCl3, CCl4, SCl2 and
P(CH3)3.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
75
6.
In each of the following pairs, indicate which one of the two species is smaller:
(a) O2- or S2-; (b) Mg2+ or Al3+.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
7.
List the following ions in order of increasing size: Cu, Cu+, Cu2+.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
8.
Predict which atom of the following pairs will have the larger atomic radius:
(a) C or Si; (b) P or Al; (c) Si or O.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
9.
Explain what is meant by the term ionization enthalpy. Why is there a tendency for
the ionization enthalpy to increase in going from left to right a cross a period, and
to decrease in going from top to bottom in a group of the periodic table?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
10.
Why is the second ionization enthalpy always greater than the first ionization
enthalpy, regardless of the element being considered?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
11.
Which element in each of the following pairs would be expected to have higher
ionization enthalpy? (a) N or F; (b) O or S; (c) Na or Mg
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
76
12.
Arrange the following atoms in order of increasing ionization enthalpy: He, O, Be, F
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
13.
The electronic configuration of atom A is 1s22s22p6, while that of atom B is

1s22s22p63s1. The first ionization enthalpy of one of these is 2080 kJ mol-1, and
that of the other is 496 kJ mol-1. Pair up each ionization enthalpy with the given
electronic configuration.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
14.
Explain why the electron gain enthalpies of the alkaline earth metals are all
positive.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
15.
Arrange the elements in the following sets in increasing order of the most negative
electron gain enthalpy: (a) Li, Na, K; (b) F, Cl, Br.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
77

1.
Comment on the size, reactivity and metallic character of helium.

____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
___________________________________________________________________
2.
Ionization enthalpy is always a positive quantity, whereas electron gain enthalpy

may be either positive or negative. Explain.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
3.
The first and second ionization enthalpies of potassium are 419 and 3052 kJ mol-1,
and those of calcium are 590 and 1145 kJ mol-1. Compare their values and comment
on the differences.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
4.
Elements that have high ionization enthalpies usually have more negative electron
gain enthalpies. Why?
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
5.
Arrange the following ions in order of (a) increasing ionic radius; and (b) increasing
ionization enthalpy: O2-, F-, Na+, Mg2+.
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________
78
Acknowledgement of Web-links
Ref Source
http://www.google.co.in/imgres?q=modern+periodic+table&um=1&hl=en&sa=
X&tbas=0&biw=1366&bih=643&tbm=isch&tbnid=DnzFCc6rXbVZaM:&imgrefurl=
http://www.jirvine.co.uk/Chemistry_GCSE/C3A/C3aL2.htm&docid=oZLDBdJZ
CL5cM&imgurl=http://www.jirvine.co.uk/Chemistry_GCSE/C3A/periodic_table1.
gif&w=755&h=495&ei=OnlHT70BILqrQff1LWgDw&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=358&vpy=350&dur=1137&hovh=182
&hovw=277&tx=179&ty=134&sig=106034522265070417347&page=1&tbnh=122&
tbnw=186&start=0&ndsp=18&ved=1t:429,r:13,s:0
formhttp://www.google.co.in/imgres?q=galaxy+form+periodic+table&hl=en&g
bv=2&biw=1366&bih=643&tbm=isch&tbnid=V_1fdBGkFGkMRM:&imgrefurl=http
://www.metasynthesis.com/webbook/35_pt/pt_database.php&docid=8Ahfp4ApJR4LmM&im
gurl=http://www.metasynthesis.com/webbook/35_pt/wikipedia.jpg&w=458&h=524&ei=H3dHT_LmHo
bSrQfzvcCbDw&zoom=1&iact=hc&vpx=557&vpy=278&dur=3738&hovh=240&hov
w=210&tx=146&ty=155&sig=106034522265070417347&page=1&tbnh=142&tbnw
=124&start=0&ndsp=18&ved=1t:429,r:8,s:0
79


Chemical Bonding

Diunggah oleh

Informasi Dokumen

Judul Asli

Hak Cipta

Format Tersedia

Bagikan dokumen Ini

Bagikan atau Tanam Dokumen

Opsi Berbagi

Apakah menurut Anda dokumen ini bermanfaat?

Apakah konten ini tidak pantas?

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Chemical Bonding

Diunggah oleh

Hak Cipta:

Format Tersedia

Inorganic Chemistry Inorganic Chemistry Inorganic C

anic Chemistry Inorganic Chemistry Inorganic Chemis

Central Board of Secondary Education

Central Board of Secondary Education

The CBSE-International is grateful for permission to reproduce

Ms. Neeta Rastogi

Material Production Groups: Classes XI-XII

Cheif - Coordinator: Dr. Srijata Das, E.O

Ms. S. Radha Mahalakshmi, EO Mr. Navin Maini, RO (Tech)

Ms. Madhuchhanda, RO (Inn) Shri Al Hilal Ahmed, AEO

Ms. Anjali Chhabra, AEO

Shr. R. P. Singh, AEO

Ms. Reema Arora,

Mr. Sanjay Sachdeva, SO

Ms. Neelima Sharma,

Lesson Plan Matrix

Historical Classification of Elements

Modern Periodic Table

Historical Attempts Towards Classification

Modern Periodic Table

Periodic Trends in Physical and Chemical Properties

At the end of this unit students would be able to l

and Newlands, but these had inherent drawbacks.

that Mendeleev's classification system too had shortcomings, yet it came

the importance of electronic configuration in classifying the

the atomic radii from the internuclear distance in simple molecules

the factors on which ionization enthalpy depends, with particular

Understand the significance of electron gain enthalpy.

State the significance of electronegativity.

the significance of variable valence concept with reference to

the reasons for the anomalous properties of the elements of second

the reasons for diagonal relationship, taking the similarity between

the trends of reactivity in periodic table, taking alkali metals at one

Lesson Plan Matrix

If you were given

Grasp the periodicity of

Define elements. Briefly

Learn that one of the

Highlight why it was Know that the properties of a

elements on the basis of parameter like

Inform how each

Understand that though the

Why the system

Student Worksheet 4.1

Enlighten that periodicity is governed by

Grasp how the modern I d e n t i f y t h e

Student Activity 4.2

Explain the concepts of

Understand the general

table. Also emphasize Student Worksheet 4.3

Student Activity 4.5

Discuss the main

Solve the crossword puzzle

Identify the parameters that The periodicity

Cross Curricular Links

Biology- Knowledge of elements helps the learner to comprehend the importance

Mathematics- Knowledge of Mathematics to understand graphs for variation of

Computers- Knowledge of computer is necessary to understand the wave model of

the most important ones are

inner electrons screen the nuclear

which are defined in

4.1 General Introduction

Balloons Filled With Helium