THE ORIGIN OF LIFE

(where, when and how was life formed ?)

All cultures have developed stories to explain the origin of life. During medieval ages, for
example, European scholars argued that small creatures such as insects, amphibians, and
mice appeared by "spontaneous generation"natural self-assembly of nonliving
ingredientsin old clothes or piles of garbage. Italian physician rancesco !edi "#$%$&'
#$()* challenged this belief in #$$), +hen he sho+ed that maggots come from eggs laid
by flies, rather than forming spontaneously from the decaying matter in +hich they are
found "a ,uestion in your first exam*.
Although !edi, -asteur, and other scientists thoroughly disproved the theory of
spontaneous generation as an explanation for the origin of present-day life on +hatever
scale, they raised a ne+ ,uestion. If organisms can arise only from other organisms, ho+
then did the first organism arise&
/oday +e do not really 0no+ for sure +hat happened billions of years ago "it is thought
that life appeared on Earth about 1.2 ' 1.) billions years ago, +hile Earth itself +as
formed about 3.44 billions years ago*, ho+ life originated on Earth. All +e can do is to
put for+ard a number of hypotheses and test 5 falsify 5 chec0 each of them one by one, by
doing experiments.
HYPOTHESIS ! " #$R% LITTLE PON& "
6harles Dar+in "#)7('#))%*, the famous English naturalist, suggested that life might
have first occurred in "some +arm little pond" rich in minerals and chemicals , and
exposed to electricity and light . Dar+in argued that once the first living beings appeared,
all other creatures that have ever lived could have evolved from them. In other +ords,
spontaneous generation DID occur but only a long time ago , +hen the first, minimally
complex forms of life +ould have faced no competition from more-competent cells.

8ut the atmosphere of billions of years ago +ould have been very different from today9s.
/he modern atmosphere is about 2(: nitrogen ";%* and %7.(: free oxygen "<%*, +ith
only trace ,uantities of other gases. <parin and =aldane suggested that this primordial
atmosphere consisted of hydrogen "=%*, ammonia ";=1*, methane "6=3*, and additional
simple hydrocarbons "molecules consisting only of carbon and hydrogen atoms* . <xygen
could not have been present in large ,uantities because it is chemically unstable, and is
only maintained as a ma>or ingredient of the atmosphere by the action of green plants and
algaethat is, by life itself. ?materials, molecules@
According to this theory, energy for rearranging atoms and molecules into organic forms
that promoted the genesis of life came from sunlight, lightning , or geothermal heat.
/he absence of an oAone layer during that time "billions of years ago* allo+ed large
amounts of ultraviolet radiation to penetrate to the Earth9s surface, perhaps this +as the
energy source for putting organic molecules together to form life. ?energy source@
";</ <! /=E EBAC. Dhere did those assumptions come from& At the time, people
thought all the planets had once shared a Eprimordial atmosphereF, the result of their
common birth. /herefore, if one has a loo0 at the atmosphere of other planets, he can
figure out ho+ the atmosphere of the Earth +as long time ago. /he scientists based this
idea of primitive-Earth atmosphere on astronomical data. the spectra from the giant
planets in our Golar Gystem. /hese characteristic bands of color sho+ed that the giants
+ere s+athed in atmospheres rich in methane and ammonia, thought to be left over from
the planet formation. Go +as the Earth, they assumed.*
Experiment that attempted to check early hypothesis for the origin of life:
/his model of the early environment became especially popular among scientists after a
H.G. graduate student of physics named Gtanley Ciller "#(17'*, then studying at the
Hniversity of 6hicago, designed an experiment to test it. In #(41 Ciller filled a closed
glass container +ith a mixture of the gases that <parin and =aldane suggested +ere in the
ancient atmosphere. hydrogen "=%*, ammonia ";=1*, methane "6=3*, and additional
simple hydrocarbons "molecules consisting only of carbon and hydrogen atoms*. In the
bottom of the container +as a reservoir of boiling +ater , and above it an apparatus that
caused electrical spar0s to pass through the gas mixture . After one +ee0 of reaction,
Ciller found that amino acids and other organic chemicals had formed from the gases
and +ater. In the years since Ciller reported his results, other researchers have performed
more sophisticated "+arm little pond" experiments, and have been able to synthesiAe
additional amino acids and even more complex molecules.

http.55+++.u0y.edu5ArtsGciences5Ieology5+ebdogs5time5hadean5hade%.>pg*
Core recently, all %7 life essential amino acids have been synthesiAed in the laboratory.
8ut are amino acids enough to form life& Dhat is life& Jiving matter sho+s certain
attributes that include gro+th, metabolism "process materials for energy and tissue
building*, reproduction, containment, complexity and responsiveness. /o be able to do so,
this matter needs huge macromolecules "made up of billions of atoms* to perform those
functions. D;A "for replication and reproduction, gro+th*, proteins "for metabolism,
gro+th*, lipids "for containment*. =o+ did they form& or instance, proteins are huge
chains of amino acids. =o+ did amino acids come together to form proteins&
It is thought that amino acids +ere abundant in early times. 8ut ho+ did those monomers
lin0 together into more complex compounds&
<ne possibility is that amino acids may have >oined together on hot sand , clay, or other
minerals . Jaboratory experiments have sho+n that amino acids +ill >oin together if
dilute solutions of them are dripped onto warm sand, clay, or other minerals. It is easy
to imagine some version of Dar+in9s "+arm little pond"a soup of spontaneously-
formed amino acidssplashing onto hot volcanic roc0s +hich acted at the re,uired clay
and hot sand that have favorable properties ma0ing them good "platforms" for the
formation of larger molecules from smaller building bloc0s.
<ther scientists have theoriAed that assembly of more complex compounds from simpler
ones may have occurred on the surface of oily drops floating on the water surface, or
on the surfaces of mineralsinanimate objects whose atomic structure might hae
proided a template for stringing together nucleic acids and giing them a place to
!lie! until free"floating cells protected by lipid membranes could eole.
8ut 3 billion years ago, the Earth +as a different planet than the Earth +e 0no+ today.
meteoroids hit the Earth fre,uently, volcanic activity +as very intense and as a result
EEarth +as a planet under siege, very unli0ely to harbor lifeF, nothing li0e the friendly
planet +e see today. /he young Gun +as not very strong and its light barely penetrated
the Earth atmosphere and the oceans most li0ely had an olive-green color. Any life that
could have existed <; /=E GH!A6E < EA!/= +ould have been destroyed by the
constant bombardmentsK

Jate heavy bombardment
";</ <! /=E EBAC. D=L EA!/= DAG 8<C8A!DED J<;I /ICE AI<&
Artist impression of the late heavy bombardment period. a period of highly intensified
asteroid impacts ta0ing place 1.(-1.) billions of years ago. /he Golar system "the Earth
and the Golar system go round the centre of the galaxy every %37 million years* passed
through a stellar configuration that +as more congested and stirred comets and asteroids
in unstable orbitsM there +as a greater chance that they hit any planet in our solar system,
therefore the solar system +as pounded by a sudden rain of debris.*
Go, over the years, enthusiasm for the +arm little pond theory has +anedK
/+o competing hypotheses have emerged instead.
-=ypothesis %* /he discovery of microbes and other small organisms living in and around
hydrothermal vents - under+ater hot springs boiling from the ocean floor - has led to the
idea that life may have started at the bottom of the sea. Gharp differences in temperature
and oxygen concentration at the boundaries around these vents ma0e good catalysts for
chemical reactions. /he problem +ith this theory is that the complex organic compounds
li0ely to form life cannot remain stable for long at such high temperatures. Amino acids,
instead of >oining up, +ould tend to brea0 do+n.
-=ypothesis 1* /he other scenario has life first coalescing in the frigid climes of outer
space - specifically, +ithin the cold dar0 hearts of interstellar dust clouds. In this so-
called "seeding from space" "panspermia* model, these complex molecules are brought to
Earth by incoming meteorites and comets. /he +ea0 lin0 here is that most of a meteor is
vaporiAed on impact +ith our atmosphere. "/he survival potential for organisms is lo+.
/hey get pyroliAed. 8urned to a crisp."
HYPOTHESIS '! New H()o*hesis For Ori+ins Of Life On Ear*h! life
,e+an in *o*al dar-ness a* *he ,o**om of *he o.eans/ Life is a .hemi.al
.onse01en.e of .on2e.*ion .1rren*s *hro1+h *he Ear*h .r1s*
Gome scientists believe that the young Earth +as too inhospitable a place for life to have
developed on its surface at allM lac0ing oxygen, the atmosphere +ould also have lac0ed its
present-day stratospheric layer of oAone "<1*, +hich screens large ,uantities of harmful
ultraviolet radiation from the surface. /hey believe that a more li0ely environment for
abiogenesis "life from prelife* +as in the vicinity of deep-sea vents, holes in the crust
under the ocean from +hich hot, mineral-laden +ater flo+s.
/he hypothesis assumes that life originated deep beneath the surface of the ocean at deep
sea hydrothermal vents. /hese hydrothermal vents +ere first discovered in #(2(. Goon
after, scientists made an exciting discovery. /hese vents release hot gaseous substances
from the center of the earth at temperatures in excess of 377
o
6. -reviously scientists +ere
sure that life could not exist, deep beneath the surface of the ocean. After the discovery of
hydrothermal vents, they found ecosystems thriving in the depths of the ocean. /hese
ecosystems contained various types of fish, +orms, crabs, bacteria and other organisms
+hich had found a +ay to survive in a cold, hostile environment +ithout energy input
from sunlight.



Jife near deep sea vents. the most exciting fact, because it +as totally unexpected, +as
the discovery of abundant and unusual sea life -- giant tube +orms, huge clams, and
mussels, crabs, barnacles, octopuses -- that thrived around the hot springs.


Iiant clam tube +orm colony spider crab barnacle octopus
Detailed studies have sho+n that hydrogen sulfide-oxidiAing bacteria, +hich live
symbiotically +ith the larger organisms, form the base of this ecosystem9s food chain.
/he hydrogen sulfide "=%G--the gas that smells li0e rotten eggs* needed by these bacteria
to live is contained in the volcanic gases that spe+ out of the hot springs. Cost of the
sulfur comes from the Earth9s interior. /hus, the energy source that sustains this deep-
ocean ecosystem is not sunlight but rather the energy from chemical reaction.

Apart from metabolism and reproduction, another attribute of life is containment, secured
by some 0ind of protective boundariesK/he recently proposed hypothesis for the origin
of life suggests that tiny "7.7#-mm diameter* hollo+s in iron sulfide minerals, in the
vicinity of deep-sea hot springs, might have incubated "protected* the earliest life
chemistry. Gheltered in tiny iron-sulfide caverns, prebiotic chemistry might have
developed at leisure, leaving this protected environment only after evolving a protective
lipid membrane.
In a nutshell, the hypothesis suggests that living systems originated inside small
compartments in iron sulphide roc0s "inorganic incubators*, in total dar0ness at the
bottom of the oceans. "As hydrothermal fluid - rich in compounds such as hydrogen,
cyanide, sulphides and carbon monoxide - emerged from the earth9s crust at the ocean
floor, it reacted inside the tiny metal sulphide cavities. /hey provided the right
microenvironment for chemical reactions to ta0e place. /hat 0ept the building bloc0s of
life concentrated at the site +here they +ere formed rather than diffusing a+ay into the
ocean. /he iron sulphide cells, +e argue, is +here life began." Jife is a chemical
conse,uence of convection currents through the EarthNs crust.
- /his theory, ho+ever, li0e all theories of the origin of life, has its scientific opponents,
and a+aits the production of confirming or disconfirming laboratory evidence.
$+ains* *his h()o*hesis!
<n the molecular level, the chance of life originating at deep sea thermal vents is not
li0ely. It is 0no+n that organic molecules are unstable at high temperatures, and are
destroyed as ,uic0ly as they are produced. It has been estimated that life could not have
arisen in the ocean unless the temperature +as less than %4
o
6. /he +ater near the sea vent
is, ho+ever, very hot, reaching hundreds of degreesK
For *his h()o*hesis!
Gupporters of this theory claim that the organic molecules at the thermal vents are not
formed in 177
o
6 temperatures, but rather in a gradient formed bet+een the hydrothermal
vent +ater, and the extremely cold +ater, 3
o
6, +hich surrounds the vent at the bottom of
the ocean.

/he temperatures at this gradient +ould be suitable for organic chemistry to occur.
Debates still remain, ho+ever, as to the gradient9s effectiveness in producing organic
compounds.
E2iden.e for h()o*hesis '!
Ieologists have discovered #.31 billion-year-old fossils of deep-sea microbes, providing
more evidence that life may have originated on the bottom of the ocean.
fossil of very old microbes
"/hese are deep-sea microbes-fossils, remnants of the oldest living types of life forms on
the planet," the fossils offer suggestions that life developed near deep-sea hydrothermal
vents "lifeNs origin from the bottom of the ocean*. Deep sea vents develop at submerged
openings in the Earth9s crust that spe+ out mineral-rich +ater as hot as 377 degrees
6elsius. 8acteria that don9t depend on sunlight or oxygen move into the fragile chimneys
that gro+ around the vents and feed on the dissolved minerals. "Gome people li0e to call
it life in extreme environments. /hese bacteria pretty much live on a different planet
compared to conditions +e live inF.
A OE!L OIOID !E-!EGE;/A/I<; < JIE A!<H;D DEE- GEA OE;/G 6A; 8E
<H;D I; /=E IJCG.
http.55+++.youtube.com5+atch&vP4QAHgi$L;lL
http.55+++.youtube.com5+atch&vP=I/)=RvE=#S
http.55+++.youtube.com5+atch&vPD!TEd3c<)TCUfeaturePrelated
8ecause life had been found to exist +here it previously +as thought unable to, many
scientists began to as0 ,uestions as to +hether or not life have originated on the earth at
all...
HYPOTHESIS 3! Life 4e+an In S)a.e ()ans)ermia)
A G+edish chemist named Arrhenius developed a theory called panspermia. "Pseeds
every+here* +hich assumes that life began inside comets and then spread to habitable
planets across the galaxy. Arrhenius9 theory accounted for life9s origins by simply stating
that life did not originate on the Earth, but originated else+here in the universe. =e
believed that cellular life reached the Earth hiding inside a meteoroid +hich hit the Earth
long ago.
For h()o*hesis 3!
;e+ly uncovered evidence suggests that this might be possible, since an organism inside
a meteoroid +ould be safe from the high levels of radiation in space, and +ould be 0ept
at a relatively lo+ temperature.
$+ains* h()o*hesis 3!
/he odds of an organism surviving inside a meteoroid for thousands of years, ho+ever,
are not high. It is even less li0ely that organisms +ould be able to +ithstand the high
energy impacts of bolides into the Earth or other planetary ob>ects. Gome scientists today
do not loo0 at this hypothesis as a very li0ely origin of life on the earth.
Coreover, panspermia +as considered a farfetched notion for a number of other reasons
as +ell.
V Cicrobes in space +ould be 0illed by radiation if not completely protected 5
sealed inside the meteorite or comet
V 6ells canWt remain viable for the millions of years interstellar trips +ould ta0e.
V /he heat of atmospheric entry or impact on Earth +ould steriliAe anything.
V /here is insufficient evidence for complex organic compounds in space.
V /here is precious little +ater on other moons or planets.
8ut all these points +ere chec0ed one by one +hen space missions +ere sent and samples
+ere collected.
For h()o*hesis 3!
-!ecent probes inside comets sho+ it is over+helmingly li0ely that life began in space
-indings from space probes sent to investigate passing comets reveal ho+ the first
organisms could have formed.
#$%&. /he %774 Deep Impact mission to 6omet /empel # discovered a mixture
of organic and clay particles inside the comet. <ne theory for the origins of life
proposes that clay particles acted as a catalyst, converting simple organic
molecules into more complex structures. Gcientists also point out that the billions
of comets in our solar system and across the galaxy contain far more clay than the
early Earth did.
'&D()#%(*)+ ,)$E#-$E.. /he %773 Gtardust Cission to 6omet
Dild % found a range of complex hydrocarbon molecules - potential building
bloc0s for life.
(%DI)%#/I0E E$E,E+/. /'%/ 1EE2 3%/E( $I4-ID:
Another mission yet found radioactive "instable* elements inside a comet. -
radioactive elements can 0eep +ater in li,uid form in comet interiors for millions
of years, ma0ing them potentially ideal "incubators" for early life.
"/he findings of the comet missions, +hich surprised many, strengthen the argument for
panspermia. De no+ have a mechanism for ho+ it could have happened. All the
necessary elements - clay, organic molecules and +ater - are there. /he longer time scale
and the greater mass of comets ma0e it over+helmingly more li0ely that life began in
space than on earth."
-Coreover, the study of a meteorite roc0 that fell in Australia over 3 billion years ago
clearly sho+s the sign of life. At that time the Earth +as a too hostile planet to harbor life
on it. Go it is not so unli0e to assume that the seed of life on Earth came from outer
spaceK
Artist9s impression of the Deep Impact comet probe. "6redit. ;AGA*--anspermia proposes comets as the
delivery vehicles. If comets hitting the Earth could cause ecological disasters, including extinctions of
species and climate change, they could also disperse Earth life to the most distant parts of the Ialaxy.
6omets can drop cells high in the atmosphere to float gently do+n. If bacterial spores can be immortal, as
it appears, comets could spread life throughout a galaxy. /he "splash-bac0" from a large comet impact
could thro+ material containing micro-organisms out of the planet9s atmosphere, the transfer of Earth life
across the galaxy is inevitable. Interstellar routes for transmission of micro-organisms supports the vie+
that life may not have originated on Earth but arrived from else+here, strengthening the "panspermia
theory". /he solar system could, therefore, be surrounded by an expanding 9biodisc9, 17 or more light years
across, of dormant microbes preserved inside tiny roc0 fragments. In the course of Earth history there may
have been a fe+ doAen close encounters +ith star-forming nebulae, during +hich microbes might be
in>ected directly into young planetary systems. If planets capable of sustaining life are sufficiently common
in the Ialaxy, the scientists conclude that this mechanism could have infected over #7,777 million of them
during the lifetime of our Ialaxy.
/o address all the points against panspermia, researchers found out that.
%gainst 5or
Cicrobes in space +ould be 0illed
by radiation if not completely
6omets can protect cells from HO"ultraviolet* and
cosmic radiation damage, so microbes in space +ill
protected 5 sealed inside the
meteorite or comet
not be 0illed if I;GIDE the comet.
6ells canWt remain viable for the
millions of years interstellar trips
+ould ta0e.
Cicrobes are extreme survivors. the fossil record
sho+s that they have existed on Earth for at least
1.) million years, in extreme environments "heat,
chemicals, pressure* including the bottom of the
sea, underground. In space, bacteria can survive
extremely harsh environment li0e HO radiation,
cold and proton bombardment. 8acteria can also
live for a long time in sleeping state until a+a0ened.
/he heat of atmospheric entry or
impact on Earth +ould steriliAe
anything.
An experiment +as performed +here a roc0 +ith
bacteria on it +as bombarded and destroyed
completelyM ho+ever, the bacteria survivedK
/here is insufficient evidence for
complex organic compounds in
space.
=ydrocarbon molecules, aminoacids and carbon
protected inside the roc0s had been found in the
cometNs interior. Coreover, clay particles that can
serve as a catalyst for bigger molecules to form are
there as +ell. !adioactive atoms that could 0eep
+ater li,uid are also present.
/here is precious little +ater on
outer space.
8acteria donNt necessarily need great amount of
+ater to surround them.
Inside comets, ho+ever, there is +ater in li,uid
form "due to the presence of radioactive atoms*
I;/E!EG/I;I IJCG <; -A;G-E!CIA.
http.55+++.youtube.com5+atch&vPORaBd4v/C$AUfeaturePrelated
http.55+++.youtube.com5+atch&vP4#O1$1O#b0IUfeaturePrelated
this one is too long, so please +atch from minute % till minute 3 <;JL
http.55+++.youtube.com5+atch&vPm#!)-E2#+AcUfeaturePrelated
till minute % it tal0s about hypothesis #, after minute % panspermia "hypothesis 1" is
discussed.
http.55+++.youtube.com5+atch&vPo<mJx+LyfA7UfeaturePrelated
E5OL6TION OF E$RLY LIFE
How life .on*in1ed on Ear*h af*er *he firs* or+anisms were formed ?
#here did *he o7(+en .ome from?
/he early Earth did not have an atmosphere that could sustain life, nor did the oceans
have the oxygen needed for complex organisms to survive. Gcientists believe that the
oxygen present today in the air and +ater " atmosphere, oceans* +as build up for over 1
billions of years " from 1.) billions years ago * by bacteria. <nly due to their Ehard +or0F
+ere all species able to form to the +onderful variety of plants and animals that +e have
today. microorganisms, insects, fish, reptiles, birds and mammals.
67 /'E E%($IE./ )(8%+I.,. 9 #&%+)*%#/E(I% :cells without nucleus7
/he earliest organisms probably evolved prior to 1.4 -1.) billion years ago
/he oldest 0no+n fossils are 1.4 billion year old 6yanobacteria " blue- green
bacteria* from Australia. /hese are photosynthesiAing anaerobic " did not
metaboliAe +ith oxygen* pro0aryotic " the cells have no nucleus* bacteria.
6yanobacteria form layered mound-li0e structures called stromatolites
/hey ma0e their o+n food by photosynthesis.
$ 6<% X $ =%< X light --Y 6$=#%<$ X $ <%
"6arbon Dioxide X +ater X chlorophyll X energy from Gun ----Y 6arbohydrates X
molecular oxygen*
5ilamentous procaryotic microfossils from ;.< *illion year old black
=7 E-1%(&)/I# #E$$. :hae nucleus7
About #.2 billion years ago more advanced cells evolved. /hese EHRA!L</I6 cells
are larger and more complex. Eu0aryotic cells have a nucleus and organelles that
perform certain cell functions.

a7 2rokaryotic #ell Eukaryotic #ell
/he eolution of the eukaryotic cell is probably the most important eent in the
history of life.
;7 ,-$/I#E$$ED )(8%+I.,.
Culticelled organisms had evolved by about #.% billion years ago. /he first multicelled
organisms +ere types of algae.
>7 ,-$/I#E$$ED %+I,%$.
Culticelled animals had evolved by $27 million years ago. !emains of these soft bodied
multicelled organisms +ere first discovered in Australia. /hey have no+ been discovered
several places around the +orld.
Spriggina, a soft-bodied multicelled organism "perhaps related to arthropods*
from -recambrian roc0s in Australia. ;ote the segmented, bilaterially symmetrical body plan.
Cost multi-celled organisms reproduce by sexual reproduction "although some can
reproduce via asexual reproduction*. Gexual reproduction allo+s for the reshuffling of
traits and more variation.
rom there on, a large variety of organisms evolved, as seen in the diagram.
D+% " /'E *$-E2(I+/ )5 $I5E
/he similarity of D+% "deoxyribonucleic acid*, blood proteins, and other organic
molecules among organisms is strong evidence that organisms share a common
ancestor. D;A carries the code that is the blueprint to build each organism.
/he D;A molecule consists of chains of nucleotides. ;ucleotides consist of a
sugar "deoxyribose in D;A and ribose in !;A*, >oined to a phosphate group on
one end of the sugar and a nitrogenous base on the other end of the sugar. /he
nucleotides are lin0ed together by phosphate bonds to form t+o strands.
6omplimentary nitrogenous nucleotide bases are lin0ed bet+een the t+o strands
by hydrogen bonds to form t+o complementary strands that +ind in a helical
pattern around each other "see figure belo+*. In D;A the nucleotide bases are
adenine, guanine, cytosine, and thymine . Adenine al+ays lin0s +ith thymine
bet+een the t+o strands of D;A via t+o hydrogen bonds, +hile Iuanine al+ays
lin0s +ith cytosine bet+een the t+o strands via three hydrogen bonds. Each
double-stranded molecule is +rapped in protein to form a chromosome. During
replication of D;A, the t+o strands unravel "+ith the aid of an enAyme* and a
ne+ complementary strand forms +ith each of the original strands, +ith
complementary pairing al+ays bet+een adenine and thymine and bet+een
guanine and cytosine. 8y this replication process and the complimentary base
pairing of the nucleotide bases, an exact copy of the D;A code can be made.
/he similarity of D;A among organisms is considered by many as the strongest line
of evidence in favor of evolution.
!eferences.
http.55+++.+vup.edu5ecrisp5biogeol1(2:%7origin:%7of:%7life.htm
ZahrefP"http.55science.>ran0.org5pages53(#75<rigin-Jife-/heories-origin-
life.html"Y<rigin of Jife - /heories <f /he <rigin <f JifeZ5aY
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h
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http.55+++.britannica.com5E8chec0ed5topic51377715life
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http.55+++.boo0rags.com5research5spontaneous-generation-+og5
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of-disproving-it5
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http.55+++.panspermia.org5oseti.htm
http.55unvarnished-truth-olbuAAard.blogspot.com5%7##57$5human-insignificance.html
http.55+++.ucmp.ber0eley.edu5vendian5critters.html
http.55+++.accessexcellence.org5A85II5dna[molecule.html
http.55+++.u0y.edu5ArtsGciences5Ieology5+ebdogs5time5hadean5hade%.>pg