Going Digital and Staying Qualitative

Going Digital and Staying Qualitative: Some Alternative Strategies for
Digitizing the Qualitative Research Process

David Brown
Abstract: Qualitative research is rapidly changing as a result of the deployment of Information
Technologies (IT). Practices that have taken decades to evolve are being redefined by
contemporary computing power. ince the !""#s one of the bu$$words in the computing%
communications and technology industries has been &'igital (onvergence&)the digiti$ing of
different media forms. 'igiti$ation is an ongoing phenomenon% constantly developing and evolving
the way we communicate and interact)a product of refle*ive modernity% but what does it mean for
the +ualitative research as a process and how might we make use of it, The paper responds to
these +uestions by making some practical suggestions for digiti$ed strategies and processes that
+ualitative researchers might draw on eclectically in order to e*press freely their own creative
abilities% which in turn facilitates the opening up of new idiographic avenues for e*ploring and
disseminating sub-ective e*perience. In so doing the paper -u*taposes the alternative manual
nature of these strategies with other developments that are increasingly orientated towards semi.
automated computeri$ed data processing.
Table of Contents
!. Introduction: /oing 'igital with Qualitative 0esearch,
1. (apturing and toring 'igital 'ata
1.! 2ultimedia databases
1.1 The digital research -ournal
1.3 (ollecting digital data
3. 'igital 'ata 4nalysis 5ithout (4Q'4,
6. 0epresenting 'igital 'ata
6.! 7yperte*t and +ualitative multimedia representation
6.1 8sing 7T29 and P': for multimedia papers
;. (oncluding (omments: taying Qualitative with 'igital 0esearch
4cknowledgments
0eferences
4uthor
(itation
! "ntroduction: Going Digital #ith Qualitative Research$
9ike our participants% as +ualitative researchers we are socially and historically
situated agents. 5hat we research% and how we choose to do it are inseparable
from the period of refle*ive modernity that we inhabit and that period happens to
be one of rapid technological change (/I''<=% !""6). Technology
developments directly impact what we can achieve with +ualitative research as a
process. That said% it is only relatively recently% perhaps since the late !""#>s% that
massification and commerciali$ation of these technologies has really begun to
? 1##1 :Q http:@@www.+ualitative.research.net@f+s@
:orum Qualitative o$ialforschung @ :orum: Qualitative ocial 0esearch (I= !63A.;B1C)
Dolume 3% =o. 1% 4rt. !1
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FORUM: QUALITATIVE
SOCI AL RESEARCH
SOZIALFORSCHUNG
%ey #ords:
+ualitative
research process%
digiti$ation% digital
convergence%
(4Q'4%
multimedia
FQS 3(1)% 4rt. !1% 'avid Erown: /oing 'igital and taying Qualitative:
ome 4lternative trategies for 'igiti$ing the Qualitative 0esearch Process
make them viable options for a significant minority. 4s 9<< and :I<9'I=/ (!""B)
reflect% &the advent of approaches such as narrative analysis% is historically
contingent and reflects in part the impact of new technology% the tape recorder&
(paragraph 1.6). <lsewhere% :I<9'I=/ (1###) reminds us% &it is only since the
advent of word processors that +ualitative data sets have been >machine
readable>& (paragraph 16). 0eflections upon new technologies and how they
impact upon our ontological% epistemological and methodological standpoints
should therefore rightfully occupy our attention% not -ust reactively but proactively.
Digital convergence is potentially one of the more profoundly significant
technology developments that can help +ualitative researchers. It represents the
bringing together of a whole range of new and old technologies in ways that can
further the traditional yet also enable new approaches to conducting +ualitative
en+uiry. o what is digital convergence, (FD<99 (!""") provides the following
definition:
&The convergence of these improved computing capabilities% new digital multimedia
technologies and content% and new digital communications technologies. This
combination of computing power and functionality% digital networked
interconnectedness% and multimedia capability enables new forms of human
interaction% collaboration% and information sharing& ((FD<99% !"""%
http:@@www.digital.convergence.com@chap!a.htmG broken link% :Q% 2arch 1##3). H!I
The technology industry employs the term digital convergence as a wide ranging
descriptor (see for e*ample% JF::I<% !""CG 240'<=% !""C). 7owever% most
agree that digital convergence is having a profound impact on the lives of
individuals in developed societies and beyond. 4gain% (FD<99>s (1##!) synopsis
is pertinent:
&'igital convergence is reshaping the way individuals and organi$ations collaborate
and share information. 4udio% video% animations and other kinds of rich media
enhance e*isting digital communications and enable new forms of human interaction.
5e>re talking about a new platform for communication that will change not only how
we conduct business% but how we learn and entertain& ((FD<99% 1##!%
http:@@www.networkcomputing.com@). H1I
5ith these points in mind how might we develop a pathway towards digital
convergence in +ualitative research that% as (F::<J% 7F9E0FFK% and
4TKI=F= (!""B) desire% transcends a nomothetic consciousness and% as 9<<
and :I<9'I=/ (!""B) envision% lets &a hundred flowers bloom& in +ualitative
research (paragraph 6.;). Put differently% the +uestion that needs considerable
thought is how we might digiti$e the process in ways that enhance rather than
threaten the idiographic nature of our work, 5here might we e*plore the
potential of digital convergence in ways that provide catalysts to individual
creativity% plurality of thought and representation% and at the same time benefit
from the obvious efficiency gains from using the computer as a digital hub for the
entire research process, Therefore% this paper is fundamentally interested in
what digital convergence might mean for the +ualitative research process as it
becomes increasingly digiti$ed. The ob-ective here is to consider how do we
arrive at a solution that all data are captured and processed in a range of high
+uality% digiti$ed formats% without altering the fundamental characteristics of the
non.foundationalist paradigm e*emplified by good +ualitative research. These
+ualities would include% according to 24L5<99 (!""B) open.ended processes%
fle*ibility% and strong orientations towards inductive reasoning that are ideally
suited to e*ploring the construction of human meanings in the conte*t of their
own making. The +uestion we have to ask continually is does the use of any
given technology enhance or restrict these goals in any way, H3I
In what follows% I endeavor to articulate one e*tended e*ample of how we might
go digital and stay qualitative. 7owever% I readily acknowledge that there are
likely be other solutions to this challenge. 2oreover% any given solution is likely to
be temporary given the certainty that future technologies will add new
possibilities. 4ccordingly% this paper represents only a version of how we may
progress. The underlying purpose% however% is to suggest that the challenge of
digiti$ation is an ongoing one that raises many issues and to argue that we would
do well to consider the impact of technologies on the whole process of +ualitative
research% rather than on isolated aspects of it. :or the purposes of simplicity I
have chosen to break up the +ualitative process practically into three overlapping
stages% namelyG capturing and storing digital dataG analy$ing digital data and
representing digital data. H6I
&! Ca'turing and Storing Digital Data
&! (ultimedia databases
'ata storage and retrieval is the first and foremost consideration of a digitali$ed
research process. 4s this discussion of digital convergence involves multimedia%
we need a means to store and retrieve te*t% audio% video and graphics files.
4lmost all (4Q'4 ((omputer 4ssisted Qualitative 'ata 4nalysis oftware)
applications on the market are varieties of customi$ed database solutions. 5ithin
these% there are a few (4Q'4 applications that offer this multimedia storage
ability% and as 9<< and :I<9'I=/ (!""B) point out% this is precisely how many
+ualitative researchers use them% as databases or &electronic filing cabinets&
(paragraph !#). 5hile there is no space here to enter a criti+ue of their relative
individual merits for the task of data storage% it is worth noting that because these
databases are focused on facilitating semi.automated analyses they tend to not
offer support for a wide range of file formats and platforms that other speciali$ed
storage solutions e*cel at. Fne of the primary ways of -udging this is whether or
not the application allows the user to retain common file formats rather than being
forced to convert them to an application specific format% and whether additional
editing is re+uired to make the file usable in the database. These limitations% if
they arise% impose far too many restrictions to be considered a viable proposition
for genuine multimedia storage. The second consideration is ease of use)does
the database re+uire many (do$ens of) hours of training to be able to access its
more powerful features and does it impose structural restrictions on input of% and
access to% data, H;I
5hen these issues are considered the most suitable packages for multimedia
data storage are likely to be outside of the few specialist (4Q'4 applications
and found in the mainstream commercial database market% where the products
tend to be more specifically focused on a given task. In my e*perience of working
with a variety of solutions% the best choice for power and ease of use have been
the media cataloguing type of database application% otherwise known as &asset
management software& (for e*ample <LT<=I PF0T:F9IF or iDI<52<'I4
P0F). 4s the names suggest these databases are capable of cataloguing a wide
variety of multi.media file types and formats including te*t files% portable
document files (P':)% image files% audio and video files. The database does not
actually import or alter the original files in any way% rather% it catalogues them% by
making small images (thumbnails) of each file and recording automatically all the
information about what type of file it is. The file cataloguing databases also allow
the original file to be opened by a chosen application for reviewing% editing or
analysis. :urther annotations can also be added to the files to facilitate content
searches during retrieval. :urthermore% many of these applications can be made
to work across a client)server based network)thereby allowing research teams
to both work from and develop the same database. HBI
There are a number of good reasons why a cataloguing database is a compatible
way forward for a digiti$ed +ualitative research process. :irst is fle*ibilityG the
database design itself imposes very few structural restrictions for the researcher.
4 wide range of file formats can be stored and recorded in this way% meaning
researchers are free to collect and collate multimedia documents without being
hampered by file compatibility restrictions. They are also open ended in that the
imported documents are catalogued automatically by the computer% but can then
be annotated with te*t or voice to create researcher defined sets of documents
that can facilitate later searches and analysis% for e*ample &interviews%& &diaries%&
&observations& etc. This setting or coding can be done regardless of file type so
the researcher can set a group of interview files that are a mi*ture of audio% te*t%
and video% thereby significantly facilitating retrieval. 4nother significant advantage
of the catalogue approach to data storage is the ability to open the file in the
application that created or last edited it% directly from the database which means
that working documents can be included at any point and analysis can be
performed in the most appropriate multimedia application% a point I will return to
later. The final point worth making here is that of file si$e)multi media databases
that actually contain all the data soon become so large that they are often very
difficult to manipulate (for backup% file sharing etc.). The cataloguing database
does not suffer with this limitation because it does not actually contain the data
files% indeed large data files can still be catalogued and stored elsewhere such as
a (' @'D'% other networked computers or even the 5orld 5ide 5eb (555)%
meaning that the storage options are vast indeed. HCI
&!& The digital research )ournal
5ith the storage database in place% we can turn our attention to the digital
collection of data. :or many +ualitative researchers this begins with the use of a
research journal to develop their ideas and record their interpretations of
observations% interviews etc. The research -ournal lies at the heart of the
+ualitative process and is amongst the oldest of practices for the social scientist.
5e might therefore% heed the advice offered by (. 50I/7T.2I99 (!";"):
&Fne answer is: you must set up a file% which is% I suppose% a sociologist>s way of
saying: keep a -ournal. 2any creative writers keep -ournalsG the sociologist>s need for
systematic reflection demands it. In such a file as I am going to describe% there is
-oined personal e*perience and professional activities% studies under way and studies
planned& ((. 50I/7T.2I99% !";"% p.!"B). HAI
7aving e*perimented with a range of practices including handwritten notebooks%
flat file@relational databases and linear word processors% I now consider the most
fle*ible solution to be an interlinked series of hyperte*t documents that can be
catalogued in the database of any number of given +ualitative study database
catalogues. 2ost fully featured word processors have hyperte*t capabilities that
will substantially aid the construction and linking of notes and ideas as they are
generated by the researcher. Quick hyperte*t links can be made to other
documents in the same file or other files% storage media or the 5orld 5ide 5eb
)allowing for a train of thought to be constructed and revisited repeatedly (for a
fuller discussion of this practice see /IEE% 1##1). H"I
Mournal writing in this way also allows for the easy archiving and retrieval of
information. It also rationali$es the time spent in the process of analysis% and
once digiti$ed% the -ournal material transfers easily and provides an ideal channel
for preliminary and secondary analytical e*ercises. 4dditionally% in this format%
these documents can be used in tandem with handheld computers% such as a
P492 or 74='P0I=/ machine% which can be unobtrusively taken into the field%
notes added and then fed back into the main -ournal on the computer through a
simple synchroni$ation facility. The practice can be a very efficient one since the
handheld means that the researcher always has a digital notebook on hand and
the notes taken are only written once. 4lternatively% many researchers prefer to
record their personal memos on tape. 'igital convergence means that that this is
not only possible% but also a relatively simple techni+ue. The analogue cassette or
'4T recorder is plugged into the computer and the computer set up to record the
incoming sound signal. The sound file is then saved into a common and fle*ible
format such as Q8I(KTI2<% stored% catalogued in the database and a hyperlink
set up from an appropriate place in the research -ournal. In this way the audio
recording can be accessed and listened to@edited either from within the database
catalogue or the research -ournal ready for preliminary or main analysis. It might
be added that the same process can be used for video notes and photographic
images as well. uch a process remains very close to traditional +ualitative
methodology in that the recording of personal notes and observation is fle*ible
and open.ended% yet the retrieval and reviewing of these notes is highly efficient
and% of course% in multimedia formats. The other obvious advantage is that all the
information is already digiti$ed and therefore can be drawn on and manipulated
+uickly and easily at later stages in the research process. H!#I
4 multimedia research -ournal can also enhance the idiographic nature of the
+ualitative work through the use of schema. chema% preliminary conceptual
maps% models and so on% can be drawn either in the word processor or in
dedicated concept drawing packages (e.g. I=PI04TIF=% (F=(<PT '045%
I72( (24P tools)% the result can then either be inserted directly into the
document or saved as a bitmap or -peg (Moint Photographic <*perts /roup) file%
catalogued and hyperlinked to the relevant point in the research -ournal for later
review. The challenge of trying to &draw& such connections is often daunting but
can often stimulate alternative% as yet unconsidered courses in the research
process. :or the talented% a drawing &tablet and pen& instead of a computer
mouse is a far more freeform and creative mode of getting these ideas onto
screen. 4gain% the process of adding schema allows for the research -ournal to
begin to visually reflect on the comple* interaction between intuitive hunches%
observations% a priori and developing theory% without being limited by the linearity
of a te*t document or the imposed structures of a database. H!!I
&!* Collecting digital data
It is important to +ualify here that digiti$ation of the +ualitative research process
does not mean we have to collect all our data directly in a digital format (although
it helps). 5hat digital convergence is doing for +ualitative research data collection
is extend the range of ways in which we can collect data. In tandem with this
e*tension is the increasing ability to digiti$e old (analogue and te*t) formats. The
possibility of digital video data collection% did not e*ist until very recently.
4nalogue video was possible and indeed made use of by many social scientists%
in particular those in anthropological disciplines% which have the strongest and
longest tradition of using film and image as part of data collection strategies
(N<IT9J=% 1###G PI=K% 1##!). =otwithstanding the potentially obtrusive nature of
the large video camera and its potential limitations (7422<0<9J O
4TKI=F=% !"A3)% until very recently manipulating and digiti$ing analogue video
re+uired (e*pensive) speciali$ed e+uipment and (e*pensive) technical e*pertise.
(onse+uently% this potentially fertile realm for data collection presented so many
practical and methodological problems that it led most +ualitative field
researchers back to their still cameras% cassette recorders% and note pads. H!1I
Ey contrast% the digital camcorder% has the potential to make an impressive
impact on how we collect a range of data. Eeing small yet unobtrusive (and
relatively ine*pensive) camcorders are able to offer high +uality audio% video and
still images all in one package. 7owever% what makes this technology so
attractive is digital convergence. The latest camcorders are constructed with a
&direct& I<< !3"6 connection% referred to by its inventors as &:irewire.& :irewire
allows the researcher to download all of this digital data directly (and +uickly) to
the computer. In tandem with the development of these technologies is a raft of
digital video editing applications that allow even a novice user to +uickly
manipulate digital video data on a desktop computer. 4s above% the digital data
can then be converted into a common user.friendly format such as a Q8I(KTI2<
movie% stored and catalogued in a database for later editing and analysis. 4s a
result we are now in a position to e*tend% speed up and merge forms of data
collection% that previously were only possible at a financial and methodological
cost. Ff course% all multimedia data collection re+uires large amounts of
computer storage space% with the most storage re+uired for digital camcorder
video footage that +uickly uses up many gigabytes of hard disc space. /iven
these re+uirements% storage becomes a real issue as does computing power. In
order to accommodate such file si$es the files may need compressing and storing
onto a second computer hard drive or &burning& onto ('@'D' discs. H!3I
(ollecting digital data can% as (7<= and 7I=TF= (!""") indicate% be e*tended
to the 5orld 5ide 5eb% where the interview process can take place using the
Internet as a primary channel of communication% they comment:
&Fnline interviewing re+uires the researcher have access to frame capable.capable
browser software and space on an Internet web server that supports P7P server.side
scripting and an interviewee with a similar browser with access to the 5orld 5ide
5eb. 8sing a webpage as an interviewing >screen> between the interviewer and their
sub-ect% the interviewer is able to +uestion the sub-ect in realtime% logging the
discussion to a file that serves as a permanent transcript of the interview& ((7<= O
7I=TF=% !"""% paragraph 6.!). H!6I
4s (7<= and 7I=TF= (ibid.) +ualify &the interview method has problems
associated with the depth of material available from this approach and the loss of
paralinguistic cues% and the limited si$e of the available sample& (paragraph A.").
=evertheless the approach offers both a resource and a challenge to +ualitative
researchers to collect data in new ways and it may offer particular strengths in
making it much easier to retain links with e*isting participants allowing for
longitudinal or follow up studies to become a real possibility as do e*tended
conversations during which conversations are shared amongst a group of
individuals over a period of time. imilar techni+ues can be employed using a
web cam and even more simply through email communications. These and other
techni+ues are discussed in more detail by 24== and T<540T (1###) who
provide a detailed account of how we might engage with (2( (computer
mediated communication) in +ualitative research. :urthermore% as (7<= and
7I=TF= (!""") point out all these strategies can yield +ualitative data that is
already digiti$ed and% therefore% can be saved and catalogued in the research file
database. H!;I
The final point about collecting digital data was hinted above but that needs
further +ualification. 'igital convergence increasingly means &old& analogue% and
paper sources% can now also be digiti$ed without great e*pense% technical
e*pertise or time. canners are relatively cheap pieces of e+uipment and when
combined with the latest generation of fast and accurate Fptical (haracter
0ecognition technology (F(0)% they allow us to digiti$e te*t and te*t@image
sources +uickly and easily. 4lternatively% voice recognition software is now suf.
ficiently well developed to allow researchers to &talk& in data to a te*t or audio file.
This allows great fle*ibility in how we collect data. 5e can continue to use the
most appropriate data collection method and yet still digiti$e the data. imilarly%
analogue tape and video recordings can be converted with a relatively cheap
analogue to digital converter. 'igital convergence can mean% therefore% that all
the previous techni+ues and practices and techni+ues are still available to the
researcher as well as e*tended or new digiti$ed solutions. 5hat makes digital
convergence (or digiti$ation) of data so attractive is the ease of access for
analysis% the reproductive +uality for representation% and the ability to archive in
what are &long term& solutions% offering new potential for future re.analysis or
even forms of meta.+ualitative study in the future (2870% 1###G (F0TI% 1###G
K98/< O FPITN% 1###). H!BI
*! Digital Data Analysis +ithout CAQDAS$
Qualitative analysis of te*tual data is perhaps the one area where most
digiti$ation has already occurred. It is also an area where debate concerning the
use of computers in +ualitative research is most vociferous (overviews are
provided by K<99<% !"";G 5<4D<0 O 4TKI=F= !"";G 9<< O :I<9'I=/%
!""B). Fften the debates seem divided between camps of advocates of
(4Q'4G those who oppose the use of (4Q'4 on grounds of epistemological
or methodological ob-ectionG and still others (amongst whom% I would position
myself)% who are not opposed to the principle of computer assisted analysis but
who remain to be convinced about many packages currently available. I agree
with 9<< and :I<9'I=/>s (!""B) analysis that many +ualitative researchers have
&gone beyond seeing the computer either as a panacea for analytic woes or as a
devil.tool of positivism and scientism& (paragraph 6.;). I also share their
enthusiasm for a plurali$ed usage of digital technology as it presents a possible
scenario where the massification of these combined technologies could% and I
consider should% provide the opportunity for the proliferation and democrati$ation
of the production and dissemination of +ualitative research knowledge.
=evertheless% I also share with (F::<J et al.>s (!""B) concerns that a &trend
towards orthodo*y& is also apparent and definitely remains a potential threat to
alternative approaches to +ualitative analysis. This is especially so with (4Q'4
applications% in which enduring foundationalist epistemologies are clearly being
drawn on in their design and programming: a concern shared% it seems% by
E4PTIT< (1##!) who comments:
&9ike any other analytic tool% computer programs may promote certain ways of construing
and conducting Q'4 while precluding others. :or instance because of the ease with
which computers allow us to count things% it could be +uite seductive for analysts to
use >fre+uency of occurrence> as the sole measure of meaningfulness or significance.
(learly% the number of times a particular phrase appears in a te*t is not a sufficient
measure of its importance or significance)more semiotic and linguistic tools (I
believe) are needed to make that assessment. Eeing one who uses computer
programs% I certainly encourage their usage. 7owever% I believe that it is important as
analysts that we constantly think about how these programs are enhancing or
constraining our analysis& (E4PTIT<% 1##!% paragraph 1#). H!CI
The use of these tools% consciously or otherwise% serves as an interface to
forward particular world views% embedded in the very design of the software
applications% which in turn influence the research process. The underlying issues
amount to a digiti$ed version of much older paradigm debates% in which
technology usage will ultimately come to reflect a given researchers core%
ontological% epistemological% methodological positions% particularly with reference
to the thorny issue of &validity.& In particular% these concerns would include trends
toward semi.automated analyses that are pre.structured to favor a realist
ontology% researcher as discoverer% as 2IT7 (!""C) might say% and employ
nomothetically orientated coding practices that lead to the de.conte*tuali$ation of
data sources. 4lso as K<09I= (1###) points out these applications are often
marketed with the language of a +uantitative paradigm. Therefore (F::<J et
al.>s (!""B) paper presents us with a scenario that we must take seriously when
they comment:
&Fn the one hand% a diversity of representational modes and devices is currently
being celebrated% in response to various criti+ues of conventional ethnographic
representation. Fn the other hand% the widespread influence of computer.assisted
+ualitative data analysis is promoting convergence on a uniform mode of data
analysis and representation (often -ustified with reference to grounded theory)&
((F::<J et al.% !""B abstract). H!AI
In contrast to the either, or situation presented in the above scenario% +ualitative
researchers might e*plore how to go digital while retaining the multitude of
approaches and techni+ues for analy$ing +ualitative data (see for e*ample%
P4TTF=% !""#G 2I9< O 78E<024=% !""6G :I<9'24=% !"";). This multiplicity
might be said to champion 7422<09<J and 4TKI=F=> (!"A3) often coined
term of researcher as instrument. There is no good reason why most of these
approaches and perspectives cannot be employed on the computer with digital
data as well as manually through techni+ues so articulately documented by
9F:94=' (!"C!). There are% however% considerable epistemological and
methodological differences between (semi automated computer analysis and
manual analysis performed on a computer. This is% as P4TTF= points out that%
&there is typically not a precise point at which data collection ends and analysis
begins& (!""#% p.!66). In this sense% data collection and analysis have a
reciprocally evolving relationship and any computer based analysis of +ualitative
data needs to reflect this fundamental epistemological distinction that legitimi$es
non.foundationalist% non.linear% overlapping% and refle*ive analytical processes. In
short% a manual analysis of digital data is currently the only way to get close to the
participants as human beings% and the primary analysis is also re+uired to retain
the socio.cultural contours of the data. 8ndeniably% a manual process takes
longer than an automated or semi.automated processing of data)but if
closeness is important then it remains a powerful alternative strategy and
perhaps the only strategy in some cases. H!"I
4nalysis effectively begins by listening to% transcribing% reading and coding the
recorded interviews and observational data. The transcription process is
fundamental in getting close to the data and provides immediate feedback on the
effectiveness of the type of +uestions and the +uality of data recovered. KD49<
(!""B) holds similar inclinations stating% &rather than being a simple% clerical task%
transcription is itself an interpretive process& (p.!B#). :or this methodological
reason% staying &+ualitative& would mean resisting some automated process of
transcription. 7owever% it is possible to transcribe the imported digiti$ed audio or
audio video files on the computer. There are a number of software transcription
applications on the market. The researcher simply imports the desired
audio@video file into the transcription application and begins transcribing using
keystrokes to instruct the recording to start% stop% go back% and so on. The final
transcribed interview is then saved as a word processor file% stored and
catalogued. 4lternatively% the data can be transcribed using a voice recognition
software application% where the audio file is opened% listened to% and then spoken
into a te*t document by the researcher. H1#I
It is possible to perform a detailed manual analysis of the te*t documents by
using the review facilities on good word processors such as 2 5ord. The
advantage of this approach is immediately apparent because of the lack of need
to format transcription te*ts in idiosyncratic ways re+uired for ma-or (4Q'4
applications such as 5in2a*% Q0 =8'PIT and 4T94ti (see 9<5I=% !""A).
The ability to perform te*t searches and combine these with bookmarking%
highlighting% coding and commenting on specific segments or passages of the
te*t combine to provide a powerful set of analytical tools. 4dditionally% and unlike
some (4Q'4 applications% (see for e*ample% the comments of P94Q O
(7<T(7<% 1###% paragraph !B)% the document remains in a highly fle*ible
format% with the analysis contained in it. It is then possible to send a copy of this
analysis to a colleague% fellow researcher% or a participant% so that they can add
additional comments% perform further analysis% or review the analysis itself. This
degree of digital fle*ibility% in my view% allows the researcher to perform and
employ a whole range of analytical strategies on the same document% and over
an e*tended period of time% thereby allowing the analysis to evolve organically.
:urthermore% because the format is scalable% te*t files can be more easily read
(e.g. at !;#R) and analy$ed on screen% offsetting some of the problems of
working on screen as e*perienced by :F0'% FE<0KI and 7I//I= (1###).
:inally% using the bookmark and hyperte*t document linking function of the same
application% links can made to a master document which is being used to compile
overall notes on the analysis as it progresses (which might usefully form part of
the research -ournal). The latter techni+ue has the advantage of always allowing
the researcher to immediately return to the place in the interview or observation
where the comments were initially made. In this way% the construction of an
eventual disseminated multimedia hyperte*t document becomes the &product& of
a series of evolving documents developed through consecutive waves of data
collection and analysis. H1!I
5hen processing audio and video files it is worth remembering that the ob-ective
is not only to reduce them to te*t. 5here this is a need the above transcription
process can be used. 7owever% in a digital converged process it is useful to retain
and analy$e these files for the wealth of paralinguistic% embodied and other
conte*tual details they contain with a view to making use of these for other forms
of dissemination. Indeed% in a research process that pri$es itself on the ability to
retain and even foreground conte*tual factors% the ability to analy$e these files in
the same medium as te*t% is a huge step forward. Therefore% using a multimedia
application such as QuickTime allows the easy playback and editing of audio and
video clips% the clips can be viewed% notes made and e*tracts cut from the
original. :urthermore% still images can be taken from the movie tracks where
appropriate. 8ltimately% these edited clips can be then imported into the
developing analysis document along with the notes made about the clip e*tract.
The degree of fle*ibility this strategy offers is again commensurate with
developing and retaining a more detailed conte*tual picture. Taking the techni+ue
a little further% the layering potential of such applications can be e*ploited. :or
e*ample% an audio +uotation of a participant discussing an emotive picture can be
merged with a still image of that picture and then represented together in the
analysis document. 4 detailed discussion of these techni+ues is not possible here
but is e*pertly provided elsewhere by PI=K (1##!)% and E48<0 and /4K<99
(1###). 5here the use of digital video and audio do raise concerns about
anonymity% common techni+ues widely employed in the television industry can be
mimicked easily using video and audio editing applications that allow researchers
to &bend the pitch& of voices and &smudge& faces etc. 5ith the analysis
conducted and a growing hyperte*t.linked multimedia document emerging% the
researcher can then move onto the representational stage of the digitally
converged +ualitative process. H11I
,! Re'resenting Digital Data
,! -y'erte.t and /ualitative multimedia re'resentation
(7<=4I9 (!"";) contends that the presentation of +ualitative research is most
successful when a &spirit of openness is built up between the researcher and the
reader& (http:@@www.nova.edu@ssss@Q0@Q01.3@presenting.7T29G broken link%
eptember 1##1% :Q). 'igital convergence can aid openness by using it to
preserve the original streams of consciousness that +ualitative data so often
reveals but is so difficult to carry through to representation. 5ith data in common
multimedia formats% it can be then edited together% +uickly and easily% while
retaining more% (if not all) of the original conte*t of its production. I am not
suggesting that multimedia forms of representation are a &de facto& panacea for
all the concerns of de.conte*tuali$ation. =evertheless% used creatively% it can
certainly help the retention of conte*t. The linear word processed te*t remains a
benchmark for +ualitative research dissemination. 7owever% the linking of these
documents% as we know% provides a rich environment for +ualitative writers. Ff
course% what I have -ust described is the strategy of using hypertext% a kind of
writing that uses computer technologies to allow multiple pathways through a
document through the use of hyperlinks. ophisticated hyperte*t writing is rapidly
developing into an art form in its own right% as well as legitimate publishing format
(see for e*ample: http:@@www.eastgate.com@inde*.7T29G broken link% eptember
1##1% :Q). H13I
Eoth hyperte*t and multimedia representations offer fantastic potential for
+ualitative researchers in social science% who wish to represent the diversity of
their interpretations of data% thereby disrupting the &fi*ed& interpretation that linear
te*t can imply (even if it intellectually challenges this). 7owever% even here we
must be cautious about over romantici$ing claims about hyperte*t. < (!""B)
makes the point that while hyperte*t may fit the postmodern canons of non.
linearity and plurality% it is important not to forget that the links and pathways are
author imposed% the reader can only go where the author lets them% even if there
are plurali$ed possibilities. 4uthor imposed finitude of hyperte*t te*ts has not
therefore been replaced by% unfettered multiplicity of readingsG rather% authorial
singularity has been replaced by the potential of authorial plurality. 4uthors may
seek to compensate by linking everything to everything else in hyperte*t
representations and with this comes another potential problem. 4s (F::<J et al.
(!""B) point out% if an author puts in too many links and allows too many
pathways through the te*t it can +uickly become bewildering and unnavigable.
=evertheless% alongside traditional te*ts% hyperte*t is perhaps the one area where
+ualitative researchers might best start to e*plore how to represent the
comple*ity of the social world (see 5<4D<0 O 4TKI=F=% !"";). o how might
we best format our hyperte*t representations, There are two obvious avenues%
both of these options are well served by having the output of the analysis in a
multimedia word processor document format and% as such% all the elements within
the analysis document are already in the appropriate formats to +uickly (in
technical terms) construct a te*t for dissemination. H16I
,!& 0sing -T(1 and PD2 for multimedia 'a'ers
:irstly% 7yperTe*t 2arkup 9anguage (7T29)@<*tensible 2arkup 9anguage (L29)
formats have the advantage of agreed standards% (2870% 1###) this means that
the interchangeability of formats is a real possibility (good word processor
applications allow e*port to 7T29% albeit with limited functionality). The 7T29 te*t
is currently the most practicable way of representing +ualitative data because the
researcher can immediately convert an 2 5ord document into 7T29.
4lternatively% a 55J/ (what you see is what you get) 7T29 editor can be used
to craft a high +uality 7T29 document without needing to be able to write the
hyperte*t mark up language% and with a few hours of investment into using the
tools of the editor. The second reason is compatibility. :ree web browsers allow
anyone with access to a moderately modern computer to read a multimedia te*t.
L29 editors will soon replace these with far more powerful options% but 7T29
documents should be +uickly convertible% and therefore not become obsolete for
some time to come. The 7T29 &paper& is a genuinely multimedia paper% able to
represent image% te*t% sound and video. 5hat is more% 7T29 creates small
enough files so as to be able to fit multimedia papers onto a (' for distribution or
presentation. 5ith the advent of 'D' heavier use of multimedia files can still be
fitted onto a portable disc. 5here the content is more dynamic the ('@'D'
based paper can be linked to a web space where audio and video clips can be
edited and updated without effecting the links created in the paper. H1;I
The second possibility is that of the P': document. P': can now support
hyperlinking and embed a wide range of multimedia formats including
Q8I(KTI2< movie files% graphics images% sound files and so on. The result% like
7T29% is a relatively small document or series of documents that are highly
fle*ible in that they can be published to the 555 and viewed though a web
browser (via a plug in) or downloaded and viewed in the free &reader& application
with cross platform compatibility. 4n additional advantage of P': is the security
option that allows the writer@producer to lock the files in a range of ways from
password protection to disabled copy% cut% paste and print options. This format%
has perhaps% the even greater advantage of already being a publishing industry
standard (increasingly used for online -ournal distribution) and% therefore%
immediately compatible with publishing companies. :inally% the full 4crobat
application that creates and edits P': documents has (like 2 5ord) full
reviewing facilities% which would allow reviewers of these documents the chance
to circulate them before and after publication for commentaries to be added)
thereby making the finished product interactive in terms of peer review and post
publication commentary. H1BI
5ith the formatting decisions made% +ualitative writers are then free to begin
constructing a multimedia paper where the te*t shares a co.presence with video
clips% audio clips and graphics images. This can be particularly powerful for
conveying the authenticity of the original data sources. <+ually% multimedia
representation can e*plore the embodied paralinguistic dimensions of human
e*perience. The medium can be used to e*plore some of the more difficultly
accessed areas of human e*perience)such as the sociology of the body%
emotions% aging% pain etc. with much more powerful effect than te*t alone.
=evertheless% all of the developments suggested enhance rather than replace
te*t. 2oreover% hyperlinks to secondary documents can be used to keep data
conte*tuali$ed. :or e*ample% short e*tract +uotations can be linked to another
page containing longer e*tracts from an interview transcript or observation notes.
imilarly% multiple interpretations can be represented in the paper through the use
of links to parallel pages that e*plore alternative interpretations and conclusions.
In short% multimedia papers provide hitherto under.e*plored means to represent
+ualitatively% the rich and multi.layered te*tures of social life% and human
e*perience and symbolic interactions. H1CI
Fnce completed these papers will have several potential dissemination avenues.
If burnt onto a (' or 'D' they can be cheaply distributed in this form for the
reader to read and view in their own time. The distribution of research in this
manner is so new% (in relative terms) that intellectual copyright issues for this kind
of multimedia work are far from certain or consistent across the nation state
boundaries of the likely readership (see for e*ample E0I=F= O 04'(9I::<
H!""BI with reference to the 84) and therefore need careful consideration by
authors. <+ually% the perennial issue of anonymity in +ualitative research
becomes more pressing as multimedia papers give the potential for far more
graphic identity disclosure% fortunately% as mentioned above% the very same digital
tools that allow us to edit digital video and sound also allow us to manipulate
multimedia data in ways that might preserve anonymity. 5ith these issues
satisfied the ('@'D' multimedia paper can also be used as backdrop to a
presentation or lecture. /iven the format% the papers could also be published on
the 555 or alternatively on an intranet for more e*clusive viewing. 4t this point%
the whole research cycle I have described returns to the beginning% as the
multimedia paper can also be catalogued in the original database and used to
generate further future analyses or be catalogued in various other archive
databases (the limitations of archiving +ualitative research are highlighted by
:I=K 1###). 7owever% format is nothing without outlet. 8ntil the +ualitative
research community gets serious about giving value to multimedia and digitally
converged modes of presenting work% the paper -ournal will remain dominant.
This is fine% e*cept academics are unlikely to innovate with such methods if the
result is not publishable in a format that provides a status return% especially in the
8K where academics are -udged on the &+uality& of their publication outlets.
There is a need% therefore% in the +ualitative research community to establish and
support some multimedia -ournal formats where work of this nature can be
disseminated and duly rewarded. H1AI
3! Concluding Comments: Staying Qualitative #ith Digital Research
In conclusion% I have attempted to approach the use of technology in +ualitative
research from a slightly different angle. 2y main focus has been how we might
move each practical phase of doing +ualitative research into a digital format
without loosing sight of the interpretive researcher.led +ualities of more traditional
forms of +ualitative research. 2etaphorically% the computer desktop replaces the
physical desktop% filing cabinet% and the floor of the researcher>s office. The
advantages of the process I have outlined appear to me to be centered on
keeping the research process +ualitative in the sense that it remains highly
fle*ible% open.ended% and idiographic in practical application. I have argued
against the automation% or even the semi.automation% of +ualitative data
processing on methodological grounds% as is either implied or e*plicitly sought by
a variety of (4Q'4 advocates. I agree with E400J (!""A) who contends that
any data processing tool% is merely one amongst a number of tools that might be
appropriate to facilitate a given outcome. The software &tools& I have highlighted
are far more generic and potentially idiographic% chosen for their ability to allow
the +ualitative research process to be digiti$ed while preserving the ma*imum
control of the researcher over the whole process. The nature of the convergence
articulated has the advantage of increasing efficiency of what is a fairly traditional
set of research strategies. I am e*tremely keen that convergence of the process%
allows very traditional forms of data formats to remain viable% as they offer
greater choice for the researcher at the data collection stage. imilarly%
throughout the whole process the limitations of structure imposed by technologies
and particular formats are lessened by the deliberate avoidance of highly
structured file formats% applications% or strategies. The process articulated is also
cyclical in that the final output itself gets fed back into the database and can
serve as a platform for future research development or further interpretations of
the original data. 7owever% in all of this we would do well to remember :I<9'I=/
and 9<<>s (!""A) reminder about the use of any computer technology in the
+ualitative research process:
&4s Eryan Pfaffenberger (!"AA) has astutely observed% the only protection against the
power of the computer to shape work in hidden ways is critical awareness. This re+uires
reflection on the analytic process itself% independent of the computer% as well as
awareness of what it is about the technology that operates in undesirable ways&
(:I<9'I=/ O 9<<% !""A% p.CC). H1"I
Ac4no#ledgments
I would like to thank Phil E94K<% arah PI=K% <mma 0I(7% 4ndrew P40K<
and Erett 2IT7 for their constructive discussions around the topic that became
this paper.
I would like to add that I am in no way involved in the construction or promotion of
any of the products or families of applications mentioned in this paper% nor have I
any vested interest in the promotion of particular technology for its own sake% I
merely see all of the later as a means to a +ualitative end% which for me is the
development of the idiographic production of knowledge.
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Author
David B%'=6 is a lecturer in port and 7ealth
ciences. 7is research interests involve the
+ualitative sociological study of the changing
body.self.society comple* in the area of sport%
health and e*ercise.
(ontact:
Qualitative 0esearch 8nit
chool of port and 7ealth ciences
<*eter 8niversity
'evon
<L! 198% 8K
<.mail: '.7.K.ErownUe*eter.ac.uk
Citation
Erown% 'avid (1##1). /oing 'igital and taying Qualitative: ome 4lternative trategies for
'igiti$ing the Qualitative 0esearch Process H1" paragraphsI. Forum Qualitative So!ial"orschung #
Forum$ Qualitative Social %esearch% ((1)% 4rt. !1% http:@@nbn.resolving.de@urn:nbn:de:#!!6.
f+s#1#1!11.
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