Nepal Permaculture Group Farmers' Handbook

Inside the House
Farmers' Handbook
Content :
Inside the House
Diet & Nutrition
House Hygeine
Improved Stove
Hay Box
Near the House - part 1

Waste Water Management
Near the House
Integrated Pest Management
Non-Cement Drinking Water
Part One
Livestock Management
Sweepings
Pit Latrine
Compost
Mulching
Double Digging
Farmers' Handbook
Seed Production
Liquid Manure
Near the House - part 2
Beekeeping
Kitchen Garden
Vegetable Polyculture
Off-Season Onion Growing
se
Hou
Near the
Herbs
Part Two
Home Nursery
Hot Bed
Air Nursery
Producing Fruit Trees (5 chapters)
Leaf Pot Nursery
- wrote :
A Gift Package for Sustainable Agriculture
The idea of publishing a series of booklets on
agriculture for farmers, using simple language,
is a wonderful concept. The planned series will
surely be a milestone in trying to reach out to
farmers with useful and up-to-date information
on sustainable agriculture. An additional attraction is that this series will also act as follow-up
literacy material in any country where so little
readable information reaches the neo-literate
population in the rural areas. Neither is the text
and presentation so simplistic that
educated farmers will not find
interest in what is offered.
How much ?
The whole handbook is 50 chapters in 5 volumes, total 792 pages, including 170 pages of
colour photos & illustrations. Cost includes a
waterproof carrying bag + a design poster :
(about 30)
Farmers' Handbook
The Fields
Green Manures
Zero Tillage
Agro Forestry
Integrated Fruit Orchard
Planting Fruit Trees
Top Grafting
Air Layering
Bamboo Propagation
Living Fence
S.R.I Rice cultivation
Forest, Soil
and Other Topics
Farmers' Handbook
The Fields
When ?
The handbook will be published in 2007??
From Where ?
Farmers' Handbook
Forestry, Integrated Literacy,

Permaculture etc.
Forestry
Soil Improvement
A-Frame
Village Funds
Design, Glossary
Practical Literacy, Permaculture,
Etc.
The handbooks are available from:

Permanent Publications (UK) ??
Address
ph./email
and from
Appropriate Technology Asia (Nepal) ??
Address
ph./email
Farmers
Handbook
for
Farmers,
Extension Workers,
Development Workers,
Gardeners, and for everyone
interested in the improving
the well-being of the
millions of small farmers in
the World.
easy to read
practical
robust
based on local resources
sustainable techniques
Why a
Farmers' Handbook ?
Sustainable Livelihoods
Most people in rural areas of developing
countries depend on home production of food.
However with more people, and the
landholdings becoming smaller, there is a
need for raising the productivity of the small
farm. And this should be done in a way that
will also allow their grandchildren to produce
food, fibre, fodder, firewood etc. from the
land. This way is sustainable agriculture.
Reading Skills
The handbook is well suited for literacy and
post-literacy programmes, and village libraries. It has been developed as reading and
information material for formal & informal
Practical Literacy Programmes. One of the
great benefits of reading skills is to access
knowledge. This can help people improve
their living standard by using techniques
which:
- use & enhance local resources
- increase & diversify production
- decrease cost of production in terms
of time, land & labour
Strong Economies
A strong economy is build from the base - it
grows like a tree. A healthy natural resource
base and robust production at the small farm
level means that local, district and national
economies can grow sustainably, meeting the
needs of the land and the people.
Structure of the Chapters :
Illustrations :
Bag :
Each chapter deals with one or a few techniques

and is structured in the following way :
1. What is it ?
2. Why do it ?
3. How to do it ?
4. How to maintain it ?
A selection from
5. Links between the books
the over 50 illustra6. Farmers Experiences
tions in the TopGrafting chapter
all in all over
Practical
waterproof
carrying bag
450 colour photos

150 bw photos
650 drawings
5 volumes
792 pages
Many people would like to plant fruit trees, but often can't
find good types. Sometimes the seedlings may cost too much, if
you have limited income. But difficulty in finding good fruit
trees shouldn't stop you trying to get them - the solution to the
problem can be found. Raising rootstock seedlings in the
nursery may take 2-3 years. After grafting, it will take a few
more years before they bear fruit. So let's learn an even easier
way to grow grafted fruit trees. This is called Top Grafting (or
top working).
Top grafting is a method of grafting cuttings (scion) from
improved fruit trees onto appropriate types of wild trees which
are already growing in the fields and forests, without needing a
nursery. This method is very cheap and easy, and produces good
quality fruit trees which give fruit quickly.
Inside the House
+ Hay
Box
The Farmers' Handbook
CONTENTS
This Volume's Authors : Ms Hom Maya Gurung, Mr Bipin Vaidhya, Mr Laxman Rana,
Mr Chris Evans
Translated from Nepali by Chris Evans
Edited, Designed & Produced by: Chris Evans & Jakob Jespersen
Proof reading: thanks to Mike Feingold, Margaret Evans, Ted Albins, Rupert Greville, Jakob
Jespersen, Andy Langford, Looby Macnamara
Photos: Jakob Jespersen, Chris Evans
Addional photo credits are given in Volume Five
Cover illustration: Mr Motilal Phauja
Typing: Chris Evans
Computer Coordination: Graphics Edge, Kathmandu
Published by: Chris Evans, Jakob Jespersen......
Distributors: .......... (see p.8 for address)
Printed by: Format Printing Press, Kathmandu......
First Edition (Nepali) printed June 2001, 7500 copies
This Edition.........
Farmers' Handbook, ISBN 99933-615-0-X
This Volume One: ISBN 99933-615-1-8
The Farmers' Handbook is about techniques for sustainable farming, and this is the first
of 5 volumes. There are 4 techniques presented here. In five volumes there are a total of 44
techniques and approaches.
This Farmers' Handbook is meant for education and awareness raising as well as
practical gardening uses. It is permitted to photocopy for such purposes, but please remember
that photocopying can cause pollution to the environment, is expensive, and does not give a
good quality.
Chapter No:
Subject
.................
..............................
Household Hygiene ..........................
...............................
Introduction to this Volume

Diet & Nutrition
Improved Stove
Hay Box Stove ............................................... 5
Chapters are separated by a yellow page
The Farmers' Handbook this Volume's Introduction

This is the first of five volumes in the Farmers'
Handbook. In all there are forty techniques and approaches
shown, of whch three are in this first volume. Here, we
introduce you to some technologies used inside the house.
The titles of these are given on the previous contents page.
This Farmers' Handbook provides information about
sustainable farming methods, and can also be used as a
resource to run literacy programmes. Information about these,
and how the Handbook can be used, is provided in volume
five. A list of new and/or difficult words and their explanation
is also provided in volume five.
Aims
The main aim of this handbook is to help farmers make
their own farms more successful. This is done by providing
information about using simple methods which strengthen,
rather than damage the environment, and help to create
sustainable livelihoods for future generations.
Background
The techniques described in the handbook are the results
of research made by the farmers of Surkhet and Jajarkot
districts of Mid-Western Nepal. We believe these methods will
also work well for farmers of other countries. However,around
the world there are diverse climates and soils, and so we
expect that small changes will need to be made in the
techniques according to this diversity. Similarly, it may be
necessary to change plant species according to climatic region,
but their function will remain the same. For example, the
chapter on the Living Fence describes the use of thorny plants
as a barrier. In the low altitude, hot Tarai of southern Nepal,
"Babool" (Acacia nilotica) is suitable for this. But this does
not grow in the higher elevations. Here, species such as wild
pear, wild blackberry and Sea Buckthorn make a good living
fence.
Evaluation & Feedback

Comments and questions about the techniques and
approaches described in this handbook will be most welcome.
Suggestions for improvement will be used for future editions
of this handbook and other similar publications.
Structure of the Handbook

Inside the handbook each method is descibed in a
separate chapter, or chapter. All methods are descibed in the
same way:-
Techniques
"What is?" - the method is defined and described.

"Why?" - the benefits of using this method are then
described.
The main part is then "How to?" make or do the method;
In the "How To" section the centre pages show colour
pictures about the method.
After describing how to create the method, how to
maintain, care for, manage and/or operate it is described.
After this, there is an interview with an experienced farmer
who has built and used the method.
Finally, information is given about other chapters in the
Handbook which are directly connected to this method.
There are minor changes to this structure as necessary.
2. Diet & Nutrition
3. Household Hygiene
4. Improved Stove
5. Hay Box Stove
Appropriate Technology Asia

P.O. Box 8975 EPC 849
Kathmandu
Nepal
tel: +977 1 5549774
nepal@arasia.org.uk
www.atasia.org.uk
Permanent Publications
The Sustainability Centre
East MeonHampshire GU32 1HR
tel: +44 1730 823311
info@permaculture.co.uk
www.permaculture.co.uk
Permaculture Association UK
BCM Permaculture Association
London WC1N 3XX
Tel: +44 845 4581805
office@permacuture.org.uk
www.permaculture.org.uk
Distributor and
main contact
addresses
Nepal Permaculture Group

P.O.Box 8132, Kathmandu, Nepal
Tel: +977-1- 252597
email:- npg@earthcare.wlink.com.np
Funding
Support
Support for the production and printing of
The Farmers' Handbook has come from
Methodist Relief & Development Fund (UK),
ActionAidNepal, MSNepal, GTZ Food for
Work, Helvetas Nepal, Hill Agriculture
Research Project (HARP), ICIMOD.
The Farmers' Handbook - "Inside The House", Chapter 2 - Diet & Nutrition
What is
Diet and
Nutrition ?
In order to live, grow and to protect us from various

diseases we need a good, nutritious diet. Nutrition is found in
various types of food. Everyone wishes for themselves and
their family to remain in good health. A healthy family also
makes a healthy and strong homestead. Besides this, you can
also help others to be strong. If the family is sick it needs
constant expense and can cause much worry. A good, nutritious and balanced diet helps to protect and release the family
from sickness. A nutritious diet is not just available from
expensive foods. We can also obtain and prepare a nutritious
diet from easily available local and even wild foods.
This chapter gives information about what foods are
needed for our bodies, where these foods are available, and
simple ways of increasing the quality of our diets.
Do we need
nutrition ?
Why
From the time we are in the mother's womb, for our

whole life long, we need a nutritious diet. To give strength,
for growing, and to protect or help cure us from illness and
disease, there are many types of nutritious elements needed in
the body. If any of these elements are deficient in the body,
we can become weak and sick. Nutritious foods provide us
with energy, help to build and maintain muscle and organs,
and help our bodies to produce other important elements
which we need to keep us healthy.
Common problems of poor diet in the

home and village
If people do not get the needed amounts of the necessary
foods they can suffer from malnutrition and anaemia. Babies under five years, children, pregnant women and lactating
mothers are especially at risk from poor nutrition.
1. Malnutrition. There are several symptoms of malnutrition, for example:
Crying - continuously crying and lack of appetite
Wounds - cuts, boils, etc. spread on the skin and are difficult to heal.
Marasmus
swollen
face, hands,
feet
Nutritious food, in brief,
helps us to remain healthy

helps to protect us from disease
helps our bodies to grow
helps us to build a strong household
Kwashiorkor
thin,
emaciated
The Authors of this Chapter

Ms Hom Maya
Gurung
Mr Bipin
Vaidya,
Health Technician,
Himalayan
Permaculture
Group,
Surkhet, Nepal
Nutrition Programme,
U.M.N.,
Kathamndu,
Nepal
The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House"
2. Anaemia - lethargic; poor skin colour; yellowish skin,

tongue and nails; poor skin texture
Chapter 2 - Diet & Nutrition
3. Vitamin "A" Deficiency

Vitamin A is essential for eyesight.
There are several symptoms of this
deficiency:
Night Blindness - unable to
see in half light
Eyes dry out
A pale, spongy-like spot in
the eye (Whit's spot)
Blindness
One leaf of Colocasia
("Taro") can provide
three children with their
daily needs for vitamin A
How
to get
nutrition ?
For Health through nutrition we need to pay attention to

three things:
1. We need to have the right foods
Foods are best if crops are grown using sustainable
agriculture methods. Crops grown without chemicals are
more nutritious.
2. We need the knowledge to select the right foods
What to eat and how much to eat ? We need to know
how much of what type of food different people need. Who
has special needs ? For example, pregnant and lactating
mothers, or sick people should have extra of some foods.
4. Iodine Defficiency
Goiter - swelling on the throat
Cretinism - mentally handicapped, poor limb use, etc.
Cretinism
Goiter
To
and EnerEnerT
o be Clever and
getic use Iodized Salt
4
3. We need to know how to prepare and serve the right foods

It's not enough to have the right foods, we need to
know how to prepare and cook them. Without this
knowledge, we can sometimes loose many nutrients in
preparation.
To get health from

nutrition we need
both knowledge and
resources.
Types of Food
Just as farming can be divided into various types of
crop. such as livestock, grain crops and orchards, so nutrition
can be divided into three types of food, according to function.
In vegetables and meat there are various nutrients. The most
important nutrients of our diet can be divided into these
groups:
Food for
the body's
growth
Food to protect the

body (fruits)
Food to protect the body

(vegetables)
In this chapter, information is given first about the function of different foods. After that, from page 20 to 22 more
detailed information on nutrition is given. The centre colour
pages show examples of the different foods in each group.
1. Foods Which give Energy (Carbohydrates)

When there is much physical work,
before and after childbirth, and when sick
people are recovering, the body needs more
energy. At this time, if nutritious food is not
available people can become weak and and
catch other diseases more easily. Malnourished
children also need more energy foods.
2. Foods Which Help the Body to Grow

(Proteins)
Healthy babies grow fast But if food for
growth is not available, babies become weak,
and this can cause them many problems in the
future. Growth foods are called Proteins.
Food for
Energy
3. Foods which Protect the Body(Vitamins & Minerals)

The body always needs protection from damaging things.
When recovering after being ill, energy foods (carbohydrates)
help to get better, while vitamins and minerals help protect
the body from disease. These vitamins and minerals are found
in fruit and vegetables.
A Mixed Diet
Free Nutrition from the Forest
A mixed diet means many different kinds of food are

eaten together. Because there are many types of nutritious
elements in a mixed diet it is well balanced. It is not enough
for the body eating just to stop hunger, or to enjoy the taste. A
balanced diet is always needed. Pregnant women, suckling
mothers and babies are in special need of a balanced diet.
Relatively expensive foods like fish and meat are not essential for a balanced diet. It is also possible to make a balanced
diet from foods common in the villages, such as grains,
pulses, green vegetables, spices and fruit.
Community and private forest provides

many types of direct and indirect benefits. These
include nutritious food available from the wild.
Mushrooms, ferns, watercress, bamboo shoots and wild yams are examples of some vegetables that
can be found in the forest. Similarly, fruits like berberis, blackberry, amla, chestnut, hazel, walnut, etc. are also available. It is also
possible to grow many of these on the
edges of farmers' fields to increase the supply,
without needing lots of extra work.
What, is this Poor People's Food ?

There are many nutritious types of food for good
health available in the villages. Nettles, buckwheat, millet, watercress,
ferns, pumpkin shoots, etc. are all
very nutritious. But many cultures regard these as "poor
people's food" and so eat them
less. If you eat such foods,
firstly they are cheap or even
free of cost, and also these foods
can provide many types of essential nutrients for the body - often
more than highly bred "developed"
vegetables.
8
Watercress
Amla for sale collected from the forest
6f_
How to Preserve Nutrients in Food During Cooking
Sprouted pulses are very high in nutrients. Pulses can increase their content of vitamins A and C by up to 10 times
when sprouted. Vitamin B also increases, and iron and
calcium minerals which are in food can be more easily
absorbed by the body. For this increase, only a little water
and time is needed but the benefits are huge. Why not use
easy methods like this?
Cooking potatoes with their skins and in

peices as large as possible will save
vitamin C.
Don't scrub rice before cooking it as this
prevents vitamin B from being washed
away
When cooking rice, don't add too much
water which otherwise you'd have to
throw it away, along with vitamin B.
Unprocessed wheat flour has more
nutrients than processed white rice
flour
Soak pulses for

a day in water,
then wash and
drain them
every day. After
4-5 days the
sprouted pulses
are ready to eat.
Rice de-husked by hand or pre-boiled

contains more vitamin B than rice
dehusked in a mill.
Millet contains more calcium than

most other grains.
When eaten together, grain and

pulses provide the same benefits as
eating meat
Pulses
10
Grains
There are more

vitamins in rice
which has been
de-husked less
More
Benefits
This is like getting free increase in benefits! There are

many types of vitamins which provide more or less nutrients
according to the time. In the spring, vegetables or fruit are
less available, so at this time vitamin deficiency symptoms
are common. But sprouted pulses can be made at any time
and so can solve deficiency problems.
If you wash green leaf vegetables after they have been cut,
nutrients can be lost. Always
wash before cutting.
11
1! Energy Foods
Grains - millet, rice, wheat,
maize, buckwheat, barley, etc.
Sweet Foods - sweet potato, sugar, sugar cane,
honey.
Oily Foods - Ghee,
vegetable oil, but3
ter, cream, fat.
Roots - potato,
taro, yam,
sweet potato,
etc.
@
2
For a Balanced Diet

you need to eat food from
these 3 groups
3#
3 Foods
to Protect
the Body
Green
Leaves - nettle, taro, broad
leaf mustard,
cress, fenugreek,
mustard, radish
leaf, pumpkin shoot,
amaranth, lambs
quarters, spinach, etc.
2 Foods for the

Body's Growth
Animal ProdSalt
ucts - meat, fish,
eggs.
Dairy Products milk, yoghurt, buttermilk, cheese, etc.
Seeds - peanut,
pumpkin seeds,
sesame, walnut, etc.
Pulses - soya, beans,
grams, chick peas, peas,
mung bean, etc.
12
1!
Fruit - mango,
amla, orange, lemon,
guava, pineapple, apricot,
peach, plum, raspberry, berberis, lichi, papaya.
Vegetables - pumpkin, cauliflower, sweet pepper, ladies finger,
beans, carrot, tomato, etc.
13
Partially fermented vegetables in-
Additions to the Normal Diet
crease the amount of iron and calcium

available, which improves digestion
of grains.
Leafy vegetables can be dried in the

shade to keep their nutrition and colour.
Making pickles means vegetables can

be kept for a long time and increases
their nutrition. In places where there
is a long dry season without irrigation, then a monsoon, many vegetables can be grown in only a short
time. Making pickles and oils allows
these vegetables to be stored and
eaten all year round, e.g. cucumber,
tomatoes, radish, leaf vegetables, etc.
when cooking leaf vegetables add a

little oil, keep the pan covered
and don't over cook. This prevents
loss of vitamin A, and absorbtion of
oil improves digestability.
Good Food
and a Healthy
Family
14
Whose
responsibility
?
Sometimes it is necessary to eat more than the recommended daily diet. For example, a normally active
pregnant women should eat an extra handful of
grain, half a handful of pulses, a handful of
green leaf vegetables, and at least one extra
piece of fruit per day more than her daily diet. A
pregnant women who has a heavier workload
should eat an extra one and a half handfuls of
grain, and if she is malnourished she should also
eat an extra one and a half handfuls of grain.
A woman who has just given birth
should eat an extra handful of grain, half a
handful of pulses, a handful of green leaf
vegetables, and at least one extra piece of fruit
per day more than her usual diet.
Six months after childbirth the mother
should eat an extra one and a half handfuls
of grains and an extra one handful of pulses.
One to two years after childbirth
(still suckling) the mother should be eating
an extra one and a half handfuls of grains
and an extra half handful of pulses. At
this stage she should also be eating one
extra handful of green leaf vegetables
and one
extra piece of fruit.
15
After childbirth a mother should drink 5 teaspoons of

"Jwano" (Trachyspernum ammie) each day.
While a mother is pregnant, and just

after childbirth should eat at least 3-4
times a day. For example, 2 full meals
and 2 snack meals.
Similarly, old people cannot digest

much food at one time
and only eat a little.
So they need a
mixed meal 34 times a day.
The best milk for suckling infants is

Without nutritious
food it's not possible
to keep healthy
the mother's own milk. If this is not

given, it can lead to many problems in
the future. So it is much better to feed
mothers' milk rather than powdered milk.
Once a baby stops drinking its mother's milk it should be

given extra food.
Drumstick Leaves
Always feed a malnourished child extra food.
In sub-tropical areas the Drumstick (Moringa) tree

is found [this may have other names
in your area]. This tree has many
benefits. It's leaves are good for
livestock fooder and the flowers are good for bees. Its seed
helps to purify water. It can
be grown easily and quickly
from cuttings. Its flowers, pods
and newly sprouted, young leaves
can all be used as vegetables. The
leaves are especially nutritious and can be dried and
made into a powder. One teaspoon of this leaf powder
provides daily vitamin needs for one person. In cooler,
upland areas where drumstick isn't found, you can store
and use the powder made in the lowlands.
A baby with diarroea should be fed more liquids. An oral

rehydration mixture of salt, sugar and water should be given.
It is even better to give the water skimmed off washed or
cooking rice.
It is better to feed a child little and often. Never stop feeding a sick child. Pursuade it to drink more liquids. A
malnourished child should
be given a spoonful of
honey or sugar a day.
This provides more
energy. Also, a malnourished child
should be fed a banana every day.
16
17
Super Flour
Maize
Wheat
one part
one part
Soya bean
two parts
Then grind the

baked grains
and pulses
separately.
Maize, wheat
and soya bean
flour mixed into
super flour gives
a balanced and
nutritious meal.
It gives nutrients
for energy,
growth and protection together
4
Store the flour in
an airtight vessel.
Then you can use
the processed super
flour for several
days.
Clean the
maize, wheat
and soya
bean
Make the
superflour into a
porridge and
feed to children
above the age of
6 months.
6
Bake each of them
separately
18
Once they're used

to it, they'll eat it
themselves.
19
malnourishment (crying,
Marasmus,
Kwashiorkor
wheat, maize,
barley, millet,
rice, yam, sugar,
cane extract,
potatoes (all
energy foods
exept oils)
used for growth &

development
growth & maintenance of muscle
making hormones,
red blood cells,
digestive juices
helps to make up
energy needs if
lacking in other foods
malnourishment (crying,
Marasmus,
Kwashiorkor,
etc.)
cow pea, fava

bean, soya bean,
amaranth, peas,
fish, meat, eggs,
milk, peanuts,
pumpkin seeds,
walnuts, etc. (all
growth foods)
Oil/Fat
gives the body

strength & vigour
maintain a
balanced body
temperature
assists growth
& development
20
anaemia, lack
of digestive
juices
gives energy
rough skin
helps in the body's
take up of Vit. A
helps in cell
formation
vegetable oils,
ghee (purified
butter), butter,
fatty meat, fish,
peanuts, soyabean
keeps eyes
healthy
Vitamin A
What is it
found in ?
Carbohydrate (energy)
Deficiency
Symptoms
What does it
do?
keeps skin soft

helps to prevent
disease from
spreading
Deficiency
Symptoms
What is it
found in ?
eye disease
green leaf veg(night blindness, etable & yellow
dry eyes)
fruit or vegetables, e.g. ripe
disease spreads papaya, pumpbetween nose,
kin, persimmon, carrot,
ear & throat
spinach, radish
less ability to leaf, mustard
fight off disease leaf, coriander
leaf, beans,
watercress, etc.
Vitamin B group
What does it
do?
Protein (growth)
Food
type
Food
type
increases appetite
helps nerve
growth & function
helps digestion
of carbohydrates
loss of appetite
tingling feet
burning sensation on soles of
feet
sore on tongue
sore in corners
of mouth
unhusked grain
and its flour,
liver, pulses,
green leaf
vegetables,
kidney, fish,
meat
Vitamin C
The various types of food and nutrients needed for good

health are given below. Information about the function of
different elements, effects of deficiency and which foods
provide them is also given.
joining muscle
fibres
helps wounds
heal
helps uptake of
iron and calcium
bleeding
gums; infected
gums
amla, lemons,
guava, oranges,
raspberries,
berberis, fresh
green leaf vegetables, potatoes, sprouted
grains & pulses
21
slow healing
of wounds &
sores
calcium (a mineral)
Iodine (a mineral)
Iron (a mineral)
Food
type
22
What does it
do?
Defficiency
Symptoms
What is it
found in ?
anaemia
green leaf veg dizzyness,
etables, pulses,
weakness, lazi- millet, beaten
ness, breathless- rice, fermented
ness
vegetables,
retarded
liver, meat,
growth of babies eggs, fish,
miscarriage,
sprouted pulses,
still birth
food cooked in
iron pots
making blood,
keeping muscle
healthy
protection
against disease
helps body's
growth
helps brain &
nervous system
gives heat from
energy use
goitre
cretinism,
spasticism
mental disorders, dull
lack of body's
growth
paralysis
helps bone, teeth

formation &
growth
prevents muscle
contraction &
wasting
helps blood
clotting
poor bone/
teeth formation; crumbling
bones
seafood, fish,
iodized salt
milk & milk

products, green
leaf vegetables,
fermented vegetables, grains,
millet, lamb's
quarters, pulses,
fish
Farmers'
Experience
Mrs Thuli
Dhimnan
From Nepal, Lalitpur district,

Burunchuli VDC, Champi village
Mrs Thuli Dhimnan's son Sano
Babu was malnourished as a
baby. Now let's hear her story.
At two and a half years of age

Sano Babu was nothing but skin and
bone. At that time he wouldn't eat and Mrs Thuli Dhimnan
could hardly even walk. It was so hard
to feed him at that time. Then I started to feed him superflour
porridge with his other food. After only a few days he started
to gain weight. After that Sano Babu's two younger brothers
were also born but they didn't have the same problems as
their older brother. This is how Sano Babu's life improved
with a mother's love & care, and good, nutritious food.
Sano Babu at
two and a half
year old,
malnourished
Sano Babu at
twelve years old,
with his mother
and 2 younger
brothers
23
Subjects Related to Nutrition

Good benefits can be had from the information in this
book about nutrition. However, this information is also linked
to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice other related chapters.
Improved Stove Chapter
In Nepal 95% of households use firewood for
cooking food. Everyone knows the effects of too
much smoke in the kitchen but what to do ? Now
let's learn about an easy and successful method.
Hygiene Inside the House Chapter
Improved health isn't only about good food. If the
kitchen and house is dirty, many diseases can
strike. In this chapter information is given about
easy methods to keep the house clean.
Fruit Related Chapters
Information on how to produce and grow improved fruit species at home is given in these
chapters about the fruit nursery, grafting, budding,
top grafting, stone grafting, air layering, fruit
seedling planting and integrated fruit orchards.
Kitchen Garden and Polyculture Vegetable
Growing Chapters
These chapters give information about how to
produce good vegetables with less work.
Grihasthi Communications
Read On !
The Farmers' Handbook - "Inside The House", Chapter 3 - House Hygiene
What is
House Hygiene ?
The house shelters us from the sun,
wind and rain. The
house is also where we
keep food, pots, pans
and clothes necessary
for our lives. Often,
farm tools such as
hooks, spades, ropes,
and water containers
are kept in the home.
The home is also our
place to live and sleep.
So all members of the
household should
know about how to
keep the house clean.
There should be a
custom of sweeping
and plastering. After
The text on the wall says "Always
using any tools or
cover the lid of the water pot".
equipment it's very
important that they are cleaned and stored in their right place.
And everyone needs to cooperate to make a good, clean
household which is enjoyable and hygienic to live in.
Keep the
House Clean ?
Why
Problems leading to not keeping the house clean

Dirty Kitchen :- flies and invisible bacteria like to live in
dirty places. So disease can start in the kitchen and on the
food there. If there's dirt on the floor it can spread to where
the plates, food, water, etc. are.
Going to the toilet :- it's wrong to use just any place as a
toilet. Wherever this is done becomes dirty. This attracts flies
which carry the dirt to our food.
Allowing dogs to eat babies' faeces :- dogs shouldn't be
allowed to eat babies' faeces because it's possible that the dog
can then go and lick food plates.
Dogs licking plates :- after eating waste meat, bones or

even excrement, dogs can come and lick plates in the house.
Many diseases can come from this.
Eating food without washing hands :- we do most work

with our hands. Doing this work makes our hands dirty. So
before preparing food and eating it we should always wash
our hands well with soap, ash or oil seed cake.
Eating stale (old) food :- it's important to eat clean and

fresh food to stay healthy. So when cooking, cook just the
right amount and don't leave food to be eaten later. Old food
can upset the stomach.
flies
Pathways of
spreading
disease
dogs
dirty hands
dust
On the right side the child is sick and the bacteria are
present in the faeces. On the left side the bacteria get into
the other child's plate and food, and the disease is spread.
In this way dysentery, gastro-enteritis, worms, typhoid,
stomach ache, colds and flu can spread.
How do Flies Eat ?

1 Flies vomit up the remains of
their last meal onto our food. This
starts to digest their new meal
The Authors of this Chapter

Ms Hom Maya Gurung
Health Technician, Himalayan
Permaculture Group, Surkhet,
Nepal
Mr Lal Bahadur Budhathoki
Rural Livestock Health
Programme
2 Then the fly eats the old remains and the new food. So, if the
previous meal for the fly was faeces,
it is mixed with the food on our plate
for the fly to eat it. Can we stay
healthy by eating that food ?
Chapter 3 - House Hygiene
2
1
Milk :- milk is clean inside the cow's udder but if the

person milking has dirty hands this will make the
milk dirty. The hands and udder should be washed
along with the milk bucket. The milk should be
boiled and put in a clean container with a clean lid.
Use clean water if making buttermilk or other dairy products,
and the container these are put in must also be very clean.
1
The picture below shows how bacteria can enter

our bodies. In the upper part of the picture are
small drawings of where the food comes from.
From here arrows point lead to the person's mouth.
The numbers given to the pictures below correspond to descriptions on the next page. Read these
as you see the pictures.
1!
Water :- if possible do not use water from streams or

rivers. Use water from wells, springs or drinking
water taps. It's not enough just to use clean water.
The containers it is put in must also be clean and
have a good fitting lid. Finally, the cups, glasses,
plates, etc. to drink from must also be clean.
How bacteria can

move in the kitchen
4
5
Fruit :- fruit is clean on the tree but as soon as we

pick it, it quickly becomes dirty. Before eating, hands
should be clean, and fruit should be washed or peeled .
4 5
Grains and Pulses :- cooked grains and

pulses etc. will become dirty if left uncovered.
Dirty utensils used to transfer or serve food will
also make the food dirty. Keep utensils off the
ground.
6
Vegetables :- just like 4 & 5 above, vegetables

can become dirty. If chemicals are used in the garden vegetables should be washed well in water.
Vegetables such as radishes, carrot and
coriander are often eaten raw, so must be
washed in clean water. Plates, bowls etc. used for eating
should also be very clean. Grinding stones used for making
pickles should be kept clean (see page 13).
4
Bacteria
Bacteria are tiny organisms that the eye cannot see.
These micro-organisms can be beneficial or harmful. In the
soil, without micro-organisms there would be no humus
made, while in the stomach, if there were no micro-organisms we could not digest our food.
Usually, beneficial bacteria live off
dead things, breaking them up and rotting
them down, and helping in uptake (digestion)
by plants' roots. As for harmful bacteria, they
usually live on living tissues, and often damage them. If harmful bacteria get into
wounds, or into our stomach, they can make
us very sick.
Bacteria
Bacteria enjoy dirty, dark and moist
seen
places so if we want to be protected from
possible harm, kitchen pots, pans, clothes,
close up
bedding, etc. should be kept clean, dry and as
well aired as possible. Before and after any
preparation, cooking or eating of food, hands
should be clean. Hands should be washed after
touching hair, animals (livestock/pets), soil,
etc. and before touching food or food containers. Food should remain covered when not in
use and old food should not be eaten, except
by the chickens! If the hands have a wound then use soap to
wash and keep it covered when preparing, cooking or eating
food. No spitting in the kitchen, or if possible, anywhere in
the house or courtyard. If attention is paid to all these things,
then harmful bacteria can't enter and harm our bodies.
6
Let's see
How to keep
the house clean
How many mistakes
can you see in this
picture?
In a well managed house

keeping the
pots and the
kitchen clean is
easy
Water containers
should always be
covered. The text on
the wall says "Always
cover the lid of the
water pot" in Nepali.
In a clean, dry and

light kitchen there is
less fear of disease
A basket for keeping

pots made from local
resources.
Then, this is the way

to pour water
The grinding
stone should be
covered when
not in use.
Dirt can also get into

the milling stone so
this should also be
covered
In a well managed House:

Pots and pans
are cleaned
and put away
in the right
place
Food is covered and put

away
Cleaning and managing inside the house isn't difficult.

Below are some things to pay attention to for cleaning the
house well.
The grinding
stone is covered
and put away
The floor is kept
clean and freshly
plastered or swept
1. Putting away pots, pans, etc. :- pots, pans, plates, etc.

should be stored in a cupboard, rack or woven basket in a
corner of the kitchen. Water containers should also be kept in
a clean and easily usable place in or near the kitchen. The
opening of the water container should always be covered with
a clean lid. The grinding stone should be cleaned and put
away after use.
2. Putting away cutting hooks, digging tools, ropes, etc. :cutting hooks, digging tools, ropes, etc. should be stored in a
place easy to see and access by all the
family (except babies).
Farm tools used

every day are also
kept clean and in the
right place
10
How
to clean the
House ?
3. Putting away clothes, etc. :clothes and bedding should be

stored away from the kitchen
otherwise dust and smoke can
make them dirty. Also, to prevent dust getting from clothes or
bedding into the food these
should be kept in a separate
place, in a rack or cupboard.
11
Water Containers
The Grinding Stone
Drinking water should always be kept clean. If water is

dirty it can cause all sorts of diseases such as diarrhea, stomach aches, colds and flu, worms, etc. Many types of dirt can
get into the uncovered drinking water container. While sweeping the house,
dust can blow
into drinking
water containers, and
drinking that
dirty water
can then
cause sickness. Being
aware of
some simple
things can
help to protect us from these diseases. For example, the water container
should always be covered. The water container's lid can be
home made. For this, first measure the lid of the water container, and make a lid from wood or thick tree bark to fit the
opening. Make a string to tie the lid to
the container. Another method is to use
a small plate or bowl to cover the lid.
The lid of the container should never be
put on the floor otherwise it could get
covered in dirt, which could then get
into the water inside the container.
The grinding stone is a tool used many times a day in the

kitchen. After it has been used, it should be washed and
stored in a clean place. After the grinding stone has been
used, for example to grind spices for pickle, and if it is left
uncovered, then while sweeping or doing other work dirt can
get onto it. We may bring dirt into the house from outside.
This dirt can contain harmful bacteria. If the grinding stone is
left out unwashed then these bacteria can then get into the
spices etc. we are grinding on the stone. This can then cause
illness such as diarrhea, dysentery, worms, and other types of
illness. So we should get into the habit of always washing the
grinding stone before use. After use, again wash the stone
with clean water, dry it and store it covered or upright against
the wall of the kitchen. If this is not possible (for example, if it
is too big), then the stone should be kept covered by a large lid
or bowl, plastic bag, clean cloth or even a plate made of leaves.
If we pay attention to the small ideas given above, we
can protect ourselves from big diseases.
12
13
Other things to pay attention to

During the monsoon there is much more rain, it gets
very muddy everywhere and it's a much busier time for farmers, so everywhere gets much more dirty. So we should pay
much more attention to hygiene at this time, compared to
other times of the year.
It's easier and cheaper to prevent disease

than to cure it. Let's pay attention to this !!
Mrs Atimaya
Sunuwar
From Nepal,
Surkhet district,
Gumi VDC,
Ratadada village
and a member of
"Hariyali" women's
group, Mrs Atimaya
Sunuwar has seen
the benefits of good
house hygiene. Now
let's read about
what she says
Mrs Atimaya Sunuwar
In 1998, I became a member of the local Women's Group and learned a lot,
but first I started keeping the house clean. I use a bowl to keep
the drinking water container covered, and clean it each day. I
keep the pots and pans clean and covered, so they can't get
dirty. I always wash the grinding stone. These things are easy,
and they only seem difficult if you don't have the habit of
doing them. It's the same for cleaning and putting away farming tools such as the cutting hook and digging tools. I put the
dust swept out of the house into a sweepings pit. Apart from
keeping the house clean, this makes good compost too. There's
lots of benefits when we keep the house clean. If we can't keep
ourselves clean, then what other work will we be able to do ?
If we don't
keep the house
clean we can cause
many types of
health problems. If
we can stay healthy
all household work
is easier. But if we
are always sick,
how can we run a
good household ?
14
Farmers'
Experience
15
Subjects Related to House Hygiene

Improved Stove Chapter
cooking food. Everyone knows the effects of too
much smoke in the kitchen but what to do ? Now
let's learn about an easy and successful method.
Diet and Nutrition Chapter
Many diseases can be prevented by a healthy
diet, In this chapter, information is given about
the benefits provided by different types of food.
Waste Water Chapter
This chapter gives information on how to get irrigation for the garden from domestic waste water.
Sweepings Chapter
Information about making good compost from
sweeping the house and yard is given in this
chapter.
Pit Latrine Chapter
Everyone has a responsibility to use a proper
toilet. Information about building and correct
use of the pit latrine is given in this chapter.
Read On !
The Farmers' Handbook - "Inside The House", Chapter 4 - Improved Stove
What is an
Improved Stove ?
Mrs Chitramaya GhartiMagar's improved stove,
Surkhet district, Nepal
The stove is the
heart of the household.
The stove turns our
hard-earned farming
produce into tasty and
wholesome food. A
well managed stove
helps in other work
also. If the stove isn't
good, smoke in the
kitchen will cause
health problems and a
lot of firewood will be used. In this chapter, a useful
method is given to help solve these problems, which can
bring big improvements in the kitchen, and from there to
the household.
This method is called the improved stove. The improved stove can be cheaply made from local resources,
and helps to remove smoke from the kitchen, while using
less firewood.
There are some disadvantages of the improved stove. These are :-
Why
make an
Improved Stove ?
Differences between traditional and improved stoves

Traditional Stove or Tripod
Improved Stove
1. Uses a lot of firewood
1. Uses less firewood
2. Food cooks slowly
2. Food cooks quickly
3. Can only cook one item

at a time
3. Can cook 2 items at a

time
4. Cost of tripod
4. Don't need tripod
5. Smoke stays in kitchen
5. Smoke goes outside
6. Smoke damages health
6. No harm to health
7. Makes kitchen utensils

dirty with soot
7. Doesn't make kitchen

dirty
8. Small children can fall in

the fire
8. No fear of small children

falling in fire
9. Cooking makes the pots

black with soot
9. Pots kept cleaner during

cooking
10. Wind can make the fire jump 10. Stove not affected by wind
11. Can't make tripod from
local resources
11. Stove made from local

resources
12. Food cools quickly
12. Food stays hot longer
1. Large pieces of firewood can't be used;

2. The stove gives less light and direct heat in the kitchen;
3. The stove needs good maintenance, and from
time to time you need to let the smoke into the
kitchen (see page 22 for more information).
Other methods to reduce firewood use

While cooking, keeping the lid on pots
helps to reduce firewood use. This also
helps to conserve nutrients in the food.
Another method of conserving fuelwood is called the
"Haybox". This can be made in a basket or box filled with tightly
packed straw, as in the picture below, As soon as food (rice, pulses,
vegetables, etc.) is brought to the boil on a normal stove, the pan is
removed and placed in the hay box, and covered well. Here, there
is no fire, but the food slowly keeps cooking, due to the conserved
heat in the box. This takes 20-30 minutes longer than on a stove.
After a while, take out the pan and the food is ready to eat.
covered by a lid
straw
cloth
lid of the pot
food inside (just boiled)
straw
basket or box
Chapter 4 - Improved Stove
How
To make an
improved stove ?
Things to consider when making an

improved stove
get all the materials and tools ready first;

map out the height of the kitchen's wall;
map out the stove according to the needs of the family;
allow for a place to clean the stove;
the hole to allow smoke out should be out of the wind.
Making the Improved Stove

An improved stove uses a chimney to pass the smoke
out of the kitchen. There are 2 ways of making a chimney to
do this :1. Making bricks using mud "pancakes"
2. Making bricks using a wooden form or mould
On this stove
unleavened flat
bread can be made
over the mouth of
the firebox, as well
as smoke going
outside
Materials needed to make an improved stove

brick making
form (see p.8)
bowl
cooking
pans
string
stones
digging
tools
straw or
husk
soil
This Chapter's Author:
Mr Laxman Rana
Community Service Group,
Dahachaur 4, Surkhet, Nepal
4
1. Making bricks using mud "pancakes"

In this method only clay, straw or rice husk, water and a
small bowl are needed.
First mix the clay and the husk, or straw cut into 2 inch
lengths, with water to make a stiff texture, like dough.
see the pictures on the next page
2. Making a chimney using a wooden form

or mould
Making bricks from clay "pancakes"

1
The pancakes should be

8 inches in diameter
8i
nc
he
One village will need only one of these forms
Materials needed to make the form

2
The bowl should be 4 inches

in diameter
measuring tape
One 3inch nail
Eighteen 2
inch nails
round
piece of
wood
Place the
bowl upside
down on the pancake and press
down, like this
3
saw
hammer
timber
length 4-5 feet, width 7 inches,

thickness half to one inch
The upturned bowl
will cut the clay
make 30-35 pancakes like this
Cut the timber

into pieces as
shown here
le
7 ngt
in h
ch
es
w
7 in c i d t h
hes
one
piece
This will
make a hole
the same shape
and size as the
bowl
5
2 pieces of length 7 inches

and width 4 inches
Join the 3 pieces of wood

with nails, like this
Saw 2 pieces of wood

as shown below
Now put the round piece

of wood in the form
On the underside
of the form make
an 'X' between
the 4 corners to
find the centre
diameter
4 inches
length
3 inches
Holding the round

piece of wood on
the other side, nail
in the long
nail to
hold it in
place
length 15 inches,
width 4 inches
Making bricks in the Form

mix the clay, husk or straw and water
wash the form well
scatter a little husk or straw in the form so it sticks to
Join the pieces

with nails, as
shown here
the wet wood
Now put the clay

mix into the Form
Let's see
Scrape off the excess

clay to make level
How to make an
improved stove
1
The form
used to
make the
chimney
Turn the form

upside down and
tap gently
Leaving the
clay brick on
the ground,
gently lift the
form off
2
To make the
chimney,
12-13 bricks
like this are
needed
Make 1 brick without a hole

for the top of the chimney
10
Make 2 bricks
looking like this
Rice husk, or
chopped straw
3
Husk or
straw mixed
to a thick
paste
11
Cleaning the Form
Smoke
leaves here
Pressing the
clay/straw mix
into the form
;fpnf
6
12
Bridging
stones
Red arrows
show pathway
for smoke
Yellow lines
show empty
spaces left inside the stove
1 brick
without a
hole
Bridging
stone over
the firebox hole
Build up the
stove, leaving
holes for pots
and a path for
smoke
Chimney brick after

removing from the form
12-13 of
these bricks
2 bricks
like this
Starting to
build the
stove
13
Holes for pots
Hole for smoke
In the below pictures is the process

of building the stove in drawings
9
Cooking
area
prepared
Put firewood here

Now start to build
the chimney with
bricks made with
the form (or clay
pancakes)
10
First, estimate
the best place for
the stove, and
map out with the
types of pots to
be used and a
chimney brick
If using the clay pancakes for the
chimney, use them to measure
11
Mark out according to the

measurements
After plastering,
the stove is allowed to dry out
and can then be
used
14
Mark out the

areas and pathways for firewood,
fire and smoke
15
Start to build the

walls according to the
measurements
Cooking area
finished
Inside the stove

looks like this
Below the second pot-hole a

small hump is
made. This
sends the
flames right up
to the base of
the pot
Iron rod
Use an iron rod if available. This sits

inside the pot's hole and allows
smaller pots to rest on it
This shows the

inside when a
fire is burning
Between the
hump and base
of the pot a 1.5
inch gap
smoke going
out
Continue
to build
up the
walls
fire burning in
clay hump
the stove
Note: the pots should sit down in the hole (see page 22)
16
17
Now use a string to

measure the hole
going outside
After placing 1213 of these bricks

the level of the
hole is reached
First
chimney
brick
Place the
chimney
bricks like
this
This is
the way
the top 3
bricks
are
placed
(see
p.20)
After placing the

top 3 bricks, the
hole from the
chimney and the
hole going outside should fit
exactly
3
2
1
If using the clay pancake

bricks they look like this
18
19
The method to place the top 3 bricks is shown below
Brick 1 seen
close up
Brick 1
Brick 3 seen
close up
Brick 3
Hole to the outside
Brick 2
Finally, plaster the

stove, and allow it
to dry out. Then it
is ready to use
Brick 2 seen
close up
20
21
Things to pay attention to

when using the stove
In this picture the stove is being
used correctly - the pot is
low in the hole where
more flames reach the
base, and smoke can escape.
In this picture the stove is not
used well - because the pot
does not sit low in the hole,
the flames do not reach
close. In this way food
cooks slowly. This is due to using the wrong
size pots for the hole.
If the pots are the wrong size for the
hole then, as in the diagram, put 3
small stones under the pot to
draw the flames up where
they heat the base of the
pot. But this allows more
smoke into the kitchen.
Cleaning the Improved Stove
watch if smoke is passing or not

watch if food is cooking fast or slow
clean the chimney every week or 2 (see below)
plaster the stove daily (do not use dung)
measure how much firewood is used
Once every 2 weeks wrap
cloth on the end of a stick to
1
clean the chimney
2
stones or clay
A well made stove, used correctly, will not let smoke out
into the kitchen. But this can cause another problem in that
the smoke helps to control various pests which otherwise can
damage timber, stored grain and seed. Smoke, protects the
timbers from these pests. Therefore, every few days smoke
needs to be let into the house.
22
stick
with
cloth
3
Re plaster
Open the stove to remove

the dirt and soot
4
Clean from the

outside also
23
Mrs Chitramaya
Gharti Magar
From Nepal, Surkhet district,

Dahachaur - 4, and member of
"Ritu Laligurans" and
"Hariyali" women's group Mrs
Chitramaya Gharti Magar has
made an improved stove. Now
let's read about what she says.
Because smoke affects our

health it's important to make the
smoke go outside. In the imMrs Chitramaya
proved stove less firewood is also
Gharti Magar
used, so time is saved collecting
fuel as well as helping to protect
the forest. To make this stove stone, clay, rice husk and a
form to make the chimney is all that's needed. We didn't
have a form in our village, so I used a bowl to make 35-36
clay pancakes. The form also uses more clay. Making the
pancakes needs less clay and you don't need the form, so I
made up this method. There's no smoke from my stove, and
it uses less firewood. Once cooked, the food stays warm a
long time left on the stove. There are no flies and the
food can't burn. Also, the pans don't get so black with
soot. Now, I want teach others in the village how
to make the stove.
Farmers'
Experience
What is a
Farmers Handbook, Inside the House, Booklet 5, Hay Box
Hay Box?
The need of today is to conserve, recycle and use resources
efficiently, and to save waste. To
do this many types of stove have
been developed and taught
around the world, in order to save
fuel in cooking.
One method of cooking
while saving fuel is called the
Hay Box. Food such as rice,
pulses andvegetables are brought
to the boil on a traditional stove,
and then immediately placed in a
box packed with straw, and covered. The food continues to cook
even though it is not on a stove,
because the heat in the pan is
enough to keep cooking the food,
while the box and straw stop the
heat from escaping. After some
time the pan is removed and the
food is ready to eat.
In this booklet we describe
how to make and use a hay box out A pan of cooked rice
of locally available resources, to
taken out of a hay box
conserve fuel use in the home.
Use a
Hay Box?
Why
Advantages of using the Hay Box
Food can be cooked with less fuel (wood, kerosene, gas,

electric, etc.)
Because food is not boiled for a long time,
many vitamins are saved
Because pots are in the flames less, they
last longer
Less time is spent cooking, so there is
more time for other activities
The hay box can be made from local resources
It doesnt require much skill to make and use.
How
You can make a Hay Box in your own home for your
own use. Theres no need for any special skill. In this booklet
we show how to use a traditional bamboo basket to make the
box. But instead, a wooden box, cardboard box or even an
old fridge or drum can be used. The size of the box should
be about 4-6 inches wider than the width of the pot. Because
in Nepal the bamboo basket is available everywhere, we find
this easiest to use.
Materials needed to make a Hay Box
Once the traditional stove has brought the food to the

boil, the packing of the hay box (hay, straw, wool, cottoon,
etc) keeps the heat in and this is enough to keep the food
cooking. This may take 10-20 minutes longer than if using a
direct flame. In this way, for example, rice is brought to the
boil, packed in the hay box and covered. It will continue to
cook itself and will be ready in about 20 minutes longer than
on a normal fire.
Lid for
box
Bamboo
basket
("box")
This booklets author

Chris Evans, advisor,
Himalayan Permaculture Group, Nepal
www.designedvisions.com
2
The Farmers Handbook Inside the House
to make a
Hay Box ?
Cooking pots
Booklet 5 - Hay Box
Straw/hay
(or wool,
cotton)
Towel or
blanket
Method
Straw, hay etc. is packed tightly into whatever type of box or
container is available. While packing, leave enough space for
the size of pot you will be using. Keep some straw aside to
cover the pot later. Keep a towel or blanket ready. The box is
now ready for use.
Instead of straw, dried grass, wool or cotton can also be used.
Lets see
Pack straw tightly into
the bamboo basket.
Instead of straw, dried
grass, wool or cotton
can also be used.
Once the box is ready, the cooking can begin in the kitchen.
Start to cook your usual food, such as rice, vegetables, etc.,
on your traditional stove, as you would normally do.
In the pictures on the next 4 pages we use the example of

cooking rice in the hay box. But whatever food you are cooking, use the stove just to bring it to the boil. As soon as the
food is boiling it is removed from the stove and placed in the
hay box.
4
How to make the

Hay Box
While packing, leave

enough space
in the basket
for the pot to
be placed.
3
Booklet 5 - Hay Box
In a few minutes the

food will start to
boil. Then, cover the
pot and remove it
from the stove.
In the kitchen,
start to cook
your usual
food in the
usual way.
Place the
wrapped pot
in the middle of the
packed
straw.
Then
completely
wrap the
pot in a
blanket or
towel.
Pack more straw on top

to completely fill
the box.
Cover it all with

sacking or a blanket.
9
Booklet 5 - Hay Box
10
Finally, place a
rock or heavy
object to weigh
down the lid.
Maintenance
11
In 20-30 minutes the

food in the pot will
finish cooking by itself. After this, you
can remove the food
whenever you are
ready to eat.
How to use
the Hay Box
After a short while the food in the pot will start to boil.
Then, cover the pot and take it off the stove. Then, completely wrap the pot in a thick towel or blanket. Put the pot in
the middle of the packed straw. Cover it with more packed
straw to completely fill the box. Cover the box with a lid, and
finally place a weight on the lid.
lid of the box

straw/hay etc.
blanket
lid of pot
food just boiled
straw/hay etc.
basket or box
12
Here the rice is
cooked
perfectly.
The food will cook by itself

inside the box in 20-30 minutes.
After this, you can remove the food
to eat, or you can leave it there for
3-4 hours or until you are ready to
eat, and it will stay warm.
Booklet 5 - Hay Box
Inside the box with its

lid and tightly packed straw,
food cooks and stays warm
for a long time. It works in
the same way that freshly
boiled tea is kept hot for a
long time inside a thermos
flask.
Farmers'
Mrs Shivakala
Experience
Rokaya
Another benefit of using the hay box is that because the

food is not boiled for a long time, vitamins are not lost in
over-cooking, so the food is more nutritious.
From Humla district capital

Simikot Mrs Shivakala Rokaya
is a member of Jolimungra
Vegetable Growers Group.
She's made and used a hay box let's read about her experience.
Another way of saving fuel in cooking

Just by keeping
the lid on the pot
while cooking saves a lot of
fuel. Nutrients in the food are
also saved.
Good
Food &
Healthy
Family
10
Whose
Responsibility
?
I find this hay box really

easy to use and very benefiMrs Shivakala Rokaya
cial. I can start cooking then
go off to the fields or the forest and just at the time when
I start to feel hungry come home and the food is ready,
hot and fresh in the hay box. I boil the rice in the pot and
skim off the excess water, then wrap the whole pot with
rice and lid in a thick cloth and place inside the hay box,
and it's cooked in just half an hour. I reckon that it saves
about the same amount of fuelwood that I'd use to cook
the vegetables each meal. I really like
methods like this, that can make our lives
easier as well as helping to protect
the environment
Booklet 5 - Hay Box
11
Subjects Related to the Hay Box

book about the hay box. However, this information is also
linked to other methods. For extra benefits lets read, learn
and practice from other related chapters.
Hay Box
Chapter
Improved Stove
Chapter
Diet and Nutrition

Chapter

cooking food. Everyone
knows the effects of too
much smoke in the kitchen
but what to
do ? Now lets
learn about an
easy and
successful
method.
Many diseases can be

prevented by a healthy
diet, In this chapter,
information is given
about the benefits provided by
different
types
of
food.
Read On !
Near the House

Part One
CONTENTS
Subject
This Volume's Authors : Chris Evans, Mr Laxman Rana, Mr Bhuvan Khadka, Ms Hom Maya
Gurung, Mrs Deu Maya Rana, Ms Bal Kumari Giri, Mr Narayan Acharya, Mrs Naomi Saville,
Mr Satananda Upadhaya
Typing: Chris Evans
Farmers' Handbook, ISBN 99933-615-0-X.......
This Volume : 99933-615-2-6......
Chapter No:
Introduction to this Volume .......................... 1

Waste Water Use ............................................ 2
Sweepings Pit ................................................ 3
Pit Latrine ..................................................... 4
Compost ......................................................... 5
Mulching ....................................................... 6
Double Digging ............................................. 7
The Farmers' Handbook is about techniques for sustainable farming, and this is the
second of 5 volumes. There are 12 techniques presented here. In five volumes there area total of
44 techniques and approaches
Seed Saving ................................................... 8
that photocopying can cause pollution to the environment, is expensive, & does not give a good
quality.
Liquid Manure .............................................. 10
Integrated Pest Management ....................... 9
Livestock Management ................................. 11

Beekeeping .................................................... 12
Non-Cement Drinking Water ....................... 13

This is the second volume of a five volume production
of the Farmers' Handbook. In all there are forty four
techniques and approaches shown, of whch twelve are in this
second volume. In this volume we introduce you to some of
the methods used near the house (part one). The titles of these
are given on the previous "Contents" page.
This Farmers' Handbook provides information about
sustainable farming methods, and can also be used as a
resource for runnning literacy programmes. Information
about these, and how the Handbook can be used, is provided
in volume five. A list of new or difficult words and their
explanation is also provided in volume five.
Aims
Background
also work well for farmers of other countries. However,
around the world there are diverse climates and soils, and so
we expect that small changes will need to be made in the
fence.

Comments and/or questions about the techniques and

same way:-

described.
2. Waste Water Use

3. Sweepings Pit
4. Pit Latrine
Techniques
5. Compost
6. Mulching
7. Double Digging
8. Seed Saving
9. Integrated Pest Management
10. Liquid Manure
11. Livestock Management
12. Beekeeping
13. Non-Cement Drinking Water

P.O. Box 8975 EPC 849
Kathmandu
Nepal
tel: +977 1 5549774
nepal@arasia.org.uk
www.atasia.org.uk
London WC1N 3XX
Tel: +44 845 4581805
Distributor and
main contact
addresses
tel: +44 1730 823311

Tel: +977-1- 252597
Funding
Support
Support for the production and printing of The
Farmers' Handbook has come from Methodist
Relief & Development Fund (UK),
ActionAidNepal, MSNepal, GTZ Food for Work,
Helvetas Nepal, Hill Agriculture Research Project
(HARP), ICIMOD.
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 2 - Waste Water Pit
What is
Waste Water Use ?

There are
many problems of
water shortage in
our homes and
villages. Apart
from needing
water to irrigate
nurseries and
kitchen gardens, in
many places it can
be difficult to get
water even for the
essentials of daily
life. It's not possible to carry water
from far away to
In Surkhet, Nepal, waste water is colput on the garden.
lected from the taps to water vegetables
In places where it
isn't plentiful, waste water from washing dishes, hands, faces
and bathing can be used to irrigate kitchen gardens. This is
called Waste Water Use. Water that has already been used
once is still a valuable resource to use again.
There are many resources around us which can be easily
and beneficially used . Problems come only when we don't
know the methods to do this.
Why
use
Waste Water ?
How
to use
Waste Water ?
Benefits of Using Waste Water
Where to Collect the Waste Water ?
Water isn't wasted after
On the edge of the courtyard around the house there

should be a fixed place for washing hands, pots, etc. When
the pit is made close to this, the waste water can be collected.
When making a pit, it should be close to the household's
kitchen garden or home nursery, so irrigation is easy.
washing dishes and bathing
We can use that water to

increase crop production
Increase resources for the

household
Waste resources are recycled

Keeps the house and courtyard clean
?
??
Because ashes and other materials are used in the waste

water, it is very fertile. So it gives nutrients to crops as well as
irrigation. Plants grow really well with these extra nutrients.
This is a good use of waste resources.
When to Make it ?
Ways of collecting waste water can be made at any time.
Waste water collection helps to keep the area clean all year
round. It's especially useful for irrigation in the dry season.
Materials Needed to Make a Waste Water Pit
Digging
Tools
Stones
Bamboo
or thin
sticks
Mr Laxman Rana
2
The Farmers' Handbook, "Near The House - 1"
Chapter 2 - Waste Water Use
There are different methods of collecting and using

waste water. You can use the method which is best for you
according to your own needs and resources. For any method,
first all water should be collected at one point. Water can be
collected into a pit and then a watering can be used to put it
on the garden. Or a series of small canals can lead from the
washing place directly to the where the water is needed in the
garden.
Let's See
If water used in
the house goes to
waste it cannot
help to grow
crops, and also
makes the courtyard dirty.
After collecting
waste water like
this, it can be used
in the garden.
Even more water can be used this

way if bathing and clothes washing are also done here.
The pit should be kept clean, and the water used
as quickly as possible, otherwise mosquito and other
pests or diseases can collect.
A draining platform like this

can be made to
send the waste
water straight to
the garden
4
How to make a
waste water pit
In the very same

place with very
little input, a
good kitchen
garden can be
made
Here is the
washing place
At the washing up place,

on one side the clean
pots are dried, and on
the other the waste water is made to flow away.
Because the waste

water is well managed to go to all the
right places in the
garden, this is
enough for watering and fertilizing
the vegetables in
the beds.
From a community tap or well

there is enough
water for several kitchen
gardens or
nurseries.
Then the waste

waster flows
by itself onto
the garden.
In
place,
to send
easily
6
this way the washing

drying place and place
the water away can be
arranged.
Maintenance
How to
Maintain the
Waste Water Pit
Where to use the Waste Water ?

Using waste water collected daily
Here waste water
from a community tap is collected in a canal.
Then the canal

flows to a pond.
to water small kitchen gardens

to water nurseries of fruit, fodder trees, fodder grass
seedlings etc. for your own use or to sell or trade
to raise vegetable seedlings for the kitchen garden
Because nurseries or kitchen gardens are made near the
house, livestock like chickens, goats and pigs mustn't be left
to roam the area because they will destroy the plants there.
They will also damage the pit or tank.
If waste water is sometimes
added to the compost pile, it will help
it to rot down quicker.
Gardens
are then
irrigated
from the
pond.
Around the edges of the

waste water pit perennial
plants like lemon grass,
comfrey, tree tomato and
fruit trees can be planted.
Because it is always moist,
these plants will grow and
produce well.
The pond
seen close
up.
Read On !
Mrs Tilisara Gharti
Subjects Related to Waste Water
From Nepal,
Surkhet district,
Gumi - 8, Pandit
Kanla village, and a
member of "Women
Improve" women's
group, Mrs Tilisara
Gharti has made an
waste water pit.
Now let's hear about
her experience.

book about collecting and using waste water. However, this
information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits
let's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.
Waste Water Pit Chapter
Farmers'
Experience
10
Mulching
Chapter
Kitchen Garden and

Polyculture Vegetable
Growing Chapters
At first I didn't
know about this method. All the water from washing up
went to waste. Now, after learning about this method, a
waste water pit has been made. From here, a small ditch
carries water into the nursery and kitchen garden area. Now
the washing area is better managed, a bamboo rack has
been made, and water is collected into one place. From
here it goes to the garden. A small amount of work has
solved the water problem. Now waste water from our
house is used for vegetables, and a fruit seedling nursery.
This method is really easy and efficient. Now others are
starting to use the same method in the village.
Chapters on how
to make various
Nurseries
Mrs Tilisara Gharti
House Hygiene
Chapter
Mulching Chapter
If water is to be used it must first be conserved. A mulch covers the soil and prevents
water loss, so giving more water for the plants.
In this chapter is information on how to do
mulching.
11
Different types of plants need different types of

management to grow them. Information on how to
build and manage the home nursery, fruit nursery,
air nursery, hot bed and leaf pots is given in these
chapters.
Kitchen Garden and Polyculture Vegetable

Growing Chapters
How to make and manage a home vegetable
garden for permanence, ease and simplicity.
Information on doing less work for more
production while also being able to produce a
wide range of fresh vegetables is given in
these chapters.
House Hygiene Chapter

Don't think that health improvement comes
only from eating a good diet. If the house and
kitchen are dirty, even more diseases can
spread. Information about easy techniques to
keep the house clean are given in this chapter
Chapters on how to make various

Nurseries
What is a
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 3 - Sweepings Pit
Sweepings Pit ?
Mrs Maiya Khatri is growing

potatoes in her sweepings pit
Dirt is the home of disease. If we don't pay attention to
regular home cleaning we can suffer from various illnesses. It
can be very expensive to be cured from these illnesses. Now
let's think, how dirty are our homes and courtyard ? Yes,
they're dirty, but there's an easy way to solve this. The dirt
should be collected in one fixed place. Extra money or work
isn't needed for this. The place to put the dirt is called a
sweepings pit.
The Sweepings pit is where dirt, leaves and other organic waste swept up from inside and outside the house is
kept, and it is used to make compost as well as keeping the
area clean and tidy .
make a
Sweepings Pit ?
Why
How
to make a
Sweepings Pit ?
The Benefits of a Sweepings Pit
How to make :-
dirt is put in a fixed place

this keeps the home and courtyard clean
this helps to protect against illness
the decomposed sweepings can be used as an extra
source of compost
It's really easy to make a sweepings pit. It doesn't take much

time and can last for a long while.
We sweep up daily
and lots of sweepings
are produced. If we
use it right this becomes an important
resource - it makes
great compost.
Place to make it :-
Time to make :The sweepings pit can be made at any time.

It's good to start it after the monsoon, if you
have one.
The sweepings pit should be made at the
edge of the courtyard.
Method of making a Sweepings Pit

There are 2 ways of making it :(a) digging a pit;
(b) without digging a pit
Materials needed to build a Sweepings Pit
Hook (cutting tool)
This Chapter's Authors:

Ms Balkumari Giri
Mr Bhuvan Khadka
2
Leaves, etc. (sweepings)
Chapter 3 - Sweepings
Small sticks
or bamboo
Crow bar
Broom
Let's See
(a) Digging a pit
How to make a
sweepings pit
You can choose the best place on the edge of your courtyard to dig the pit. The depth and width of the pit is up to you
- see how much you sweep up daily, and according to filling
the pit once or twice a year, decide
how big the pit should be.
After making the pit, the
collected sweepings are very
good compost for fruit trees.
In one farmer's experience,
fruit trees given compost
from sweepings fruited 2
years before those which
didn't have it.
Sweepings
put on the
fruit tree
(b) Not digging a pit

Put 4 strong upright corner posts in the ground and in
between put in smaller uprights. Weave bamboo or other
small sticks to make a basket-type effect. This needs to be
good and strong, to last a long time. Fill this with the daily
sweepings, making sure they can't spill out.
If sweepings can be kept for a long time this can be used
as compost for your own field crops or kitchen garden. So it's
good to make a pit or frame to hold as many sweepings as
possible, for a long time.
The pit is made in the

right place to collect the
sweepings, on the edge of
the courtyard
Put 3-5 seed

potatoes onto
fertile soil
placed in the
bottom
Like this you need to develop the habit of daily putting

the sweepings into the pit.
4
A stick buried
in the middle
of the heap ( )
will help the
sweepings
to rot quicker
To make the heap,

first put 4 upright
sticks at the corners
Then put
smaller
sticks in
between
If potatoes are
planted in the
heap, you need
to water from
time to time
Sweeping into this

from the house and
courtyard every day
will fill the heap and
make compost
Vertical Potato Growing

There are many methods to give maximum production
from a small area with minimum inputs. Of these, to get quick
benefits from a small space potatoes can be grown using this
method. This way of growing potatoes is done on an area
about 1 metre square and one metre high. So from a square
metre of land a small family doesn't have to buy potatoes.
After 4 months the

potatoes are ready
for harvesting.
This is also called
"vertical growing"
When the heap is taken
apart, both potatoes and
compost can be removed
Using vertical
growing on this
much land, 12-15
kg of potatoes
can be produced
Benefits of Vertical Potato

Growing
produce lots of potatoes on
Using bamboo in a
pot, here strawberries are grown
in the sweepings
8
minimum land
minimum input gives more
production
don't need much seed
don't need to dig or earth up
makes use of waste biomass
Make a frame one

metre square from upright
sticks, and weave or tie
horizontal sticks or bamboo
up to a height of 1 metre.
Put 2-4 inches of leaf litter
and compost on the bottom.
On top of this place 4-5 seed
potatoes, spaced separately
and evenly. Now cover the
potatoes with 4 to 6 inches
of leaf litter and sweepings.
The potatoes will sprout, and
after they sprout above the
leaf litter, from time to time
should be covered with more
litter and sweepings, allowing just an inch of the tip
sticking out. Keep on adding
the sweepings daily. Keep
covering like this for up to 3
months, then stop adding for
one month until the potatoes
start to flower at about 4
months. At this time, the
heap can be taken down and
potatoes harvested all at
once, or as needed.
10
one metre
Vertical Growing Method
Farmers'
Experience
potatoes
sweepings
one metre
Mrs Rikali Gurung

Gumi - 3, Ratadada village,
and a member of "Hariyali"
women's group Mrs Rikali
Gurung has made a sweepings pit. Now let's hear about
her experience.
At first I didn't know this
method and sweepings were
Mrs Rikali Gurung
thrown away anywhere. But compost made from sweepings is
really well rotted and fertile. Our corn grew much better
using this compost compared to any other compost. Before,
all the dirt from the house and yard went to waste. Now, in 5
months we get 15-16 baskets of compost. At first I put it on
the corn, and by the time this is harvested another load is
ready for the wheat. There's even
some left for the kitchen garden. In
this way, waste resources are well
used and the house and yard are kept
clean. This gives many benefits, and
I'm going to keep using this
method each year.
11
Subjects Related to Sweepings

book about the sweepings pit. However, this information is
also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read,
learn and practice from other related chapters.
Chapters on how to make various Nurseries
Different types of plants need different types of
management to grow them. Information on how to
build and manage the home nursery, fruit nursery,
air nursery, hot bed and leaf pots is given in these
chapters.
House Hygiene chapter
Don't think that health improvement comes ony
from eating good food. If the house and kitchen
are dirty, even more diseases can spread. Information about easy techniques to keep the house clean
are given in this chapter
Kitchen Garden and Mixed Vegetable Growing
garden for permanence, ease and simplicity ?
Information on doing less work for more production while also being able to produce a wide range
of fresh vegetables is given in these chapters.
Read On !
What is a
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 4 - Pit Latrine
Pit Latrine ?
Vishnu Maya Siris's temporary pit latrine, Surkhet
When eating, people will take in and digest any food

nutrients they need, and what is left is pushed out of the
body - this is called excrement, or faeces. The proper
place to dispose of this is in a toilet or latrine. Without
toilets, excreting in just any place can lead to many problems of health and pollution.
This chapter gives information on how to solve these
problems, and at the same time getting more benefits from
the toilet.
make a
Pit Latrine ?
Why
What if we don't make
a latrine ?
Where's
the toilet?
the environment is dirty

many types of disease can spread
there's no use for this local resource
so the resource is wasted
self esteem and dignity is lost
To avoid these problems, and to turn our waste into

benefits for minimum expense, we can build temporary pit
latrines.
Temporary Pit Latrine - how to get more benefits

from the toilet
to make a
Pit Latrine ?
How
Where to make the temporary pit latrine ?

The pit latrine should be made on the edge of a field or
terrace. Also, you can select a spot according to wherever you
want to plant a fruit tree.
Materials needed to
build a Pit Latrine
Straw matting
or sacking
A pit latrine made from your own local resources is

called a temporary pit latrine. When the pit of one latrine is
full another pit latrine is dug in another place. By doing this
you can plant a useful and valuable fruit tree in the fertile pit.
Mixing soil and leaf litter with the excrement and urine as it
is made means that it quickly rots down to
make good compost. These are free nutrients
for the fruit tree.
Dried leaves
Straw or
grass
Wooden
planks
Flat stones
Thin
sticks
Crowbar
Mr Laxman Rana
2
Digging and
cutting tools
Chapter 4 - Pit Latrine
String
3
1. Digging the Pit

Dig a pit 1-1.5 metres deep and a metre wide. Fill the pit
half-full with straw or leaf litter. Don't think the work of
digging the pit goes to waste, as you can plant a fruit tree in
the pit after it is full.
Let's See
how to make a
pit latrine
2. The frame and lid

There needs to be strong timber over the pit to
support the frame and the weight of a person using
the latrine. At right angles to this put smaller
sticks, leaving a space for the toilet hole. Fill in
all the gaps using sticks and soil. Using planks is
best as they join tightly and be kept clean easily. If you can't get planks, then sticks and soil
will do. Make a raised footstep either side of
the hole. This keeps the feet from getting wet. Finally, make a lid which fits and covers the hole well, keeps
flies out, and can be moved easily.
First dig a
pit 1-1.5m
deep and 1
metre wide
3. Covering around the latrine

To surround the latrine so no one can see
inside, use straw matting, sacking, cut sticks such
as wormwood or morning glory, or even maize
stalks. This should include a doorway to make
getting in and out easy.
Fill the pit

half full
with straw
or leaf litter
Now your pit latrine is ready to use

4
5
Now put
large timber
over the top
ches
10 in
che
6 in
Leaving a hole in the centre, fill in the gaps with

other sticks or planks
Fill in the
smallest
spaces with
straw and
mud
Cover the top

with a thick
layer of soil
Put in stakes
and surround
the latrine with
local materials
Maintenance
How to
Maintain
the Pit Latrine
Things to consider when using the pit latrine

Each time you have used the latrine, cover your deposit
with soil and/or leaf litter. From time to time add ash which
improves the rotting of the excrement. Always keep the lid on
the hole.
Putting soil, leaf litter and ash on the excrement prevents
flies settling. This also helps micro-organisms to rot down the
excrement quicker. This makes nutrients ready for trees
planted in the pit. When the pit is full the contents will settle
so add an extra foot or 2 of soil on top. If soil, leaf litter,
ash, etc. is well mixed as the pit is
filled then a seedling can be planted
straight away. If these materials aren't
mixed in, it takes the excrement a
long time to rot down.
Make a well
fitting lid and
stones or wood
to put the feet
on
This is how, with good use of a

latrine's waste, excrement can be
turned into a useful resource.
*
8
A permanent toilet can cost $200 to build.

Can we afford this? For us farmers the
temporary pit latrine is cheaper AND more
useful than an expensive toilet !
After going to
the toilet cover
it with soil or
vegetation
Always keep
the lid when
the latrine is
not in use
When you come out
from the latrine wash
your hands well with
soap or ash
10
Farmers'
Experience
Mrs Chavi Gurung
From Nepal, Surkhet

district, Gumi - 5,
Krishnagar, Mrs Chavi
Gurung has made a pit
latrine for her own
household. Now let's hear
about her experience.
There are lots of benefits from making a pit

latrine. Waste is made useful, and the house and yard
is kept clean. Before making the latrine, first I dug a
Mrs Chavi Gurung
round pit After digging the
pit I put planks over the top. I left a hole in the top, and made
a lid to fit exactly over the hole. This all stopped the latrine
from smelling. After going to the toilet, soil and leaf litter are
put in. When this pit is nearly full, we start digging a new pit
latrine. On the full pit we add more soil and can plant a
mango seedling straight away. I'll be planting another mango
in the new one when it's ready. It takes about a year to fill one
pit. Now others have seen how easy it is, and are starting to
make the same type.
11
Subjects Related to Pit Latrine

In this book benefits can be had from the information
about the pit latrine. However, this information is also linked
to other methods. For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from other related chapters.
Pit Latrine
chapter
House Hygiene
chapter
Building a pit latrine
is good for the health.
But dangers to health
can come from many
different places. Information on where dangers come from, and
how can we
protect ourselves from
them is given
in this chapter.
Fruit Tree Planting chapter

After raising good seedlings in the fruit nursery, if they're not
planted well, all the
work can go to waste.
Information on more
productive
planting is
given in this
chapter.
Read On !
What is
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 5 - Compost
Compost ?
Mrs Saraswati
Adhikari and her
improved compost
heap, Begnas VDC,
Kaski district, Nepal
All farmers have experience of making compost. They

also know very well how much compost is needed for their
plants. But if the compost used on the fields is not well rotted
down, it can cause more problems of pests and disease, rather
than benefits. Like carrying fodder from the forest and tending livestock, carrying the compost is hard work, but it should
also give good production. But if the compost is poor quality
all the work can be wasted and result in loss for the farmer.
So this chapter gives information on easy methods to
produce good quality compost.
Why
make
Compost ?
Things to consider when making compost
it is possible to produce compost quickly

compost should be well-rotted and crumbly
unrotted compost can cause pests and disease for crops
it's easier to carry well rotted compost
more benefits can be gained from smaller amounts of
well-rotted compost
How
to make
Compost ?
To improve the method of compost making, first it's

necessary to understand how compost is made and what
things it needs to make it.
Materials needed to rot animal manure and

plant materials (biomass) : things to decompose :- leaf litter, grass, animal manure, etc.;
decomposing agent :- micro-organisms break down biomass,
manure, etc. These micro-organisms are present in rotted
compost and fertile soil;
moisture :- micro-organisms need the
Quick rotting
correct moisture to work;
compost needs
air :- micro-organisms also need air to good managework;
ment of the mi right temperature :- it shouldn't be
cro-organisms
too hot.
Materials needed to build a Compost Heap

soil or well rotted
compost
unrotted manure, leaf

litter, straw, etc. from the
livestock sheds
small twigs or branches
Chapter 5 - Compost
poles
3
How to make Compost ?

1 When making a compost heap first put a layer of thin
From time to time move the pole from

side to side to keep the hole open
sticks and branches on the ground

layer of soil or
rotted compost
layer of fresh manure,

straw, leaf litter, etc.
2 Then put a layer of the material to be rotted - manure
and biomass from the livestock pens, leaves, etc.
3 Then put a thin (2 inch) layer of soil or fine, well
rotted compost. This layer should completely cover

the one beneath so you can't see it.
layer of thin sticks or branches
If there is a tradition of removing all the manure from the

livestock pens at once, just burying the poles without making layers will still improve the compost.
Now bury a pole up4 removing it, continue
On each 12-15inch
right in the heap, and without

to add layers as before.
layer of manure, biomass, etc.,
add a thin
layer of
soil or
compost.
By doing this, the numbers of micro-organisms in the

compost will increase. Then, they can decompose the manure
and biomass quickly. There are most micro-organisms in the
soil and rotted compost, so this does the same work as "seed"
to help make more micro-organisms to rot the compost.
The thin branches and the pole allow air into the heap.
Chapter 5 - Compost
Let's See
how to make
Compost
Remove the
pole to test the
heap
oldest
compost
3 month
old compost
newly
made compost
Compost made in
separate heaps,
with poles
Shaking the
pole from
time to time
quickly rots
the compost
If there's too little

water in the heap
a white fungus can
be seen
fungus
fungus
new
compost
heap
This well rotted
compost heap is being
removed
Chapter 5 - Compost
Maintenance
How to
maintain
the Compost
In many villages there is a shortage of water. However,

from time to time it's good to put waste washing up water
down the holes in the compost heap.
If there is a bad small from the heap, and lots of flies, add
more straw or leaf litter. This can also be due to lack of
micro-organisms and without them, the manure etc. will not
rot down well. For this, add more soil or well rotted compost to increase micro-organisms.
When all these needs are met,

compost will rot quickly,
and you will have better compost
to go onto the fields
Symptoms of poorly rotting compost

If there is anything lacking in management of the compost heap, it will rot slowly or badly. But how to recognise
what is wrong ?
If there is white fungus on the pole when taken out, perhaps there is not enough water in the heap. Pouring a little
water from time to time will solve this problem.
If your hand is burned when you bury it in the heap, this is
If you can't make a heap with layers and it is all stacked

in one place, you don't have to do anything else but make
holes in the heap with the poles. Move these sticks around
from time to time. Just doing this will improve the compost.
Spreading compost
on the fields
a bad sign. Too much heat will also kill the micro-organisms. This will slow the decomposition process. This is
probably due to not enough air circulation. Make more
holes in the heap to solve this.
After taking compost to the fields, plough it in

quickly, or the sun will dry it and reduce its quality
8
Chapter 5 - Compost
Production
soil or
well rotted compost
fruit
water
small sticks &

branches
Mrs Sita Bucha

Magar

women's group, Mrs Sita
Bucha Magar has made improved compost. Now let's
hear about her experience.
Inputs
forest
fodder
leaf litter
water
air
manure
kitchen
garden
the fields
orchard
grain
vegetables
Inputs and Outputs of Compost Making

10
Farmers'
Experience
In 1994 I learned how to

improve my compost from the
Homestead Programme (JPP).
Before this we would put out just
partially rotted compost. We had a Mrs Sita Bucha Magar
habit of heaping compost anywhere to rot. Now we make it with a pole for a chimney, and
it rots much more quickly. Mixed grass, leaves and manure
are stacked in layers with soil or old compost, and the pole
buried in. It's an easy method. Before this the compost would
be wet and sticky but now it's much better. It's more crumbly,
and is also easier to carry, and to spread out on the fields.
Now we always make compost like this. Twice a year we
carry it to the fields. It's easy to make compost like this, you
don't have to work hard. And because it's easy to do, it's easy
to learn and to teach others as well. That's why there are
many farmers using this method in the village nowadays.
Chapter 5 - Compost
11
Subjects Related to Compost

Soil Conservation and Improvement
Chapter
What is soil? What does good soil need?
What damages the soil? What methods are
there to protect and improve soil? The answers to all these questions, and more information on soil, are given in this chapter.
Livestock Management Chapter

Livestock can be healthy and give good
production from nutritious fodder grown close
to the home. Information on this and other
simple methods to manage livestock through
health, diet, hygiene and breeding are given in
this chapter
Agroforestry Chapter
Trees planted on the land produce many
products to make compost for the soil, but you
can't plant them anywhere. In this chapter,
information is given about how to plant trees on
farmland without decreasing farm productivity.
Read On !
What is
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 6 - Mulching
Mulching ?
Purna Bahadur
Nepali's mulch bed
We farmers have to work hard for food to eat and clothes

to wear. But when we can produce enough from this work, then
we can live well. For farmers, the foundation of our wealth is
the soil. If soil is washed away or becomes poor, how can we
grow food to eat ? We farmers, who work and play with the
soil, must also learn to love the soil. One method of loving,
caring for and respecting the soil is called mulching.
Mulching is a method of using cut leaves, straw, leaf
litter etc. to cover the bare soil while still farming and growing crops on it.
Why
do
Mulching ?
Water
The main objective of mulching is to keep the soil covered while farming it. There are many types of mulch but they
all share this objective. Mulch is usually made from biomass
(leaves, straw, etc.) but where spare vegetation is uncommon,
stones covering the soil have the same benefit.
Sun
Air
There are 2 main types of

mulching :-
Mulch
Mulch
Micro-organisms
There are various problems if soil is left bare. Rain will
wash soil away, and the sun will dry it out. Wind will dry out
and blow away the soil. The beneficial organisms living in the
top soil will also be lost. All these reasons cause soil loss and
damage, and to remake the fertility in the soil then takes extra
work. So mulching is an important technique to prevent these
problems happening from the start.
2
How
to do
Mulching ?
1. Temporary mulch
2. Permanent mulch
1. Temporary Mulch
Fresh green
or dry leaves,
any straw,
stones, cardboard, etc.
are all useful
to use as
mulch
With temporary mulching, the ground is kept covered for

some time only. Mulch made of green or dried leaf litter,
straw, etc. can be put on the soil during the fallow period, or
mixed with compost and ploughed in. After crops have been
planted they can also be mulched. Potatoes, garlic, onions and
various vegetables benefit from a mulch after planting. The
mulch will rot as the crops ripen. Mix the mulch with the soil
by ploughing or digging in, after the crop has been harvested.
Chapter 6 - Mulching
2. Permanent Mulch
For a permanent mulch, layers of well rotted compost,
semi decomposed biomass, and a thick layer of fresh biomass
are put on the soil, and seed and seedlings planted into this. In
this method, after establishment new mulch (green biomass)
is added only twice a year, and the soil never needs to be dug.
from weeding the field or trimming the hedge. Soak with

water again.
Now we can plant in the mulch bed
b. Planting Seed and Seedlings
Using a sharp stick make a hole down through the mulch
Making a Permanent Mulch

a. Preparing the mulch
If necessary, dig or plough the soil one last time. If the soil
On top of this put 6 inches of fresh, green biomass e.g.
is soft and fertile, this should not be necessary.

Cover the soil with a thin layer of well rotted compost.
On top of this put a 6 inch layer of dried or semi decomposed biomass, such as straw, leaf litter, etc. After putting
down each layer soak with water if possible.
until the ground is reached. Move the stick to make the hole
larger.
Fill the hole half full with fertile soil.
In this soil, plant seed or seedlings.
Water the seedlings well.
In the kitchen garden, a wormwood

mulch makes good compost and also
helps to repel pest insects
seedling
stones
seedling
broadleaf mustard
mulch
seedling
Where there is no spare
vegetation, stones can
be used to mulch
around apple seedlings
4
stones
Best time to mulch

At the start of the rainy season the soil becomes wet and
often heats up, causing the soil to let off steam. If a thick
mulch is applied at this time the soil cannot breath properly
and steam cannot escape. This can cause many types of pest
and disease to occur. But if the mulch is put down and well
watered 2-3 months before the rainy season, the soil and the
mulch become balanced and these problems do not occur.
The best time to start a mulch is near the end of the rainy
season. By this time the steam in the earth has escaped but
there is still moisture in the soil to help the mulch break down
into the soil. This moisture will be conserved by the mulch,
and be usefull for the crops for many weeks or even months.
How to do
mulching
Let's See
half
rotted
biomass
rotted
compost
green
biomass
Materials needed
for mulching
An inside view of a mulch bed
3
thickest layer of seedling planted
green biomass
in hole
thick layer of
semi-rotted/
dry biomass
6
thin layer
of rotted
compost
hole is half
filled with soil
seedling
Then spread a
6 inch layer of
semi rotted
biomass
hole
made
First spread
well rotted
compost on
the soil
7
Then, spread
an even
thicker layer
of green
biomass on top
Now the
mulch is
ready and can
be planted
Half fill the

hole with
fertile soil.
5fpnf
;
Then, seed
or seedlings
can be
planted in
the soil.
8
9
:ofpnf
To plant, first
make a hole
down to the
ground level.
8
Seedlings
planted in a
triangle.
This saves
space.
When seedlings
are planted in a
triangular pattern more seedlings can be
planted in a
smaller space
10
Maintenance
How to
maintain the
mulch
Maintenance of the Mulch

water as necessary
put on new green biomass about twice a year
plant companion plants like lemon grass, comfrey, mari-
11
At first the bed
should be well
soaked with water
gold, basil, wormwood, etc. around the bed

having agroforestry or edge trees nearby makes it quicker
to cut the new mulch
mulch cut from

the outside
mulch cut
from the
agroforestry
12
mulch
cut from
the edge
of the
bed
After 6 weeks
the vegetables in the
mulch bed
are growing
well
10
water
11
The Benefits of Mulching
11. Mulching reduces the need to dig and plough;

12. Mulching works with the principles of nature and ecology;
1.
Mulching stops the sun drying out the soil;
13. Mulching is beneficial for later crops in a rotation;
2.
Mulching keeps the moisture in the soil so reduces the

need to irrigate;
14. Mulching saves time because digging, weeding and

irrigation are reduced or not needed.
3.
Mulching improves as well as protects the soil;
4.
Mulching prevents weeds growing so reduces the need

to weed;
5.
Mulching keeps a balanced temperature in the soil. "Balanced" means not too hot nor too cold, and regular. This
is good for plants' roots;
6.
Mulching helps to prevent spread of pests and diseases.

If water splashes on the soil, it can carry naturally
occuring diseases in the soil onto the underside of leaves,
where the diseases can cause damage;
7.
Mulching feeds and protects the organisms in the soil

(earthworms, bacteria, etc.);
8.
Mulching also fertilises the soil;
9.
Mulching prevents root crops such as potatoes, radishes,

etc. from turning green;
10. Mulching makes use of waste resources such as banana

leaves, uprooted weeds, etc. by recycling them;
12
See the comparison between

mulched and un-mulched farming
How is the
How is the unmulched corn ? mulched corn ?
13
Farmers'
Experience
Fertile Soil
Mr Purna Bahadur
Nepali
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 4, and member of "Samaj Mukti"

farmers' group MrPurna
Bahadur Nepali has made
mulch beds. Now let's hear
about his experience.
I learned mulching from

the Homestead programme
(Jajarkot Permaculture Programme, JPP). For vegetable
Purna Bahadur Nepali
gardening mulching is a really
good method, and very easy.
All the waste straw, weeds, leaves, sweepings, etc. are used
on it. You don't have to do much weeding, the crops need
less watering, and the soil becomes more fertile. Before
starting I gave the field a good plough and then put down
rotted compost. On the compost I put the mulch and made
holes into it . I half filled the holes with fertile soil, planted
the vegetables and watered well. Because I mixed many
species of vegetable there were also less pest and disease
problems. Whenever anyone has come come to see, I've been
teaching them this method.
14
1 Farmer brothers and sisters, lets make fertile soil,

Let's keep green, Mother Nature's bare soil,
Ha hey, Mother Nature's, Mother Nature's,
Mother Nature's soil green
2 On the terraces the rice drips golden,
On the bunds green fruit trees fruiting,
Ha hey, fruit trees fruiting, fruit trees fruiting,
Fruit trees fruiting,
3 Farmers are happy gathering the crops to fill stores,
Relaxing in the homestead, if they left, where would they go,
Ha hey, farmers, if they left, where would they go, if they
left, where would they go?
If they left, where would they go?
4 Farmers work in the fields, sweating from their brows,
Without work, who will feed them, what will go to their
stomachs?
Ha hey, farmers, what will go to their stomachs, what will
go to their stomachs?
What will go to their stomachs?
Written by Krishna Panday
See how well the

potatoes grow
under the mulch
15
Subjects Related to Mulching

Mulching chapter
Mixed Vegetable
Fruit Tree Planting
Kitchen Garden Gardening
chapter
chapter
chapter
After planting
fruit trees various
companion plants
can be planted
around the base.
Mulching is also
useful. How
these, and other
techniques, give
more benefits is
explained in this
chapter.
Mulching is very
useful in successful vegetable
gardening. Information about this
and other easy
methods to
home-produce
healthy vegetable at low cost is
given in this
chapter
Grow various
types of vegetables with less
weeding, watering and other
work, and harvest
from 3 weeks to 6
months after
planting. Information on this
easy technique is
given in this
chapter
Read On !
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 7 - Double Digging
What is
Double Digging ?
Beds made by double digging,

AAA farm, Bhaktapur, Nepal
Double digging is a method of deep digging for vegetable beds. It means we dig twice as deep than normal cultivation. This is so we can mix compost and biomass deeper into
the soil, so plant roots grow deeper and can get more nutrients. In these beds production is much higher, and though
there's more work at the beginning, the beds stay fertile for a
long time, and we don't have to dig again for many years.
Now let's learn about this method of how to work once
to get good production for many years.
Why
do
Double Digging ?
Benefits of Double Digging
makes the soil more fertile

makes the soil able to absorb more water
allows more air into the soil
keeps the soil fertile for a long time
allows plant roots to grow deeper into the soil
keeps the soil light and soft for a long time
dig once then do not have to dig again for 3-4 years
Shown here are
double dug beds
with mixed vegetable crops in
Bhaktapur district, Nepal.
to do
Double Digging ?
How
With double digging at first there is more labour, but this

can give up to 4 times the production of normal digging, so
there is a good return on labour. Also, you don't have to dig
again for 3-4 years afterwards. If double dug beds are
mulched well and regularly, they may never have to be dug
again. More information about this method is given in the
chapter called Mulching.
Where to do Double Digging ?

where the soil is poor or
shallow
where roots can't grow deep
Materials Needed for Double Digging

crow bar
Digging
tools
Seed and seedlings
Basket
Mr Laxman Rana
in vegetable growing beds

in very stony soil
green biomass
pick
axe
Oil seed cake
semi-decomposed well rotted compost

biomas

2
Chapter 7 - Double Digging
When to do Double Digging ?

Beds can be dug any time. If you have a rainy season,
near the end of this is best as there's still plenty of moisture in
the ground and plenty of biomass available.
2. Filling in the bed

After digging the soil, it is replaced in layers with biomass.
First put a 6 inch layer of green biomass on top of the

lower layer of dug soil.
How to make beds with Double Digging
Then on top of this put a 3-4 inch layer of soil.
1. Digging out the Beds
Then put in a 6 inch layer of semi-decomposed biomass.
Beds are 4 feet wide, and can be as long as you need
Then put in another 3-4 inch layer of soil.
in the space that you have available.
First dig out 6-12 inches of soil and keep on the side
(the deeper the soil, the deeper you can dig).
Then dig the same depth again with the crow bar or
pick axe, but don't remove the soil, just leave it in the
bed.
Then put in a thin (2 inch) layer of well rotted compost.

Finally, put all the remaining soil back on top, mixed with
well rotted compost, and raked to a fine bed.
Mixing ash, oil seed cake, hair, bonemeal, etc. in with
the layers of soil will increase the fertility even more. Because all this compost is mixed into the deep layers of soil, it
will give nutrients to the plant roots for a long time.
The method of planting seeds and seedlings in a
double dug bed is continued on page 12.
Vegetables
planted in
beds which
are 4 feet wide
Cross Section through a

Double Dug Bed
Let's See
How to do
Double Digging
semi-rotted
biomass
vegetable seedlings
mulch
lemon grass
comfrey
rotted
compost
green
biomass
Materials
needed for
mattock
Double Digging
fertile soil
soil
semi-rotted biomass
soil
6-12 inches deep
rotted compost
pick axe
pick axe
green biomass
6-12 inches deep
dug and softened soil
Dig out 6-12 inches

of soil and keep to
the side
bed 4 feet wide

6
Then put 6 in
a inch layer
of semi-rotted biomass
Use a pick axe or

crow bar to dig
another 6-12
inches, without
removing the soil
Then another
3-4 inch layer of
soil
Then fill in. First

put in 6 inches of
green biomass,
and cover with soil
Then add a
3-4 inch
layer of soil
Then put in a
2 inch layer
of well rotted
compost
In the fertile soil of a double dug bed, plants are

healthy and can protect themselves from many pests
and diseases. In the bed, plant vegetables with a variety of colour, leaf shape and texture, and scent to protect against insect pests.
Finally, on top
replace the remaining soil mixed
with compost
Then vegetable seeds and
seedlings can be planted
After planting and

sowing, add a light
mulch to cover the soil
10
11
..... continued from page 5

3. Planting Seeds and Seedlings
On the raised bed after the top soil has been raked fine,
any type of seed or seedlings can be sown or planted. Water
well after planting. Then add mulch, taking care to cover the
soil but not the seedlings. Adding the mulch protects the soil
from rain, wind and sun, and conserves moisture for a long
time.
The double dug bed is now complete. Apart from growing vegetables, this can also be used as a fruit nursery or for
planting other types of crops.
Double digging can give 4 times the

production of normal beds. The beds
don't need to be dug again for 3-4 years
In Bhaktapur district, in the

Kathmandu valley of Nepal, there are
many farmers who practice double
digging and earn good cash from
selling vegetables in the nearby city
12
13
Maintenance
How to
maintain
Double Digging
On double dug beds, irrigation and weeding should be

done as required. The more dense the vegetable seedlings and
the mulch are, the less weeding needs to be done, and the
more moisture remains in the soil. The chapters called
Mulching and Mixed Vegetable Gardening give more information about this.
Beds that are well dug and well composted don't need
digging for 3-4 years. But if new mulch is added thickly twice
each year, and compost or liquid manure added from time to
time, then it is possible never to have to dig again.
If we think about our work we can make many jobs
easier and more productive. Let's use this method to make the
soil more fertile and increase yield !
14
Farmers'
Experience
From Nepal,
Bhaktapur district,
Dadhikot - 4, Mrs
Sarda Khadka and
Mr Arjun Jangam
have experience in
double digging working at AAA farm. Now
let's hear their story.
Mrs Sarda Khadka and

Mr Arjun Jangam
Sarda Khadka and Arjun Jangam
We started learning the double dig method in 1994.

Beds are made by digging the soil 2 feet deep, and as long
as you need. The soil is arranged in layers mixed with leaf
litter and compost. We also added ash and oil seed cake to
the layers of soil. In the double dug beds, we haven't had to
dig again or add compost for at least 3 years, often more.
The green biomass rots slowly and vegetables grow really
well. We dig most of our own beds this way, and we also
give training to farmers in the local villages. Then together
we have a cooperative to sell the vegetables in the
Kathmandu markets. Buyers say that
vegetables produced in this way are
also more nutritious and tasty.
15
Subjects Related to Double Digging

Integrated Pest Management chapter
Farm production is reduced by many types of insect,
disease, weed, etc. In this chapter information is given
about using local resources to prevent these pests
Fruit Nursery chapter
In this chapter information is given about how to
make a nursery for grafting or budding local fruit
varieties
Mulching chapter
Mulch keeps the soil covered, keeps weeds down
and conserves water. Information on how to mulch
the soil is given in this chapter
Vegetable production, Kitchen Garden and Mixed

Vegetable Growing chapters
garden for permanence, ease and simplicity ? Information about how to produce many types of fresh
vegetables with less work is given in these 2 chapters
Read On !
What is
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 8 - Seed Saving
Seed Saving ?
Farmers need to
have many skills to
manage both the soil
and the homestead. Out
of those skills, seed
saving is probably one
of the most important.
By giving more attention to seed saving,
farmers can improve
the quality of their seed
each year. This can
then improve crop
production. This can be
done without having to
increase inputs of fertiMrs Devi Khatri's Cauliflower
lizer, irrigation or cultivation. So with a little
extra care in seed production, farmers can easily increase
their farm production.
Although this chapter mainly uses examples of vegetable seed production, the principles it describes are relevant
to any species whose seed we want to save.
Why
do
Seed Saving ?
Many farmers have problems of either losing or not

being able to acquire good, pure seeds. It's important to keep
local, traditional varieties of pure and good quality. Also,
there may be a need to breed and increase new open pollinated species or varieties. To guarantee good quality seed,
good methods are needed. But the main benefit of saving seed
yourself is that you can stand on your own feet and be more
self-reliant.
Why save seed yourself, on your own land?

so the seed required is available at
the right time;

to save the cost of buying seed;
to trust that the species or variety of
seed is the one you need;
to produce seed that is adapted to the
local climate, soil, etc.;
to increase income from local resources, and
to improve local varieties and conserve
bio-diversity.
How
to do
Seed Saving ?
Things to pay attention to in seed saving

1 Choose healthy and disease-free plants to save seed
from.
2 Select plants according to the qualities or characteristics you need. For example :-
Function Qualities or characteristics needed

Timber
straight stems, strong, long lasting, etc
Fodder
dense foliage, nutritious, etc.
Vegetables
tasty, disease & drought resistant, etc.
Medicine
bitter, strong, stores well, etc
3 Seed producing plants are adapted to the local climate.

4 Select seeds from as many plants of one variety as possible. Save from at least 10 plants, in order to maintain
genetic diversity and strength.
5 Once a plant has been identified to save seed, don't pick
its leaves, flowers, etc. But if any part is damaged or
diseased, these should be removed and discarded.
Chapter 8 - Seed Saving
6 Select plants for seed saving as

early as possible, and label them.
7 Give extra care to plants selected
for seed saving. Provide water, nutrients,
weed control, pest control, etc. according
to the needs of the plant. Compost, liquid
manure, ash, oil seed cake etc. can be
used for this.
RADISH
8 As plants mature they may fall over, so

staking may be necessary.
9 Only allow the best plants to flower. For

any variety, poorer plants should not be allowed to flower so they don't mix with the
good plants, which will lower the quality of the
seed. Leaving the plants for seed saving, all
others should be pulled and eaten, composted
or mulched before flowering.
10 Different species which cross pollinate should not be

allowed to flower at the same time. It is possible that some
species will cross, so they should not flower in the same
place, at the same time. To prevent cross pollination one of
the following 2 methods should be used:
a. Plants that cross should be far apart, so that insects or
wind will not be able to cross pollinate;
b. Plants which cross should be planted to flower at different times. For example, if a cauliflower grown for seed
flowers in July, a cabbage also for seed should flower in
August. This way the flowering time will be separate, and
there is no danger of crossing.
Species which will cross pollinate

The species in the following families will cross pollinate
Cauliflower family :cauliflower, cabbage, broccoli,
sprout, kale, kohl rabi all cross.
Turnip family :
turnip, chinese cabbage and
chinese mustard all cross.
Chard family :
red and green chard will cross.
Pepper family :
chilli and sweet peppers will cross.
Pumpkin family : zucchini, dwarf and climbing
pumpkins will cross.
When attention is paid to all these points, good quality,

pure seed can be produced. But if any one is ignored, then the
quality of the seed cannot be guaranteed and the work and
time can be wasted.
On the left side

the good seeds are
all similar. On the
right the rejected
seeds are different colour, shape
and size
good seed to save

Different types
of maize selected for seed
pumpkin
climbing
bean
velvet
bean
bad seed to reject
See how many

types of bean in
a handful !
Let's See
How to do
Seed Saving
The best
plants for
seed are selected early
and labelled
Select only the best

plants for seed
production. Here,
cauliflower is shown
with Man Bahadur
3
Seed producing plants should be given maximum care
and attention. Here, Khamba Prasad has built a roof
to protect his seed cauliflower from hail and frost
Mrs Tulisara
Gyami is picking the damaged leaves off
her red Swiss
Chard, grown
for seed
Radish seed
collected
Ripe radish seed

pods seen close-up
When put in water,

any dead seeds will
float on the top.
These can be thrown
away, leaving just
the good seeds
Maintenance
What to do after
Producing Seed
Things to consider when picking

and storing seeds
Only pick seeds or pods when they are ripe.
Only collect good seed or pods.
Reject any seeds different in size, shape or colour from the
average good seed.
Dry the seeds well. Usually seeds are dried in the sun.
Some types, like lemon, orange, etc. should be dried in the
shade, for example above the fireplace.
The seeds
are dried
well in the
sun
9
10
After drying,
good storage is
essential
10
If seed is sun dried, be sure to allow them to cool before

packing.
If possible, pack seed in an airtight
container, and try to fill the container
full, without leaving excess air space.
Add ash or baked rice, which help to
keep seed dry.
Put fresh, cool ash or baked rice in the bottom of the
container. This absorbs water in the air, which helps to
keep the seed dry. This can be placed on top of seed also
(see drawing, page 12).
11
Seed should be stored in a cool, dry, dark place.

It is very important to protect seed from disease,
insects and fungus. There are many local herbal
remedies for doing this, for example mixing ash,
powdered neem leaves, neem oil, powdered oil seed
cake or wormwood. Another method is to store seeds
of different sizes mixed together, such as wheat and
mustard, or corn and millet, This is a traditional
practice in many places.
Check the seed regularly for pest damage. From time
to time take the seed out and dry in the sun, or add
fresh herbs.
Glass or plastic jar
Farmers' Wealth
Biodiversity various types of
rice seed shown in
an exhibition
tight fitting lid

to stop air
top layer of
baked, cooled rice
to fill the container
Seed store made

from traditional
wisdom and local
resources,
Southern Nepal
paper
stored radish
seed
bottom layer of
fresh, cooled ash
12
paper
13
Farmers'
Experience
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 3, Ratadada
village, and a member of
"Hariyali" women's group,
Mrs Pavisara Shris has
produced and saved her
own seed. Now let's hear
I first learned seed saving

from
the
Homestead
Mrs Pavisara Shris
Programme (JPP). Even after
saving seed for myself I have been able to sell a surplus for a
few hundred rupees, which has been useful. It's no trouble to
save seed. We always saved corn, wheat, mustard beans and
the like anyway. And it's easy to learn more. I saved potato
seed and after I kept what I needed, made 200 rupees.
Timing is important, and not eating the seed, and you can
save for ever. Now I've saved 40-day radish, tomato, lettuce,
coriander, fenugreek and peas. I keep the seed plants
separate, look after them well, and keep them labelled. Now
I'll always save my own seeds, and want to
learn how to save more varieties, and to teach
others how to do it.
14
Read On !
Mrs Pavisara Shris
Subjects Related to Seed Saving

This book provides enough information to be able to
save much of your own seed. However, this information is
Agroforestry
chapter
Kitchen Garden
chapter
Seed Saving
chapter
Fruit Nursery
chapter
Mixed Vegetable
Gardening chapter
15
Kitchen Garden chapter

Good seed is essential for successful vegetable
gardening. Information about this, and other
easy methods to home-produce healthy vegetables at low cost, is given in this chapter
Agroforestry chapter
When planning agroforestry seed production
and collection are very important. Information
about the importance and methods of
agroforestry to increase production from less
land is given in this chapter

In this chapter information is given about how
to make a nursery for grafting or budding
local fruit varieties
Mixed Vegetable Gardening chapter

Grow various types of vegetables with less
weeding, watering and other work, and harvest from 3 weeks to 6 months after planting.
Information on this easy technique is given in
this chapter
Related Subjects
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 9 - Integrated Pest Management
What is
Integrated Pest
Management ?
The spider and
its web helps
to control lots
of harmful
insects
Farmers are always concerned about their crops. After

the hard work of farming, it's their worst nightmare to lose
them again. There are many creatures which can badly harm
crop production. A creature which does this is called a pest.
Bacteria, insects, fungi, birds, rats, weeds, etc. can all be
harmful. Preventing, reducing or curing the harmful effects of
pests can be done by management of the pest or the crop and
its environment. To do this in a sustainable way often means
using a range of methods together to prevent and control
pests. Because these methods are all linked, the term
Integrated Management of the pest is used. So this chapter
gives information about Integrated Pest Management.
Why
do integrated
pest management?
to get healthy food

to reduce farm production
I have a
right to clean
and healthy
food
costs
to increase production
to protect the environment
to reduce the need of harmful chemicals
to prevent pests becoming resistant
Poisonous chemito chemicals
cals for pest
to make sustainable farming systems control are often
banned, but not
in poor countries
Nowadays there is much use of poisonous chemicals to

kill and control agricultural pests. But this has many harmful effects. For example :-
poisons used can remain in the environment for many

years, continuing to harm soil, water, vegetation and
animals.
Poisons used on fruit, vegetables, etc. can be eaten by

people. This can cause many diseases, genetic problems,
and cause babies to be born handicapped.
Farmers often don't know how to use the poisons correctly, which results in them being affected by the poisons. This causes over 400,000 people to die each year in
the world.
Poisons are used for protection of crops from harmful

pests, but often this also kills beneficial plants and animals which are helpful in controlling pests, building soil
or pollinating plants.
Continuous use of chemical poisons can cause pests to
This Chapter's Author :

2
develop resistance to the chemicals. These resistant varieties will breed, and to kill them chemicals need to become
stronger, or different types need to be used. This will
increase the numbers and strength of chemicals used, and
encourages dependency. Integrated pest management
methods are important as the solution to this problem, and
to the other problems mentioned above.
3
Chapter 9 - Integrated Pest Management
How
to do integrated
pest management ?
Integrated pest management can be divided into 2 main

areas. Firstly, (a) how to prevent damage from pests, and secondly, (b) how to control or cure pest damage once it has already started to occur. In this chapter we start to look at group
(a) on this page, while methods for group (b) start on page 16.
Various techniques are described below. In integrated
management one method may not be enough to stop a pest, so it
is important to use as many methods as possible.
(a) How to Prevent Pests ?

Need
1. Healthy Soil
Methods used
compost, mulch, irrigation, rotations,
green manures, etc.
2. Healthy plants compost, irrigation, weeding,

species selection, green manures, etc.
3. Fencing
living fences
4. Diversity
mixed cropping and rotations
5. Companion
Planting
mix aromatic/smelly plants e.g. coriander, fennel,

marigold, lemon grass, basil, onion, garlic etc.
6. Decoy planting providing alternative plants for pests to attack

7. Helping pest
predators
providing habitat and food for beneficial

pest predators
1. & 2. Healthy Soil and Healthy Plants

Just like people are healthy with a nutritious and balanced
diet, the soil is also healthy with plenty of organic matter,
nutrients, micro-organisms, etc. It then supports healthy
plants, which can resist disease.
Unrotted compost can cause pests

and diseases in the soil, so always
use well rotted compost.
Water is essential for the soil and

plants. Having the right amount of
water at the right time helps plants
to grow, stay healthy and resist
pests and disease.
Crops attract certain types of pest and disease. Always

planting the same crops in the same place causes those
pests to increase and damage the crops. This is why crop
rotations are beneficial. For example, potatoes and their
relatives - tomato, aubergine, sweet pepper, etc. shouldn't
be planted in sequence on the same piece of land for up to
2 years. The rotation helps to break the pest and disease
cycle so they will not harm the next crop. After crops that
attract many diseases are harvested, such as potatoes and
other vegetables, planting onions or garlic for a season
helps to clean the soil of the many pests and diseases attracted by the previous crop.
8. Repelling pests liquid manure, herbal controls

*=
4
3. Fencing
4. Diversity
Without a fence, many types of pest can get on to the

land and damage crops. So a fence is very important. The
most beneficial type of fence is a living or green fence, or
hedge. This is not just a barrier, but can give other benefits as
well. For example, a barrier of lemon grass around the vegetable bed will help to protect against weeds and other pests,
and also can be cut as mulch to put on the bed. Similarly,
carrot is affected by a root eating insect - the
carrot root fly - which flies at about
knee height. So a barrier of plants
that are at least knee high around
the carrot bed can help to protect
against this pest, and give other
benefits such as food, mulch,
nectar, etc.
Continuous monoculture planting of the same crop will

always suffer more from pest attack. For example, if only
cauliflower is planted, a fungus or insect which feeds on
cauliflower can destroy the whole crop in a very short time,
and is difficult to control. This why it's good to plant a variety of crops together, called mixed cropping.
It's possible to plant many types of vegetable in the
kitchen garden. For example, cauliflower, Swiss chard, radish, carrot, peas, broad bean, lettuce, turnip, coriander, fennel,
dill, kohl rabi, spinach etc. can all be planted together. If any
one of these is attacked by a pest, there are all the others that
will still give production. The chapter Mixed Vegetable Gardening gives detailed information on this technique.
garlic
garlic
red
red
mustard
mustard
radish
radish
lettuce
green
green
mustard
mustard
Oy ! those vegetables
look tasty, but how can
we get to them ?
6
coriander
coriander
5. Companion Planting
Plants give each other various types of support. For
example, the scent of garlic helps repel many types of pest.
Marigold gives a chemical from its roots which helps to repel
soil nematodes which otherwise eat plant roots. The flowers
of marigold also give a strong smell which help to repel insect pests. Some insects recognise the smell of the plants they
eat, so strong smelling repellent plants help to protect these
vegetables. Legumes such as peas and beans help to provide
extra nitrogen to other plants. Mixing these plants with
grains, vegatables, fruits or any type of crop to help protect
them is called companion planting. Marigold, mint, basil,
lemon grass, wormwood, garlic, onion, coriander, fennel, dill,
nasturtium, tansy, etc. are all companion plants and it is beneficial to mix them with and around other crops.
Let's See
How to do Integrated
Pest Management
The fence
around a
kitchen garden
can be made of
local resources.
Home made pens to

keep chickens in the
right place. These
can be moved
around.
In fertile soil, plants are

healthy and can resist
many pests and diseases themselves.
continued on p.13
8
Red coloured
vegetables have
less pests
Surya Adhikari from

Begnas, Nepal,
brought a nest of red
ants from the forest
and hung it in his
orange tree.
A variety of colour, leaf texture

and scent help to
protect vegetables from insect
pests
These ants protect

the oranges from
any type of pest
The tree is protected for free,

and the ants also
get free meals !
Marigolds planted
around the vegetable
bed help to protect
against some harmful
insect pests
10
The smell of liquid

manure on the
vegetables helps
prevent and repel
pests
This hoverfly visits

coriander and similar
aromatic plants for
nectar, and lays its
eggs inside harmful
catepillars, which
kills them.
11
kite
6. Attracting Predator Insects and Animals
praying mantis
mayfly
ladybird
These are all

farmers' friends which
eat harmful pests. For
their important help,
they don't need wages,
just food and good
places to live
is enough !
hoverfly
lizard
frog
spider
12
Ninety five percent of insects are useful, and only five percent cause damage to crops. There are many insects and
other animals which will attack harmful pests. These are
called predator insects or animals. Predator animals are
farmers' friends. The more they are present on farms, the
more they can help controlling pests.
How to help predator animals ? If there is the right habitat, they will arrive and stay themselves. Their food are the
pests on the crops. Many types of predator insects feed on
nectar from flowers. They like flowers of marigold, fennel,
dill, coriander, basil, carrot, etc. If these are planted
mixed with the crops, or in the fence, the predators will
come themselves and do their work. Also, if leaf litter
and weeds are piled on the edge of the cropland or
beds, many predators use this as habitat. Also rocks
perch
and stones are good habitat for lizards, which eat
insects. Frogs also eat lots of insects. Frogs like
ponds to live and breed in. Bats also eat insects. By
weeds
providing a perch to sit on, birds of
prey can catch rats living and
feeding in the crops.
flowers
leaf
litter
water
rocks
13
7. Decoy Planting
Experience from the Philippines
Harmful insect pests will eat other plants as well as

the crops farmers plant. So if these are added to fences
around the crops, or even mixed in with the plants,
these will be attacked instead of the crops. This is
called decoy planting. For example, an insect that
attacks cotton plants also eats the castor oil plant.
So by planting castor around the cotton plants, the
cotton can be saved. Like this, nettles will attract
caterpillars, which prevent them eating vegetable
crops.
nettle
castor
8. Liquid Medicine
Wormwood, neem, persian lilac, chilli, garlic, onion
skins, marigold leaves, cow dung, ash, oil seed cake, khirro,
Adhatura vasica and tobacco are examples of plants which
can be used to make a medicine which repels pests and also
acts as a fertilizer. Information on how to make this is given
in the Liquid Manure chapter.
Adhatoda
chilli
vasica
neem or
Persian lilac marigold
wormwood
Wrightia
arborea
garlic
14
Artemisia
indica
Mr Sesinando Masajo
farms 28 hectares of rice
paddy in the Philippines.
Before 1973 he used lots of
chemicals on his rice. He
would apply chemicals 5-6
Sesinando Masajo
times on each crop. But he
observed that the rice was suffering from more and more
pests. Because the pests were in different stages of their
life cycle, it became very difficult to control them with
chemicals. He thought that the poisons were also killing
the beneficial predator insects, and so the pests were
able to increase in numbers.
After 1973, Mr Masajo stopped using poisons, and
he saw that his rice production started to increase. At
that time he was getting 5.2 tonnes per hectare rice production. In 1993, that had increased to 9.6 tonnes.
Mr Masajo has now taught these methods to his
neighbours. Because of this, by 1996 there were 550
local farmers who had stopped using poisons. All these
farmers experienced an increase in rice yield, and at the
same time they found the quality of the grain had also
improved.
Women farmers from Nepal
visit farmers in Indonesia to see
and learn about integrated pest
control in rice
15
(b) What to do once pests start to attack ?

It may be that even after using all the techniques given
above, pests still attack the crops. Below are examples of
methods used after problems have started :-
Liquid Pest Repellent (see page 14)

Cow's Urine :- mix one part fresh cow's urine
with 3 parts water and spray to control various
insect pests.
Neem Oil :- mix one part neem oil with 3 parts

water to make a strong pest repellent. Add soap
to help the neem to stick to leaves. Kerosene can
also be added.
Wood Ash :- adding ash to the soil surface

helps to protect against many insects, and also
provides fertilizer.
Oil Seed Cake :- mix one part oil seed cake with
Appropriate Agricultural Alternatives (AAA) farm from

Bhaktapur District in Nepal have the following experience :
Make a strong tea from ground mint leaves

and spray on brassicas to repel butterflies,
which produce harmful catepillars.
Mix together 1 kg oil seed cake, 5 kg wood

ash and 1 kg mint leaves and soak the soil to
a 2 inch depth. This helps to control stem
cutting insects.
Grind 250g of wild basil and mix with 1 litre

of water and boil to reduce the liquid . Spray
this to repel leaf eating pests.
When stem borers have attacked and made

holes in fruit trees, use wire or a needle to
push cotton wool soaked with kerosene into
the hole to kill them.
3 parts soil to protect against red ants.
Tobacco Juice :- boil a handful of tobacco leaves

in 2 litres of water like making tea. Sieve, and
spray the tea onto the pest, which will kill them.
Only spray when there are not any beneficial
insects on the plants, otherwise they will also be
killed. Beware: tobacco juice is very poisonous !
16
Healthy and
protected vegetable beds at
AAA Farm
17
From Kavre District in Nepal, INSAN'S Model

Farmer Mrs Jipmaya Tamang has this
experience :-
Farmers'
Experience
Mr Ramesh Khadka
Take equal quantities of wormwood,

Adhatoda vasica and nettle, soak in
cow's urine and spray on plants every
other day. For small plants, dilute with 10
parts of water and spray. For large plants,
dilute with 6 parts water. This protects
plants against sucking and eating insects.
Mix 1 part chilli pepper, 2 parts kerosene and 10 parts wood ash and apply on
the soil. This protects against red ants and
other insects which live in the soil.
If you know of other remedies like this,
please send us the information.
Observation
The most important work in integrated pest management
is observation. Which pests are harmful, to which crops, at
what time ? Where do they come from ? How do they breed ?
What can be done to prevent them coming ? By understanding these things, the life cycle of the pest can be understood
and so can be interrupted to prevent the pest becoming a pest.
In this way pests can be prevented early on from being
harmful to our crops.
18
From Nepal, Bhaktapur district, Dadhikot VDC,

Gamcha, and manager of
Appropriate Agriculture
Alternatives (AAA) farm, Mr
Ramesh Khadka has experience of integrated pest management. Now let's hear his
story.
On this farm no chemicals

Ramesh Khadka
or poisons are used at all. Everything used is made from organic material. We use vegetable
compost, goat manure, bonemeal, oil seed cake, chicken manure and rabbit manure. We also use liquid manure against
pests. For this we use various types of strong smelling plants,
like Wrightia arborea, wormwood, Persian lilac, etc. squashed
into a container to partially decompose, then we use the liquid
that comes from this. It helps to repel many pests. Most problems disappear when you have good, fertile soil. We also use
mixed vegetable cropping to prevent pests, and teach
the local farmers the methods we use. All our
vegetables are sold at organic markets in
Kathmandu.
19
Subjects Related to Integrated

Pest Management
Living Fence chapter
In this chapter see how to plant not just a fence but
also produce fodder, fuelwood, mulch and other benefits
Information on how to plant and manage valuable
fruit trees for best production is given in this chapter
Kitchen Garden and Mixed Vegetable Growing
Information on great vegetables produced for
less work is given in these 2 chapters
Integrated Fruit Orchard chapter
Fruit trees can be mixed with other types of tree
to make an integrated orchard more productive. Find
out how in this chapter
Liquid Manure chapter
Use local plants to make a liquid for fertilizer
and pest control from information in this chapter
Compost chapter
Information on how to make good compost
quickly is given in this chapter
Read On !
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 10 - Liquid Manure
What is
Liquid Manure ?
Nowadays, the
use of poisonous
chemicals to control
pests and diseases on
crops is very common. These chemicals don't only kill
pests, they can harm
us as well. To protect
us and the environment from this harm,
we can use locally
available herbs for
pest control instead.
This doesn't cost
anything, we just
need to learn the
Janga Bahadur sprays
liquid manure
method.
In this chapter,
liquids made from local herbs are called liquid manures. Liquid manure can work as a pest control, and also provides nutrients for the plants.
Why
make
Liquid Manure ?
Why use liquid manure ?
to protect crops
to prevent pests and diseases
to avoid using harmful,
manufactured chemicals
to provide nutrients
to provide irrigation
The benefits of this
uses local resources

saves cost
protects beneficial insects
uses local knowledge
protects the environment
helps us to be self reliant
improves the soil
saves our health by reducing use of harmful chemicals.
This says
"Medicine for
pests made from
local aromatic
plants".
to make
Liquid Manure ?
How
The elements listed below are all useful for making

liquid manure. Out of these, some are good for pest control
and soil fertility, but some work just to provide fertility and
are not pest medicines. You can use many more plants and
local substances, according to what's availailable in your area.
local resource
quality
function
neem
wormwood
garlic
Adhatoda vasica
Wrightia arborea
Persian lilac
Artemisia indica
marigold
chilli
Xanthoxylum
nettle
lemon grass
morning glory
papaya
comfrey
bitter
bitter
smell
bitter
poisonous
bitter
bitter + smell
smell
hot
hot
fertile
scent
fertile
fertile
fertile
medicine + nutrients
nutrients
nutrients
nutrients
nutrients
Mr Laxman Rana
2
Chapter 10 - Liquid Manure
Materials Needed to make Liquid Manure

Various plants, fresh
cow dung, ash
jute sacking
When the mix starts to smell, it is ready to use

When the weather is hot, the preparation will be ready in 5
days, or in 2-3 weeks if it is colder.
cutting tool
This is how to
cut the plants
into small pieces
water
For more information

on these ingredients see
pages 5, 6 & 7
large container
or drum
Put the ash and cow

dung on a piece of
cloth or sack
How to make it
Collect as many plants as you need, or will fit in the container available.
Cut the plants into small pieces and fill the container. Add
water to fill up to the top.
Add ash, and the cow dung wrapped in a sack. This helps
to produce micro-organisms.
4
Tie the cloth up with string

and suspend in the
container with the
water and other materials
Ingredients to make Liquid Manure

On the opposite page is a photo of some ingredients
which can be used to make liquid manure.
Below is a copy of that photo with numbers to identify
the different ingredients
1
4
7
10
9
8
11
13
14
15
16
18
12
17
1 nettle
2 lemon grass
3 neem or Persian lilac
4 fresh cow dung
5 wood ash
6 marigold
7 Lucaena (ipil ipil)
8 wormwood
9 Xanthoxylem
10 Cassia
11 comfrey
12 onion
13 chilli
14 Artemisia indica
15 garlic
16 wild basil
17 Adhatoda vasica
18 Wrightia arborea
Let's See
How to make
Liquid Manure
Ingredients to make liquid manure. Are

these resources local, or do they need to be
purchaced from overseas ??
Liquid manure made in a

plastic drum. The sack
containing cow dung can be
seen at the top.
Enough liquid manure for 10-15

households can be
made in one big
drum.
cut up
plants
Pipe which drains the

liquid from the drum
into a bucket below.
An easier way - line a

pit with plastic and
make the liquid manure in this. A small
thatch can be made to
give shade.
Pour one part of

prepared liquid manure into a bucket.
An air nursery can
also be made above
the liquid manure.
Then mix 5 to 12
parts of water. Now
the liquid manure is
ready to use.
6
8
Maintenance
Liquid manure
can be sprayed
with a broom
like this .....
How to use
Liquid Manure
Using Liquid Manure

1. How to use on young plants
Newly made liquid manure is very strong so it needs
diluting with more water. When the liquid is used up, water is
added again to the biomass in the container, which becomes
less strong each time water is added.
The first time, mix one

part liquid manure with
12 parts water to spray.
The second time, mix

one part liquid with 8
parts water to spray.
The third time, mix one

part liquid with 4 parts
water to spray.
..... or from a
spray tank,
like this
The fourth time, mix

one part liquid with 1
part water to spray.
10
11
2. Using liquid manure on older plants
When to spray liquid manure
When they are bigger and more mature, plants can stand
stronger liquid manure. Insects are often stronger as well.
Liquid manure helps to repel these insects. Plants can take in
nutrients from liquid manures through their leaves. On the
soil, liquid manure also acts as irrigation.
Mix in a suitable container according to 1. and 2. above

and spray the liquid manure. Spray whenever pests are
present, or before they are expected to arrive. Our objective is
to repel, not to kill. The pests may come again, so liquid
manure needs to be re-applied from time to time. Pests are
repelled because of the various smells and tastes. And the
plants get some food as well as water.
The first time, mix one

water to spray.
The second time, mix one

water to spray.
Beneficial insects
Don't use liquid manure when there are
useful insects present
otherwise they may
be harmed.
Time to eat
The third time, mix one
part liquid with 1 part
water to spray.
Do your own research

There are many plants which are useful for making
liquid manure. Farmers can experiment and find out by
trying themselves. Plants that are soft and rot quickly, and
make good mulch can be good for making liquid manure.
Plants which are bitter and aromatic or smell, or are not
eaten by livestock may be good to make liquid manure for
repelling pests.
Harmful
insects
12
Vegetables, fruits, etc. can be eaten at any time, but you

need to wash them well in water.
13
Farmers'
Experience
Subjects Related to Liquid Manure
From Nepal, Surkhet

district, Gumi - 5,
Ratadada village, and a
member of "Protect the
Forest" women's group,
Mrs Durgi Gharti has
made and used liquid
manure. Now let's hear

book about making and using liquid manure. However, this
I learned how to
make liquid manure from
Mrs Durgi Gharti
the homestead programme (JPP). It's been very useful for me. Various types of
local species are used, such as wormwood, neem, Adhatoda
vasica, etc., which are cut up small and put in a container
with cow dung and water. After 5 days it's diluted with water
and sprayed on the plants with a broom. You can use it on
greens in the kitchen garden. We had a greenfly attack, so I
sprayed the plants, and they never came back ! Liquid manure is easy to use, making it is light work, and it doesn't cost
anything. It's easy to learn about, and also easy to teach others. I made it last year, and again this year, and I'll continue to
make it and show others how.
14
Read On !
Mrs Durgi Gharti
Five chapters on how

to make various
Nurseries
Integrated Pest
Management
chapter
Liquid Manure
chapter
Kitchen Garden and

Mixed Vegetable
Growing chapters
Compost
chapter
15
There are many types of pest and disease which

affect farm crops. In this chapter information is
given about preventing these problems using
local resources.
Five chapters on how to make various Nurseries

Different types of plants need different types
of management to grow them, but all will
benefit from using liquid manures . Information on how to build and manage the home
nursery, fruit nursery, air nursery, hot bed and
leaf pots is given in these chapters.
Kitchen Garden and Mixed Vegetable

Growing chapters
Compost chapter
As well as liquid manure, animal compost is
also useful for plant food, but needs to be produced in a well-managed way. Information is
given in this chapter about fast and good quality
compost production.
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 11 - Livestock Management
What is
Livestock Management ?
Healthy livestock
makes life on the
farm easier and
more productive
People do various types of work to sustain themselves.

Within farming and the homestead, a major work is keeping
livestock. Often, more work and expense goes into livestock
than any other task. Cutting and feeding fodder, watering,
mucking out, maintaning the stalls and taking out to graze
all takes a lot of farmers' time. Often it means there is no
time to do other work, or learn, or play. With livestock, we
can't say "leave it until tomorrow" for any work. But
compared to all the time, work and cost farmers put into
their livestock, the production is often too small. And there's
often no time to grow vegetables, fruit, crops, keep bees,
etc.
In this chapter, we will tell you of simple
improvements to traditional livestock management, which
can be made by every farmer.
Why
manage
livestock ?
Nowadays there are many problems with livestock

management. Livestock are more sick. There's no fodder on
the farm. The people get more sick. But they still have to send
their children to school. So in order to get the benefits from
livestock, we need to pay attention to this. This chapter offers
some suggestions as to how to make livestock management
easier and more productive.
Reasons for lack of benefits from livestock
lack of healthy forests

lack of good grazing land
sickness and disease
poor stall and feeding management
poor quality breeding stock
lack of attention to livestock management
lack of nutritious fodder well suited to the livestock
This Chapter's Authors :Bhuvan Khadka

Lal Bahadur Budhathoki
Rural Livestock Health Programme,
Jajarkot & Surkhet, Nepal
How
to manage
livestock ?
In order to keep our livestock healthy and gain more

benefits from less work, there are 3 areas to pay attention to.
These 3 areas are :-
1. Stall Management............ page 3

2. Diet and nutrition ............ page 4
3. Breed Imrovement ........... page 12
1. Stall Management
Like people, livestock need dry, clean, light but shaded,
and airy places to live. How many farmers keep their
livestock in dark, damp, airless sheds ? If the sheds are like
this, without sunlight, and dirty, of course livestock will be
weaker, and get more disease. If livestock are not happy in
their place then this can lead to many problems, some of them
big ones. So to get benefits from the livestock, their sheds
must be built and managed to be cool in the summer, warm in
the winter, dry, airy and clean. The stalls need cleaning every
day, and the muck collected properly in one place to make
good compost. More information about this is given in the
Compost chapter.
Chapter 11 - Livestock Management
2. Diet and Nutrition

(a) The importance of fodder
A balanced diet of grains and fodder is important for
livestock. Livestock are more healthy and resist disease better
with a mixed diet of grain and fodder, and will be more
productive.
(b) Balanced Grains

Livestock need nutritous food to grow well, stay healthy
and stay productive. To obtain these nutrients they need the
right quantities of mixed grains, or balanced grains.
rice bran
Why feed mixed grains ?
What fodder to feed ?

There are many types of
fodder. Legume and non
legume, tree leaf fodder, and
fodder grasses, etc. are the main types. These
are best mixed together. Especially, never feed just legume
fodder, but mix it with other types so there is not more than
30% legume.
to increase output of eggs, milk, meat, etc.

for healthy bones and hair
to heal wounds and bruises quickly
to give energy for working animals
grain pulp
to protect from disease and stay healthy
for healthy pregnancy and birth of young
for the young animals to grow well
How to feed ?
Straw or dried grass is best cut into short lengths about 2
inches long. This makes it easier to digest for the livestock, so
they use less energy. So, less fodder gives the same benefits,
or the same amount of fodder gives more benefits. In this way
2 loads of fodder can give the same benefits as 3 loads.
Dried, cut straw etc. should be mixed with green fodder
and a little salt to feed to livestock. This mix should be fed in
a trough (manger) made of wood or another suitable material.
This way the fodder doesn't spill on the floor and go to waste,
the livestock eats it all, and it doesn't mix with dirt and muck
on the floor. See also the pictures on page 8 for more
information.
4
How to prepare ?
Balanced grains can be made
at home. They can be prepared in
the following way :-
2 parts rice bran

1 part corn, millet, wheat or
1 part oil seed

cake or pulses
barley flour
1 part oil seed cake or pulses (lentils, soya, etc.)
mix the ingredients together
In this picture
balanced grains
made at home are
fed to the pigs in
a wooden trough
Let's See
How much to feed ?

For cows, buffalos, sheep, goats or pigs the more you
can feed mixed grains, the quicker they will grow to give
benefits. But of course it's not enough just to give grains - leaf
and straw fodder should also be provided.
cows and buffalos producing milk, or about to calve,

should be fed 2 to 4 kilos of balanced grains a day.
sheep and goats should be fed half to one kilo of balanced
grains per day.
pigs should be fed 1 to 2 kilos of
grain per day.
Things to remember :-
oil seed cake should be baked and ground to a powder

before mixing with grains.
prepared balanced grains should be stored in a dry place in
an air tight container
if there is fungus in the grains, or they have formed lumps,
they should not be used.
6
How to manage
livestock
Goats fed by
hanging fodder
near their shed
Livestock should be
checked regularly
for signs of illness,
wounds, etc. If
found, these should
be treated as soon
as possible. If
treatment is
delayed, the cost
will increase.
Health problems can

result from livestock
being fed off the floor.
If fodder is fed
from the floor, it
may contain dung.
If the dung is from
diseased livestock,
the disease will
spread.
Goats fed in
a manger
When fodder
is cut into
short pieces,
less amount
gives more
benefits.
For communities, it's worth

investing in a
large fodder
cutting machine
Here the compost pit

is dug close to the
livestock to make
removing the muck
easy. And it keeps
the place clean.
Disease can be
prevented if fodder
is given in a clean
trough, free from
dung, mud and dust
8
(c) Salt Lick
Salt Lick
Grinding salt to a
powder to make a
salt lick. This can
be mixed with
garlic.
Add the salt

to powdered
clay, add
water and
mix well
How to make ?
Take half a kilo of clay, half a kilo of salt, 5 egg shells,
and grind to a powder. Add a little water and mix well. When
the mixture is like stiff dough, make into a ball around a stick.
Dry in the shade for 2 days and then in the sun for 7 days.
When it is well dried, hang the ball in a place where the
livestock can reach it easily. They may need to be taught to
use it at first, but when they develop the habit, they will lick it
whenever they need salt. The salt lick helps to keep the
livestock healthy and free from disease.
3
Make a ball
around a
stick and
allow to dry
for several
days
10
Like people, livestock need to eat salt. It's

often traditional to feed salt once a week or
even once a month, so livestock cannot eat salt
as they want it. The health of livestock can be
seriously affected if they are not able to eat salt when they
need it. They will start to eat less fodder and grains, and drink
less water. They become thin, and as a result of being weak
can suffer from diseases, and have less strength. Females do
not seek males to mate with, and other problems can start to
appear. But too much salt can also cause problems. This is
why it is good to make a salt lick.
4
Hung in the
stalls, the salt lick
can be used any
time it is needed
11
3. Breed Improvement
What is it ?
To produce better offspring of any species, a male and
female with very qood qualities are mated together. This
method of increasing output through the production of better
offspring can be called breed improvement.
Qualities of the male : the right weight and height according to

age and breed.
must have the characteristics of the
species or variety.
have a strong, vibrant and healthy body.
a male goat is best chosen from a mother which has had
many kids.
In Pokhora village, Jajarkot district of
West Nepal, the local Farmers' Leader
Tek B. Khadka with his improved bull
Qualities of a good female :
have a strong, vibrant and healthy body.

goats or pigs should have the ability to bear many young.
the right weight and height according to age and breed.
for cows/buffalos, the blood vessels should be large; in
pigs there should be many teats.
thin skin and fine hair.
broad pelvises and rear end.
the habit of seeking males at regular times.
Ways of Breed Improvement

(a) cross-breeding between
relatives
Breeding between male and
females which are close relatives
(within 6 generations) is called interbreeding. For example,
breeding between brothers & sisters of the same mother, or
crossing father and sons with mothers and daughters.
This is not good breeding because :-
12
Bad characteristics can be passed on and increased.

Strength, stamina and ability to resist disease is reduced.
Breeding ability is reduced.
Offspring can be deformed or mutated.
Production, such as milk, will gradually decrease.
13
(b) breeding between non-relatives within a variety

It is better to breed between males and females which
are not related. For example, breeds that are the same but
which have no relations over several generations. With this
method, there are no disadvantages, but often there is little
breed improvement.
(c) breeding between different varieties
This is when a local variety is crossed with a different,
often improved variety, for example crossing a local cow with
a Jersey bull, or a crossing a local goat with an improved
billy.
Benefits of crossing between male and female of different
varieties : the offspring can have the best characteristics of the parents.
resistance to disease increases.
a low productivity variety can gradually improve its
production
An improved
buffalo bull
mated with a
local buffalo cow
14
Farmers'
Experience
Mrs Dhanmaya
Gyami

Lekh Pharsa -2, Purano Gaun
"Creative Women's Group"
Mrs Dhanmaya Gyami has
learnt improved methods to
manage her livestock . Now
let's hear about her experience.
At first we had to go to the

forest a lot. We had to go to
watch the grazing livestock.
Mrs Dhanmaya Gyami
There was no time to do the work
at home. The livestock (our cows, buffalo, sheep and goats)
were also not so strong. Also, we didn't give the livestock
regular check-ups. And we had to go far to bring fodder. Now,
the fodder from trees in the fields is enough. There's much
more spare time than before and we have started to attend
non-formal education classes. We check the livestock
regularly, and now they are fat, strong and healthy. I also teach
others that they should check regularly and treat their animals
quickly if they are sick. It's better to spend a little on this to
prevent disease rather than being greedy over 10-20 rupees,
then find you lose a buffalo worth 10,000 rupees. The people
in our village now have good experience about this.
15
Subjects Related to Livestock Management

book about livestock management. However, this information
is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's read,
Fodder is a very important resource for livestock.
This chapter gives information on how to create
good tree fodder and leaf litter production close to
the home.
Compost chapter
Livestock eat at one end, and at the other produce
compost. Information is given in this chapter
about how to make good quality compost quickly
and easily.

By planting a fence made of trees producing
fodder and bedding for livestock, these essential
resources can be increased locally. This chapter
gives information about this.
Read On !
What is
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 12 - Beekeeping
Beekeeping ?
A woman trainer
examines the
Jumla Top Bar Hive
Bees live naturally in hollow tree trunks, under branches

and on rocky outcrops in the jungle. By copying the natural
needs of bees, people have kept bees in hives at home for
centuries. There are direct and indirect benefits from beekeeping. Honey, wax, pollen, medicine, etc. are direct benefits. By
pollinating crops bees also help increase farm production. In
the jungle, bees help to maintain biodiversity by pollinating
many wild tree species. These are all indirect benefits.
With small improvements to traditional beekeeping,
production can be increased and diversified. This chapter
provides information about how these low cost improvements can be made to traditional beekeeping.
Why
improve
Beekeeping ?
In this chapter improvements are described in 3 areas of

traditional beekeeping :- 1. bee management, 2. honey extraction, and 3. processing of bee products (honey, wax, etc.).
With better bee management, bee populations increase, and
bees are more healthy and productive. Improvements to
honey extraction mean better quality and quantity of honey &
other products. Improvements to processing also means increasing the quantity and quality of bee products. Pure honey,
wax and pollen have natural nutritional and medicinal qualities. Having more, healthier bees also improves pollination
and so helps the environment. The 3 diagrams below illustrate the 3 areas of improvement.
1. Management
2. Extraction
3. Processing
Increase in hives,
bees, bee health
& production
Better and more

honey, wax, etc.
Better production & use of bee

products
clean
honey
pollen
salves
to improve
Beekeeping ?
How
Anyone can easily keep bees. For this you don't need
lots of land or big investment. To improve the quality and
quantity of bee products it's important to pay attention to
bees' protection, health, hygeine and diet. Just small improvements to management can give many benefits.
Important things to consider in Beekeeping

1. Choice of beehive
3. Problems with bees
2. Caring for bees

4. Product management
Materials Needed for Beekeeping

queen gate
hive
with bees
smoker
veil or
swarm bag
queen box
Pollination of
fruit, oil crops &
wild trees
J better honey
J more fruit J more wax & pollen
J better health for people
herbal
medicines
bee food
all for home production and selling

2
Chapter 12 - Beekeeping
knife
bucket
3
1. Choice of Beehive
When choosing a hive, the timber liked by bees, a cheap
and easy method of making the hive, and its durability are all
important. There are 2 main types of hive: traditional, and
improved. In the traditional hive the combs can't be taken out
to look at, while in the improved hive the combs can be removed and replaced without damage. In Jumla district of Nepal, farmers have improved their traditional hives by making
top bars to which combs are attached. These can be removed
for inspecting combs and replaced again. This is a good example of local hives which are improved appropriately.
turned on
old log
its side so
hive
it opens
from top
top bar
top bar
comb
ledge cut
to hold
top bar
lid
from the centre of one comb to the centre of the next is equal
to the width of the top bar.
1 distance between
midribs of 2 combs
is the same as
2 width of top bar
2
1
close up
view of
middle of comb
27mm
Examples
(actual size)
from Nepali
topbars for
valley
Apis cerana.
29mm
hill
32mm
mountain
The base of the top bar is pointed. This helps the bees to
build straight combs.
Hive adapted from local
comb
hive by turning it on its

side and adding top bars
how the comb

is removed
The width of the top bar must be exactly fitting with the
width of the comb, and there must be room between combs
for 2 bees to move up and down. The size of bees may change
according to altitude (the higher, the larger), bee species and
variety, so the width of the top bar should also change accordingly. Examples of different sizes of top-bars in Nepal are
given in the following diagram. In nature, the distance
4
top bar
A Jumla farmer inspecting the top bar hive. This
doesn't trouble the bees.
2. Caring for Bees

Swarming
Swarming is the natural way for bees to reproduce. It happens
when the number of bees in the hive becomes large and a new
queen is made. When the new queen hatches, half the colony will
leave along with a queen. The old queen goes with the first swarm.
When bees are about to swarm you will see more males flying
outside the hive. A cluster of bees may be seen hanging near the
entrance to the hive. Inside the hive the combs contain many male
bees and queen cells. If the tips of the queen cells are a brown
colour then bees may swarm within 2-3 days.
2 A worker
1 A hive of bees and
bee and its
their young
developing
cell
4 A queen
and queen
cells shown.
If the tip is
brown a
queen wil
emerge
soon
3 Male bees. Their cells are
slightly raised like a hat

4
Worker bees
6
Putting a swarm of bees in the hive

It is traditional knowledge to spray swarming bees with water
or ash. Improvements to traditional practices are suggested
below.
Use walnut, citrus or lemon grass leaves
to clean the old hive. Wipe with honey
and wax.
plaster any holes or cracks in the hive
Put the queen in a box if she can be
found. When the bees are all in the hive,
place a queen gate over the entrance and
let the queen mix with the other bees in
the hive.
A swarm bag or
Be careful not to damage the queen.
Put the swarm into the hive in the evening. veil can be used
to capture a
Feed in the evening only.
swarm
If the queen is new, don't add the queen
gate because she must fly outside to
mate. Watch the hive from 10am to 2pm
for about 5 days to check that they don't
fly away. If bees are seen bringing pollen this means they are settled, and it is
safe to take the queen gate off, or to stop
queen box
watching the bees in the daytime.
There may be a tradition of clipping the
wings of a new queen, but this should not
be done because the queen may not have
mated. The queen mates with the male
bees outside the hive while flying. If she
queen gate
can't fly, she can't mate or lay eggs, and
the colony may slowly die out.
7
Uniting bee colonies

Beekeepers like as many hives as they can keep. But it's
not just the number of hives that's important, there must be
plenty of bees inside also. It is better to unite 2 weak colonies
to make one big one, because : by uniting 2 weak colonies neither die
uniting increases honey production
it takes less to feed a united hive
a stronger colony is less susceptible to disease
a bigger colony has a more balanced temperature
if one colony has no queen, it can be saved.
How to unite colonies

To unite 2 small or weak colonies place the 2 hives close
to each other. Put the frames of the weaker hive in the
stronger hive and smoke the weaker hive to remove all the
bees and drive them into the stronger hive. By doing this, the
stronger queen will kill the weaker queen - you don't need to
do it. It's best to unite colonies at the start of winter, or the
start of the monsoon, or when there is no queen in the colony.
If bees start to fight, give more smoke.
a stronger hive
a weaker hive
bees will mix after smoking
Robbing
One problem is that bees from different colonies sometimes fight each other. Why ?
food is spilt outside or given outside

honey is spilt during harvesting
there is no food and bees are hungry
food is given in the daytime, and the
hive is mishandled
the colony is weak
Preventing robbing
how to stop
spray water on the hive
a swarm
never feed outside the hive
take steps to strengthen the hive (feeding, uniting with a
stronger hive, etc.)
Absconding
Signs that bees are ready
to abscond
Reasons
for absconding
bees stop bringing pollen

bee traffic at the hive entrance slows down greatly
bees may form a ball hanging at the entrance
the queen stops laying
there are no or very few
eggs or larvae - only adult
bees are found in the hive
bees usually abscond between 10am and 2pm
lack of food
too hot or too cold
too much disturbance
smoke, bad smells or
water getting into the hive
opening, moving or disturbing the hive too much
robbing (bee fighting)
attack by predators or
disease
Feeding Bees
Why Feed Bees ?
It's very important to feed bees. To get good benefits
from bees, it's necessary to feed them according to their
needs. Although it costs to feed bees, the honey production
payback makes it worthwhile. As a result of feeding, the bees
can increase in number and be strong to resist diseases. Bees
must be fed when flowers are unavailable, or if the colony
becomes too weak to collect enough food.
What can Bees be fed ?
The best foods for bees are honey, sugar water or candy
(sugar, honey and water solid food). However if these are not
available in your area other sweet substances can be used.
Sweet pumpkin or buckwheat pancake can be mixed
with honey, or pear or apple jam can be given. Food
should always by given inside the hive in the evening,
and taken out in the morning. Sugar water is made by mixing
one part boiled water to 1-2 parts sugar. Don't give food if
older than 2 days. Photo 17 on p.14 shows feeding technique.
To judge the colony's condition and see what management is needed, check the hive regularly.
Signs of a Healthy Colony

Seeing single eggs in comb cells is a sign that the queen is active. If open brood (larvae) and capped brood (pupae) are both
visible, the colony is in a good condition (page 11, photo 4 ).
Bees flying in and out & moving quickly is a good sign.
Bees bringing plenty of pollen means they are busy
raising young - this is a good sign.
Bees being light in colour is a sign of good health.
Lots of male bees is a sign of potential swarming
10
A good healthy colony

2
In a good hive, bees

will cover all the
combs
After giving smoke, brood and

honey combs look like this
3
capped honey
pollen
young bees free of
disease
capped brood
cells of worker
bee pupae
4
cells with eggs to

be worker bees
uncapped
(open brood)
cells of worker
bee larvae
11
A diseased, unhealthy colony

In an unhealthy colony bees
cannot cover all the combs
10
On a diseased comb there

are few capped brood
cells. Un-capped cells
with dead larvae are seen.
Combs may have a sour
smell and bees are angry.
7
Wax moths occupy

combs not covered by
bees, and eat holes in
them, leaving silky
threads as they go.
Later, the comb looks
like a spiders' web.
Wax moth's larvae
look like maggots.
11
Combs with European Foul

Brood disease seen close up
show dead larvae. These
dry up and stick to the base
of the cell.
When seen close up, bee
pupae with Thai Sac
Brood disease look like a
sharp tipped bag
Compare the diseased combs

(6&7) with this healthy one, where
many capped pupae are seen and
healthy larvae are white and fat.
The Farmers' Handbook,
12
This tiny red insect on

the bee's body is called a
Varroa mite. This sticks
to larvae and adult bees
and is harmful to them.
12
In a colony without a queen,

several eggs are seen laid by the
workers bees in each cell. The
colony should be mixed with
another, or a new queen added
"Near The House - 1"
13
Herbs
for
bees
half a
handful of
Horsetail
7 Jasmine
flowers
a handful
of wormwood
13
raw,
ground
tumeric
water to
mix
a handful of
persian lilac
or neem leaves
seive the cooked mixture
14
2 parts sugar
and one part
cooked medicine
dissolve the
sugar in the
medicine
17
place straw, grass etc. in the liquid to

prevent bees drowning and place
INSIDE the hive
14
Symptoms of bee problems are also shown

on colour pages 12 and 13
Symptoms that bees are in bad health (photos 5 to 12 )
Bees leave combs uncovered Because of lack of food,
combs are dry and empty of
Bees are angry
honey. If starved, bees are
Bees move slowly
seen dead with their heads
If bees are dark and shiny they
buried in the comb cells.
may be diseased or queenless
"Brood" Diseases of young bees
15
16
3. Problems with Bees
"Near The House - 1"
Like people, bees suffer from a variety of diseases. In

Nepal there are 2 main diseases. These are called European
Foul Brood and Thai Sac Brood. These effect young bees
while still in their cells. Nowadays these are common diseases.
Symptoms of European Foul Brood : (photos 6 and 9 )
Tiny white lines (the tracheal beathing tubes of the bees) can
be seen on uncapped larvae
Too much water is seen around the larvae
Twisted, dead larvae are seen
Very few capped cells are seen
Dead larvae form scales which are brown and stuck to the
base of the cells
Symptoms of Thai Sac Brood : (photo 7 )
This disease effects the pupae stage and young uncapped
larvae are less affected
Capped brood cells may have jagged holes
In the capped brood cells pupae look pointed and sometimes
discoloured
The head of these pointed pupae turns black and dries out
15
When taken out, these pointed pupae look

like a tiny plastic bag filled with water
Worker bees are seen throwing the diseased
larvae out of the hive. It may look like
they carry grains of cooked rice.
Diseases of Adult Bees
This is a bees'
friend. It eats lice
found on bees'
bodies, but doesn't
harm them.
Worker, male and queen bees suffer

from various diseases such as acarine,
nosema, amoeba and paralysis. These are
caused mainly by lack of hygiene, old sugar water, lack of
food and being too hot or cold. Prevention of these diseases
is the same as for preventing disease in young bees. If the
disease spreads, infected combs should be removed.
Preventing Disease
Keep combs strong and prevent too much swarming
Unite weak colonies with stronger ones
If hives are hot, make small holes to allow air flow
If the weather is cold, cover the hive with pine needles,
moss, sacking, or other insulation
Clean out dirt from the hives every month
Take out old, black combs
Dispose of these carefully (use for wax extraction)
Take out combs not covered by bees
Process the cut combs and keep covered away from wax moths
Provide food if not available
Curing disease after it has struck
Take out uncovered combs
Give food and herbal medicine continuously for at least a week
Preventing ants with bowls filled with water
16
Transfer the diseased colony to a location where there are no

other beehives to avoid spread of the disease
Take out combs with diseased young, and burn them to
prevent the disease spreading
As cutting out diseased brood comb can cause the colony to
abscond, put a queen gate on the entrance
Mix and cook chopped Persian Lilac or Neem, horsetail, Jasmine flowers and raw tumeric with water, strain and mix with 2
parts sugar until dissolved. Feed in the evening of every other
day for at least 10 days (5 doses). This is shown on page 14.
Preventing Wax Moth
Keep the inside of the hive clean. Take out uncovered,
old combs. Dispose of them carefully and never throw them
around the apiary. Process the wax quickly. Store re-usable
combs and processed wax well, in sealed containers. Maintain
strong colonies by feeding, uniting etc.
Preventing Hornets
plastic
bottle
cut off lid

and invert
Put fruit with water in the bottle, and invert the

top so it points down. Hornets can get in
but not out
How to tell if bees have been poisoned
Many bees die in a short time
Bees can be seen dead around the hive
Bees die with their tongues sticking out
Poisoned live bees walk around in circles
Fewer bees arrive at the hive
17
How to prevent poisoning ?

Use local herbs for pest control instead of toxic chemicals
Don't use poisons when plants are flowering
If it is essential to use chemicals, first inform beekeepers
and only use in the evenings or at night.
If signs of poisoning are seen, close the hive immediately and keep the bees in the hive for at least 24 hours, providing air flow and feeding regularly.
Separate capped, uncapped, pollen and empty comb

Carefully brush
bees off the
comb
2
1 On the edge of the comb un-
capped (raw) honey can be seen

2 White, capped cells contain
well ripened, mature honey
4. Processing Bee Products

Things to consider when extracting honey
Never allow honey or cut combs to touch water (not even
small drops) as this will increase the water in the honey and
make it spoil.
Wash any utensils (buckets, knife, etc.) with hot water and
soap or ash, and make sure washed utensils are well dried.
Extract honey in the evenings but before dark
Slowly give smoke from the edge of the colony
Once bees have moved away from the smoke, gently cut the
combs from the edge
Look closely and only cut combs with honey, don't cut
combs with brood
Gently brush any bees off the cut combs, but don't use water
on the brush
Put the cut comb in a clean, dry bowl or bucket, and cover
well to prevent bees getting into it
Combs, or parts of combs containing capped ("ripe")
and uncapped ("raw") honey should be separated
because uncapped honey will ferment quickly.
Use uncapped honey first.
18
empty brood cells
yellow pollen
filled cells
What to do after extracing the honey

Because uncapped honey has a higher moisture content, it
shouldn't be mixed with capped honey. This means they
shouldn't be processed together, and uncapped honey
should be used quickly because it soon ferments due to
the water content.
Cut the capped combs into small pieces and keep
in a deep, air tight container for up to a week.
skim off wax pieces & debris
that rise to the surface
19
After 7 days the honey has sunk and the wax rises to the top.
Skim the wax off the surface. Seive the honey through a
fine, clean cloth. Only use clean, dry hands to squeeze
through the seive. The wax mixed
with honey that is skimmed from the
surface can also be squeezed for
home use, or fed to the bees.
Put the seived honey into clean and
dry containers as needed. These can
be glass, clay, wood or good plastic
containers that are airtight. If airtight
containers are not available, seal the
lids with wax.
Honey should not be cooked because this destroys its nutritious and
medicinal qualities. There is no
value in cooked honey.
Cook old, black

combs and wax
left after honey
extraction over a
low fire
Extracted honey
seived into a
clean, dry bowl
Remaining comb with pollen should

be cut into small pieces, covered with
liquid honey and stored in the same way as honey in an
airtight jar. This is very nutritious. Feed one piece once a
day as needed to pregnant or suckling mothers, babies over
6 months, old or sick people. It may be difficult to digest at
first so feed small pieces until used to it.
Pure honey can also be used as a medicine. It is useful for
burns, cuts, sores, ulcers (including gastric), indigestion,
stomach ache, urinary tract infections, tonsilitis, infected
eyes and ears (for eyes and ears dissolve honey in a drop of
boiled, warm water and seive well before using).
20
Squeeze the
cooked wax in a
bag between
two sticks. The
molten wax
looks like oil.
Allow to cool slowly and
remove the hardened
wax from the liquid.
Scrape off any dirt that
is attached underneath
the wax cake.
Beeswax
Wax is produced from glands on the underside of 12-18
day old worker bees. Bees use it to build their combs. Some
Nepali beekeepers believe that a tiny scorpion-like red insect
makes wax, but this is untrue (but this is a useful insect, see
p.16) as bees make it themselves. Many beekeepers also
carelessly discard old combs. This wastes the wax and attracts
the wax moth. Better to process the wax to make ointments,
candles or polish.
21
Processing Wax
Soak old, dark combs or wax from honey processing in
water for a day. Then, put the old combs or wax in fresh water
and heat slowly. When wax melts and becomes like oil on the
water surface, pour the wax and debris mixture into a cloth
bag and squeeze it between 2 sticks to seive it into another
container. Let it cool and harden without disturbing. Take the
clean wax, break into small pieces and put in a steel or aluminium pot. Boil water in another pot and place the pot of
wax in this to melt. When melted, seive through a clean cloth.
This wax can be used to make cream, candles, polish, etc. To
make cream, add one part wax to 3-4 part vegetable oil. The
method to make candles is shown in the diagram below.
Make a mould from bamboo

for making wax candles
1
Make a
small hole in the
bamboo to hold
the string in place
22
Mr Karnabir Sunar
From Nepal, Jumla district, Chandanath - 4,

Dandakot village, Mr
Karnabir Sunar keeps bees
in his improved Jumla Top
Bar Hive. Now let's hear
Tie a piece of
string on a thin
stick down the
centre of the
mould
Farmers'
Experience
Stand the moulds

upright in wet clay to
pour
I've been keeping bees

since 1995. In our culture,
lower castes like me aren't
supposed to keep bees, so the
Karnabir Sunar
custom goes, but I've been
keeping them successfully. There are good benefits in beekeeping, especially with the Top Bar hive. To make the hive I
upturned the old log hive and put top bars on without any cost
at all. With this hive I can inspect the bees easily, watch for
diseases, feed the bees, and extract honey without harming
the bees. I can sell the honey and wax because it's good quality. Before I kept bees I hadn't been able to have children.
After keeping bees and eating honey and pollen my strength
increased and my wife had a son, and I fed him with honey
from when he was only 8 months old ! Now, I have 9 hives.
The work's easy and low cost, and so I plan to have more in
the future.
23
Subjects Related to Beekeeping

Chapters related to Fruit :- how to create,
grow and manage improved fruit trees with practical information on fruit nurseries, grafting, budding, stone grafting, top grafting, air layering,
planting fruit trees and orchard management.
Seed Saving chapter :- information on methods
to produce and store various quality seeds at home.
Nutrition chapter :- information about needs
and sources of a healthy diet for all the family.
Agroforestry chapter :- information about
how to plant and manage trees on farmland without decreasing farm yield.
This Chapter's Authors :
Mr Narayan P. Acharya
Surya Social Service Society (4S), Jumla
Dr Naomi Saville, Advisor to

Wax Processing Centre, Jumla
Mr Satananda Upadhyaya,
Simkhada, Chandanath-4, Jumla
Read On !
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 1", Chapter 13 - Non-Cement Drinking Water
What is
Non-Cement
Drinking Water ?
Making an intake tank without cement, Jajarkot, Nepal

It is so important to have clean drinking water for a
healthy life. Because of modern development and population
increase, forest is decreasing and water springs are drying up.
Problems have been seen of cement-made drinking water
tanks causing the springs below to dry up. Also, if the cement
cracks, all the water in the tank leaks away, and this is too
expensive to fix. So as an alternative to this, we describe in
this chapter a way to build drinking water systems without
using cement. Instead, they use local resources and skills to
make systems which are safe, cheap to build, and long-lasting.
Why
make
Non-Cement
Drinking Water ?
Many people think that beneficial development can only

come by importing and using resources from far-away foreign
countries. Few people believe that it's posssible to build a
drinking water system for a village without using cement. But
since 1991 in Jajarkot and Surkhet districts of Western Nepal,
the Jajarkot Permaculture Programme (JPP) has made many
such village systems to provide safe drinking water, and all
are being maintained and still running to this day.
Benefits of building drinking water systems

without cement
to build clean drinking water systems

to do this without damaging other springs
to build cheaper drinking water systems
these use less time and labour resources to build
local people can build and maintain these systems
this means that everyone in the village can be involved in
building and maintaining their own drinking water system
this helps the local economy
to make
Non-Cement
Drinking Water ?
How
Drinking water systems can be made from springs near

to the villages without using cement. It's best to build these
during the winter when farmers have more free time. At this
time, springs are also low due to lack of rain, so it is easier to
measure the flow. There are 3 steps to building the non-cement drinking water system :1. Building and managing the spring intake tank;
2. Laying the pipe to the village, and tanks in between, if any;
3. Building the tapstands in the village.
Materials Needed to make a

Non -Cement Drinking Water system
G.I. pipe and fittings
chisel
wrench
gate
nails
taps
polythene pipe
timber
river moss
Mr Bhuvan Khadka
saw
rocks
digging
tools
clay
Himalayan Permaculture Group,

Surkhet, Nepal
2
Chapter 13 - Non-Cement Drinking Water
1. Intake Tank
To collect the water at the spring, a tank needs to be
built. If it is not possible to build a tank at the spring, the
spring water needs to be diverted to the nearest suitable place
for a tank.
First learn about

cutting and joining
galvanised iron
(G.I.) pipe, polythene pipe, fittings,
taps, etc. Often this
can be learned from
the hardware store
Make
small holes in
the intake pipe to
prevent leaves, etc.
from getting in
First of all dig a pit for the tank. Because of not using cement, this needs to be dug into the ground.
Then build a rock lining to the tank, just as you would build
a stone wall. But as well as using mud in between the rocks,
use a layer of moss which grows in water.
make the
top of the
tank from
rocks and
clay
As the tank is being built, leave a hole for a drainage pipe at

the bottom to empty the tank for cleaning. Just above this
level is the hole for the pipe carrying water to the village
(delivery pipe). Near the top of the tank, leave a
space for the overflow pipe.
The tank can be made

circular or square. The size
of the tank depends on the
water needs of the village
and the size
of the water
pipe to drain
source at
the tank
the
(cleaning pipe)
spring.
pipe to the village
(delivery pipe)
4
lid of the
tank
Dig a trench above

the tank. This protects from water flowing in from above
overflow
pipe
moss
moss
here compact the soil

around the pipes
stone, mud
and moss
wall
stone and
clay base
When the wall is built up,

leave a hole big enough for
a person to get into the
tank. If the pipes become
blocked, it may be needed
to clean the tank.
Let's See
How to make NonCement Drinking Water

In Dharnasi
village,
Jajarkot, an
intake tank is
being built.
Make a strong frame to

cover and close the tank
with timber or rocks.
When the tank is finished

join a gate valve to the
pipe taking water to the
village (delivery pipe) and
to the cleaning pipe at a
suitable place outside the
tank. This means the water
supply can be cut off if the
pipeline needs maintenance at any place. Instead
of a gate valve, a wooden
bung can be used to block
the pipe from the inside of
the tank
Between the
rocks in the
wall the moss
can be seen.
After this work is finished, the area around the tank

needs protection. If possible, prevent livestock from walking
in the area, and prevent people from cutting trees there. If the
area is bare, a tree plantation should be made.
6
Starting to make the

top after the tank has
been built.
For protection and

maintenance,
a well fitting
wooden door
is made.
Leaving a
hole big
enough for a
person to fit
in, the lid is
made.
9
5
Showing the
position of a tank
in the forest.
Overflow pipe
6
An intake tank
with a stone lid.
8
intake tank
overflow pipe
3 cleaning pipe
4
delivery pipe
9
Making a
drinking
water tap in
the village
don't uncoil pipe like

this, it will develop kinks
and may split
10
uncoil pipe like this
Dig a trench to bury the

pipe from the tank to the taps in
the village. The pipe should be
buried 3 feet deep. In the bottom of the trench first put loose
pipe
soil and stones. Use G.I. pipe
where there are rocks and so a
soil and
trench cannot be dug.
stones
11
If there is a steep or long drop from the

intake to the village, a "check" tank can be
built in between. This is built the same
intake
way as the intake tank. If there are
tank
only rocks where this tank is
then cement may be needed
check tank
to build the tank above
the ground.
Waste water
from the tap
used to irrigate
kitchen gardens. It can
also be used for
nurseries and
orchards
tap
overflow
pipe
delivery pipe
10
pipe from spring

11
Making the Tapstand

Making a
tapstand
in the
villages
Use nails to hold the pipe in the

groove on the back of the post
After the site for the

tapstand has been prepared,
make a smooth wooden post.
On the back of this post, to
the height that the tap will be,
chisel a groove in the centre of the
post in which to hold the pipe. At
the top, make a hole big enough to
hold the tap. Measure the distances
cut in the wooden post, and cut the
pipe according to this. Bury the
post so it is upright and strong in
the ground. Join the pipe and fittings and fit into the groove on
the back of the post,
Only the people in
with the tap coming
the village responout of the hole.
Then build up a
sible for maintenance of the
strong wall any
drinking water
shape you like
system should be
around the tap
allowed to use the
stand.
gate valve
Take advice
from those
skilled in joining
pipe like this
12
The oldest noncement drinking

water system still
working in
Jajarkot,
Sirpachaur village (built 1991)
Make a design to use the waste water from a tap
stand for kitchen gardens or a community nursery
13
Maintenance
How to maintain
Non-Cement
Drinking Water
The tanks may leak a little but as the moss grows it will
block all the holes. The older the system is, the stronger it
gets and the less it leaks. The tanks should be cleaned if
leaves or mud get in. Any leaking or split pipes should be
repaired and re-sealed immediately.
To help to maintain and run the drinking water system in
a sustainable way the village committee should set up a fund
according to the number of households. If a community nursery is made, this can generate income from seedlings distributed which can go into the fund. The fund can be used to
replace any fittings which may break, such as a tap, gate
valve, pipe, etc.
If the forest is protected around and above the spring, the
flow of water will increase. This is because the forest catches
the rain and allows it to soak into the soil instead of running
off the land.
Protect the forests

Protect the springs !
14
Farmers'
Experience
Mr Bir Bahadur
Khatri

Gumi - 9, Ghuyalpani village,
Mr Bir Bahadur Khatri is a member of "Shiva Shakti" group. His
village has made a non-cement
drinking water system. Now let's
hear about their experience.
Our village is on a high ridge.

Though there are water resources it
Bir Bahadur Khatri
was very difficult to get them to the
village. With the help of the Homestead Programme (JPP) we
made an intake tank. This uses moss instead of cement. With
cement, the tank will crack and water will leak out, but with
moss this covers all the cracks. Because the system's made out
of local resources we could build it ourselves, and up until
now we haven't had to repair it. But if this is needed, we can
do it ourselves. There are 5 small springs feeding 7 taps, and
they're all working very well.
JPP's Drinking Water Engineers:- Janga B. Gharti (left)

and Ammar B. Nepal (right)
have made more than 20 noncement systems in Nepal's
villages since 1991.
15
Subjects Related to
Non-Cement Drinking Water
build your own drinking water system. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's
read, learn and practice from other related chapters.
Waste Water Chapter

Information in this chapter about how to make use of
household and tapstand waste water for irrigation.
House Hygeine Chapter

Don't think that health improvement comes ony
from drinking clean water. If the house and
kitchen are dirty, even more diseases can spread.
Information about easy methods to keep the
house clean are given in this chapter
Kitchen Garden and Mixed

Vegetable Growing Chapters
Read On !
Near the House

Part Two
CONTENTS
Subject
This Volume's Authors : Chris Evans, Belmaya Rana, Bhuvan Khadka

Typing: Chris Evans
This Volume : 99933-615-3-4........
Booklet No:

Kitchen Garden ............................................. 2
Mixed Vegetable Gardening ......................... 3
Off-Season Onion Growing .......................... 4
Growing Herbs .............................................. 5
Home Nursery ............................................... 6
Hot Bed.......................................................... 7
Air Nursery.................................................... 8
The Farmers' Handbook is about techniques for sustainable farming and this is the third
of 5 volumes. There are 13 techniques presented here. In five volumes there are 44 techniques
and approaches in total.
Leaf Pots........................................................ 9
Introduction to Fruit Production ................. 10
that photocopying can cause pollution to the environment, is expensive & does not give a good
quality.
Fruit Nursery ................................................ 11

Grafting ......................................................... 12
Budding ......................................................... 13
Stone Grafting ............................................... 14
Booklets are separated by a yellow page

This is the third volume of a five volume production of
the Farmers' Handbook. In all there are forty four techniques
and approaches shown, of which thirteen are in this third
volume. In this volume we introduce you to some more of the
methods used near the house (part two). The titles of these are
given on the previous contents page.
This Farmers' Handbook has been prepared to provide
information about sustainable farming methods as well as
being a resource to run literacy programmes. Information
about such programmes and how the Handbook can be used
is provided in the fifth volume. As well as technical
information, a glossary of new or difficult words is also
provided in the fifth volume.
Aims
Background
fence.

Comments and/or questions about the techniques and

same way:-

described.
After this, there is an interview with an experienced
farmer who has built and used the method.
Kitchen Garden 2
Mixed Vegetable Gardening 3
Off-Season Onion Growing 4
Techniques
Information About Herbs 5
Home Nursery 6
Hot Bed 7
Air Nursery 8
Leaf Pots 9

Introduction to Fruit Production 10
Fruit Nursery 11
Grafting 12
Budding 13
Stone Grafting 14
Distributor and
P.O. Box 8975 EPC 849
main contact
Kathmandu
addresses
Nepal
tel: +977 1 5549774
nepal@arasia.org.uk
www.atasia.org.uk
tel: +44 1730 823311
London WC1N 3XX
Tel: +44 845 4581805
Himalayan Permaculture Group, P.O.

Box 19121, Kathmandu, Nepal
lxdfn lb3f{o' ;d"x, n]v;f{ @, k'/fgf] ufp,

;'v]{t

Tel: +977-1- 252597
Funding
Support
Farmers' Handbook has come from ActionAid Nepal,
MSNepal, Methodist Relief & Development Fund
(UK), GTZ Food for Work, Hill Agriculture Research
Project (HARP), ICIMOD. In this volume, the
chapter on "Grafting "has been supported by
Helvetas Nepal
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Chapter 2 - Kitchen Garden
What is a
Kitchen Garden ?
Farmers from
Mulsam in
Jajarkot,
Nepal, display
vegetables
from their
kitchen
gardens
A kitchen garden is where herbs and vegetables are

grown around the house for household use. Since early times
a small plot near to the house has been used for growing a
variety of vegetables according to the season. Local varieties
such as radish, broad leaf mustard, chilli, beans, pumpkins
etc. are all grown in the kitchen garden.
In this chapter we provide information on how to establish and manage kitchen gardens with minimum input for
maximum output, and show how to produce varied and nutritious crops of herbs and vegetables for use in the kitchen.
Why
make a
Kitchen Garden ?
For people to stay healthy it's very important to have a

healthy diet. A healthy diet means a balanced mix of rice,
bread, pulses, vegetables, herbs, fruit etc. Vegetables are a
very important part of a good diet as they contain various
nutrients for many body functions. For growing, energy and
protection against disease, vegetables play an essential role.
Vegetables are especially important for the young, and for
pregnant and nursing women.
Benefits of the Kitchen Garden

to grow healthy, fresh vegetables yourself;
to save the cost of buying vegetables and herbs;
waste resources such as sweepings, kitchen scraps and
dirty water can be recycled onto the garden;
wasteland around the house can be made productive.
This Booklet's Author :

2
How
to make a
Kitchen Garden ?
Because there's often no tradition of kitchen gardens,

many people can't grow the vegetables they need for a good
diet. Or they spend lots of money on vegetables, or their
health suffers from lack of vegetables.
It may be that you haven't been able to make a kitchen
garden. There are several reasons why it may be difficult to
make a kitchen garden, or if you
have made one, it is not successful. For example:
pests, diseases or livestock
have destroyed the crop;
no good seed or seedlings;
lack of space;
These vegetables
lack of water;
have wilted because of lack of
lack of fertility;
water
no spare time;
lack of the right skills.
In this chapter easy methods are described to solve these sorts of problems, and so help
the family to be able to grow good produce from their kitchen
garden.
Chapter 2 - Kitchen Garden
Beneficial Connections in the Kitchen Garden

a collecting waste water
sweepings pit
c home nursery (hot

bed, fruit nursery, etc.)
e living fence
air nursery
fence (not living)
g vegetable beds
liquid manure
Working relationships in the

Kitchen Garden
livestock stall
How to make the work easier

in the Kitchen Garden
1 domestic waste water
collection
3 seeds from the garden to
house and from house to
garden
2 ash, water, hair, etc.

composting resources from the
house to the land
4 sweepings from the

house and courtyard
5 waste water used for irriga- 6 use of compost
tion in the kitchen garden
8 fodder from the land
and live fence, and
7 liquid manure also used to
compost returned to
control pests and disease
the land
mulch
material
from
the
9
10 vegetables etc. from
live fence and edges
the kitchen garden
to the house
4
4
a
b
c
10
g
9
8
d
7
h
e
f
Things to pay attention to

To make and manage a kitchen garden easily, and to give
best production, the following things are important :1. Site selection
3. Water management
5. Seed & seedlings
2. Protection
4. Fertility
6. Design of the garden
2. Protection
The kitchen garden area needs protection from the very start. It should not be
possible for livestock to enter the area. A
permanent fence should be made. Thorny
plants can be cut and used to make a
fence, but the best method is to plant a
living fence to protect the garden.
Good management of the garden needs knowledge of all

these. Then we can make our kitchen garden more successful.
1. Site selection
If you already have a kitchen garden you may not need
to choose a new site, it's enough to improve the old site. If
you are making a new garden, there are many factors to consider. For example : how to protect from livestock ?
how can you bring water to the site and distribute
it ?
how is the soil ? How can the fertility needs be
managed ?
where is the sunlight coming from ?
how can the area be accessed easily from the house ?
Then, the crops within the garden will also need protection
from damage by many types of pest and disease. There are
many ways to do this. Mixed cropping, rotations, liquid manure, etc. are all ways of protecting crops. There is more information about crop protection in the chapter Integrated Pest
Management.
When these issues are considered, the best site can be

chosen and the work of making the garden will be easier.
6
3. Water Mangement
It is important to provide enough moisture for the
kitchen garden. There are many ways of conserving and increasing the moisture available. For example : Mulching : prevents the wind and sun drying the bare soil;
Green Manures : also cover the soil, and so help in
conserving water;
Windbreak : wind will dry
out the soil, so stopping the
wind helps to conserve soil
moisture;
wind
Provide shade : in the hot season trees can provide shade

to the kitchen garden. A few small trees, such as Lucaena,
mulberry, Moringa (drumsunshine
stick), Persian lilac, or even
fruit trees in the fence or within
the garden can be used for this.
As well as giving shade, these
trees can also provide other
benefits, such as firewood,
fodder or mulch material.
Mist collection : mist collects on the
leaves of trees around and within the
kitchen garden, and drips onto the soil
to provide extra moisture.
8
Irrigation : if there is no irrigation

for main food crops, it is likely
that there is also not enough water
to irrigate the kitchen garden. But
if the above methods are used,
then more water is conserved and
so less is needed. Collecting and
using waste water from the kitchen
can be enough to water the garden. Also, direct water from
communal tapstands can be used on kitchen gardens.
Guidelines for Irrigation

By only putting a little water over a wide area, only the
surface will be kept moist. This can cause roots to stay near
the soil surface and in strong sun they can dry out very easily.
So it's much better to irrigate less area with more water, so the
moisture goes deeper in the soil. Then this area will not need
watering again for a long time. In the hot season, irrigate in
the evening or at night, and not in the daytime.
Deep watering
is better for
deep rooting,
and irrigation
is needed less
often.
Shallow watering means
roots stay at the surface
and will soon dry out.
Let's See
How to make a
Kitchen Garden
Kitchen garden protected inside a woven
bamboo fence.
Planting
mixed vegetables helps to
protect them
from pests and
diseases.
Even chickens can't

get through this
fence made from
wormwood stalks.
Edge plants provide useful mulch
close to the garden
beds where they
are needed.
Near the
house many
types of food
plants can be
grown in the
same place.
passion
passion fruit
fruit
chilli
10
broad bean
In mixed vegetable planting,

no space is
wasted and the
soil is always
covered.
coriander
11
4. Fertility
All farmers know that without fertility in the soil, crops
won't grow. But fertility can be as limited as water. If there
isn't enough compost for the field crops, it can't be taken and
used for the kitchen garden. So our kitchen garden needs to
be self reliant for fertility. Suggestions for sources of fertility
are given below : Sweepings pit :- by collecting everyday sweepings from the house and yard
in one place, you can make enough
compost for the kitchen garden.
Liquid manure :- liquid manure
made in a pit or a drum gives nutrients to the plants as well as protecting them from pests and diseases.
Mulching :- putting a thick layer of

biomass mixed with compost on the
soil helps to increase fertility.
Green manures :- sowing seeds of

green manure helps to protect the soil
and gives extra fertility for more production
12
Legumes :- planting legumes such as

peas, beans, Sesbania, sun hemp, etc.,
provides extra nitrogen to the soil
which is good for other crops
Other sources :- ash, oil seed cake,

hair etc. are all resources which can
be added to the soil to increase fertility, as well as helping to prevent pests
and disease.
5. Seeds and Seedlings

A kitchen garden can provide very good food from local,
traditional vegetables, and it's important not to lose these
local varieties. However, sometimes farmers are also interested to try new varieties. So it's very important to save and
protect any good seed - this is the farmer's responsibility. Information about
seed saving is given in the Seed Saving
chapter. From good seed, it is important
to be able to raise good, healthy seedlings for transplanting into the kitchen garden.
Nursery techniques are described in the Home Nursery, Air
nursery, Hot bed and Leaf Pots chapters.
13
6. Garden Design
More production in a small place
Planting lots of varieties

can give good production
in a small area
2
4
8
7
11
9
13
3
10
12
If seeds and seedlings are planted too wide apart, much

of the space in between goes to waste, where weeds will
grow. Weeds use precious water and compost, and cause extra
work to keep clear. You also have to work harder to replace
the water and compost which are lost to the weeds. This is
why it's best to plant vegetables densely. But if only one type
of vegetable is planted densely, it will compete with itself for
space above and below ground, and so not be a good crop. So
it's better to plant a mix of small and large types, to make
different layers of crops on the same bed. These will also
have different layers of roots in the soil.
This means many plants can be grown in a small space,
but there is no competition between crops for space, water
and nutrients.
Succession
As smaller vegetables are harvested for food, this
makes space for the longer lasting vegetables, while in
between new seedlings can be planted.
Succession
1 broad bean
4 peas
3 onion
tomato
6 coriander
Swiss chard
9 beetroot
7 cauliflower
garlic
10 carrot
12 comfrey
marigold
13 new seedlings - see "succession" on the next page
2
5
8
11
Newly planted
cauliflower
seedlings
Species not shown, but also possible to plant
Previously planted
broad leaf
mustard seedlings
Vegetables :- cabbage, kale, radish, turnip, kohl rabi, chilli,

broad leaf mustard, spinach, lettuce, aubergine, beans, etc.
Vegetable or herb companion plants :- fennel, dill, basil, tansy, etc.
14
15
Edge Planting
It's not only the making of the kitchen garden, we must also
be able to maintain it easily. It can be fun to create and plant a
garden, but having to work every day to maintain it may soon
become difficult, and so the garden gets neglected. Edge planting helps to make maintenance work easy in the kitchen garden.
"Edge planting" means the growing of support crops, or
companion plants, in the edges around the garden and its
beds. These plants help support the garden by providing
mulch, protection from weeds, windbreaks, repelling pests,
and producing other useful resources. Plants such as wormwood, Adhatoda vasica, marigold, comfrey, lemon grass,
nettles, Lucaena, mulberry, basil, tansy, and many others are
good for edge planting.
Benefits of Edge Planting
Edge planting helps with protecting the garden and also
producing fodder, fuel, nectar for bees, herbs for medicines, soil
conservation (terrace stabilisation), habitat for pest predators, etc.
Edge plants
take nutrients
from deep in
the soil and
cycle them to
the surface,
where they
are used as
mulch, and
then returned
to the soil.
16
Beneficial
predator insects
take nectar from
the flowers.
Then they
attack pest
insects.
The smell of marigold

flowers and leaves help
to repel many types of
pest insect. They also
produce a substance
from their roots which
repels damaging soil
nematodes.
Where to plant ?
in fences
in agro-forestry
on terrace edges
on the edges of vegetable beds
on path edges
around the edge of the courtyard
on the edge of the
compost heap, waste water pit, sweepings pit, path, etc.
17
Farmers'
Experience
Subjects Related to Kitchen Garden
Mr Shyam Shrestha owns

Sunrise Farm in Sita Paila4, Kathmandu, Nepal. He
has experience making
kitchen gardens, so let's
hear his story.

make and manage your own kitchen garden. However, this
let's read, learn and practice from these related chapters.
At first I used to farm the

traditional way but doing this,
one type of vegetable was
grown all together so there
Shyam Shrestha
were more pest problems, and
more maintenance was needed
as well. I've been collecting waste water from the kitchen for
irrigation. For compost, I collect the rubbish around the house
and cow shed into a sweepings pit. When I plant various
types of vegetables mixed together, there are less pest problems. There's less weeding too, because they're planted so
closely, and I mulch where I can. When I harvest, I clear
whatever weeds there are and mulch them back on the beds that's more compost. I collect seed from the best plants of
everything. With this method, I plant once and then need very
little work or maintenance - just harvesting, and eating.
Nowadays, others are starting to learn these methods here for vegetable gardening themselves.
18
Read On !
Mr Shyam Shrestha
Mulching
chapter
Mixed Vegetable
Gardening chapter
Living
Fence
chapter
Kitchen Garden
chapter
Sweepings
Chapter
Integrated Pest
Management
chapter
Home Nursery
chapter
Liquid
Manure
chapter
Seed
Saving
chapter
Nutrition
chapter
Compost
chapter
Waste
Water chapter
Green Manures
chapter
19
Mulching chapter :- how to grow more crops with less

work while keeping the soil covered
Integrated Pest Management chapter :- how to use
local resources and knowledge in many different methods of
controlling pests and diseases
to produce and store various quality seeds at home.
Sweepings chapter :- how to make good compost
from sweeping the house and yard.
Waste Water chapter :- how to get irrigation for the
garden from domestic waste water.
Green Manures chapter :- sow a green manure seeds
to add fertility to the soil and produce more crops
Compost chapter :- information on how to make good
compost quickly is given in this chapter
Liquid Manure chapter :- how to use local plants to
make a liquid for fertilizer and pest control
Nutrition chapter :- information about needs and
sources of a healthy diet for all the family.
Living Fence chapter :- how to plant not just a fence but
also produce fodder, fuelwood, mulch and other benefits
Home Nursery chapter :- make nurseries from local
resources to grow many types of plants at home
Mixed Vegetable Gardening :- how to grow lots of

vegetables easily by planting many varieties at one time
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Chapter 3 - Mixed VEgetable Gardening
What is
Mixed Vegetable
Gardening ?
Mixed
vegetable
gardening
means
planting lots
of different
types of
plants together. In
A mixed vegetable garden, Begnas, Nepal
conventional
gardening,
different varieties of vegetable are usually planted in different
areas of the garden. So cabbage, onion, lettuce, radish, pea,
etc. are all in their separate places. However, there are beneficial relationships between many types of vegetable and herb
plants, which help them to grow. When plants grow separately, these benefits are lost to the system. This is one reason
why various problems can start to affect the vegetables. To
solve these problems farmers must then work harder at weeding, pest control, irrigation, etc. Without this extra work,
production can be lost.
Mixing different species together helps the different
crops. So in this chapter information is provided on how to
plant and maintain a mixed vegetable garden.
Why
plant a Mixed
Vegetable Garden ?
Many problems can affect the success of vegetable

gardening. For example : lack of seed & seedlings lack of water
lack of time
lack of knowledge
lack of fertility lack of space
pests & disease or being eaten by livestock
These problems can make vegetable production seem
very difficult. They can cause the garden to fail, or productivity to be less, even with high inputs.
Benefits of Mixed Vegetable Gardening
less pest and disease

leek
less weeding
less need to irrigate
many types of vegetable in the same place
no space is wasted
vegetables can be harvested over a longer time
high production in a small area

2
How
to plant a Mixed
Vegetable Garden ?
If you have your own good method of growing vegetables, don't stop all at once to try mixed vegetable gardening.
Try it out on a small area of your vegetable garden and see. If
it works well, you can increase it next year.
Materials needed
seed :- mustard, buckwheat, fenugreek, broad leaf mustard,
lettuce, chard, beetroot, coriander, fennel, radish, turnip,
kohl rabi, spinach, pea, broad bean, carrot, kale, chinese
cabbage, pak choy, basil, garlic, parsnip, onion (seedlings or
starts), etc.
seedlings :- cauliflower, cabbage, brocolli, onion, leek,
marigold, etc.
compost
fertile soil
light (fine) mulch
ash, oil seed cake
parsnip
Time to plant
low-lying tropical or sub tropical - after the monsoon (Autumn)
high altitude or temperate areas - in the early spring
beetroot
Chapter 3 - Mixed Vegetable Gardening
Preparing the garden
Planting Seedlings
The more fertile the soil is, the less preparation is

needed. Dig the area, mix in compost and make the soil fine.
Make garden beds according to your needs and the shape and
slope of the land. If the width of the beds is 4 feet then the
centre of the bed can be reached without treading on the soil.
The soil should be fertile and fine to plant seedlings.

Plant cabbages, cauliflower, etc. at their normal distance of 12-18 inches. In between and on the
edges of the beds plant onion seedlings
or starts, and garlic bulbs at 4 - 6
inch intervals.
Sowing Seeds
kale
lettuce
cabbage
Materials Needed to plant a

Mixed Vegetable Garden
various types
of seedling
mulch
material
various types
of seed
well rotted
compost
digging
tools
First sow the large seeds :- pea, radish, broad (fava)

bean, climbing or dwarf beans, etc. are planted at intervals of
6 inches. Make a smale hole with your finger, plant the seed,
and cover. Then, thinly sow all other vegetable or herb seed
except the mustard, buckwheat or fenugreek. Lastly, after
planting the seedlings and sowing the seed, thickly sow the
mustard, buckwheat and/or fenugreek. If you don't have all of
these 3, any one or two of them will do. On the edge of the
beds it's good to plant or sow companion plants, such as
lemon
grass,
marigold,
basil,
wormwood,
comfrey,
etc
Different types
of vegetables
are good for
our health
Covering the soil
sprout
After planting everything, sprinkle

ash on top. Then cover with fine, fertile
soil - enough to cover all the seed and
ash. Finally, taking care not to cover the
seedlings, add a thin mulch to cover all the
soil, and water well. Now your mixed
vegetable bed is complete, and all you have
to do is harvest !
cauliflower
broadleaf
mustard
onion
radish
This vegetable
garden looks
good, but all the
species are separate, so it takes
more work.
6
Let's See
How to make a Mixed

Vegetable Garden
After 3 weeks all

types have germinated. Broad bean,
buckwheat, Swiss
chard and kohl rabi
can also be seen.
One week after

sowing, mustard, fenugreek, radish
and onion
bulbs have
started to germinate. Cauliflower seedlings have also
been planted
Now lets see how

much work it takes to
look after a mixed
vegetable garden
garlic
red
mustard
radish
lettuce
coriander
Seen close, various types of vegetable
broadleaf
mustard
radish
Chinese
mustard
red
mustard
broadleaf
mustard
6 weeks after
sowing, production is
good and
bare soil
can't be seen
Because of different types of

leaf shape, leaf
texture and
colour, there are
less pest problems
broad
bean
How many types of

vegetable can you
count ?
8
Maintenance
After eating from the

garden for 4 months
there are still lots of
vegetables, and still no
bare soil.
This farmer has

sown 9 types of vegetable together on
his large field.
10
How to
maintain a Mixed
Vegetable Garden
By making the bed in this way, less maintenance is

needed later on. Weeding and watering may still be needed
according to site, but the mulch, and the density of plants help
to conserve moisture and keep weeds down.
In a bed planted like this, first the mustard will germinate. It will be followed by broad leaf mustard, radish, fenugreek, buckwheat, and so on. The mustard, fenugreek and
buckwheat will grow very densely, and help prevent weeds
from growing to leave minimum weeding. From 2-3
weeks, production starts with mustard leaves
being picked as a greenleaf vegetable.
Shortly after, buckwheat and fenugreek
can be picked for the same use. Picking
of these can continue over the next 2-3
weeks, until they are all gone (except for
seed plants).
By this time, other vegeables will
start to be ready. Broadleaf mustard, radish leaves, small
radishes, lettuce, etc. can be harvested from 1 month after
sowing. Fast growing leaf vegetables are picked to make
space for slower, longer living species.
So maintenance of the mixed vegetable bed is really just
harvesting. If this doesn't happen, the vegetables will grow
too thick and the system will lose productivity. The space left
by a harvested plant is quickly taken up by another. In this
way, the bed never has any empty spaces or bare soil.
11
When can you harvest the

fruits of your labour ?
Before 3 weeks
1 month
mustard greens
mustard greens (continued); fenugreek,
buckwheat greens; radish greens.
2 months
radish, broadleaf mustard, lettuce, Chinese

mustard.
3 months
radish, broadleaf mustard, lettuce, chard,

coriander leaves, kohl rabi, turnip, beetroot, etc.
4 months
broadleaf mustard, chard, turnip, radish,

carrot, coriander, peas, chinese cabbage,
kohl rabi, beetroot, kale, etc.
5 months
chard, carrot, peas, broad bean, kale, cabbage, etc.
6 months
chard, cauliflower, carrot, peas, broad

beans, cabbage, onions, garlic, etc.
7 months
cabbage, sprout, onion, garlic, coriander

seed, fennel seed, leek, brocolli, etc.
After all plants are harvested

Using this method, vegetables can be easily harvested and eaten for up to 7 months. Finally, after everything has been eaten, add compost and dig the bed ready
for the next season. If the monsoon or summer is next,
maize, beans, squash, chillies, etc. can be sown. Or a
crop of green manures can be grown, or the garden
mulched thickly and left fallow. It's up to you, your seasons, your crops and your needs. When the right season
starts again, the cycle is complete and the process of
mixed vegetable growing can be repeated.
5 months after sowing,

radish, broad bean, coriander, etc. produce seed.
The soil is still completely covered.
12
13
Farmers'
Experience

and a member of "Haryali"
women's group, Mrs Ekmaya
Shris has planted her own
mixed vegetable garden. Now
I learnt about mixed vegetable gardening from the homestead

programme (JPP) so I could grow
Mrs Ekmaya Shris
vegetables better. I planted greens,
radish, garlic, broad beans, cabbage, coriander and others all
at the same time. The beans were good young, and used for
lentils when they were older. It's a good method to protect
against pests as well, and by planting lots of types, if one
doesn't do well the others will still produce food. After planting, there was always food to harvest, but no work for a
whole 5 months. We start in September after the monsoon,
and there's enough to eat continuously until April. Weeding
isn't needed either even though we only put a light mulch
around the plants. This is a great method. Now I can teach
what I've learned to others, and I'm still learning more about
what I don't know.
14
Read On !
Mrs Ekmaya Shris
Subjects Related to
Mixed Vegetable Gardening
Kitchen Garden
chapter
Living Fence
chapter
Mulching chapter
Liquid
Manure
chapter
Seed
Saving
chapter
Mixed Vegetable
Gardening chapter
Nutrition
chapter
Sweepings
Chapter
Integrated Pest
Management
chapter
Waste
Water chapter
Compost Green
chapter Manures chapter
Integrated Pest Management chapter :how to use local resources and knowledge in many
different methods of controlling pests and diseases
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15
Mulching chapter :- how to grow more crops

with less work while keeping the soil covered
to produce and store various quality seeds at home
Sweepings chapter :- how to make good
compost from sweeping the house and yard
Waste Water chapter :- how to get irrigation for the garden from domestic waste water
Green Manures chapter :- use green manures
to add fertility to the soil and produce more crops
Compost chapter :- information on how to
make good compost quickly is given in this chapter
Liquid Manure chapter :- use local plants
to make a liquid for fertilizer and pest control
Nutrition chapter :- information about needs
and sources of a healthy diet for all the family
Living Fence chapter :- how to plant not
just a fence but also produce fodder, fuelwood,
mulch and other benefits
Kitchen Garden chapter :- design your

garden to produce healthy vegetables at low cost
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The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Booklet 4 - Growing Off-Season Onions
What are
Off-Season
Onions ?
Onion seedlings ready
for off-season planting
In Nepal, farmers usually start planting onions from seed

in October, and transplant in November. This means that
when April comes the crop is ready, and for a short period the
bazaar is full of onions. And that means at this time, the price
of onions is low. As a result, it's more difficult for farmers to
gain a good income from selling onions. However, before and
after this time, the price of onions is 2 or 3 times higher.
Then, onions need to be imported from outside the country.
How fine it would be for farmers to get such good prices for
their crops. One way of making more from onion growing is
by off-season onion production.
This booklet gives information on how to grow onions to
sell over an extended period. Note that months are described
for the northern hemisphere, and need to be adapted for the
southern hemisphere.
Why
grow offseason Onions ?
Benefits of growing off-season onions

when onions are less available, they can be sold at higher
prices;
by growing onions out of season, you save having to buy
them at higher prices;
onions are a nutritious vegetable, and it's good to eat them
from time to time. By growing them out of season, you can
eat onions more regularly;
in the off-season method, onion bulbs are planted at the end
of the monsoon when there is still moisture in the soil. This
means that poorer farmers without irrigation can benefit
more from producing off-season onions,
How
to grow offseason Onions ?
New types of seed aren't needed to grow off-season

onions. You can use whatever types you are used to planting,
or are locally available.
1. When ?
Onion seed is planted between October and December.
Use the same method to plant seed as in normal onion growing. You can also start a little earlier, in September.
2. Where ?
Firstly you need a nursery to sow the onion seed in.
Choose a place where the seedlings can be protected and
cared for easily. The onion seedlings can be transplanted into
the kitchen garden. If grown on a large scale, a transplant bed
is also needed, according to the needs of the farmer.
Materials Needed to grow off-season onions

onion
seed
2
digging
tools
compost
Booklet 4 - Growing Off-Season Onions
3. Sowing the seed

Before sowing onion seed,
soaking it in water helps to speed up
germination. Change the water twice
daily and after 2-3 days a tiny white
root will appear. As soon as this
happens, sow the seed in the nusery.
After sowing, cover the seed with fine, fertile soil. Mixing
ash and ground oil seed cake with the soil provides fertility,
and also helps to protect against pests in the soil. Then, cover
the soil with a fine mulch. As the onion seedlings grow,
irrigate and weed as needed.
Let's See
How to grow offseason onions
4. Transplanting the seedlings

After about a month in the nursery, the seedlings are
transplanted so they are a distance of about 2 inches apart.
The seedlings will be about 3-6 inches tall. The nursery bed
can also be used by leaving seedlings at the required distance
after transplanting the others.
2 inches
These seedlings will grow in the transplant nursery for a further 2 months, and need to be weeded and watered as required.
4
Shown here is the

onion seed germinating. In the
lower photo the
seedlings are
ready for transplanting
After transplanting, the onions

grow until the
bulbs are the size
of a thumbnail.
The plaited
strings of onions
are hung up in a
dry, airy and
shaded place
They can be
left like this for
4-5 months
Then the bulbs
are lifted and
plaited together
as shown
At the end of the

monsoon the bulbs
are planted again.
A shoot quickly
grows and looks
like this after a
week.
5. When the onion bulbs are the size of a

thumbnail, they are ready to lift (uproot). The
bulb should be firm. After lifting, plait the
leaves together to make a long string of
bulbs 18-24 inches long. There may be 5060 bulbs in a string.
The string is hung in a shaded, dry and
well-aired place.
6. The string can be left hanging for the
whole of the monsoon. At the end of the
monsoon unplait the string and plant the
bulbs separately in the vegetable garden.
The off-season onions can be mixed with
other vegetable varieties in the garden. More information
about this is given in the booklets Mixed Vegetable Gardening and Kitchen Garden. Planting the bulbs in September
means the onions will be fully grown in November. This is
the time when onions are not easily available so the market
price is higher
As in normal onion
growing, bending
over the leaves helps
to produce bigger
onions bulbs.
8
Occasional irrigation is needed to grow onion seedlings.

But by planting at the end of the monsoon there is still plenty
of moisture left in the soil. If there is a lack of irrigation,
groups of farmers can get together to grow seedlings in one
place where water is available, such as below a community
tap stand. Then, the bulbs are distributed among the farmers
for storage individually. After the monsoon, everyone can
then plant onion bulbs and produce a good crop without the
need for irrigation.
It's also easy to produce seed from onions grown in this
way. Simply select the best plants, and let them grow to seed.
There's more
benefits for
farmers by selling onions on
the bazaar out
of season
10
Farmers'
Experience
Mr Bal Bahadur
Regmi

Gumi - 2, Shera village, Mr
Bal Bahadur Regmi has
produced his own off-season
onions. Now let's hear about
his experience.
I've grown off-season

onions since 1997 and I like the
method very much. After sowing the seed in December, I
leave the seedlings to grow into
firm bulbs the size of my
Bal Bahadur Regmi
thumbnail, then lift them and
hang them plaited together in a shaded and airy place. Then in
September I make beds and plant the bulbs again. At that
time, the soil is moist from the monsoon, so I don't need to
irrigate. The onions are then ready to eat and sell in November. This method is really easy and I can eat onions when
there's normally none available. And because there are
no other onions available, they're more expensive.
You can also save seed using this method. Nowadays others in the village have started to use this
method. We produce seedlings on our farm, and distribute the bulbs to other farmers to continue the method of
planting the bulbs on their own land.
11
Subjects Related to
Growing Off-Season Onions
book about growing off-season onions. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's
read, learn and practice from other related booklets.
Kitchen Garden and
Mixed Vegetable Growing booklets
These booklets give information on how to do
less work for more production, while also being
able to produce a wide range of fresh vegetables.
Home Nursery booklet

Different plant species have different ways of
propagation. This booklet tells how to easily grow
many types of plant for home use.
Seed Saving booklet

This booklet gives information on methods to
produce and store various quality seeds at home.
Read On !
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Booklet 5 - Information About Growing Herbs
Information About
Growing Herbs
In our diets, we eat not only grains, bread, vegetables
and pulses but also different types of herbs. Herbs make food
more tasty and can also help digestion, and act as medicines.
So it's a good idea to learn how to grow appropriate new
types of herb. In this booklet we learn about some new types
of herb, and how to grow and use them for more benefits in
our diet and garden.
How to read the information on new herb varieties ?

1. The herb's name
6. Its functions
and benefits
2. Its drawing
3. Its height
4. Its age
5. How to plant its

seed or seedling
Information About Growing Herbs

Balm
Basil
Borage
Chamomile
Lavender
Height
1 metre
50 cm
50 cm
50 cm
50 cm
Age
perennial
annual
annual
perennial
perennial
Planting
Method
sow direct, or
raise in a nursery
and transplant
sow direct, or
raise in a nursery
and transplant
sow direct, or
raise in a nursery
and transplant
sow direct, or
raise in a nursery
and transplant
raise in a nursery
and transplant
mix with vegetables

medicine
companion planting
bee food (nectar)
edge plant
liquid manure
mulch material
medicine
companion planting
bee food (nectar)
edge plant
mulch material
medicine
companion planting
bee food (nectar)
edge plant
Species
Drawing of
the Plant
Function
medicine
companion planting
bee food (nectar)
edge plant
mulch material
mix with vegetables

medicine
companion planting
bee food (nectar)
edge plant
liquid manure
Booklet 5 - Information About Growing Herbs
raise
and
Species
Marjoram
Rosemary
Sage
Tansy
Thyme
so
raise
and
Drawing of
the Plant
Height
50 cm
50 cm
up to 1 metre
1 metre
50 cm
Age
annual
perennial
perennial
annual
perennial
Planting
Method
sow seed or plant

cutting in a nursery, and transplant
sow seed or plant

sow seed or plant

sow seed or plant

sow seed or plant

mix with vegetables

medicine
companion planting
bee food (nectar)
edge plant
mix with vegetables

medicine
companion planting
bee food (nectar)
edge plant
medicine
companion planting
bee food (nectar)
edge plant
liquid manure
medicine
companion planting
bee food (nectar)
edge plant
liquid manure
mulch material
mix with vegetables

medicine
companion planting
bee food (nectar)
edge plant
Function
Species
Oregano
Nasturtium
Lemon
Bergamot
Sorrel
Comfrey
Flower
Drawing of
the Plant
Height
up to 1 metre
1 metre
25 cm
50 cm
perennial
perennial
perennial
perennial
Age
perennial
Planting
Method
sow seed or plant

sow direct or raise

cuttings in a nursery, and transplant
mix with vegetables

medicine
companion planting
bee food (nectar)
edge plant
mix with vegetables

medicine
companion planting
bee food (nectar)
edge plant
Function
50 cm
sow seed in a
nursery and
transplant
sow direct, or
raise in a nursery
and transplant
tea
mix with vegetables
medicine
medicine
companion planting edge plant
bee food (nectar)
edge plant
liquid manure
from root
cuttings
mix with vegetables

medicine
companion planting
bee food (nectar)
edge plant
liquid manure
mulch material
7
Feverfew
Parsley
50 cm
30 cm
Function
Planting Age Height

Method
Drawing of the Plant
Spe
cie
s
Summer
Savory
50 cm
annual
sow seed in a
nursery and
transplant
mix with
vegetables
medicine
companion
planting
bee food (nectar)
edge plant
perennial
sow seed in a
nursery and
transplant
medicine
companion
planting
bee food (nectar)
edge plant
liquid manure
perennial
sow seed in a
nursery and
transplant
mix with
vegetables
medicine
companion
planting
bee food (nectar)
edge plant
What is a
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Chapter 6 - Home Nursery
Home Nursery ?
A Home Nursery
is a nursery made in
your own garden to
grow plants that you
need yourself. There is
no single way to make
a Home Nursery, nor is
it made for just one
type of plant. Vegetable, fodder, fruit, medicinal herbs, and other
types of seedling can
all be grown in the
home nursery. Then,
you can plant these
seedlings on your own
land, or distribute to
Belmaya Rana and her Home
your friends, or even
Nursery, Surkhet, Nepal
sell them. For different
species of seedling,
there are different types of home nursery.
In this chapter simple methods are described for growing different types of plants for home use.
Why
make a
Home Nursery ?
to obtain suitable seedlings when needed;

to produce seedlings close to where they are needed;
so seedlings can be cared for and protected at home;
to grow the right species which are right for the local climate;
to make use of domestic waste resources for water and
compost;
to improve productivity on your own
land using trees and shrubs;
seedlings can be exchanged or
sold;
by producing seedlings
yourself you don't need to
import them;
you increase your skills
It may be that you don't have the resources in your village to build and manage a large nursery. In a big nursery
more water, compost, and more maintenance would be
needed. This means there is less time to spend working at
home, and an extra person would need to be employed. In
many villages it's difficult to make such arrangements. So,
you can use local waste resources and simple methods to
successfully raise seedlings, even if only a few, at home.
2
How
to make a
Home Nursery ?
There are many methods of growing plants, and many

different types of nursery to do this. The fruit nursery, leaf pot
nursery, hot bed, air nursery, etc. all have their own methods.
They are described in more detail in other chapters.
In this chapter, at first information is given about things
concerned with any type of nursery. After that, we give some
examples of useful types of nursery.
Materials Needed to make a Home Nursery

cutting
tools
seedlings
roots
seed
Digging
tools
cuttings
compost and
fertile soil
Chapter 6 - Home Nursery
mulch
small sticks
(for marking)
3
1. Things to consider when building

a Home Nursery
(a) Site Selection
It's important to choose the right place for a nursery. A
site is needed where watering, checking, protecting, mulching, composting and such daily maintenance becomes easier.
Once the right site is chosen, we can start to build the nursery.
You can put different types of nursery in different places
around the farm. But wherever they are, you need protection,
compost, water and good seed or seedlings.
(b) Protection
To make a successful home nursery it's essential to have
a protected area. If your home nursery isn't protected, chickens, goats, etc. will damage it and eat the plants there, and all
your work will go to waste. Also, seedlings won't be available
when needed.
What to protect against ?
Danger Management
Resources needed
Livestock fence, live fence,
watcher, community agreement
wormwood, thorny plants,

Crotalaria, Sesbania,
citrus, bamboo, etc
thatch shades,
water
straw, mulch, shade

trees, green manures, etc.
Dangers to the Home Nursery

In any place where these dangers
aren't protected against,
the nursery will fail
Sun
Pests & integrated pest

diseases management
sun
Wind
mulch, thatch
shades, windbreak
straw, mulch, trees (agroforestry), green manures,

etc.
Hail
thatch shades,
tree cover
straw, mulch, agro-forestry,

green manures, etc.
pests and
disease
wind
livestock
4
methods
healthy soil & plants, liquid manure, mixed crops,

rotations, companion planting, ash, oil seed cake,
cow's urine, neem oil, etc.
(c) Soil and Fertility

Management
To raise healthy seedlings
in the shortest possible time,
fertile soil is essential. If the
forest is near, you can bring in
good, fertile soil for making
beds and filling pots. Otherwise, livestock manure is used
for making compost to mix with
the local soil. It is important that
compost is well rotted, and raw or
even half decomposed compost
shouldn't be used in the top soil of the
nursery. Compost produced from the
sweepings pit is good to use. Information about this is
given in the Sweepings chapter.
If the soil is clay type, mix one part sand with 2 parts
soil and one part compost.
Soil from the Mother Tree
For many species of tree, if soil is taken from around the
roots of the same species in the forest and mixed in beds or
pots, growth in the nursery can be greatly improved. This is
because the soil under the "Mother Tree" contains essential
micro-organisms which help the young plants to grow, just
like mother's milk helps a baby.
(d) Water Management

By using waste water from the household, enough water
to irrigate the home nursery can be provided. So morning and
evening, washing hands and face, or washing pots and
6
pans, get into the habit of saving the

waste water for the nursery.
More information about how
to do this is given in the
Waste Water Pit chapter.
In the hot season, water
the nursery in the evenings or at night, not
during the day. By
mulching the beds, or
making a thatch shade,
the water used to irrigate
will last longer.
(e) Seed
Talk with other farmers to decide which species are
wanted to be grown, and where the seed can be obtained.
Many types of seed can be collected from the nearby forest or
farmland. This seed should be collected at the right time, and
stored well until ready for sowing. More
information about this is given in the Seed
Saving chapter.
Timely Seed Sowing
Most seeds can be sown in the nursery in the Spring. In
lower, hotter climates this can start in the winter. At higher
elevations it may be some months later. Here, using a hot bed
can mean starting in the winter even at high elevations. Information about this is given in the Hot Bed chapter. Seedlings
must always be big enough (at least 8-12 inches) to plant out
in the planting season, whenever that is.
7
Species Selection
The method used in the nursery will depend on which
plants you want to grow.
Type of
nursery
Seed sown
direct into
nursery
beds
Species grown
Vegetables :- cauliflower, cabbage, tomato, aubergine, chard, brocolli, etc.
Trees :- Persian lilac, neem, sea buckthorn, ash, coffee, oak, etc. (these can
then be transplanted into pots)
Seed sown into walnut, mango, soapnut, butter tree,

polypots
etc.
Cuttings
mullberry, napier grass, willow, hazel,

some Ficus, etc.
Root slips
comfrey, lemon grass, broom grass, etc.
Air nursery
Lucaena, Acacia, Sisso, Bauhinia,

Sesbania, (most legumes) , papaya, tree
cotton, etc.
Fruit nursery
wild peach, pear, citrus, walnut, etc.
Hot bed
pumpkin, tomato, gourds, chilli, aubergine, etc. for off-season growing
Leaf pots
pumpkin, gourds, cucumber, beans, peas,

etc.
The air nursery, fruit nursery, hot bed and leaf pots are
described in more detail in their own chapters.
8
2. Making nursery beds

After choosing a site with suitable water and fertility
resources, you can start work on making the beds.
Size of the beds

The beds should be 4 feet wide. This allows reaching to
the centre of the bed from either side without stepping on the
soil. The beds can be as
long as you need. The
4 feet
shape and length of the
4 feet
beds depends on the
number of plants you
want to grow.
4 feet
Shape of the beds

If the nursery is on a slope, the beds should follow the
contour, i.e. they should be as level as possible. Watering and
access should then decide how to design the beds.
Circle nursery
One good method is to make a
nursery bed around the base of a
fruit tree. Then, excess
water and compost
put on the
nursery will
go to the tree,
instead of
going to
waste.
The width
of the bed
is 4 feet
Preparing the nursery soil
(a) Sowing seed in the beds
Dig the nursery bed to a depth of 50 cm (18 inches)

and add compost, forest soil, sand, etc. as needed. After
making the soil fine and loose, the beds are ready for sowing seed. Tree, shrub and vegetable seed can be sown.
Beds for planting cuttings and root slips are made in the
same way.
This method is dependent on the shape and size of the

seed.
3. Sowing and Planting in the

home nursery
Now, information is given about planting in different
types of nursery. First, how to sow seed, then plant cuttings,
and after that examples are given of how to plant napier grass,
lemon grass and comfrey.
Lines are made in

the bed to be ready
for sowing seed
Small seed :alder, eucalyptus, etc. This seed is very small and needs mixing with sand or soil to help sow evenly. Mix one part seed
with 2 parts sand or soil. Make small lines across the bed with
your finger, and sow the seed mix into this small trench. Then
cover with a thin layer of fine soil.
Large seed :make a deeper trench across the bed. Seed is planted at twice
the depth of the seed's thickness.
Seed planting distance :leave a distance between seeds which is the same as the size
of the seed.
Sow the seed twice as deep as its size

and cover with soil
cabbage
orange
oak
peach
10
11
4 fingers (2-3 inches) space

between lines
Between seeds,
leave the same
space as the size of
the seed
orange seed
example
1
oak seed
example
Belmaya's home nursery

in Gumi VDC, Surkhet,
Nepal, with various
plants shaded by thatch.
cabbage seed
example
Benefits of planting in a line :- after seeds planted in a line

have germinated, they can be recognised from weeds that
germinate around them. This means that the bed can be
weeded without damaging the new seedlings.
After sowing
seed, cover
well with fine
soil. Then
cover (do not
smother) with
a thin, light
mulch
12
Let's See
how to make a
Home Nursery
Coffee seedlings in
a home nursery
sheltered by
nearby shrubs.
13
Lemon grass
How to plant Napier grass, comfrey

and lemon grass in the Home Nursery
Napier grass
1
1
cuttings from
one stem
Comfrey
2
;fpnf the
planting
cuttings
comfrey
roots
small slips
made
from large
clump
ready for
planting
14
separated and
cut into small
plants (slips)
Trim
leaves &
roots of
large
clump
small "slips"
planted in a bed
slips
planted
in a bed
4
15

slips planted in a bed
Lucaena planted
on the edge of the
beds provide shade
and a support for a
frame to hold
thatch, as well as
producing fodder,
firewood, etc.
(b) Planting cuttings
slips
sprouting
well
covered
with a light
mulch
mulberry
cuttings
sprouting
16
Some species are more successful and grow faster from

cuttings than from seed.
Species growing from cuttings :- mulberry, willow,
many Ficus, drumstick, grape, honey locust, etc.
Timing of cuttings
Cuttings are usually made in the cold, dormant season.
Deciduous plants lose their leaves in winter, and 2-3 weeks
before sprouting new leaves in the Spring is usually the
best time to plant these cuttings. So if plants sprout
in late February, plant the cuttings in early February. If they sprout in mid March, plant the
cuttings in late February, etc.
Selecting cuttings
When selecting branches for making cuttings,
always choose healthy, undamaged and diseasefree branches from last year's wood. Cut the branch cleanly
into short lengths, and plant quickly in the nursery.
17
Things to consider when preparing cuttings

Cuttings are prepared after bringing to the nursery, and
when preparing should be cut straight at the base
and slanting at the top. Cuttings are usually
between 6 and
12 inches
if cut away
long. There
from the
12
cut near
should be at
ins.
to the bud, top will
least 5 buds
dry out
bud,
on the cut6
doesn't
ting. The
ins.
dry out
top of the
cutting
should be
pruned just above
the top bud with a
slanting cut. If cut too
far above this bud, the wood will dry out
and can cause disease to enter.
Preparing a bed for planting cuttings
The bed is dug and
made fertile as for a normal
nursery (see p.6 and 10). It's
most important that the soil is
light and loose, not compacted like clay.
Dig a trench, place cuttings on
one side, and fill in
18
Planting the cuttings

After cutting the branch from the tree to be propagated
and trimming it into short lengths, the cuttings should be
planted quickly into the
bed to prevent them from
drying out. Make a trench
in the bed about 4-6 inches
deep. Place the cuttings
dig a trench, upright about 3 inches
apart against the side of
place the
1
cuttings and the trench. Then refill the
fill in the soil soil into the trench, covering more than half of the
more than cuttings. The cuttings
half of the should be left at an angle,
cutting
as in the drawing. Plant
should be
the rest of the bed in lines
2
buried
like this. The cuttings
should be left with the
slanting top cut at a vertical angle, and facing away from the
sun. By doing this water cannot settle on the top, and the sun
will not dry out the cut surface. Place a light mulch between
the cuttings and make thatch shades over the top. This will
conserve moisture and protect from frost, hail, etc. The nursery should be well protected, as
the cuttings should not be
touched or moved.
plant the cuttings at an angle
pointing away from the sun
19
(c) Planting Napier grass cuttings
(d) Planting Lemon grass slips
The nursery for Napier grass is prepared in the same way as for other types.
The Napier stem should be mature and
slightly woody. If there are small aerial
roots and leaves sprouting from the
internodes, these can be planted in a nursery, or directly onto their permanent positions in the fields. To make the cutting,
make a slanting cut mid point between 2
nodes. When planting in the nursery make
sure the node on the cutting is buried in
the soil. If successful, roots will sprout
from this node and the cutting will grow.
To propagate lemon grass, carefully dig out a large

clump and divide into small plants, or slips. These can then be
planted in the nursery. In the rainy season the small slips can
also be planted out directly into the fields. Before planting,
the leaves should be trimmed to about 4-6 inches and the
roots trimmed to about 2-3
inches long. Plant as described
Make small slips
above, cover with mulch and
from a large clump
water well.
Trim the
leaves and
roots
4-6 inches
2-3 inches
Many types of cutting can be planted in the rainy season

as well. At this time, cuttings can be made and planted direct
into farmers' fields.
Broom grass can be planted in a nursery in the same
way, but this is done in the Summer.
20
Dig a trench, place the

slips and fill in the soil
21
(e) Planting root slips
(f) Using Polypots
Some plants will grow from planting

sections of root, or root and shoots. By
planting these in a nursery, many useful
plants can be produced in a small space.
Plants which will grow from root slips
include comfrey, lemon grass, broom
grass and cardamon. Preparation of beds
to plant root slips is the same as other
methods described above.
Many seeds can be planted directly into polypots. Others

planted into beds can then be transplanted into polypots after
they have germinated.
Planting seeds in polypots
When planting seed in polypots, the seed is buried by the
same depth of soil as is the thickness of the seed. When filling
the pots with loose, fertile soil, leave enough space to place
the seed, then cover it with the remaining soil, as in the
picture below.
Planting method
The method for
planting root slips is the
same for planting
cuttings. Dig a trench
and line the root slips
along one side, then fill
in the soil again. Leave a
small shoot sticking up
from the soil surface.
Then cover with mulch
and irrigate. At
first the bed
should be well
watered, and
then give water
as needed. Add
a thatch shade as
required.
22
Small seed
is covered
with a thin
layer
of soil
Dig a
trench and
line out
root slips
Large seed like

peach is planted
deeper, and covered by more soil
Refill the trench to

bury the slips
Placing the polypots in the nursery

After seed is sown in the pots they are put into the nursery beds. A bed width of 1 metre is enough, the length is
according to the number of pots needed. It's not necessary to
prepare the soil of the beds as the good soil is already filled
into the pots. It is better if the floor underneath the pots is
made of stone or gravel.
23
To keep the pots upright in the bed, place stones, bricks

or bamboo around the edge. In a 1 metre wide bed, you can fit
18-20 regular small sized polypots (2 inch diameter) filled
with soil. If large size, (4 inch) 8-10 pots will fit in one line.
To allow more space in the bed, place a cross bar made
of bamboo every 6 lines of pots, and continue to place more
pots the other side of it. When all are placed, water and place
a thatch shade on top of the bed.
Transplanting seedlings from bed to pot

If plants are to be transplanted from
bed to pot, the seedling is ready at the
4 leaf stage. First, water the bed well
and then carefully lift the seedlings
with the help of a small stick.
Using the stick, make a hole in
the soil of the pot for the roots.
Cross bar placed

every 6 lines of pots
Bed with
stone, bricks
or bamboo on
the edge
Root pruning in the pots

As the seed germinates and the plant grows, its roots will
grow down into the soil in the pot. If the roots are allowed to
grow too long and thick out of the holes in the
pots, lifting the pots will be difficult and if
the roots break the plant may die. So after
the first month of growing, the pots
should be lifted to check for roots growing out of the holes. If found, they
should be cleanly cut and the pot returned to the bed. After the first pruning,
pots should be checked every 2 weeks.
Pruning the roots like this is good for the
plant and means it can be planted easily.
Not pruning can cause the plant to die.
24
Making sure the roots of the seedling

are pointing downwards, place the
seedling into the hole. The roots must
all be in the hole.
Finally, use the stick or fingers to
press the hole closed around the
roots, and give water.
For some days afterwards keep a shade over the bed, as
the seedlings need to be protected from the sun.
(g) Irrigating in the nursery

Seedlings need the right amount of water to grow well.
With too little water seed will not germinate, and growing
seedlings will dry out. Too much water and they will rot, and
the water is wasted. Mulch and shading reduce the amount of
water needed by conserving the moisture. In the cold season
it is best to water in the morning, and in the hot season water
in the evening or at night.
25
(g) Thatching over the nursery

Small seedlings need protection against heavy rain,
strong sun, frost and hail, etc. On hot, sunny days shades
should be placed over the beds from around 11am to 3pm. The
shade should be about 50cm high. In the winter, or whenever
frost is likely, shades are needed at night, and should be about
25cm high.
To protect
from the sun
in summer,
high shades
are needed in
the daytime.
Farmers'
Mrs Devi Gurung
Experience
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 3, Shera village, and a member of
"Chintan" Women's
Group, Mrs Devi Gurung
has made her own home
nursery. Now let's read
I learned about making
a home nursery from the
Homestead Programme
(JPP) and my local Women's
Group. Now, in my nursery
Mrs Devi Gurung
I have seedlings for producing fruit, firewood, fodder and the like. I have tree cotton,
coffee, Bauhinia, bamboo, Acacia, papaya, Lucaena and so
on. Some seedlings are in beds, some are in polypots, according to the species of plant. So now it's easy to plant them on
my land. For fertility in the nursery and the vegetable garden
I used the compost in the sweepings pit. And the waste water
pit provides enough water for irrigation. All together there are
5 to 600 seedlings. Mainly I'll be planting them at home, but I
will also swap some with friends in the group, and give some
away as well.
To protect from
frost in the winter, low shades
are needed at
night
(h) Weeding in the nursery
Various weeds will grow in the nursery. These need
continuous removal. Sometimes it's difficult to distinguish
weeds from sown plants. By sowing in straight lines, seedlings can be recognised after they germinate. Everything else
will be weeds and can be carefully pulled, dried, and mulched
back on the beds.
26
27
Subjects Related to Home Nursery

Liquid Manure chapter :- Use local plants to make a
liquid for fertilizer and pest control from information in this chapter.

There are many types of pest and disease which affect farm
crops. In this chapter information is given about preventing
these problems using local resources.
Waste Water chapter :- If you need extra water for

the home nursery, find information in this chapter about how to
make use of household and tapstand waste water for irrigation.
Kitchen Garden and Mixed Vegetable Growing chapters
How to make and manage a home vegetable garden for permanence, ease and simplicity ? Information on doing less work for
more production while also being able to produce a wide range
Four chapters on how to make various other

nurseries :- Different types of plants need different types of
management to grow them successfully. Information on how to
build and manage the fruit nursery, air nursery, hot bed and leaf
pots is given in these chapters.
Agroforestry chapter :- information about how to
integrate trees and crops by planting and managing trees on
farmland without decreasing farm yield and producing a
range of other useful products is given in this chapter.
Read On !
What is a
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Chapter 7 - Hot Bed
Hot Bed ?
Bhim Regmi and his Hot Bed

Good, nutritious food is not only a need for everybody,
it's a right. Many farmers grow vegetables, which helps to
provide us with many essential nutrients. But there are several
months when seeds won't grow because of the cold, and the
kitchen garden stays empty. One method of raising vegetable
seedlings even in cold weather is called the Hot Bed.
The hot bed is a way or providing extra heat to the soil
and growing seedlings in the cold season, so seedlings can be
grown ahead of time. This means that vegetables can be
grown off season, even in cold climates. Read on, to find out
how to do this.
Why
make a
Hot Bed ?
In cold climates and at high altitudes, for several months

over Winter and early Spring there is snow and frost, which
prevents seeds germinating and can kill young plants. For this
reason seedlings can't be grown until the time for frost has
past and the weather warms up. By making a hot bed, seedlings can be grown even in the winter. This means that vegetables can be produced 1 or 2 months earlier than usual.
Village-made
Hot Bed
How
Making the Hot Bed

Choose a good site for the nursery. This must be easy to
There are also economic benefits from this. If vegetables

can be raised off season, i.e. ahead of time, they can be sent
earlier to the market when prices will be higher. For example,
if in a normal season vegetables are 10 rupees a kilo, at offseason times the vegetables may be sold at 15-20 rupees.
2
to make a
Hot Bed ?
protect and maintain, with plenty of sun.

Dig a trench. The trench should be 1 metre wide, 50cm
deep, and as long as you need for the amount of plants to
be grown (a 1x1m hot bed is usually enough for several
families to share seedlings grown for planting in their own
kitchen gardens).
Place a 3 inch thick layer of straw or leaf litter in the bottom of the trench.
On top of this place a 3 inch layer of raw, fresh cow or
horse dung, and wet well.
On top of the dung place another 3 inch layer of straw or
leaf litter.
Then return a 3 inch layer of the soil dug from the trench.
Finally put a 3 inch layer of fine, fertile soil (which can be
made by mixing compost with the dug out soil, if it is suitable).
k'l:tsf g+= ^ tftf] g;{/L
Chapter 7 - Hot Bed
Hot Bed
The seed will be sown into this layer of fine, fertile soil.
In the Hot Bed we can sow seeds direct into the soil, or into
leaf pots filled with the same soil. After sowing the seed,
cover the bed with a thin layer of finely chopped mulch.
Finally, the bed is covered with a sheet of plastic. First
of all make a bamboo frame on which to hang the plastic.
Bury the edges of the plastic in the soil around the bed, so air
cannot get in.
Inside shown through cross section

1. Heat from the dung helps seeds to germinate
sun
plastic
seed
heat
thin mulch
seed
digging
and cutting tools
bamboo
clear
plastic
fresh
dung
heat
straw
2 metres
rotted
compost
soil +
compost
soil
straw or
leaf litter
50cm deep
Materials Needed to make a Hot Bed
fresh dung
straw
2. The plastic helps to protect growing

seeedlings from frost
sun
germinating seedlings
plastic
1 basket
4
1 basket
1 basket
Chapter 7 - Hot Bed
Species to grow in the hot bed

Most types of vegetable can be grown in the hot bed.
Usually, summer crops are most suitable as these are the ones
that can be started for early planting after the winter.
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Let's See
how to make a
Hot Bed
dig a trench
50cm deep,
1 metre wide,
and as long
as needed
season
planting
method
rainy season plants
dry season
plants
leaf pots
pumpkin,
cucumber,
gourds, beans,
etc.
beans, peas,
etc.
direct into
the bed
chillis, aubergine, ladies'

finger, sunflower, etc.
tomatoes,
broadleaf mustard, chard,
lettuce, onion,
cabbage, etc.
2
In the bottom place a
3 inch layer of straw
or leaf litter
#3
On top of this
place a 3 inch
layer of fresh
dung
Chapter 7 - Hot Bed
4
On top of
the dung
put another
layer of
straw
On top of
this put a
3 inch
layer of
the trench
soil
Leaf pots with

seed sown can
also be put in
the hot bed
6
Then put a 3
inch layer of
fine, fertile
soil
8
Make lines
in the soil
to sow the
seed into
Now cover
the whole
bed with a
fine mulch
Chapter 7 - Hot Bed
10
Make a
bamboo or
stick
frame
Maintenance
How to
maintain
a Hot Bed
From time to time the nursery needs maintaining : when the sun is out the plastic can be folded back to irrigate
and weed the nursery as required;
replace the plastic in the evening, when the sun goes down;
heat from the dung warms the soil, and the plastic prevents
it quickly escaping;
when the danger of frost has passed the seedlings in the hot
bed can be transplanted into the kitchen garden
11
Hang the plastic on this and
bury the edges
in the soil
Mrs Laxmi
Thapa and
her Hot Bed
12
The plastic
opened to weed
the nursery
10
Chapter 7 - Hot Bed
11
Remove the plastic when

the danger of frost is over.
Make a fence to protect
against livestock
From time to
time open the
hot bed to check
inside
tomato
seedlings
At this time
giving water,
liquid manure,
or weeding can
be done
lettuce
seedlings
pumpkins
in leaf
pots
12
Chapter 7 - Hot Bed
13
When seedlings are ready
Mrs Tulisara
Gyami
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Lekh Pharsa-2,

Purano Gaun village, and
a member of "Creative"
Women's Group, Mrs
Tulisara Gyami has made
her own hot bed nursery.
Now let's read about her
experience.
hot bed
seedlings
beds are
mulched
kitchen garden
beds
Farmers'
Experience
In our village, it's difficult to grow vegetables in the

winter because of the cold at
Mrs Tulisara Gyami
that time. The frost kills the
plants. That's why I made a
hot bed, to grow off season vegetables. After I made the hot
bed it was easy to grow vegetables earlier in the season. As
soon as I saw the first hot bed, I knew it would work
because the morning after the day we made it, the heat had
warmed up the inside and it was full of steam. Outside we
were shaking with cold, but inside the plastic seedlings
started to germinate very quickly. I used the bed for 3 or 4
successive plantings into the garden. This made it easy to
k'grow
l:tsf g+lots
= ^ oftftf]
g;{/L
beneficial
vegetables 2 months sooner than
normal.
seedlings
When the danger of frost is passed, seedlings can be

transplanted from the hot bed into the kitchen garden.
First, water the plants well before transplanting. Water
them again once they have been transplanted.

14
Chapter 7 - Hot Bed
15
Subjects Related to the Hot Bed

Hot Bed
chapter
Leaf Pots
chapter
Many types of
vegetable for
off-season production can be
grown in the hot
bed. Cucumber,
pumpkin, beans,
etc. can also be
grown off season.
You can learn
how to make leaf
pots from this
chapter.
Kitchen Garden
Mixed Vegetable chapter
Gardening
chapter
Plants grown in
the nursery can
be mixed with
all sorts of others for planting.
Information on a
method producing more with
less work is
given in this
chapter.
Where, when,
and how to plant
seedlings raised
in the nursery
with less work
and more production ? Information on how
to make a successful kitchen
garden is given
in this chapter.
Read On !
What is an
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Chapter 8 - Air Nursery
Air Nursery ?
It's everyone's
responsibility to
plant trees and
make the Earth
green. But because
of lack of skills to
raise plants, many
farmers don't do
this important
work. They may try
to do it, but often
the planting isn't
successful. In this
chapter we discuss
Ram and Lilawati Gharti's Air Nursery
the question of how
to raise seedlings using local resources and less work. There
are many types of nursery to raise different types of seedlings.
Here, we learn about a new and quite different type of nursery, called an Air Nursery.
An Air Nursery is a bed which is lifted above the ground,
so there is empty air space between the bottom of the bed and
the ground below.
make an
Air Nursery ?
Why
The main purpose of the air nursery is to produce a good

shape for seedlings' roots. It is mainly useful for those plants
which develop a fast-growing tap root.
Seedlings are usually raised from seed sown in a nursery
bed, or sown direct into polypots, or transplanted from one to
the other. But it's very easy to damage the roots as young
seedlings are transplanted from one place to another. Many
plants can dry out. In polypots, roots need pruning regularly,
and if this is forgotten or not possible at the right time, the
roots grow into the soil and when lifted can break and damage the plant. The air nursery is especially for species that
grow these fast, long roots in the nursery.
A small air
nursery can
be made in
the corner of
a kitchen
garden
This chapter's Author :-
Mrs Belmaya Rana

Local Coordinator, Gumi,
Surkhet, Nepal
2
to make an
Air Nursery ?
How
Materials needed to make an Air Nursery

digging
tools
straw or
leaf litter
seed
fertile soil
about 3 baskets
nails
rope
stakes
bamboo
planks
sticks
When to build an air nursery

The air nursery is built whenever normal nurseries are
started. This is normally late winter for lower, warmer areas,
and later in the spring for higher, cooler areas.
Building the Air Nursery

On the following pages the building method for the air
nursery is described, with pictures and text.
Chapter 8 - Air Nursery
Dig holes at 4
corners of a
square and drive
in 4 strong stakes
5
Strongly secure
4 planks around
the top
Place strong sticks

across the uprights
Fill with fertile

soil
7
Place smaller
sticks across
Plant seeds in lines
Add smaller
sticks and straw
to close all holes
4
Cover the seeds

with soil and
cover the soil with
a light mulch
How to make
Dig in 4 stakes at the corners of a square, and between
50cm and 1 metre high, so they are strong and steady.
Surround the top frame with planks or bamboo, and fill
with up to 6 inches of fine, fertile soil to make the nursery
bed. Dig a round pit 50 cm deep and 50 cm in diameter underneath the nursery. The soil from this can be used this to fill
the nursery above. This pit then has a second use when lined
with plastic to make liquid manure in, and is shaded by the
nursery above. Now the air nursery is ready to sow seeds in.
After sowing, cover the seeds with a thin layer of soil and
then a fine mulch, and water the bed well. Seeds will germinate quicker if first soaked in warm water for 1-2 days.
Let's See
1
Making the
hot bed in a
shady spot
behind the
house
Species to plant in
the Air Nursery
Plants which produce a fast growing tap root are ideal for the air
nursery, such as:Lucaena, Acacia, Bauhinia,
Dalbergia, Sesbania,
Gliricidia, Flemengia,
Calliendra, tree cotton,
mango, papaya, walnut,
honey locust, etc.
how to make an
Air Nursery
2
Making the
pillars and
frame to hold
the bed
Use straw or
leaf litter to
stop soil
from falling
through
Make the
soil fine
and even
Make lines to
sow the seeds
into
4
Enclose the
space with
planks, as
shown here
8
5
Inside this,
put up to 6
inches of fertile soil
8
how to sow the

seeds in the bed
The
Farmers'
Handbook,
"Near
The
House
- 2"
The
Farmers'
Handbook,
"Near
The
House
- 2"
Chapter
- Hot
Bed
Chapter
8 -7Air
Nursery
The roots
of a
papaya
grown in
an air
nursery
are short
and well
bunched
10
Cover with
mulch and
water well
and regularly
The top of the

bed is well
mulched with
leaf litter
Underneath
is a pit for
making liquid manure
After 3
months, showing seedlings
growing well
10
Ms Chandra
Pun shows
the roots of a
papaya
grown in the
air nursery
11
Both roots shown below belong to the

papaya plant. One is grown in a
polypot and the other in an air nursery.
What difference can you see ?
In a
polypot
In an air
nursery
Maintenance
How to
maintain
an Air Nursery
This is how the plants in an air nursery grow well. From

time to time regular maintenance of watering and weeding is
needed, and liquid manure can be used.
Things to note :Water will dry out faster than normal in the air nursery,
so watering is needed more often. In the hot season water
once or twice a day, and in the cold season once every 2 days
is enough.
Here's a big, community air

nursery to grow many seedlings
The roots are in a

fine root ball, easy
to dig out and plant
Because of the long tap root, digging

up is difficult and damages the plant
12
13
So the roots will grow down as the leaves and stems

grow up. As the fast-growing tap roots grow down, they meet
the base of the bed and grow into the air space. Here, they
will dry up and die, which stops the deep root growing - this
is automatic root pruning. Instead, many fine roots will grow
higher up.
When this is done, it becomes much easier to dig up
seedlings for planting out, and roots are not damaged. No
harm is done to the seedling. Just trim off the dead roots when
it is time to plant out.
Farmers'
Mr Ram Bahadur Gharti
Experience and Mrs Lilawati Gharti
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 2,
and members of the "Don't be Alone"
Farmers' Group, Mr
Ram Bahadur Gharti
and Mrs Lilawati
Gharti have made
their own Air
Nursery. Now let's
hear about their
experience.
At first we didn't believe a nursery could be in the air !

But then the Homestead Programme (JPP) taught us and we
built our own. We didn't think we had the materials to build
one but managed to find bits and pieces and eventually in
only half an hour we'd built an air nursery. If we'd known
how to build it before it would've been much easier because
it's a much better way of growing seedlings, to dig up without
damaging the roots. We made the nursery taller to protect the
seedlings from being eaten by the chickens and pigs. It's just
right for growing seedlings for planting on our own land, and
we give to friends as well. But I've said I'm not giving any
next year so they'll have to make their own nursery. They've
agreed to that, at least.
A layered system with air

nursery on top
and other plants
below to fit
more into a
small space.
Sunrise Farm,
Kathmandu
14
15
Subjects Related to the Air Nursery

book about making and using an air nursery. However, this
Agroforestry, Living
Fence, Fruit Orchard and
Soil Conservation chapters
The air nursery is for growing
strong, healthy plants. Information on
how and where to plant fruit and
multi-purpose seedlings for better production and less work is given in these
chapters.
Home Nursery chapter

Around the homestead you need to plant
many different plants for different functions. Information on different nurseries
to grow various types of plants is given
in this chapter.
Read On !
What are
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Chapter 9 - Leaf Pots
Leaf Pots ?
There are various
methods to raise many
different species of
plant. Often, certain
species cannot be transplanted as small seedlings, and they need to
be sown direct in the
garden or fields. When
these species are sown,
such as beans, pumpkins, gourds and cucumbers, lack of care
for the small plants
mean that many die due Watering leaf pots in a nursery
to pests, weeds, lack of
water, etc., and are wasted. But by sowing in a Leaf Pot nursery, the plants can get the necessary care and attention when
young, and be planted out when they are strong and healthy.
This saves many seeds and plants from going to waste.
This method of using large leaves to make into pots,
filling them with fertile soil and growing seedlings is called a
Leaf Pot Nursery.
make
Leaf Pots ?
Why
For growing seedlings which can't be transplanted from

beds, such as some vegetables, fast growing trees or green
manure seed plants, leaf pots can be used.
Vegetables such as beans, pumpkin, cucumber, gourds, etc.
cannot be transplanted bare-root, so these can be sown in
leaf pots.
Trees and green manure species, such as velvet bean,
Sesbania, Crotalaria (such as sunhemp), lab lab bean, etc.,
which are to be used for seed production and so need more
care and attention, can be started in leaf pots.
When seedlings are growing in a leaf pot nursery, they can
be given better care. This helps them to grow well, and
also stops seed and seedlings being wasted.
How
to make
Leaf Pots ?
Choose big, whole, unbroken leaves of the appropriate

species. These leaves are rolled into a cone and stitched with
bamboo pins. This will hold the soil well. After filling with
fertile soil, the cones are sown with seed and covered with
soil the same as if using polypots.
Materials Needed to make Leaf Pots
large
leaves
bamboo
strips or rope
seed
sticks
bamboo
posts
crowbar

2
Chapter 9 - Leaf Pots
Making the Leaf Pots
tre
e
m
1 metre
Making a Stand
for the Leaf Pots
1
t
t
Dig in 2 upright stakes
st
i
w
st
i
w
2
t
st
i
w
Use leaves to fit the size of seedling grown. Big leaves will
make big pots for big seedlings,
and small leaves for small pots
with small seedlings
i
tw
st
Take both ends
of the leaf and
start to twist
3
3
Split the bamboo and attach
horizontally
between the 2
uprights, to
make a gap
which the leaf
pots can fit into.
Twist the leaf

into a cone
shape with one
end closed
4
Filled leaf pots
are placed in a
rack made like
this
bamboo
pin
Pin the leaf into a
cone shape as shown
here
Let's See
how to make
Leaf Pots
Leaf pot filled with

fertile soil ready for
planting seed
leaves for
making pots
1
bamboo
pin
2 pots
ready to fill
with soil
Two seeds
planted in the
middle of the pot
Put the rack for holding the leaf pots

in the shade. Fill the pots with fertile
soil and place them in the rack
6
Seed is sown in the pots

and covered with a finger
width of soil
Maintenance
How to
maintain
Leaf Pots
Keeping the pots while seedlings grow
5
Add water
carefully
6
7
A seed
starting
to grow
8
These plants need

watering daily
After sowing seed in the leaf pots, they need to be put in

a safe place. The pots can be half buried in a nursery bed, or
in a hot bed, as necessary. Another method for keeping leaf
pots can be called a vertical nursery. This can only be used
for cone-shaped leaf pots. A vertical nursery doesn't use up
any land and can be
made next to the
house or on the edge
of the courtyard.
Seedlings will also
be safe from chickens. See p. 4 for how
to build the vertical
nursery.
High output
from a small
area. Leaf
pots under an
air nursery,
with a pit for
liquid manure
at ground
level.
Because they are in the air, leaf pots in a vertical nursery

can dry out quickly so need small amounts of water once or
twice a day. If placed in the shade, they will need less water.
Planting the Leaf Pot

When the seedling has grown to the 4 leaf stage it can be
planted out. At the place where it is to be planted, dig a small
hole and fill with compost. Without taking the seedling out of
the pot, plant both together in the hole. By
doing this the roots of the
seedling aren't disturbed.
The leaf pot should be
completely buried. After
planting, add mulch and
water well.
Seedlings being
planted with
their leaf pots
Farmers'
Experience
Mrs Vishnumaya
Shris
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 3, Ratadada

"Hariyali" women's group,
Mrs Vishnumaya Shris has
made her own leaf pots. Now
let's hear what she says.
If we plant various types
of seed direct onto the land
many can die, or not grow
well. So we make leaf pots,
filling them with soil and
Mrs Vishnumaya Shris
sowing them with seeds such
as pumpkin, cucumber, beans, cow pea, bitter gourd, bottle
gourd, etc., especially the climbing vegetables. We keep the
pots in a vertical rack made from bamboo. We tie split bamboo in between 2 upright posts which leaves a gap perfect for
holding the leaf pots. The pots need watering every day.
Seedlings grow faster than if sown direct in the field, and are
ready to plant out 2-3 weeks after sowing. We found that
these plants suffer less from insect pests than others, perhaps
because they're stronger. We share these skills in the group. I
teach to some, and learn from others.
10
11
Subjects Related to Leaf Pots

make and grow plants in your own leaf pots. However, this
Leaf Pot chapter
Leaf pots are

very useful in
successful vegetable gardening.
Information about
this and other
easy methods for
home-producing
healthy vegetable
sat low cost is
given in this
chapter
Kitchen Garden
chapter
Hot Bed
chapter
This chapter
descibes how
to use leaf pot
seedlings along
with other
varieties in a
hot bed to
grow off season vegetables
Mixed Vegetable
Gardening
chapter
With less weeding, watering and
other work, and
harvesting various types of
vegetables from
3 weeks after
planting, lasting
up to 6 months.
Information on
this easy technique is given in
this chapter
Read On !
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Chapter 10 - Producing Fruit at Home
Producing Fruit at Home

an Introduction
'Fruit is the elixir of life'
Did you know ...?

The reason why
people often like sweet food is
because of the need for vitamin "C".
Fruit has lots of vitamin C, and ripe fruit is usually sweet, so we are programmed to like sweet things.
That's why people like sugar products. But of course,
there's no vitamin C in sugar !
Information about Improved

Fruit Varieties
To grow improved fruit varieties, it's possible to join local,
wild varieties with their improved relatives. Information about
which species to join, when to join them and which method is
used to join them is given in the chart on the next 2 pages.
Eating a piece of fruit after a meal helps the intestine to

digest the meal.
Stone
Grafting
Fruit is tasty, juicy and nutritous, and contains many

essential vitamins and minerals for our bodies.
It is one of our responsibilities to plant fruit trees. That's
why even if we only have a small piece of land, many of
us are keen to plant fruit trees.
In this Farmers' Handbook there is information about
various methods of producing fruit. In this volume, Near the
House (2), are chapters about the Fruit Nursery, Grafting,
Budding and Stone Grafting. In the next volume, The Fields,
are chapters about Air Layering, Top Grafting, Planting Fruit
Trees and Integrated Fruit Orchards.
This chapter gives additional information to help the
other technical chapters be more effective. They are all connected together to give simple methods to successfully produce more fruit at home.
2
Grafting
Cuttings
Budding
Air Layering
Top Grafting
After this, on page 7, is information about the other

chapters related to fruit production.
Chapter 10 - Producing Fruit at Home
1 The fruits you want

to produce are in
these columns
Species of scion
(branch)
Drawing
2 The local 3
species (rootstock) to join
them to
Here is information about which techniques to use, and

when to use them (Northern Hemisphere)
Grafting
Top Grafting
Budding
Air
Layering
Cuttings
Stone
Grafting
Feb-March
Peach
wild peach
Feb-March
Aug-Sept
Feb-March
June-July
Plum
wild peach
or plum
Feb-March
Feb-March
June-July
Almond
wild peach
Feb-March
Feb-March
June-July
Apricot
wild peach
or apricot
Feb-March
Feb-March
June-July
Walnut
wild walnut
March-April
Apple
wild apple
Feb-March
Aug-Sept
Feb-March
June-July
Pear
wild pear
Feb-March
Aug-Sept
Feb-March
June-July
Feb-March
Citrus spp.
Trifolate
Oct-Nov
June-July
Persimon
local persimon
Feb-March
Feb-March
June-July
Mango
wild mango
June-July
(stone grafting)
May-June
Guava
guava
Grape
grape
Feb-March
Feb-March
Feb-March
Cherry
wild cherry
Feb-March
June-July
Feb-April
Feb-April
Feb-April
Feb-April
Subjects Related to Fruit Production

An easy way to irrigate fruit trees
These chapters give different techniques to grow

fruit trees successfully in the villages.

Bury a porous clay pot about
50cm away from a newly
planted fruit seedling. When
this is filled with water, it
soaks out of the pot directly
to the root zone of the seedling. Instead of a pot, the
hardened shell of a bottle
gourd can be used, with a
small hole made in the base.
How to grow root stock from local wild fruit seed

for grafting and budding on your own land.
Grafting & Budding chapters

Produce high quality and quick fruiting seedlings
at home with these 2 methods.
Stone Grafting chapter

Graft improved mango onto local wild trees
quickly and easily at home.
Air Layering chapter
bottle gourd
Produce good quality citrus, guava, lichi, pomegranate, etc. with this easy method.
fruit seedling
Top Grafting chapter

Easy methods to graft wild trees growing in the
fields and forests to make productive fruit trees.
clay pot
How to plant out high value fruit trees for best

production using local resources.

stone mulch
6
Fruit and other multi-purpose trees in an orchard

designed to give maximum yields quickly.
To bind grafted fruit trees

plastic tape is usually used. But Mr
Lal Bahadur Buddha, a Farmers'
Leader from Jajarkot district,
Danagaun-2, Kalpat village in Nepal, has found a method which
doen't need plastic for grafting,
Lal B. Buddha
budding and top grafting work. He
very carefully strips a thin layer
from the surface of the Sisal plant (Agave spp.) and uses this
instead to bind scion to rootstock (see picture). Using plastic
you need to be careful to cut it off after 3-4 months or it will
strangle the seedling. Not so with sisal - because it is organic
it degrades and falls off by itself.
Lal Bahadur has for many
years played a leading role in
fruit improvement in his
district. He has even invented
a new method to graft walnut
(see the Grafting chapter).
When experts from the Horticulture Station in Kathmandu
said that it is only possible to
get a 25% success rate with
walnut, Lal was getting 80%
with his own method. He
spends his time teaching other
farmers his methods.
Farmers' Innovation Plastic or Organic ?

'wisdom' has got
something about
long time, at
least a generation, experience
to it - farmer
innnovation
may be better or
knowledge or ?
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Chapter 11 - Fruit Nursery
What is a
Fruit Nursery ?
Local fruit nursery, Panchkatya, Jajarkot

The fruit nursery is a place where local wild fruit seed
is sown to grow seedlings. This means selecting from healthy,
disease free species that grow wild or on farms, such as wild
pear, peach, walnut, apple, etc. Branches (scion) or buds from
good fruiting trees, which must also be healthy and disease
resistant, can then be joined onto these seedlings while still in
the fruit nursery. This will produce high quality fruit trees
with strong, local roots. The work of joining 2 compatible
plants together in the fruit nursery is called grafting or budding. Information about these methods is given in their own
chapters.
Chapter 11 - Fruit Nursery
Why
make a
Fruit Nursery ?
1. Time to build the nursery
To grow im-
proved fruit trees

in your own
village.
To make use of
the local wild
fruit trees.
To grow fruit
trees suited to the
local climate and
soil.
To be able to
obtain fruit trees
whenever you
need.
To save the cost
Seven types of local plum
of buying fruit
trees.
To grow fruit trees which produce quickly.
To be able to generate income from local resources.
How
to make a
Fruit Nursery ?
The best time to build the fruit nursery is in the Autumn

(October in the Northern hemisphere)
2. Materials needed
These are the materials needed to build a fruit nursery:
seed : collect good viable seed of local, wild fruit trees,
such as peach, plum, apricot, cherry, walnut, pear, etc.
digging tools;
biomass : a basket each of well rotted compost, semi decomposed biomass, and fresh green leaves.
Materials Needed to make a Fruit Nursery
seed
semi-decomposed
biomass or dried
leaf litter
digging
tools
green leaves
crowbar
well rotted
compost

2
one basket
one basket
one basket
3
Site Selection
It's important to choose the right place for a nursery. A
site is needed where watering, checking, protecting, mulching
and composting and such daily maintenance will be easy.
Cross section to show the fruit

nursery trench
2-3 inches between
lines of seed
mulch
compost
soil
Digging the bed
semi rotted compost
The bed for planting the seed can be as long as you need,
depending on the number of seeds you have to sow. First, dig
a trench about 6 inches wide and 6-8 inches deep, keeping the
removed soil close by. Then with a crow bar or pick axe,
loosen up another 6-8 inches of soil in the bottom of the
trench, without removing it from the trench.
Now place a 2 inch layer of green leaves in the bottom
of the trench. On top of this put a 2 inch layer of the soil dug
out of the trench. Next, put a 2 inch layer of half decomposed
or dried leaf litter. Cover this layer with another 2 inch layer
of soil. Then put a 2 inch layer of the well rotted compost.
Now put all the remaining soil that was dug out of the trench
to make a mound above the trench. The trench has now been
refilled with the soil, green leaves, leaf litter and compost.
4
soil
green leaves
loosened soil
6-8 inches deep
seed
6-8 inches deep
fertile soil
trench 6-8 inches wide

Sowing seed in the nursery

Now the local, wild fruit seed, such as wild pear, apple,
peach, plum, apricot, walnut, etc. can be sown in the nursery.
Along the heaped up bed make 2 shallow grooves 3-4 inches
apart, and place the seed into these grooves. The distance
between each seed in the line should be the same as the size
of the seed itself. Cover the seed with soil to a depth which is
the same thickness of the seed, and then cover with a 2-3 inch
thick layer of mulch. For the mulch, use leaf litter, straw,
pulled weeds, etc.
Let's See
spade
leaf litter
green leaves
pick
Materials
needed to make
a fruit nursery
compost
Sow the seeds as

shown here.
how to make a
Fruit Nursery
hook
Size of the
trench
6-8 inches
deep
3 inch
distance
2m long
distance between 2 seeds is the thickness of one

seed
Dig out the trench

and leave the soil at
the edge
6-8 inches wide

6
soil removed
from trench
7
Dig down another 6-8

inches to loosen the soil
without taking it out of
the trench
Then put a layer of

leaf litter
8
5
Cover this with
more soil
Put a basket of green

leaves in the trench
Now put in the

compost
0
1
Cover with a layer of
the soil removed from
the trench
8
Put in the rest of the

soil with compost to
make a mound
Maintenance
12
11
Peach
seed
For sowing
distance see
earlier p.6
13
Put on
mulch
10
How to
maintain
a Fruit Nursery
After sowing the seed the nursery needs good maintenance. Seed sown in the Autumn will germinate the next
Spring. In the months in between, the nursery should be watered deeply every 2-3 weeks if it doesn't rain. This will help
the seed to germinate well. After the seeds have germinated,
the mulch helps to conserve moisture in the soil, and keeps
down weeds. Even so, irrigate and weed the nursery as
needed. Add more mulch if needed. All this helps the seedlings to grow well.
Seedlings which germinate in the Spring may be big
enough to graft or bud the next Winter. If the seeds germinate
slowly, or if weeding and irrigation is not done, the seedlings
will be a year slower to reach the size needed for grafting and
budding.
Grafted
seedlings
completed
in the nursery (arrows
point to
where the
graft is)
11
Work needed while seedlings are growing in the nursery

irrigation :
weeding :
mulch :
Pinching
the seedlings need water regularly.

pull up any weeds that grow and use
them as mulch.
keep a thick mulch on the bed
Pinching
(removing the leaves)
Seedlings growing
in the bed
In the late summer

any lower leaves or small
branches should be removed with secateurs or
a sharp hook, and the
growing tip also cut off.
This makes a good shape
of the seedling ready for
grafting or budding. By
taking out the tip the
seedling will grow fatter
rather than taller, and
taking out the side leaves
and branches lower
down leaves a clean stem
which is easier to graft or
bud. This work of picking leaves and tips is
called pinching.
12
One seedling
Its tip is removed

and lower leaves
picked (pinched)
Tip pinched
This seedling is
complete
Lower
leaves
pinched
13
Farmers'
Experience
Read On !
Mr Dhan Bahadur
Midun
Subjects Related to the Fruit Nursery

From Nepal, Surkhet district, Lekh Pharsa-2,
Purano Gaun village, local
teacher Mr Dhan Bahadur
Midun has made his own
fruit nursery. Now let's
read about his experience.
After the Homestead Programme started work in our

village I learned about fruit
Dhan Bahadur Midun
nurseries, and made one on my
own land. I started by growing
100-200 seedlings, and have gradually increased that number
with experience. It was difficult at first without the knowledge but now I find it easy. Though we don't have any irrigation here, by using lots of compost and mulch the need for
water was much reduced, and what we saved in the waste
water pit has been enough. I've sold, exchanged and given
away seedlings I raised here to friends in our village. I've also
provided other villages up to 2 days' walk away with seedlings. Doing this I'm starting to understand that by applying
work and investing in the right place at the right time, many
benefits can be gained.
14
This book gives enough information to be able to make

and manage your own Fruit Nursery. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's
Integrated Fruit
Orchard chapter
Fruit
Nursery
chapter
Seed Saving
Chapter
Seed Saving Chapter

To grow good fruit root stock you need
to select good, healthy trees to produce seed.
More information on seed saving is given in
this chapter.
15

After raising good seedlings in the fruit
nursery, if they're not planted well all the
work can go to waste. Information on more
productive planting is given in this chapter.

Plant fruit trees with various other multipurpose trees to give more and quicker benefits for less work. This is the Integrated
Orchard, and you can read about it in this
chapter

Local peach, pear, walnut, etc. sown in a
fruit nursery can be grafted with cuttings or
buds of compatible improved trees after 1 to
2 years. In these chapters, learn how to do
this method at home.
What is
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Chapter 12 - Grafting
Grafting ?
Grafted peach trees ready for planting, Surkhet, Nepal

It can be difficult for farmers to earn their livelihoods
from growing only grain crops. Thats why its good to learn
new methods which increase production to farm our own
land. One method is by making a nursery to grow improved
fruit tree seedlings. This means you can grow tasty and nutritious fruit on your own land, and at the same time sell or trade
extra production to earn cash. There are many methods of
joining local wild fruit tree rootstock to high producing improved varieties. One of those methods, which is detailed in
this chapter, is called grafting.
Grafting is a method of joining the cutting (scion) of an
improved variety of fruit tree onto the root (rootstock) of a
local compatible variety.
Why
do Grafting ?
to do
Grafting ?
How
Benefits of Grafting
Grafted trees produce fruit quicker. A tree grown from seed
may take 8-10 years to fruit, but a
grafted tree will only take 2-4 years.
Cutting the root A tree grown from seed may produce
stock in preparapoor tasting fruit. Grafting is done to
tion for grafting
improve the taste and size of the fruit.
A tree grown from seed may not
produce fruit the same as the tree
the seed came from (mother tree).
But a grafted tree will be just as
good as the tree the cutting (scion)
came from.
A grafted tree will continue to give
the same quality fruit for many years.
Grafted fruit trees can be sold to
give an income to the household.
By producing your own seedlings
and fruit, you save money.
Seedlings can be produced locally,
saving time in searching for the
right fruit trees to plant.
Mr Bhuvan Khadka
Surkhet, Nepal
Materials Needed to do Grafting

plastic
cutting (scion)
from a good
fruit tree
secateurs
grafting
knife or
sharp tool
local, wild
rootstock
How does grafting work ?

All plants have tiny channels which take water and nutrients up to the leaves and down again. These channels are
inside the bark but outside the woody part of the stem. They
form a greenish band around the stem called the cambium.
Chapter 12 - Grafting
Cross section of the

wood to be grafted
1
To succeed
at grafting,
the
cambium of
the scion
and the
rootstock
must be exactly aligned
Scion
Rootstock
In a successful graft, the channels

in the cambium carrying nutrients
and water from the rootstock to the
scion and back are continuous, not
broken.
Grafting Method
1 Preparing the rootstock for grafting
wood
Close up
of
rootstock
cambium
to be
joined
bark
4
A local, wild fruit tree seedling grown
cambium
(green)
wood
bark
in the nursery or naturally in the forest

is called the rootstock.
For grafting, the rootstock is ideally the
thickness of a pencil, but it can be a
little thinner or thicker than this (510mm).
Leaves and branches should be prevented from growing from the rootstock
on the first 4-6 inches from the ground.
These can be carefully pinched off from
time to time.
2 Selecting the scion for grafting

To graft onto a local, wild rootstock, the branch cutting
from a good fruiting tree is needed.
This branch cutting is called a scion.
The scion sould be from a healthy, disease-free tree that
gives good fruit.
A one year old branch should be used as scion wood.
If the scion is to be brought from far away, a whole branch
should be cut. The cut end should be covered with moss
and packed in sacking. Any buds should be unbroken, and
the cutting should not be exposed to the sun.
3 Cutting the scion
The scion should be the same diameter as the rootstock if

possible. It can be thinner than the rootstock, but not thicker.
There should be 3-5 live buds on the
Prepared
scion, which should be cut at a slant,
rootstock
just above the top bud.
4 Cutting the rootstock and
grafting the scion

The way to prepare rootstock is described in
the Fruit Nursery chapter.
On the day before grafting, water the rootstock well and mulch thickly.
Using a sharp knife or similar tool, make a 1
inch long slanting cut through the rootstock
1-3 inches from the ground. The face of the
cut should be completely flat.
6
Trim the scion so it has 3-5 buds. The scion should not be
thicker than the rootstock.
1
2
3
Make a 1 inch long slanting cut at
length of
scion
slanting cut
the base of the scion, the same
length as the cut on the rootThe scion should
stock. The face of the cut
be cut just above
should be completely flat.
the top bud to
Half way up the slanting
prevent too much
cuts of both rootsock and
wood drying out
scion cut a small nick into
the face of the cut edge (see also p.10, photo
5 to 8).
Join rootstock and scion together by inserting
the nicks on opposing faces of the rootstock
and scion into each other.
Push rootstock and scion together so that the
cambium layers are in close contact at least
on one side of the join (if rootstock is larger
than scion), if not both sides (if rootstock and
scion are the same size).
The scion and rootstock should be held together by the opposing nicks being
interlinked with each other.
7
Binding the Graft
Bind the joined rootstock and scion together so no air or

water can enter the wound.
1
2
Bind the
Start binding
plastic
from below
tightly
the wound
around the
stem
Let's See
1
how to do
Grafting
Measuring a local
rootstock 3-4 inches
from the base
3 Then wind the

plastic tightly
upwards
See an alternative to using plastic on p.18
Wind
the plas- 4
tic to
above
the join,
then
wind it
down
again
Bind down
to where the
plastic
started
8
3
5
Cut at the
measured place
Measure the scion
from the good
fruiting tree to fit
the rootstock
Tuck the end of

the plastic so it
points downwards
Make a slanting cut 1 inch

long on the base of the scion.
Make a small nick

about half way
down the face.
9
Push the scion
and rootstock
together so that
the nicks on each
face insert into
each other.
Binding the graft with
plastic is shown on p.8
Carefully bind the
graft tightly so no air
or water can get in to
the wound.
6
Hold the scion in the
mouth to prevent
drying out.
10
Make the
same 1
inch
slanting
cut on
the rootstock
Make a nick in
the same place
on the rootstock
11
10
This scion
shown
sprouting
2 weeks
after being
grafted.
Rootstock
with nick
close up
11
12
A stone mulch has been

placed around a
seedling grafted directly
in the fields. ( )
A grafted
seedling shown
growing well in
its permanent
place.
Grafted seedlings
shown in the nursery.
An arrow marks the
bound graft. ( )
13
14
A shoot sprouting from the

rootstock of the graft. This
should be pinched off.
The graft scar can be seen after plastic is removed
12
Its OK to graft a
small scion onto a
larger rootstock.
If the rootstock is
bigger than
the scion.
One side of the cambium

of root stock and scion
must match exactly.
13
How to
Maintenance maintain
a grafted seedling
Care needed after grafting
The grafted seedlings need fencing
against livestock, and should not be
touched.
They should be protected from
strong sun, wind, hail, and heavy
rain. Make a 50cm high thatch
to place over them, and the
nursery should be in a sheltered
site.
The seedlings need regular
watering to keep the soil moist.
After 4 months, when the scion
has sprouted well, the plastic
can be carefully removed.
Without
protection,
work is
wasted
Pinching
Any leaves or branches sprouting below the graft (from
the rootstock) should be pinched off with the fingers, otherwise they take valuable water and nutrients meant for above
the graft. This is called pinching.
If the graft is unsuccessful, a single sprout from the
rootstock can be allowed to grow. This can be used to graft
another scion again next year.
Citrus rootstock is
grafted in the
Autumn and
kept under
plastic until
Spring.
Compatible species and timing of grafting
1. Improved
peach, plum,
apricot, almond
all can be grafted

onto wild peach, Jan./Feb., Sept.
plum or apricot
2. Soft shelled walnut local walnut
March, April
3. Pear
wild pear
Jan./Feb., Sept.
4. Orange
trifoliate
Oct./Nov.
5. Persimon
local persimon
Jan./Feb.
6. Apple
wild apple,
crabapple
wild cherry
Jan./Feb., Sept.
7. Cherry
14
Type of rootstock
Type of scion
Month
(Northern
Hemisphere)
Jan./Feb.
15
Grafted seedlings
should be
protected from
livestock
Grafted seedlings
should be given
water and compost
2
Lucaena
lemon
grass
lemon
grass
marigold
Around the
fruit seedling,
comfrey
plant companion plants
16
coriander
Any leaves or
branches sprouting from below
the graft should
be removed
Lucaena
onion
comfrey
These branches
are removed
17
The method for grafting walnut is slightly

different to that given above. Lets see :
How the scion is joined

onto the rootstock
Make a point
on the scion,
with one edge
slightly
longer than
the other
short
edge
on the
lower
side
3
When the
rootstock and
scion fit perfectly, cut off the
rootstock above
the graft. Then
bind it as in the
normal method.
long
edge
on the
upper
side
scion
rootstock
This is done in the spring

The skin of the sisal (Agave) can be
used to bind the graft. The skin is removed as shown here. More details
about this are given in chapter 10 Fruit Introduction
18
Farmers'
Experience
Mr Shanta
Bahadur Pun
From Jajarkot district, Dhime 7, Dharnasi village in Nepal, Mr

Shanta Bahadur Pun has done
plenty of grafting. Now let's
read about his experiences.
After I learned grafting I
practiced at home with a small
local, wild peach nursery. Onto
Shanta Bahadur Pun
them I grafted improved peach,
plum, apricot and almond. On such a small piece of land this
gave such a high production, and you can literally eat the
fruits of this success within 3 years! In the spring, shades over
the beds are very important - this stops the hot sun from drying out the newly grafted seedlings. Water needs to be given
carefully, at ground level. If you water from above, water can
get inside and ruin the graft, and it can also shake the seedlings and so break the graft. The cutting tools need to be sharp
and clean - like in any operation. Ive succeeded using just
the local ashi (hook), I dont need a posh grafting knife. At
first the other farmers didnt believe that it would work. I
grafted plants on my own farm, and sold them. Then they
believed me. Nowadays all the farmers have small or large
nurseries on their land.
19
Subjects Related to Grafting

This book provides enough information for you to be
able to do your own grafting on fruit trees. However, this

How to grow root stock from local wild fruit
seed for grafting and budding on your own land.
Stone Grafting, Budding, Top Grafting

and Air Layering chapters
Information about various simple methods
of growing improved fruit varieties at home for
planting on the farm are given in these chapters.

After raising good seedlings in the fruit nursery,
if they're not planted well all the work can go to
waste. Information is given in this chapter.

Information on how to plant fruit trees with various
other multi-purpose trees to give more and quicker
benefits for less work is given in this chapter.
Read On !
What is
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Chapter 13 - Budding
Budding ?
Fruit trees which
have grown from seed
may not give good
fruit. There are various other ways to
make sure that trees
fruit well. Depending
on the variety and
season there are different methods to improve fruit trees. One
way is by taking a
local, wild fruit tree
and transferring a bud
from a tasty, good and
heavy-fruiting tree
onto it. This is called
A one year old budded
Budding. Budding is
peach seedling
just one of the techniques used to improve fruit trees so that they give more production.
This chapter gives information about where, when and
how to do budding, so you can do it at home to produce
your own good quality fruit seedlings.
Why
do Budding ?
Benefits of Budding
the tree produces good fruit
the tree fruits sooner
you don't need to wait for
other seasons and methods
to be able to produce good
trees in your own time
to use time efficiently

to save having to buy fruit
seedlings
to increase farm production;
to develop new skills
to increase production from
less land
When to do Budding ?
Budding should be done in the early Summer when new
shoots are sprouting and sap is rising the most.
How
to do
Budding ?
1. Selecting bud wood for budding

The first thing to do in budding is to select good buds
from the tree you want to propagate. If this is far away then
the whole branch containing the bud should be cut and
brought. Don't bring a
branch which doesn't
have good buds on it.
Good buds can come
from the current year's
growth, or from last
year's wood.
Materials Needed to
do Budding
2-3 good
buds
plastic
knife
sharp hook
local, wild
seedling
(rootstock)
buds from a
good fruiting
tree
The more
sprouting buds
on a single leaf
axil, the better.
Chapter 13 - Budding
Selecting buds from

a good fruiting tree
3
2. Cutting the selected bud
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Carefully remove
any wood
from the bud
Make a cut through

the bark to the wood
about half an inch above
the selected bud. Taking
care not to damage the
bud, cut from half an
inch below the bud,
upwards to the first cut
as shown in the picture.
Carefully separate any
wood that has been cut from
the bark and bud (see the
picture at the top of the next
page). Now the bud is ready.
Put the bud in a bowl of water,
so it can be carried without
drying out.
Now this bud is

ready to graft.
4. Preparing the rootstock
A compatible local, wild variety of seedling is called a

rootstock. The rootstock shouldn't have any disease or
wounds. The rootstock should be prepared before the bud is
cut, to save time. How to prepare rootstock is described in the
Fruit Nursery chapter. The rootstock seedling should be well
watered and mulched the day before it is to be budded.
3. Preparing the bud
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First make a horizontal cut in the bark, as

deep as the wood
If there are leaves on

the budwood, these
can be trimmed as
shown here.
throw this
bit away
Then make a vertical

cut from the centre of
the first cut, down
about an inch, to make
a "T" shaped wound.
To graft the bud from the improved tree, use your knife
to prise open the T-shaped wound, and slowly insert the
budwood downwards into the opening. The budwood should
fit exactly into the inside of the T. If there is a small piece of
the budwood left sticking out above the horizontal cut in the
rootstock, this should be cut off.
how to do
Budding
Let's See
5. Joining the bud to the rootstock
Make the first horizontal cut half

an inch above the selected bud
1
2
Selected
bud
Cut off any bud

wood left outside
3
Showing the
line of the
cut to remove the bud
5
4
Cut upwards
to remove
the bud
Part 6, binding the bud with plastic, is

continued after the colour pictures .....
6
Second cut
from half
an inch
below
The removed bud

with wood inside
Then cut
vertically
through the
bark
Put the bud in a

bowl of water
7
Trim off
half the
leaves
from the
bud
10
First make a horizontal cut through
the bark
11
This leaves a
wound like the
English "T"
8
Wood
removed
The bud to
be joined is
ready
Remove the wood from the

inside of the bud to leave only
the bark
8
13
12
Now
start to
join the
bud and
rootstock
6. Binding the bud
14
1
Prize open the
bark and slowly
insert the bud
down into the
wound
The bud should

be inside the
wound, flat
against the inner
wood
After inserting the bud use an inch-wide strip of thin plastic

to bind it fairly tightly onto the rootstock. Cover the wound,
binding from the bottom to the top and back down again.
See page 14 for an organic alternative to plastic
16
15
Now carefully
bind the bud with
this plastic
10
Leave the bud

sticking out from
the plastic
Don't cover the bud and

leaves with the plastic,
leave them outside.
Finally, bind the tail of

the plastic so it points
down to allow any rain
to run off
See page 14 for an organic alternative to plastic

11
How to
a budded seedling
How to tell if the budding is successful
1
Two weeks after the budding is done, gently pull at the leaf
stems on the bud. If the leaf comes away easily from the
base, even by just touching it, the budding has been successful. If the leaf does not come away even with a stronger tug,
and slowly dries up, then the budding has probably failed
Then you can try again by grafting in the winter.
Removing the plastic

Whether the budding is successful or
not, the plastic needs to be gently
cut and removed after 3-4 weeks
otherwise it will "strangle" the
growing seedling. This can kill even
a successful bud.
12
Things to do after budding is complete

Give plenty of water to the seedling immediately after
budding. Keep the budded plants well mulched. Make a
thatch to shade the seedlings from the hot sun. Water and
weed the seedlings as necessary. Carefully remove any buds that sprout
below the new
bud. In the autumn
after the budding
was done, carefully
cut off the top of
the seedling just
above the new bud.
Planting the Seedling

If the seedling is deciduous (that is it drops its leaves in
winter) the budded seedling can be planted out in late winter. If the plant is evergreen it is usually planted in the summer. A good place to plant such a valuable seedling is in an
old pit latrine. OtherCompanion
wise, dig a pit one
plants
metre deep and one
metre wide, fill it with
water compost
compost and soil, and
plant the seedling
there. Full information
about this is given in
the chapter Fruit Tree
mulch
Planting.
13
An easy way to irrigate fruit trees

Bury a porous clay pot about 50cm
away from a newly planted fruit
seedling. When this is filled with
water, it soaks out of the pot directly to the root zone of the seedling. Instead of a pot, the hardened
shell of a bottle gourd can be used,
with a small hole made in the base.
fruit seedling
Bottle
gourd
clay pot
stone mulch
Instead of Plastic
You can also use the skin
of the sisal leaf (Agave) to
bind the bud. As shown
here, carefully peel the
skin from the leaf. See
chapter no: 10, Introducing Home Fruit Production for more details
14
Farmers'
Experience
Mr Lal Bahadur
Budhathoki
From Nepal, Jajarkot district,

Khalanga - 5, Pokhara village,
Mr Lal Bahadur Budhathoki has
done plenty of budding. Now
let's hear about his experience.
I first learned about budding
from the Homestead Programme
(JPP) and came home and started
budding improved peach onto our
local, wild peaches. Budding is done Lal B. Budhathoki
in late June, and when other local
farmers saw, they were amazed that you could transfer just a
bud from one tree to another. I budded peach onto wild peach,
and pear onto our local wild pear, but this wasn't as good as the
peach. Now the local Farmers' Group has started to do it. Everyone thinks it's great, and it's cheap too. The budding is done
in late June, and then the top is cut off in the Autumn to allow
the bud to grow on up. If it fails, it doesn't affect the tree and
you can graft again in the Winter. Also, if grafting is unsuccessful in the Winter you can do budding on the same plant in the
Summer. Either way the seedling isn't wasted. We don't use
fancy grafting knives - just a razor blade and ashi (local cutting
hook) are enough. The plastic is to keep out air and water, but
needs removing quickly, within the month.
15

How to grow root stock from local wild fruit seed at
home for grafting and budding on your own land.

After raising good seedlings in the fruit nursery,
if they're not planted well all the work can go to
waste. Information is given in this chapter.

benefits for less work is given in this chapter
Planting trees on farmland can bring farmers many
benefits. But you can't plant any type of tree, nor
anywhere. This chapter gives information on how
to plant trees without affecting farm yield
Grafting, Top Grafting, Stone Grafting

& Air Layering chapters
Here is more information about various simple
methods of growing improved fruit varieties at
home for planting on the farm.
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Read On !
The Farmers' Handbook - "Near The House 2", Booklet 14 - Stone Grafting
What is
Stone Grafting ?
In the tropics and
sub-tropics, many farmers
like to plant mango trees.
Demand for good fruit is
increasing, and farmers
are understanding the
benefits of this. Farmers
want to plant mangos, but
often the seedlings aren't
available, or if they are,
they're expensive. But
there is an easy way of
producing good quality
mango seedlings. This is
called Stone Grafting.
Using this method,
mango seedlings can be
Grafted mango in fruit, Nepal
grown quickly and
cheaply at home, producing good quality fruit. Grafted trees also are fast to produce
fruit. This means that poorer farmers can easily plant mangos
without going into debt, and get faster benefits.
In this booklet you can learn how to do stone grafting for
quick and easy mango production at home.
Why
do Stone
Grafting ?
Nowadays most mango grafting is done using the

"Inarching" method. But this takes 2-3 years to produce a seedling, which is why mango seedlings are so expensive. Also, in
Nepal, the skilled grafters live in the south, so it is difficult to
obtain mango seedlings in the poorer northern hill districts.
Transport is expensive, and many seedlings can die during the
journey in the hot summer, when they are distributed. Seedlings
costings 2 or 3 times as much after they have been transported
from the nursery into more remote hill districts.
So there are many benefits from using stone grafting to
produce mango seedlings : quick production - while it takes 2-3 years to produce a
seedling for distribution with inarching, it takes 2 months
with stone grafting;
stone grafted seedlings are cheap to produce
stone grafting is an easy method
many seedlings can be produced in a small place, unlike
inarching
seedlings can be produced near to where they are to be
planted
How
When to do Stone Grafting ?

Stone grafting is done in the early summer, at the time
when wild mangos are ripe and the tips of the branches have
new red shoots.
Where to do Stone Grafting ?

A stone grafting nursery can be made at home on a small
plot to grow just a few plants, or on a big plot with 2-300
plants. One square metre of nursery bed can contain about
100 plants. For this, a well shaded spot is needed, protected
from livestock, and easy to visit for care and maintenance. If
possible, there should be good fruiting mango trees nearby
from which to take scion for grafting.
Materials Needed to do Stone Grafting

Good fruiting
variety of mango
(mother tree) large polythene pots (4
inch diameter)
thick
plastic
Chris Evans
Appropriate Technology Asia, Nepal
2
to do
Stone Grafting ?
cutting
tool
razor
blade
local/wild
mango seeds
thin plastic
secateurs
Booklet 14 - Stone Grafting
With stone grafting it is important to

keep note of the time when the rootstock
germinates. On the next page is a type of calendar
showing which work needs to be done, at what time.
4
preparing
rootstock
day
10
11 12 13 14 15
Graft
on
day
14
7
prepare scion
on mother tree
Fill the polypots with fertile

soil.
Dig a trench for the nursery
bed, about 4-6 inches deep. The
width and length of the trench
depends on how many seedlings are
to be produced.
Lay out the thick plastic in the base of
the trench.
Place the filled polypots in the trench.
Collect ripe seed from healthy, diseasefree wild local mango trees. They ripen
at just the right time for stone grafting.
Sow the seed in the polypot and cover
with the soil.
Watch for when the seed starts
to germinate. Within a week,
the first seeds will start to
grow, but they won't all
start at the same time. Keep
the sprouted pots in one
place.
plastic
6 cut
scion
from
mother
tree
1. Planting the Seed
Types of work done in Stone Grafting 7 days after the seed has sprouted
trim the leaves on the scion
Scion on the mother tree is prepared
according to the day the rootstock
seed germinates in the polypot. The
description of work is in 3 parts :4
5
a preparing the scion on the mother tree;
select
trim
b preparing the rootstock;
a good
leaves
c a daily calendar of when to do (a) branch
around tip
and (b) is given.
(but don't
of branch
cut it)
don't do 6.
3
1
2
b
plant
until a week
The day 7 days
local
after 3,4 &5
this
after
rootstock
is done
sprouts is
rootseed
counted as stock
day One sprouts
How to do Stone Grafting
when to do
(a) and (b)
5
2. Preparing the Scion

A scion needs to be cut and
brought from a healthy, good fruiting mango tree. This is called the
mother tree. Before the scion is
cut it needs to be prepared while
still on the mother tree, and the
time to do this depends on when
the rootstock seed had sprouted in the
nursery. Five to seven days after the
seed has sprouted in the nursery, you
need to go to the mother tree and prepare
the scion. However many seedlings in the nursery are
5-7 days old, the same number of scions need to be
prepared on the mother tree.
Preparing the Scion

Go to the mother tree and select branches for scions. If the
branch has red sprouting tips, then it
is suitable to use as a scion. The
branch and tip should be healthy and
disease free. Now trim off the leaves
around the tip for a length of about 6
inches, but don't trim the tip itself.
Local mango
seed planted
in polypots
filled with
fertile soil
don't cut
the red tip
The third part of Stone Grafting is continued on p.11.

6
Let's See
how to do
Stone Grafting
Close up of
local mango
seed planted in
polypots
#
3
On the mother tree,

leaves are trimmed
down to 6 inches from
the red tips, but the tips
are not cut.
After a week
the scion is
cut from the
mother tree.
The scion should immediately be put in water, and

its leaves trimmed.
9
5
A scion
prepared on the
mother tree
looks like this.
8
Make a 1 inch cut down

the centre of the local rootstock with a razor blade.
3. Cutting the Scion
10
Insert the pointed scion into

the rootstock
11
Bind with thin plastic
12
The trimmed branch will be cut for use as a scion to join

to the rootstock, but not yet. It will be another week before
this is done, and until that time the trimmed, red branch tip
will remain on the mother tree.
After 7 days return to the mother
tree to collect the scion.
Using secateurs or a sharp
tool, cut the branch 6 inches
from the red tip. As soon as it
has been cut, put the scion in
a glass of water. This is because it is very soft and will otherwise dry out quickly.
When the scion is in the glass,
trim each leaf as shown. This
also reduces water loss.
Now take the scion to the nursery, where it should be grafted
immediately onto the rootstock.
4. Grafting the scion to the

rootstock
The grafted seedling is then put inside plastic.
There are 2 methods :- for a single seedling
cover and tie with a plastic bag (left), or for a
whole nursery, cover with a plastic sheet (right).
10
By this time, the seedlings growing from the local, wild

mango seed should be 12-14 days old. Their leaves and
stem should be soft and red, like the scion on the mother
tree.
11
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a Cut the top of
the root stock to leave

it 3-4 inches high.
b Make a 1 inch slit
straight down from the

centre of the top of the rootstock with a
razor blade.
c Trim both sides of the end of the scion

to make a point, leaving the scion
about 3-4 inches long. The trimmed
point should be 1 inch long.
d Now carefully insert the point of the

scion into the slit on the rootstock.
e
c
n
a How to maintain
n
e
t
n
i
a
a grafted seedling
M
Care for the seedling after stone grafting
At first the grafted seedling is very weak. Even though it
may be well grafted, if it is not cared for properly the graft
can fail and all the work will be wasted. Care should be given
as described below.
The seedling should not be touched or moved.
The seedling needs lots of water. However, water cannot be
given from above because the falling water will shake the
seedling and the graft can break. Therefore, water should be
given from the bottom by pouring it into the trench where the
polypots are placed. This will seep into the polypots through
the holes, and go directly to the roots. This is better for the
seedling.
The seedlings need to be kept in a moist environment. So cover
the nursery with plastic and bury the edges, like in the hot bed
nursery, so no air can get in. Only open when watering.
e The rootstock and the scion

should be exactly fitting
f Very carefully bind the rootf
stock and scion with a thin

plastic strip so that water
cannot enter. The cut parts of
the rootstock and scion should
be completely covered.
The grafted seedlings

should be watered
from below, not above.
Now the grafting work is complete

12
13
The seedlings should be well shaded.

Within 1-2 weeks you will know if the graft has been successful or not. If not, the top will dry out and die.
If the graft is successful, the seedling can be planted out
into its permanent position after 2 months in the nursery.
For this, a pit needs to be dug and composted beforehand.
The mango may flower after a year, but it is not good to
allow it to fruit for at least 3 years. During this time, the
flowers should be removed to stop fruiting.
How to plant fruit trees such as the mango is descibed in
the Fruit Tree Planting booklet.
Bury a porous clay pot about 50cm
away from the newly planted mango
seedling. When this is filled with
water, it soaks out of the pot directly
to the root zone of the seedling.
Instead of a pot, the hardened shell
of a bottle gourd can be used, with
a small hole made in the base.
Mango seedling
Bottle
gourd
clay pot
stone mulch
14
Farmers'
Experience
Mr Ishwari
Prasad Panti
From Nepal, Rupandehi district, Butwal town, Mr Ishwari

Prasad Panti is a horticulture
expert who has done lots of
stone grafting. Now let's hear
The first thing to pay attention to in stone grafting is the

nursery. The rootstock as well as
Mr Ishwari Prasad Panti
the mother tree need good care.
When grafted, the seedlings should be under plastic, and in
the shade. In the full sun, all the work will be wasted. Too
much wind can also dry out the seedlings. For the rootstock,
plant ripe seed from wild, local mangos (which grow everywhere) in the nursery. After the rootstock has germinated, it is
grafted when it is red. The scion from the mother tree should
also be red. One week before grafting the scion should be
trimmed while still on the tree. The rootstock should be cut to
3inches tall, and slit down the middle. The scion should be
the same size, and cut to a 1 inch point. Making sure the
edges are matching, the scion is inserted into the rootstock.
This method is very quick, and I can get a 65% success rate.
It's also possible to stone graft even when the rootstock seed
has just split and the stem is just pushing out.
15
Subjects Related to Stone Grafting

Fruit Tree Planting booklet
After raising good seedlings in the fruit nursery, if
they're not planted well all the work can go to
waste. Information is given in this booklet.
Integrated Fruit Orchard booklet

Information is given in this booklet on how to plant
fruit trees with various other multi-purpose trees,
giving extra and quicker benefits for less work.
Agroforestry booklet
Planting trees on farmland can bring farmers many
benefits. Different types of trees grow better in
different places. This booklet gives information on
how to plant trees to increase farm diversity and
productivity, without affecting crop yield.
Pit Latrine booklet

A fruit tree grows best if planted in a big pit. If you
have an old pit latrine to plant in, you can double
the benefits. In this booklet learn how to make a
hygienic, cheap and productive pit latrine.
Read On !
The Fields
CONTENTS
Subject
This Volume's Authors : Chris Evans, Laxman Rana, Bhuvan Khadka, Ms Hommaya Gurung,
Mrs Deumaya Rana
Proof reading: thanks to Mike Feingold, Margaret Evans, Ted Albins, Rupert Greville, Andy
Langford, Looby Macnamara
Typing: Chris Evans
Computer Coordination: Layout Ltd., Kathmandu
This Volume : 99933-615-4-2
Chapter No:

Green Manures ............................................. 2
No-Till Farming ............................................ 3
Top Grafting .................................................. 4
Integrated Fruit Orchard ............................. 5
Fruit Tree Planting ....................................... 6
Agro-Forestry ................................................ 7
The Farmers' Handbook is about techniques for sustainable farming and this is the fourth
of 5 volumes. There are 9 techniques presented here. In five volumes there are 40 techniques
and approaches in total.
Air Layering .................................................. 8

Bamboo Cuttings .......................................... 9
quality.
Living Fence ................................................. 10

S.R.I. Rice Growing ...................................... 11

This is the fourth volume of a five volume production of
the Farmers' Handbook. In all there are forty techniques &
approaches shown, of which nine are in this fourth volume. In
this volume we introduce you to some of the methods used in
the fields. The titles of these are given on the previous
contents page.
information about sustainable farming techniques as well as
is provided in the fifth volume. As well as technical
information, a glossary of new and difficult words is also
provided in the fifth volume.
Aims
Background
fence.


same way:-

described.
There are minor changes to this structure as appropriate.
Green Manures 2
No-Till Farming 3
Top Grafting 4
Techniques
Integrated Fruit Orchard 5
Fruit Tree Planting 6
Air Layering 8
Agro-Forestry 7
Bamboo Cuttings 9
Living Fence 10
S.R.I. Rice Growing 11

P.O. Box 8975 EPC 849
Kathmandu, Nepal
tel: +977 1 5549774
nepal@arasia.org.uk
www.atasia.org.uk
London WC1N 3XX
Tel: +44 845 4581805
Distributor and
main contact
addresses
tel: +44 1730 823311


;'v]{t

Tel: +977-1- 252597
Funding
Support

Farmer's Handbook has come from Methodist Releif &
Development Fund (UK), ActionAidNepal, MSNepal,
GTZ Food for Work, Hill Agriculture Research Project
(HARP), ICIMOD. In this volume, Green Manures,
Agro-Forestry and Zero Tillage chapters have been
supported by Helvetas Nepal
What are
The Farmers' Handbook - "The Fields", Chapter 2 - Green Manures
Green Manures ?
Sesbania being
ploughed in as a green
manure , Surkhet,
Western Nepal
Every farmer knows
how much work goes
into the production of a
basket of compost and
carrying it to the fields.
But it never seems that
the farm production
gives an equal return for
the hard work that goes
into making and carrying the compost. Green manures are a method of replacing
that basket of compost with a handful of seed. In this method,
the plants that grow from the handful of seed are ploughed
back into the soil. After a while in the soil, the plants rot
down to become compost. Plants used in this way are called
Green Manures. It's a very good way of increasing the fertility of the soil, and can give huge benefits for farmers. So let's
read about it here.
Why
grow Green
Manures ?
Increase Farm production - using green manures can

increase the production of grains, pulses, vegetables, fodder, fuel, etc. grown on the farm.
Decrease work and expense - less compost needs to be
Benefits of Green Manures

Reduce the need for artificial fertilizers - by using green
carried. By using green manures, the soil becomes loose

and easier to plough or dig.
manures the need to bring in fertilizers is reduced. By not

using fertilizers, costs are saved and the soil is not damaged. Also, production can be increased to feed the family
for longer, or excess produce can be sold.
Reducing weeds - green manures cover the ground and so
Increase biomass production in the fields - in an example

from Brazil in South America, where 40,000 farmers have
converted to using green manures, they have calculated that
using velvet bean as a green manure has produced 50 to
140 tons per hectare of extra biomass. This is the equivalent of carrying up to 3000 loads of leaf litter! But the green
manure biomass doesn't need to be carried from anywhere.
Wherever the fields are, that's where the biomass is produced
and, that's where it rots to form compost.
Increase in micro-organisms and their activity in the soil

- Beneficial micro-organisms live and work around the
roots of green manure plants in the soil. They help the
plants to catch and create nutrients in the soil. The fertility
isn't just for the plants, it helps to make the soil rich. The
microorganisms help the plants and the soil, and in return
the green manures help to protect the microorganisms from
being damaged by the sun, wind, rain, leaching, etc.
2
The Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields"
reduce the work and cost of weeding.
Protect the soil - by covering the soil, green manures protect

it from the damaging effects of hot sun, wind and hard rain.
Improve the soil - where green manures have been regularly used the soil is softer, lighter and easier to work. As a
result, the soil has a greater capacity to absorb and store
water and nutrients.
Improve the quality of

crops - crops grown with
green manures are more
tasty and nutritious than those
grown with chemical fertilizers.
Mr Thek B. Gurung of
Gumi VDC - 4, Surkhet,
likes using Sesbania green
manure on his fields
3
Chapter 2 - Green Manures
How
to grow Green
Manures ?
There are 2 ways of using green manures :1. When land is unused, or fallow between crops;
2. While crops are still growing in the fields.
1. Using green manures as fallow

When crop land is empty after crops have been harvested, green manure seeds can be sown as thickly as sowing
wheat. When the green manure plants are about to flower they
can be cut and left, or ploughed into the soil.
2. Using green manures mixed with crops

This method is used mostly with maize growing. An
easy method is to sow a green manure at the same time as
maize, and then dig it in when it is time to weed the maize
(after 3-4 weeks). At this time green manure seeds can also be
sown, and the green manure is cut and mulched or ploughed
in after the maize is harvested to provide even more fertility.
Green manures are easy to use, but it's important to note

certain things, such as : green manures can be used in all seasons;
which-ever type of green manure is being used, they will
give most benefit to the soil if cut and/or ploughed in at
flowering time, before seed is set;
climbing types of green manures can smother the crops they
are growing with. If so, the climbing stems need pulling
down from the crops.
Selecting which green manures to use.

There are many plants which can be used as green manures. In particular, the type of green manure should be selected according to the type of crop it is growing with or in
between. For a large plant like maize, a large green manure
like velvet bean or Sesbania should be used. For a short crop
like many vegetables, smaller green manures such as mustard
or buckwheat can be used.
Criteria for selection of green manures include :-
plants are fleshy and soft

fast growing;
fast to decompose;
leguminous;
don't attract pests and diseases;
don't compete with crops;
provide nutrients needed in the soil (more information
about this is given on p.21)
Examples of winter-grown green manures
Examples of using green manures
Low altitude - mustard, peas, broad (fava) bean, fenugreek,

tobacco, buckwheat, etc.
Mid altitude - mustard, peas, broad bean, fenugreek, buckwheat, etc.
High altitude - mustard, peas, broad bean, buckwheat,
etc.
tobacco
Now we'll see some specific examples of green manures.

On this page Sesbania is used with rice. On page 17 Sesbania
is used with maize, then on page 18 velvet bean is used with
maize, and on page 20 mustard is used with wheat.
Sesbania and Rice
broad bean
peas
sunhemp
hemp
mustard
Examples of summer-grown green manures

Low altitude - mustard, buckwheat, amaranth, sunhemp
(Crotalaria), Sesbania, Chenapodium, fenugreek, lab lab, velvet bean, jack bean, tobacco,
etc.
Mid altitude - mustard, buckwheat, amaranth, sunhemp
(Crotalaria), Sesbania, Chenapodium, fenugreek, lab lab, velvet bean, jack bean, tobacco,
hemp, etc.
High altitude - mustard, mustard, buckwheat, amaranth,
sunhemp (Crotalaria), Chenapodium, fenuamaranth greek, tobacco, hemp, etc.
hemp
sunhemp
buckwheat
6
Chenapodium mustard
tobacco
In this method, Sesbania is sown

before rice is planted. As rice is sown into
nurseries, all other paddy areas are fallow,
which is when Sesbania can be grown.
How to Sow the Sesbania as densely as wheat or mustard

sow seed. Then lightly till to cover the seed with soil.
Sow after winter crop is harvested, or in the
Timing Spring. Sesbania will grow faster if the soil is kept
moist, so irrigate if possible. After 4-6 weeks, the
Sesbania will be 18-36 inches tall. Cut at ground
level and plough in as the paddy are prepared for
planting rice.
Seed production of Sesbania

When Sesbania is being ploughed in during paddy
preparation, transplant a few of the largest, thickest, healthiest
plants onto the edges of the paddy - space at 2 metre intervals
along the terrace edges. These will grow on to produce seed
for green manure use next year. The seed will be ready after 6
to 7 months
7
sow Sesb.
seed
4-6 weeks
sow rice 2-4

seeds weeks
Calendar for rice and Sesbania
paddy
terrace
nursery
Seed plants will grow at 2 metre

intervals on the terrace edges.
When between 1-1.5m tall,
pinch out the tops. This helps to
thicken the stem and prevents
the plant growing too tall, when
the wind can blow them over.
Pinching also produces more
branches, and so more seed.
There's a picture of this on p.11.
Let's See
plough in
Sesbania
transplant
seed plants
on terraces
plant rice
3-4
months
Sesbania is
sown as the
fallow is broken
After the Sesbania has

been cut and ploughed in, the
paddies are flooded, and rice is
planted. The fertility from the
rotting green manure is a good
food for the rice.
Sesbania
germinates
in 6-10 days
Sesbania seed plants

growing on the terraces
harvest
rice
6-7 months
Sesbania is this
big after a
month. From
now it can be
ploughed in.
harvest
Sesbania
seed
8
how to grow
Green Manures
The tips of the Sesbania seed

plants are pinched out. This
makes more branches, and the
plant has a stronger stem.
The Sesbania
is cut at its
base before
ploughing in.
After the rice is

harvested the
Sesbania seed
is ripening
This makes
ploughing
easier
Land ready for

planting after
Sesbania has been
ploughed in
10
The seed
plants also
provide a firewood yield.
Seed is cleaned
and stored for
next season
11
Sesbania or velvet bean is sown

as the maize is
weeded for the
first time
Velvet bean
growing as a
green manure
If maize is also
weeded by hand
this is still the
time to sow green
manure
Sesbania
grows
amongst the
maize
A Guatemalan
farmer inspecting
the velvet bean
after the maize has
been harvested
The Sesbania is ready
to plough in after the
maize is harvested
The velvet bean is cut at the

roots when it starts to flower
12
13
White clover is sown as a green manure in a

fruit tree nursery. This keeps weeds down,
conserves water, and adds nitrogen to the soil.
Velvet bean
after it has
been cut
Velvet bean
flowers and
seed pods
Perennial white clover
This wild
"weed" is also a
good green manure plant
2 years before, the soil on this

Guatemalan farmer's fields was
too poor for farming. After using
velvet bean as a green manure,
look how black the soil has become and how big the corn is
(also see p.22)
Sunhemp used as
a green manure
with millet
14
Agroforestry on the terrace edges and velvet bean

green manure in the maize
15
Sesbania and Maize

In this method Sesbania is sown with
maize. There are 2 methods of sowing
the Sesbania as a green manure with
maize .
Sesbania roots
Broad
bean roots
Rhizobium take nitrogen

(a very important element for plant growth)
from the air and makes
it available for the plant
roots. When they are
active they are this pink
colour.
16
On the roots of legumes

like Sesbania, broad bean
and velvet bean, small
nodules can be seen. Inside these nodules are
micro-organisms called
"rhizobium".
Method 1 :- Sowing Sesbania at the same time as maize.

The maize and Sesbania germinate together. The Sesbania
is dug or ploughed in when the maize is weeded after 3-4
weeks, and the fertility from the Sesbania helps the maize
crop.
Instead of Sesbania, many other types of green manure can
be used to provide nutrients for the maize.
Method 2 :- Sowing Sesbania when maize is being weeded
As maize is being weeded for the first time, 3-4 weeks
after sowing, sow Sesbania as thickly as you would sow
wheat. While weeding, the Sesbania seed will be covered.
After the maize has been harvested, the Sesbania is cut and
ploughed in as the land is being prepared for the next crop.
The fertility from the Sesbania will benefit the next winter
crop.
Sesbania seed production
Sow seeds on the terrace edges. Select as many of the best plants as are
needed for growing on to produce seed.
Other green manure types can be used instead of
Sesbania, but they need to be tall plants, (like maize), for
example sunhemp. See also velvet bean and maize, p. 18
17
Calendar for maize and Sesbania

Method 1.
sow maize
and
Sesbania
4-5 months
harvest
maize
plough in,
or cut and
mulch, the
Sesbania
harvest
maize
plough in,
or cut and
mulch, the
Sesbania
Method 2.
sow
maize
sow
Sesbania at
time of first
weeding
3-4 weeks
Velvet bean and maize

In this method, velvet bean is grown as
a green manure with maize. Velvet
bean is sown as the maize is weeded
for the first time.
The velvet bean is a climing type and will grow into a large
vine. If it starts to smother the maize before the maize is
harvested, it should be pulled off the maize plants onto the
ground. After the maize is harvested, the velvet bean can be
allowed to smother the standing maize stalks to put on
extra biomass.
After the maize has been harvested, the velvet bean is cut
and ploughed in as the land is being prepared for the next
crop, or cut and mulched if the land is
to be fallow.
Velvet bean seed production

Plant velvet bean seed on the field edge,
under a suitable tree, and allow it to grow up the
tree to produce seed. Don't let it climb on fruit trees as the
large, thick vine can damage the fruiting of the tree.
Velvet bean seed will be ready to harvest about 8-10
months after sowing.
Velvet bean seed is not edible for people.Edible climbing
beans can be used instead of velvet bean, such as lablab,
Jack bean, etc. These can be allowed to produce a bean
crop if timing is appropriate.
Calendar for maize and velvet bean

Maize is weeded by hand or ploughed 3-4 weeks after
sowing. At this time, sow velvet bean seed 50cm apart. The
seed is covered with soil when weeding.
The velvet bean will germinate quicker if it is soaked in
water for 2 days before sowing. While soaking the velvet
bean seed, change the water twice a day.
18
sow
maize
sow velvet
bean at time
of first
weeding
harvest
maize
plough in,
or cut and
mulch, the
velvet bean
3-4 weeks
19
Calendar for wheat and mustard
Mustard and Wheat

In the autumn compatible green manures
can be sown with winter crops. It is difficult to grow green manures together with
crops like wheat or barley, so they are
usually grown before the grain crops.
Timing
The green manure can be sown while land is fallow, after
harvesting the summer crop.
After harvesting the summer crop, such as rice or maize,
the land is ploughed as normal, and mustard is thickly
sown.
The mustard should be ploughed in as it starts to flower.
Then the winter wheat (or any winter crop) is sown.
Instead of mustard, buckwheat or fenugreek can
also be used in the same way as green manures.
sow
mustard
plough in
mustard,
sow wheat
harvest
wheat
about 3 weeks
There are many other types of green manure that can

be used as well as
the above examples.
"I sowed sorghum as a green manure. After a month I ploughed it in
and planted potatoes, and got 3
times the production !"
Bhim B. Gautam, Gumi, Surkhet
Below is some information about which green
manures have high amounts of particular nutrients
Mustard is
ploughed in at
flowering time
for use as a
green manure.
Here, wheat is
then sown.
20
Type of green
Nitrogen Phosphorus Potassium
manure
buckwheat
mustard
tobacco
Chenapodium
Sesbania
beans
lots
lots
lots
lots
lots
lots
lots
lots
21
A story about Hurricane "Mitch"

In 1998 Hurricane Mitch struck Central America, especially
Honduras, Guatemala and Nicaragua. Strong winds, torrential
rain, landslides and floods killed
over 10,000 people and left
300,000 others homeless.
But in the south of the
Lempira region there were no
disasters. No landslides, no
deaths, in fact 84 villages in the
region produced 2000 tonnes of
surplus grain. To explain these
amazing facts, the government,
along with local NGOs and
farmers studied the area and
Farmer Yuwan Aguirre
found that the farmers there had
pulls back the thick mat of
been implementing sustainable,
biomass resulting from a
organic agriculture practices that
velvet bean green manure
had protected them from the dancrop. This has helped to
gers of natural disasters. Since the protect againts soil erosion
last 30 years, over 10,000 farmers
and raise production.
in these villages had been implementing soil conservation, terrace improvement, agroforestry, green
manure and integrated pest management strategies to protect the steep
slopes in their areas. Because of this, even a huge natural disaster like
Hurricane Mitch wasn't able to cause them any serious damage.
Since the beginning of their experiences, the farmers of
Lempira have been sharing their lessons with local farming
organisations and with farmers throughout the country and in
neighbouring countries too.
22
Farmers'
Experience
Mr Dambar
Bahadur Regmi

Gumi - 3, Mr Dambar
Bahadur Regmi has grown
green manures since 1995.
Now let's hear about his
experience.
I've seen myself the benefits
of growing Sesbania green manure with rice paddy. Ever since I
started doing this, the production
of rice has increased steadily.
Dambar Bahadur Regmi
Land that used to produce 960kg
of rice can now produce up to 1400kg, which is pretty good for
this area. Also, I've spent less buying fertilizers from the supplier since using green manures. The soil has become softer
and easier to plough, so you need to do less work and still get
better crops. Rice that's grown this way tastes better, too, and
the mill owner tells us that there's less husk and more grain in
my rice and that of other farmers who've started using green
manures. Now I want to try using other types
of green manure as well as Sesbania.
This chapter's author

Ms Hommaya Gurung
Coordinator, Himalayan Permaculture Group,

Surkhet, Nepal
23
Subjects Related to Green Manures

grow your own green manures. However, this information is
Seed Saving chapter

This chapter gives information on methods to
produce and store various types of quality
seeds, including green manure seeds, at home.
Compost chapter
As well as green manure, animal compost is
also useful for plant food, but needs to be produced in a well managed way. This chapter
shows how to produce a quick rotting, good
quality compost.

This chapter shows how to produce a wide
range of fresh vegetables by doing less work for
more production.
Read On !
What is
The Farmers' Handbook - "The Fields", Chapter 3 - No-Till Farming
No-Till Farming ?
In the 1960's
a Japanese agricultural scientist
called Masonobu
Fukuoka started
to ask himself
how he could
reduce the cost of
his farming methods. He saw most
costs in ploughFields not ploughed for 6 years,
ing, weeding,
Sunrise Farm, Kathmandu, Nepal
fertilizing and
transplanting paddy in his rice-wheat system. He spent the
next 30 years experimenting to perfect his methods of reducing farming costs in these areas. But now, using his experience, we can develop similar systems in a much shorter time.
His methods are also called "farming of the sages", because
of the deep spiritual base to his philospohy, and the fact that
nature is regarded with godly respect. His methods are based
upon natural systems, and farming practiced without harming
nature.
Farming with nature can be practiced with any farming
system, but the methods descibed in this chapter are particularly related to the rice and wheat system.
Why
do No-Till
Farming ?
There are 3 main reasons for

ploughing: to aerate the soil;
Ploughing
to reduce weeds;
is crazy !
to mix organic matter
in the soil.
If we can achieve these needs
without ploughing, then why
plough ? This was Fukuoka's idea.
A plough is never used in the
forest, but the soil is always soft
Masonobu Fukuoka
and fertile. In fact, the more you
plough, the more ploughing is
needed, as weed seeds are brought to I'm a soil's
the surface and germinate. Ploughing
friend
leaves the earth bare, leaving microorganisms and nutrients to be dried out
by the sun, washed away by the rain, and blown away by
the wind. That's why it's difficult for farmers to get good
production even after so much hard and expensive work
ploughing, weeding, etc.
Farming without tillage does no harm to the environment.
Without tillage, the natural soil life will keep the soil loose and
fertile by itself, which also greatly lightens the farmer's work,
and reduces cost.
2
How
to do No-Till
Farming ?
There are examples of traditional no-till systems. One

example is before cutting rice, lentils are sown and grown
without ploughing.
In a good mulching system crops are grown without
digging, and by using some green manures such as velvet
bean, no-till systems have been developed. More information
about these are given in the Mulching and Green Manures
chapters.
In this chapter information is given about a no-till
method of growing rice and wheat.
Materials Needed for No-Till Farming

wheat and rice seed
wheat straw
white
clover seed
well rotted
rice straw ditto straw clay
compost
This is the start of Fukuoka's method:1 After harvesting summer rice, plough one last time.
2 Sow wheat seed.
3 Thickly sow clover seed.
4 Mulch the wheat and clover with the straw from the rice crop.
Chapter 3 - No -Till Farming
In this way, the wheat and clover germinate together.

Wheat grows up above the clover, and clover grows on the
ground. Below the clover is the straw mulch.
Let's See
Clover works as a green manure. By covering the soil, it

helps to smother weeds and conserve moisture. It also fixes
nitrogen in the soil. Nitrogen made naturally like this does the
same work as urea fertilizer.
how to do
No-Till Farming
Materials needed:
straw, grain and clover seed, compost.
mulch
straw
weeding
add
compost
(if needed)
This is a year's calendar of

work for the no-till method
sow
wheat
sow
clover
harvest
rice
harvest
wheat
This is the best place to
start, and go round
clockwise
restrict
clover
(see p. 9)
4
$
sow
rice
mulch
straw
clover seed
close up
Sowing
wheat
After wheat,
sow clover
Clover germinating
in the wheat
This shows the

wheat growing
with clover underneath
Here the wheat is
ripe and underneath
the clover is green
Cover everything
with rice straw
After wheat
is cut, sow
rice and
mulch with
wheat straw
Spread a
little compost
Chapter 3 - No-Till Farming
Close up of
wheat and
clover growing together.
After harvesting
rice, the wheat is
sown without
ploughing.
Before sowing, soak
wheat and
rice seed and
mix with powdered clay.
Maintenance
How to
maintain a
No-Till System
As the wheat ripens, any weeds should be removed. At

first, more weeds will grow, but after the thick ground-cover
of clover grows, and without tilling, weeds will reduce.
Sow rice after the wheat is harvested. As the rice grows,
there is a danger that it will be smothered and prevented from
growing by the thick ground cover of clover. There are 3
ways of preventing this :1. Flood the field for 10-12 days. This weakens the clover and
the rice can grow through and above it. Then drain the
water. The ground cover of clover will recover, and the rice
will have grown away from its competition.
In the summer
rice is flowering,
while underneath
clover is doing the
weed control.
While mixing,
spray with water
This makes a clay coat
around the seed which
protects it from birds.
Another method is
shown on p.10.
8
2. If there is a shortage of water as the rice is germinating,

allow livestock to graze the clover. But only allow this
once, for a short time, and then remove the livestock. They
will eat down the clover, so the rice can grow up and away.
The clover will again recover as the ground layer.
3. After sowing the rice, the clover can also be cut. It can be
used as a fodder for livestock, or as a mulch. Then add the
wheat straw mulch, and weed as necessary.
Another method of
coating seed with
clay. Here, clay is
made into a thick
paste, mixed with
rice or wheat seed,
and pressed through
a 5mm seive.
Try your own research

There are many ways of working with nature to
reduce work such as ploughing, weeding, etc. The most
important thing is to understand the principles of the
methods. Instead of wheat, barley or oats can be used.
Timing will be different for different places and climates.
It may be better to sow the rice before the wheat is cut, or
sow wheat before rice is cut. This method may seem difficult at first, but this is no reason to give up. Try it out first
on a small plot, and increase the area as experience grows.
10
Farmers'
Experience
Mrs Sanumaiya
Shrestha
Mrs Sanumaiya
Shrestha lives at Sunrise
Farm in Sita Paila-4,
Kathmandu, Nepal. She
has experience in no-till
farming, so let's hear her
story.
I really like the no till

method. Wheat and clover
are sown together and covered with the rice straw,
Mrs Sanumaiya Shrestha
which also helps to protect
them from birds. Then, if there's no rain, we may need to
irrigate. Rice is sown in just the same way, without having to
raise the seedlings in a nursery. The day before sowing either
rice or wheat, I soak the seeds to help them germinate quicker.
As soon as rice is cut, I sow the wheat, and as soon as the
wheat is cut, I sow the rice. Sometimes a little weeding may
be needed, but not often. There's more weeds at the beginning, but much less later on. Now all the work of digging is
saved. Before, we did all the digging and the yield
was the same, and now we get the same yield without the digging. Doing less work to get the same
yield must be a good method, isn't it?
11
Read On !
able to try your own No-Till Farming. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's
read, learn and practice from other related chapters. 123456789012
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cg'ej
Only when there's a plentiful supply of fodder

from the land can the straw from grain crops be
used for mulch in a no-till method. In this chapter, read about how to integrate trees on farms .
Mulching chapter
Mulch keeps the soil covered, keeps weeds down
and conserves water. This chapter shows how to
mulch the soil while still growing other crops.
Green Manures chapter

By sowing green manures with crops, fertility is increased and with less work there are
more benefits. Learn how in this chapter.
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Subjects Related to No-Till Farming
What is
The Farmers' Handbook - "The Fields", Chapter 4 - Agroforestry
Agroforestry ?
Trees with fields in between: plentiful, secure productivity

Agroforestry is a sysem where farm crops are mixed
with trees to supply fodder, fuel, leaf litter, medicinal herbs,
fruit, timber, etc.
Conventionally, farmers have only grown a single crop
on one field. Also, there is a belief that crops cannot grow well
in the shade of nearby trees, so trees will often be cleared from
cropland. In the days when there was plenty of forest near to
the village, there was no shortage of fuel, fodder, etc. But now,
overcutting of fodder, firewood, timber, etc., and grazing livestock, has destroyed the forests. So farm yields have become
lower and lower. More landslides have been an extra problem.
By planting agroforestry, farm needs for fodder, timber, fuel,
etc. can be met as well as protecting the environment.
In this chapter, information is given on how to establish
agroforestry, and how to manage it to increase farm yield.
Why
do
Agroforestry ?
Benefits from Agroforestry

By planting agroforestry, yields of fodder, firewood, timber, fruit, herbs, etc. can be increased.
Livestock needs are met more easily.

The farm economy is stronger.
Because daily needs of fodder, fuel, leaf litter, etc. are met
from the land, the forest is used less, and so is conserved.
Tree roots prevent soil from being washed away. Trees'

leaves provide organic matter for soil organisms. This
increases the fertility in the soil, and so trees have more
nutrients to grow. Trees protect the soil, and the soil gives
nutrients to the trees. This cycle works to protect soil life
and natural fertility.
Agroforestry helps to make the

homestead self reliant
Trees protect the soil from the harmful effects of strong sun,
wind and heavy rain, and conserve moisture in the soil.
By producing daily needs of fodder, fuel, timber, etc. on

the farm, less time is spent going to the forest.
When agroforestry is on your own land then timber, fruit,

herbal medicines, firewood, fodder, etc. don't need to be
purchased. Livestock are also easier to raise for income,
and overall the home economy is strengthened.
1 With no trees, moisture in the air blows away.
2 When trees are on the land, the moisture
collects on the leaves, and
3 drips onto the ground.
1
2
Chapter 4 - Agroforestry
How
to do
Agroforestry ?
Where to grow Agroforestry ?
Trees with small

leaves that don't
overshade the land,
e.g. Lucaena,
Flemengia, Acacia.
on terrace risers and edges

on the edges of fields and farm boundaries
on the edges of paths
according to the shape of the landscape
Materials Needed for Agroforestry

seedlings
sharp hook,
machete, etc.
What type of tree to

plant in agroforestry ?
saw
Trees which drop

their leaves in winter, e.g. mulberry,
Melia.
Multi-purpose trees
which give many benefits such as fodder,
timber, firewood,
medicine, bee forage,
fruit, etc.
Trees which don't

compete with
ground crops.
seeds
secateurs
Trees which can be

pruned to a desired
shape, e.g. mulberry,
Lucaena, Bauhinia,
peach, plum.
Trees which have

deep roots that aren't
damaged by ploughing, e.g most legumes, Melia.
cuttings
This Chapter's Authors :

Ms Hommaya Gurung
Mr Buvan Khadka
4

Surkhet, Nepal
Plants which are good,

nutritious fodder for livestock, e.g. napier grasss,
most legumes, lemon
grass, etc.
Nitrogen-fixing trees
which increase nitrogen in the soil.
%5
How are plants established in Agroforestry ?

By planting cuttings, e.g. mulberry, napier grass, sugar
cane, some Ficus;
By raising seedlings in nurseries, eg. coffee, Melia, peach,
etc. Trees with fast growing tap roots, such as lucaena,
bauhinia (most legumes), tree cotton, papaya, walnut etc.
are best raised in an Air nursery. For more information
about this, see the chapter Air Nursery.
By planting root slips, e.g. broom grass, cardamon, lemon
grass, comfrey, vetiver grass, etc.;
protecting seedlings naturally regenerated on the land;
By air layering, e.g. orange, pomegranite, guava;
By direct sowing, e.g. sunhemp, Sesbania.
It is easy to grow many of the useful, good quality and
multi-purpose plants needed for agroforestry by yourselves,
on your own farm. Once you've decided the types of plant
needed, the seeds or cuttings need collecting at the right time.
Then they can be raised in the appropriate nursery, at home.
Design of Agroforestry Systems

The following principles need to be applied when planning
and establishing a farm or a community agroforestry system.
Diversity
Just as there are many types and sizes of tree and shrub
mixed in a forest, so our agroforestry should also be made
up of a wide range of species, to make them sustainably
most productive.
Layers (stacking)
In the forest, all plants are different. Some are small, some
tall, some middle sized - this is called stacking. A stacked
system means that more productive plants can fit into a
smaller space without competing. For example, in the
ground layer, pineapple and lemon grass can be grown.
Above them, napier grass, sugar cane and coffee can grow.
Above them, Lucaena, mullberry and tree cotton can grow.
Even higher still, papaya, pear and peach can be grow.
Highest of all, Melia, Dalbergia, Neem, and other timber
trees can grow. They will also serve as a useful windbreak.
Air nursery
top layer of
big trees
Stacked
Agroforestry
mid canopy
layer
Normal nursery
lower canopy
layer
shrub layer
ground
layer
Nursery for
cuttings
6
Beneficial Relationships
It is important to consider the relationship between the
species in different layers of agroforestry, and the field crops.
Without a good relationship between the field crops and the
tree systems, some crops may not grow well, such as in the
shade. Then, companion plants can be used. For example,
mustard and maize do not grow well close to tree crops. But
taro, cardamon, ginger and tumeric do grow well, and they can
tolerate both the trees and field crops. So by planting the companion crop in between, the best yields from all can be assured, without competition and drop in yield.
Microclimate
The climate inside and around the agroforestry system is
different to the surrounding climate. There are areas of different moisture, temperature, and light levels. These are called
microclimates. Species need selecting according to their need.
There are different types of

microclimate in agroforestry
On the ground is
more moisture
8
Let's See
how to do
Agroforestry
Areas with
agroforestry and
forest are productive, protected in a sustainable way.
Up high there is
more light and wind
On the ground is
less sun and wind
On steep slopes, farming with the plough is difficult.

But with agroforestry on the terrace edges, the risk of
erosion is less, and extra benefits of fodder, fuel, timber, etc. can be produced close to the village.
9
When starting
agroforestry, the
right species needs
to be planted in the
right place
By planting tumeric
between trees and
crops, competition is
reduced.
In this high
mountain area,
fruit trees and
fodder grasses
are seen growing
together on terrace edges
By digging a ditch between lines of

trees and crops, the tree roots are
cut. This also stops the trees competing with the crops
In Tatta village,
Jajarkot district,
Nepal, traditional
agroforestry
practice has
covered farmland with productive trees.
10
The ditch is also used for irrigation and collecting leaf biomass
11
People say that

crops can't
grow in the
shade of trees,
but here the
wheat is growing well !
A 2 year old
agroforestry,
showing
"stacking"
of different
species
Competition between the trees

and maize is seen
here. The solution
to this problem is
given on pages 11
and 21.
The same land a

year later
This picture shows various types of

small and large trees and shrubs
planted together
tree cotton
Melia
papaya
sugar
cane
taro
mulberry
Lucaena
pineapple
12
banana
Adhatora
napier grass
13
Lots of firewood can be

produced on
your own land
by agroforestry
The branches
of Dalbergia are
being pruned to
produce good
timber.
Plenty of fodder and litter

can also be produced at home.
This saves
much time and
labour.
A third of
the trees' top
branches are
left, and the
remaining
are pruned.
14
15
Cycling
The benefits of extra production and soil improvement

from agroforestry are the result of cycling. This cycle needs to
run continuously. Livestock are fed and bedded with fodder,
straw, etc. from the agroforestry, and compost is returned to
the fields. Leaf biomass can also be cut and mulched directly
to the land. Work like this should be done regularly. If the
cycle isn't completed, the trees will use all the moisture and
fertility, and the soil will become depleted of nutrients for the
crops. As a result, crop production can decrease, and farmers
will lose out. So to manage agroforestry sustainably and productively, it is essential to run this cycle.
Leaves from the

Dalbergia prunings can
be used as a mulch.
Cycle
Tree leaves are

cut and mulched
on the land
2
2
Fodder and leaf

litter are given to
livestock to produce compost.
1
3
5
Trees
use the
nutrients to
grow.
These leaves conserve soil moisture,

and rot down to
become compost.
16
3
4
Compost
goes back on
the fields.
Excess nutrients are

taken up by the roots of
the trees below the crops.
17
Maintenance
How to
maintain
Agroforestry
Management after establishing agroforestry

To manage agroforestry, the trees and shrubs should be
cut from time to time. Any dead or useless branches and
trunks should be cut and removed for use. So, management of
agroforestry is mainly harvesting of products. Collection of
fodder, leaf litter, firewood, etc. is beneficial to the trees, as
well as to the annual crops. If this work isn't done in the right
way, the agroforestry system will not help to increase production and benefit the land. So it is very important to manage
agroforestry in the right way.
Agroforestry planted on terrace edges provides nearby fodder. The fodder can be fed to
livestock or mulched directly on the land.
Timing of pruning in agroforestry

(a) Winter
(b) Summer
Deciduous trees, which drop all their

leaves at one time, are best pruned over winter.
Evergreen trees are best pruned in the summer.
Some of these can be pruned twice a year. In the
winter, crops need more sun, and in the summer
they need good air movement. So many trees
and shrubs, especially those which cause more
shade, should be pruned at these times so they
provide production as well as to provide good
conditions for the annual crops, based on their
needs, and the needs of the tree crops.
Things to consider
when pruning
Use sharp tools;
Don't split the bark;
Try not to leave
wounds on the sunny
side of trees;
Prune small branches
and deformed trunks
of timber trees;
Prune fodder and
biomass plants low
down in the winter,
and higher up in the
summer.
18
19
Management for mulch and leaf litter
Management for firewood
The leaves of Adhatora, Melia, castor, etc. make excellent mulch. Such trees and shrubs can be cut at least twice a
year. Depending on the trees and crops around, they can be
cut low down, or higher up. The plants should be able to
sprout again after cutting.
Trees grown for fruit, timber, biomass or fodder will also

provide firewood when they are pruned. Dead, diseased or
damaged trees and branches should be regularly removed and
can be used for firewood.
Timber management
Here Lucaena
planted in
agroforestry is
cut and the
leaves mulched
directly on the
land.
Trees planted for timber

should be allowed to grow
up straight. The top one third
of the tree should be left
uncut, while the lower two
thirds pruned of all side
branches. The pruning
should clean, otherwise disease can enter the wounds.
When large branches are cut, plaster the wounds with fresh
cow dung. Pruning can take place once or twice a year.
Fodder grass management

Fodder grasses planted or regenerated in the agroforestry
should be cut to feed livestock, or mulched directly on the land.
This should be done in a way which doesn't harm the crops.
Fodder tree management

Fodder trees should not be allowed to grow straight up.
They are managed by cutting once or twice a year to produce
maximum biomass. They should be cut according to the season to provide shade or sun, according to the needs of the
field crops. They can be fed to livestock, or mulched directly
on the land.
20
This diagram shows a

method to control the
growth of tree roots. By
digging a trench along
the line of trees, the
roots are prevented
from competing with
crops. See also the picture on p.11.
21
Farmers'
Experience
Mrs Belmaya
Rana
Subjects Related to Agroforestry

Gumi - 3, Ratadada village, and a
member of "Hariyali" women's
group Mrs Belmaya Rana has done
agroforestry on her own land. Now
At first we had hard times without

the knowledge of agroforestry. We had
to go far for fodder and firewood. This
wasted a lot of time. I learned about
Mrs Belmaya Rana
agroforestry from the Homestead Programme (JPP) and designed my land. I've planted mulberry,
Lucaena, Bauhinia, fruit trees, chillies and lots of other
plants. In all, there are 56 species of useful trees and shrubs in
my agroforestry system. The trees are all arranged in layers,
all species are mixed up together. Before, 60kg of the mustard
I grew was used to trade for chillies. Now I grow enough of
both and have extra of both to trade. Now I have time to cut
fodder as well as doing the housework. There's enough fodder
on my own land for my 4 goats and 4 cows. I grow enough
fruit for the family, and sell extra for cash. The trees don't
affect the rice, but it did affect the mustard and maize, so I
planted taro, ginger and tumeric against the trees in some
parts, and dug trenches to cut the tree roots in others.
22
Read On !
This chapter provides enough information for you to be

able to grow your
own agroforestry
system at home.
However, this
information is
also linked to
other methods. For
extra benefits let's read, learn
and practice from other related chapters.
Nutrition chapter
Nutritious plants can also be grown in agroforestry
Improved Stove chapter

Agroforestry produces nearby fuel for the stove
Home Nursery chapter

Plants for agroforestry can be produced easily at home
Seed Saving chapter

How to produce various types of good quality seed at home
23
Fruit production chapters

Easy methods of producing, planting and managing fruit trees
Forest is protected by using agroforestry to supply farm needs

Grow plants in agroforestry which help in pest control
Mulching chapter
Produce plenty of biomass for mulching to conserve soil
Liquid Manure chapter

Grow plants to make liquid manure to control farm pests
Compost chapter
Nearby fodder and biomass makes making compost easier

A living fence is agroforestry on the farm boundary

Agroforestry helps protect and supply the kitchen garden
Beekeeping chapter
Many plants for bee food can be grown in agroforestry
Livestock management chapter

Agroforestry crops make keeping livestock much easier
Forest Management chapter
What is an
The Farmers' Handbook - "The Fields", Chapter 5 - Integrated Orchard
Integrated Orchard ?
An orchard is a
planted and
managed area
of fruit trees.
A well managed orchard
will give
benefits to
people's
health, their
income, and Kamal Pun (right) and his orchard, Jajarkot
the environment. There are ways of improving an orchard with small
inputs which can greatly increase its productivity. To get more
benefits, the orchard should be managed in a sustainable way.
To get more production and easy maintenance, the orchard
should be like a forest. The orchard can be rich, fertile and
sustainable, just like a forest. One of the forest's qualities is
its diversity. So our orchards should also contain a great variety of plants, and then they can be more productive and sustainable, like the forest.
So, an integrated orchard is a diverse mix of fruit and
multi-purpose plants growing together. In this chapter,we
show how to design and manage an integrated orchard for
quick and sustainable production.
Why
make an
Benefits of the Integrated Orchard

Other trees can be planted in between the fruit trees;
These other trees can provide fodder, fuel, timber, medi
cines, nectar, vegetables and other useful products;

More production from less land;
Soil and water conservation;
Degraded land can be regenerated;
Pests and diseases are more easily and cheaply controlled;
Farm production increases annually;
There's a quick return on investment;
As well as cash income, the integrated orchard also provides many basic resources for other farming systems.
Conventional farming education usually recommends an

orchard of one variety. In a mango orchard, there are only
mango trees, and in an apple orchard, only apple trees. Planting in this way leaves much wasted space in between the
trees, and much work goes into maintaining these empty
spaces. But if the spaces are ploughed to grow annual crops,
then the fruit trees' roots may be damaged and production will
be lower. So the answer is to plant perennial crops of useful
trees and shrubs in between the fruit trees.
2
How
to make an
Species' selection and planting design

Good quality species should be chosen for the orchard.
Species should be appropriate for the climate and landscape.
The size of the different plants when they are mature should
also be considered. According to size, 4 or 5 layers of trees
and shrubs can be recognised :1 Upper canopy trees :- these are the biggest trees, and
usually take the longest time to produce fruit. They are also
usually the longest lived. Fruit trees in this group include
mango, jackfruit, avocado, walnut, chestnut, butternut, pecan,
etc. Multi-purpose trees include soapnut, neem, toon, mauwa,
etc. These trees should be planted 10-12 metres apart.
1
Upper canopy
trees
10-12 metres
But planting trees at this spacing leaves 10-12 metres of
space in between, which is wasted if nothing else is planted.
Farming tilled crops may damage the trees when they are
ploughed. So it is best to plant smaller trees in between.
"The Fields"
Chapter 5 - Integrated Orchard
2 Mid-canopy trees :- apple, pear, peach, plum, apricot,

persimon, cherry, etc. can be seen as mid-canopy trees. They
can be planted 5-6 metres apart, in between the upper canopy
trees. They will fruit sooner than the bigger trees, and usually
do not live so long.
4 Shrub layer :- After the smaller trees, shrubs like pineapple, cardamon, napier grass, lemon grass, blackcurrant, gooseberry, etc. have their turn. They can be planted 1-1.5 metres
apart. They are fast to produce, and only live a few years.
4
Shrub layer
Upper canopy trees

Mid-canopy trees
2
5-6 metres
But even planted like this, 5-6 metres of lend is left
empty. Other trees can still be planted in between.
3 Lower canopy trees :- orange, lemon, banana, custard
apple, sea buckthorn, coffee, papaya, mulberry, etc. are small
trees. They can be planted in between, 3 metres apart.
Lower canopy trees
3
3 metres
But even 3 metres is a lot of empty space. Even smaller
shrubs can be planted in between.
4
5 Ground layer :- finally, as a ground cover to increase

productivity even more, various types of sweet potato, taro,
beans, peanuts, clover, comfrey, ginger, tumeric, etc. can be
planted. Wild plants like wormwood and nettle can also be
encouraged. They help to make the soil fertile. But the
groundcover plants may need controlling if they harm the
young trees. When the trees are bigger, climbing plants such
as grapes, passion fruit, jasmine, yam, pepper and rattan can
be planted. But these should not be allowed to climb on the
fruit trees, or they will reduce the trees' fruiting ability.
5
Ground layer
Note :- These pictures show how small and large trees and
shrubs can be designed into the integrated orchard. When
establishing the orchard, plants can either be planted all at the
same time, or gradually, as time and labour allow.
5
Protecting the orchard

The orchard needs fencing to protect against livestock.
Temporarily, thorny branches such as Acacia, blackthorn,
wild blackberry, sea buckthorn, etc. can be cut and made into
a fence. A living fence of planted trees and shrubs gives
other benefits, and is a more productive and longer-term way
of protecting the orchard.
Let's See
how to make an
Integrated Orchard
The integrated orchard looks like a forest,

but the trees and shrubs have more use.
A living fence, or hedge, can be made of thorny species

such as cactus, sisal, wild pear, hawthorn, some of the Acacias, Prosopis, sea buckthorn, honey locust, etc. Some can
form a fence within 2-3 years, and give other products, too.
Fodder, firewood, fruit, medicines, nectar, etc. can all be
gathered from the fence. After several years, even timber for
construction can be produced. The chapter Living Fence
gives more information about this.
On the edge of the orchard,

the living fence gives protection and production.
6
Farmers visit
to learn the
methods
Above is fruit,
below ginger, tumeric, pineapple,
etc. all producing
benefits
No space is empty
in the integrated
orchard
Marigolds are
seen planted in
the ground layer.
These were
planted to help
with pest control,
and now self-seed.
On big trees, vine

plants such as
pepper, betel,
grape and passion fruit can
climb up.
Coffee trees in the

orchard need
shade to fruit
well, so are best in
the lower level,
underneath bigger
trees.
In 1989 this land

was bare. Then,
Mr Surya
Adhikari started
his integrated
orchard, and now
see ! (in 1999)
Maintenance
How to
maintain an
Integrated Orchard
For an integrated orchard planted in this way, maintenance is mainly harvesting. The succession of production
from the orchard is described below.
1st year :- sugar cane, various vegetables,
fodder grass from weeding.
2nd year :- the above, plus banana, cardamon, ginger, tumeric, broom
grass, currants, etc. start producing.
3rd year :- all the above, plus pineapple, coffee, papaya, sea
buckthorn, etc. start to produce.
4th year :- all the above, plus grafted apple, peach, plum,
apricot, pear, orange, etc. start to produce.
5th year :- all the above, plus grafted mango, walnut, lychee,
chestnut, etc. start to bear fruit.
Trees that have grown from seed will produce fruit more
slowly, such as soapnut, butternut, hazel, etc. They will start
to produce fruit after 8-10 years.
Not just fruit trees
10
All the above species produce fruit. But once the shape
and size of the tree is understood, any type of useful and
multi-purpose tree or shrub can be fitted into any of the layers. Plants for fodder, timber, herbal medicines, fibre, etc. can
be added to provide their particular type of benefit, according
to the land and the needs of the farmer or community.
11
mango
Lucaena
If annual crops are needed to be grown between the fruit

and multi-purpose trees, the trees can be planted in lines
spaced wider apart, as in the photo below. This is the same
basic design as for an agroforestry system. Terrace improvement is also a result. But you should not plough near the roots
of the fruit trees.
When the trees are bigger, livestock can be grazed in the
area from time to time. Because the integrated orchard is
made up of many layers of multi-purpose trees, there is a high
production from a small space. By planting in this way, production will gradually increase as time goes on.
drumstick
pear
pineapple guava napier grass coffee banana
A well established
Integrated Fruit
Orchard
sugar
cane
Tillage in the orchard
ginger
taro
papaya
tumeric
12
Ground crops can be grown

between the lines of trees and
shrubs of the integrated orchard. There are more than 50
species of plants in this picture.
13
Farmers'
Experience
Mr Kamal Pun
From Jajarkot district, Dandagaun 3, Kalpat village in Nepal, Mr

Kamal Pun has planted an integrated orchard on his own land.
Now let's read about his experiences.
Since I took training in how to
make an integrated orchard, I've
been making my own orchard at
home. My land is steep and dry, and
was a bare grazing area for everyone's cattle. I made a design and
began planting seedlings by layer.
Kamal Pun
Now, I have mango, banana, orange,
papaya, grapefruit, coffee, peach, plum, apricot, lychee and
many more. On the ground are pineapple, napier grass, lemon
grass, and others. I have grain crops and fruit, and both produce
well. I also grow seedlings for sale. I keep livestock, and there's
enough fodder from the orchard to feed them from the many
types of local fodder trees that are planted there. Before, there
was no production from this bare slope. But last year I earned
almost $1000 from my farm. I've been able to pay off all my
loans, buy cloth, medicine, etc., and still have some left to
invest. Now I want to buy another piece of land with the income. This orchard has been seen by many local farmers as a
model. I've been teaching them how it's done - they come from
many villages in the district.
14
Read On !
Subjects Related to the Integrated Orchard
able to design and maintain your own integrated orchard.
However, this information is also linked to other methods.
For extra benefits let's read, learn and practice from other
related chapters.
Five Chapters on how to make various Nurseries

For planting a variety of plants in an integrated orchard, different types of nursery are
needed to grow them. Information on how to
build and manage the home nursery, fruit nursery, air nursery, hot bed and leaf pots is given in
these chapters.
Grafting, Budding, Stone Grafting,

Top Grafting & Air Layering chapters
Information about various easy methods
to grow tasty and good-yielding fruit varieties
at home for planting on the farm are given in
these chapters.
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15

nursery, if they're not planted well all the
work can go to waste. Information on more
productive planting is given in this chapter.
Planting trees on farmland can bring farmers many benefits. But you can't plant any type
of tree, nor anywhere. This chapter gives information on how to plant trees without affecting
farm yield.
A-frame chapter
An easy method of mapping out contours
for soil and water conservation on sloping land
is descibed in this chapter.

How to grow root stock from local wild
fruit seed for grafting and budding apple, peach,
plum, apricot, walnut, etc. on your own land.

The orchard also needs a fence. By
planting a fence made of trees, the production
from the orchard can be increased even more.
This chapter gives information about making
and managing a living fence.
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What is
Farmers' Handbook "The Fields", Chapter 6 - Fruit Tree Planting
Fruit Tree Planting ?

Fruit is a
store of goodness.
It is juicy, tasty
and nutritious,
and it holds vitamins essential for
our health and
well being. So it's
our duty to plant
fruit trees. All
over the world
people have
planted fruit trees,
since early times.
Comfrey and garlic as companion
Even if people
plants under a young apple tree
have only a small
piece of land they
show interest in planting fruit trees. But if you don't have the
skills and knowledge to plant and care for fruit trees they can
die, or at best be less productive. So all the effort that went
into acquiring and planting fruit trees goes to waste.
In this book we can learn about how to plant and maintain fruit trees to get the best production using local resources
and with minimum work.
plant
fruit trees ?
Why
There are many types of benefit from fruit, for example:-
it is tasty and nutritious;

if you eat fruit after a meal the food is easier for the body
to digest;
fruit is like wealth which you can sell or exchange;
after you plant a fruit tree it only requires a small amount
of maintenance, and will last for many years (it is perennial);
because they are perennial, fruit trees help to protect the
soil and the environment.
fruit trees give nectar to bees, give firewood from pruning,
habitat for birds and wildlife, and many other benefits.
How
to plant
fruit trees ?
Choosing the right places to plant fruit trees

When selecting where to plant a fruit tree, you need to
consider the following needs:
protection from animals

easy maintainance
shelter from the wind
enough room to grow

suitable good soil
Below are good places to plant fruit trees:
in old pit latrines

terrace edges
on the edge of the house's yard on the edges of fields
Many types of fruit trees can
be seen planted in the fields
In order to get these benefits, the first important thing is

to plant the fruit tree well. Only then will fruit trees give their
benefits to people and the community.
Apple
Apricot
2
Pear
Plum
Farmers' Handbook, "The Fields"
Chapter 6 - Fruit Tree Planting
Materials needed to plant a fruit tree

rotted compost
leaf litter
one basket
one basket
green biomas digging

tools
one basket
In the bottom of the pit, put 6-8 inches of green biomass,

then cover it with soil that has been dug out of the pit. Then
put a 12-18 inch layer of semi-decomposed biomas mixed
with un-rotted animal compost and soil. Then put in a layer of
well rotted compost mixed with soil. All the dug soil should
be put back in the pit until it is heaped above the pit, which is
now ready for planting.
oil seed cake

If you have a problem with ants or termites, mix oil seed
cake (such as mustard) with the soil. One part of cake should
be mixed with 10 parts of soil.
Companion Plants
garlic
marigold
comfrey
seeds
coriander
legumes
onion
fruit tree
Planting the Fruit Tree

When you plant the fruit tree in the prepared pit, first
remove as much soil and compost as is needed for the size of
the roots. The roots should be open, and point downwards.
When the soil has been returned around the roots and filled
in, tread on the soil to press it down. Around the pit make a
shallow trench to collect water. Lastly, put down rotted compost covered with mulch. If you don't have enough biomass,
use rocks to cover the soil.
vegetable seedlings
Preparing the Pit

If you're planting the fruit tree in an old pit latrine, then
your pit is already prepared. If not, you need to select a good
place and dig a pit. The pit should be at least 3 feet deep (if
you have deep soil, then 4 feet is even better). The pit should
be 3 feet wide.
4
After doing all

these things the
tree will grow well.
Where are
my helping
friends ?
Like people,
trees don't
like to be
alone
Companion Planting
Various plants can be planted around the fruit tree which
help it to grow even better and give more production. This is
called companion planting.
Garlic, onion, marigold, basil, mint, lemon grass, nasturtium, comfrey, coriander, fennel, dill, tansy and wormwood
are some examples of companion plants. There are many
benefits of planting them with the fruit tree.
Let's See
Benefits of Companion Planting
Companion plants help to protect from harmful pests

They attract beneficial insects
They produce vegetables, herbs, nectar for bees, etc.
They can be cut and used as a mulch
how to plant
fruit trees
The pit should
be one metre
wide and at
least one metre
deep.
2
trench around
the pit
Cross Section
of the Pit
They can be stacked densely in different layers
soil and rotted

compost
They help to balance the environment

They help to conserve soil moisture
They help to prevent weeds from growing
half-rotted
compost and soil
soil
Companion planting helps the fruit tree,

but doesn't take much extra work
6
green biomas
Make a trench
around the pit
to collect water.
6
Pull the tree
upward as you
fill in the soil
so that the
roots all point
downward.
4
5
7
Trim off the
fruit tree's
long roots.
Don't squash the

roots while planting
the fruit tree.
8
Maintenance
How to Care for

the Fruit Tree
What the Fruit Tree needs : Protection from damaging pests

Fertility
Water
Different types of
companion plant
seen beneath a
mango tree.
Companion
planting also helps to
provide these three needs. However,
extra maintenance brings extra yields.
Compost:- It's good to provide compost once a year, in early
Spring.
Water:- If there's a rainy season, and if the fruit tree is dormant over winter, you don't need water then. But if there is a
dry season when the tree is growing and fruiting, irrigation
will make a big difference.
Where to put Water and Compost
A grafted fruit
tree can flower
when very
small....
10
....but this makes the young

tree weak, so you should remove the flowers for 1-2 years.
Don't put water and

compost right next to the
stem of the tree, because the
roots that feed grow further
away. So water and compost need to be put in a
circle away from the tree.
rotted
compost
11
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Each year as
the tree
starts to
grow, put
compost
around under the drip
line.
12
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After getting your

grafted fruit tree
from the nursery,
cut the top off.
This helps to form
good side branching.
Bud
Pruning the Fruit Tree

To keep your fruit
Cut at a
tree healthy and giving
slant
the best production,
branches should be
pruned once a year
when the tree is not
growing (it is dormant).
Dead or diseased
branches should be cut
immediately. Any
branch touching another, or competing for
light and space, should
be cut. Use a sharp tool
for this. After cutting large branches,
cover the wound with fresh cow dung.
Cut just above

a healthy bud
to prevent too
much wood
dying.
13
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Cut out dead,

diseased and
unwanted
branches.
This is how it
looks after unwanted branches
are removed.
Big branches should be cut with a saw, and

small branches with a sharp hook or secateurs.
A good way of irrigating young

fruit trees is given in the "Introduction to Fruit Production" chapter.
14
Farmers'
Experience
Mr Dil Bahadur
Bucha
From Ratadada village,

Gumi - 3, Surkhet, in Nepal,
Mr Dil Bahadur Bucha has
had plenty of experience at
planting fruit trees. This is
what he says.
You can get good production
from planting fruit trees on empty
land. And you don't have to plant
Dil Bahadur Bucha
every year like grains, but you can
still get production each year. Fruit trees are good for keeping
bees, so you can get more honey too. I dig a pit a metre wide
and a metre deep and in that mix biomass and then good, rotted
compost as the pit is refilled. It's important that the roots of the
fruit tree are well spaced and pointing down as you plant it. If
you get air on the roots the tree can die, so stamp the soil well
down on top. I mulch with waste biomass and put rocks on top.
That way the moisture is kept in the soil, and I don't need to
water so much. Around the pit I plant comfrey and lemon grass
for future mulch, so I need less compost. There are lots of benefits from fruit trees, you can even plant pineapple underneath.
Now I have mango, pear and peach growing, and the lime is
starting to fruit.
15
Subjects linked to Fruit Tree Planting

To see how to integrate fruit tree planting with other
techniques, read these chapters in the Farmers' Handbook.

In this chapter learn how to make a nursery and
grow your own fruit rootstock at home for
grafting and budding.

You can plant many varieties of trees to get
more production, and faster too. This is explained in this chapter.
Farmers can get lots of benefits from planting
trees on their land, but you can't just plant them
anywhere. In this chapter, learn how to integrate
trees without affecting your crop production.
Pit Latrine chapter

A fruit tree grows best if planted in a big pit. If
you have an old pit latrine to plant in, you can
double the benefits. In this chapter learn how to
make a hygienic, cheap and productive pit latrine.
Read On
What is
Farmers' Handbook "The Fields", Chapter 7 - Top Grafting
Top Grafting ?
Many people would like to plant
fruit trees, but often can't find good
types. Sometimes the seedlings may
cost too much, if you have limited
income. But difficulty in finding
good fruit trees shouldn't stop you
trying to get them - the solution to the
problem can be found. Raising
rootstock seedlings in the nursery
may take 2-3 years. After grafting, it
will take a few more years before
they bear fruit. So let's learn an even
easier way to grow grafted fruit trees.
This is called Top Grafting (or top
working).
Top grafting is a method of
grafting cuttings (scion) from
Pear, top grafted
improved fruit trees onto appropriate
types of wild trees which are already onto a wild pear tree
growing in the fields and forests,
without needing a nursery. This method is very cheap and
easy, and produces good quality fruit trees which give fruit
quickly.
Why
do
Top Grafting ?
You can grow fruit trees on your own land

You don't have to make a nursery
Many types of less useful wild fruit species
can be made into improved varieties
Trees will fruit sooner and give more fruit than
otherwise
Waste resources can be made into useful ones;
Fruit trees can be grown easily in the forest
You can eat the fruits of

your labour with fruit trees
How
to do
Top Grafting ?
Materials Needed to do Top Grafting

plastic
saw
rootstock
Healthy, disease
free, wild fruit
trees are called
rootstock.
sharp
tools
secateurs
knife
scion
A cutting
from a
good fruiting
tree is called
a scion.
2
Chapter 7 - Top Grafting
The methods of top grafting are very similar to that of

grafting. But while grafting is normally done in a special fruit
nursery, top grafting can be done directly on the farmland or
in the forest, wherever the appropriate wild fruit trees are
found.
How does grafting work ?

All plants have tiny channels which take water and nutrients up to the leaves and down again. These channels are
inside the bark but outside the woody part of the stem. They
form a greenish band around the stem called the cambium.
Which types can you top graft onto ?

Local Type
wood
What to graft
Local peach
peach, plum, apricot, almond
Wild pear
pear
Wild apple
(crabapple)
apple
Wild cherry
cherry
cambium
Cambium
splits when
bark is
peeled
seen from
above
plum
cherry
wood
bark
apple
apricot
Cross section
of the inside of
a wild tree
cambium
pith wood (green) bark
Close-up of
the cut end
of the Scion
pear
Top Grafting Method
Rootstock
Scion
Scion
cambium
(green)
To succeed at
top grafting,
the cambium
of the scion
and the rootstock must
be exactly
matched
This is how the

cambiums are
joined
cambium (green)
Where to Top Graft ?
On farmland, grazing land, or in the forest, wherever
there are suitable wild fruit trees, such as wild peach, wild
pear, wild apricot, etc.
1. Selecting and preparing the rootstock

Top grafting can be done on any appropriate local wild
fruit tree. The tree should
be strong, healthy and
free of disease.
After selecting the tree to

graft onto, clear away
brush and weeds from
around the base, and cut
off any small branches
growing from the base.
Cut down the tree anywhere between 4 inches up to 3

feet high above the ground, according to need and the
shape of the land.
The cut should be straight and clean.
When to Top Graft ?

Top grafting is usually done when trees have lost their
leaves, in the winter. In lower, warmer places this may be in
January (Northern Hemisphere). In higher, colder places this
may be February or March. It is best to top graft about 2-3
weeks before new leaves sprout on the trees.
6
2. Choosing and selecting the scion

The scion is selected from a good fruiting tree. The
scion is about pencil thickness, or the thickness of your
little finger.
3. Grafting the scion
how to do
Top Grafting
Let's See
Selecting the
rootstock
There are 3 ways to graft

shown in this chapter. They are
shown with photos on the
following pages.
4. Binding the graft

Plastic is used to bind the
scion to the rootstock so air and
water can't get into the graft. If a
very large rootstock is used, a
separate piece of plastic is needed
to cover the cut section while the
scion is bound. This is shown on page 11, photos 6 and 7.
Cutting the
rootstock
Method 1.
Bark Top
Grafting
Let's see the 3 methods of top grafting

On the next 7 pages, 3 methods of top grafting are shown.
The first method is called bark top grafting, and is on the first
4 pages. After this, the second method is called tongue top
grafting, and is shown on 1 page. The third method is called
split top grafting and this is shown on 2 pages.
8
The cut
section is
cleaned
From the
top, make a
1-2 inch long
vertical cut
in the bark.
On a big
rootstock, 2,
3 or more
scion can be
grafted.
The scion
should
have 3-5
buds on it.
Make a 1-2 inch

slanting cut on the
lower end of the scion
Insert the cut

end of the scion
into the bark
through the
vertical cut on
the rootstock.
10
Spread a piece
of plastic over
the top, and
bind the scion
onto the
rootstock with
another piece.
Bind tight so
air and water
cannot get in.
11
Finally put another

piece of plastic over
the top, and bind
this on as well.
Tongue
Top
Grafting
rootstock
scion
The cut on the rootstock and the scion

are both slanting and
an inch long. In the
centre ofeach cut
edge, make a small
nick (tongue). These 2
nicks will insert into each
other to hold the graft.
tongue
This shows
where care is
needed to bind well
Method 2.
Now, grafting
work is finished
on this tree.
When the
rootstock is
small, as here,
only one scion
should be
grafted.
The cambium layer

under the bark of the
rootstock and
scion should be
exactly aligned
(see p. 5,6)
Bind the graft with
plastic, as in the
other methods.
12
13
Method 3.
Cleft Top Grafting

Make a cleft in
the middle of
the cut stem.
the cut is 1 inch long
Place a sharp tool

in the cleft,
taking care not to
split the stem.
Make an inchlong cut on both

sides of the scion .
14
Finished top
grafting
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Bind the
graft with
plastic, as
in the
other
methods.
15
After Top Grafting is successful
An improved
pear grafted
onto a wild pear
rootstock has
sprouted well.
After 4 months,
the plastic is
removed. The
seedling is
protected from
livestock.
How to
Maintenance maintain a
top grafted seedling
Aftercare for the grafted tree
Protect the grafted tree from livestock
Make a round trench around the plant, and use this to give
water and compost. Water as necessary, whenever possible
Mulch thickly around the stem
Plant companion plants around the tree
Pinch or cut off any branches that sprout below the grafted
branch
A grafted fruit tree

orchard in Jajarkot, Nepal
7
Apricot, 2
years after
it was
grafted
onto a local
peach
Here, vegetables
are grown under
the fruit trees.
16
17
Companion Planting
Protect the tree from livestock

Darn ! I'd love
to peck at those
leaves, but no
chance
Various plants, such as garlic, onion, marigold, basil,

mint, lemon grass, comfrey, coriander, fennel, dill and wormwood can be planted around the fruit tree, which help it to
grow well and give better production.
Benefits of Companion Planting
Companion plants help to protect from harmful pests

They attract beneficial insects
They produce vegetables, herbs, nectar for bees, etc.
They can be cut and used as a mulch
They can be stacked densely in different layers
They help to balance the environment
They help to conserve soil moisture
They prevent too many weeds from growing
How to
eat it ?
Make a small trench around the grafted tree.

Use this to give water and compost as needed.
Give water and compost
water
compost
There is more information about this in

the Fruit Tree Planting Method chapter
18
19
Maintenance needed each year
compost
compost
Now your fruit tree

can grow well. To
help it more, prune
it once a year in the
winter. Give it a
basket of compost
at the same time.
On a big tree, many scions can be grafted

Top grafted branches are shown
Pruning the tree
Remove any branches that sprout from the

rootstock. More information about pruning is
given in the Fruit Tree Planting chapter.
20
Many
scions can
be grafted
onto a
trunk in this way.
One branch from the

rootstock is left
uncut at first. This
helps to pull water
and nutrients from
the roots for the new
grafts. After the
grafts have sprouted
well, this branch can
be cut off.
21
Farmers'
Experience
Mr Tek Bahadur
Khadka
From Jajarkot district,

Khalanga -5, Pokhora village in
Nepal, Mr Tek Bahadur
Khadka has done plenty of top
grafting. Now let's read about
his experiences.
I work for the Homestead

Programme (JPP) in 6 VDCs of
Jajarkot district. At first I didn't think
this method would work, but after
training and starting work, I like it a Tek Bahadur Khadka
lot. I now teach this in the villages. I
started by top grafting pear onto the wild pear that grows
here. At first we used to cut these wild pear down as we
thought they were useless. Now we top graft them and have
made a fruiting orchard out of the forest. Before, you'd see
just a few pear trees in the village. Now there are hundreds of
trees, and everyone knows how to do top grafting - even in
places where I've never been to teach. And it turns the wild
pear into a useful tree. You don't have to buy fruit seedlings,
and they fruit quickly. Everyone likes the method in the
villages, it's so easy. You don't need any strange tools, and can
do it in your own village area.
22
Read On !
Subjects Related to Top Grafting
able to do your own top grafting on fruit trees. However, this
Top Grafting
chapter
Grafting and
Budding
chapters
Agroforestry
chapter
Integrated
Fruit Orchard
chapter
Fruit Nursery
chapter
Fruit Tree
Planting chapter
Grafting and Budding chapters
Information about various
simple methods to grow improved
fruit varieties at home for planting
on the farm are given in these chapters.
23

Information is given in this chapter about
how to plant fruit trees with various other multipurpose trees to give more and quicker benefits
for less work.

nursery, if they're not planted well all the work
can go to waste. Information about fruit tree
planting is given in this chapter.
Planting trees on farmland can bring
farmers many benefits. But you can't plant any
type of tree, nor anywhere. This chapter gives
information on how to plant trees without
affecting farm yield.
In this chapter learn how to make a nursery and grow your own fruit rootstock at home
for grafting and budding.
What is
Farmers' Handbook "The Fields", Chapter 8 - Air LAyering
Air Layering ?
Hommaya Gurung
plants a guava
seedling made by air
layering.
Everyone likes to
eat tasty fruit. And
everyone who plants
an orchard looks forward to tasting the
fruits of their work. It
is our responsibility to
plant fruit trees, which
give the family nutrition as well as increasing farm production. So people want to plant fruit trees, even
those with just a little land. There are many ways that farmers
can grow good quality fruit trees at home at very low cost.
The more methods are known, the more choices farmers have
to improve their farm production.
In this chapter we talk about another easy and successful
method of propagating fruit trees, which is called Air Layering. Air layering is a simple way of propagating fruit tree
seedlings from their branches.
Why
do
Air Layering ?
There are 2 problems with planting fruit trees from seed.

The first is that a tree grown from seed willl take a long time
to produce fruit. It may take 8-10 years. The second problem
is that although the seed may be taken from a very good tree,
producing excellent fruit, the new tree may not produce good
fruit. By air layering a tree, we can guarantee that it will produce fruit sooner, and the fruit will be as good as the tree
from which the branch was taken.
Species which can be Air Layered

Most of the citrus varieties - orange, lemon, lime, grapefruit, kumquat, etc. Also, pomegranite, lychee, guava, star
fruit, custard apple, plum, and pear. There may be other varieties that you know in your local area.
How
to do
Air Layering ?
Time to do Air Layering ?

In low-lying, hotter climates, air layering can be done
from late winter through to spring. The higher and cooler
you go, normally the later air layering can be done. The
season can go on through
spring and even into early
summer. The time to do air layering is normally the same time as
when fruit trees start to grow new leaves.
Materials Needed to do Air Layering

plastic
hook,
etc.
knife
tree moss
fertile soil
string
This Chapter's Author

Mrs Deumaya Rana
Dahachaur-4, Surkhet.
2
Chapter 8 - Air Layering
Choosing the branch to air layer

The branch to be air layered should be healthy and free
of disease, and at least one year old.
One inch
of bark
taken off
1
A branch
chosen to
be air layered
Then, away from the tip, cut the bark from around the
stem of the branch.
2
2 cuts around
bark
the branch
peeled
off
1 inch in
between
the 2 cuts
4
After removing the bark, wrap around a handful of tree

moss, or a ball of soil mixed with ash and cow dung.
Make 2 clean
cuts around
the branch one
inch apart,
and take off
the bark only
between the 2
cuts.
Preparing a
handful of
moss
Spread out
5
the moss
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between the
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hands.
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Wrap the right size of

plastic around the moss.
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Wrap the
moss around
the cut section to make
a ball.
string
plastic
Tie the ends of the plastic

around the moss, so air and
water cannot get in.
moss
A completed
air layering
6
When air layering, always make sure the end

of the plastic is pointing down, otherwise water can get in, and the air layering may fail.
To plant the air layered branch, cut the

branch just below
the moss ball
11
The branch is then planted in the summer,

6-8 weeks after binding.
9
Inside the
plastic, white
roots can be
seen.
12
Roots
seen as
the plastic is
removed
10
roots
Before cutting and

transplanting, make
sure the place
to plant the
seedling is
prepared
This branch is
ready for planting
8
Planting the branch
13
Dig a pit a metre deep and a metre wide.

Fill the pit as shown in the picture below.
Carefully plant the new seedling, taking care not to damage
After cutting,
remove just the
plastic, and
plant the
branch with the
moss still attached.
14
the roots, and cover with soil just above the moss ball.
Put a thick mulch around the seedling.
Water well into the ditch around the pit.
Plant companion plants around the seedling, such as garlic,
onion, marigold, comfrey, basil, coriander, nasturtium,
wormwood, tansy, lemon grass, etc. More information
about this is given in the Fruit Tree Planting chapter.
Trench dug
around the pit.
soil and
compost
soil and partly
decomposed
compost
soil
See the moss still attached to the roots.

10
green biomass
11
Companion Planting
Maintenance
How to care for

an air layered
seedling
Put water
and compost only
in the
trench
around the
seedling
A good way of irrigating the seedling is

given in the Fruit Tree Planting chapter.
After
planting
the seedling, mulch
it well and
plant suitable companion
plants
around it.
12
12
Protect
the seedling from
livestock.
13
Farmers'
Experience
Read On !
Mrs Pabisara
Gharti
Subjects Related to Air Layering

able to do your own Air Layering on fruit trees. However, this
Air Layering
chapter
14
I learned about air layering

from the Homestead ProMrs Pabisara Gharti and
gramme (JPP). To make the
her air layered orange
cutting, I peeled the bark from
around the branch, covered it
with a ball of moss, and wrapped it in plastic. Easy. Roots
grow from the cut section in about 2-3 months. Then, I cut the
branch and planted it with its new roots. I made the air layering in February, and planted it out in June. A seedling made in
this way fruits much quicker than when planted from seed. I
found this method easier and more successful than other
methods, so we've been planting lots of fruit trees made this
this way, and will be planting more this year. Why shouldn't
everyone do this type of work, that is easy
and gives good benefits ?
Fruit Tree
Planting
chapter
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Gumi - 6, and a member of "Peoples's Awareness"

women's group, Mrs
Pabisara Gharti has experience with Air Layering on
her own land. Now let's hear
Agroforestry
chapter
Integrated Fruit
Orchard chapter
15
Related Subjects
After raising good seedlings in

the fruit nursery, if they're not planted
well all the work can go to waste.
Information about more productive
planting is given in this chapter.

Information on how to plant fruit
trees with various other multi-purpose
trees to give more and faster benefits
for less work is given in this chapter.
Farmers can get many benefits
from planting trees on their land, but
you can't plant them just anywhere.
In this chapter, learn how to integrate
trees on the farm without affecting
your crop production.
What is a
Farmers' Handbook "The Fields", Chapter 9 - Bamboo Cuttings
Bamboo Cutting ?
Mrs Myasu Garanja's bamboo,

which she planted from a cutting
Bamboo is an extremely useful plant which has been
used for hundreds of years in society. When its shoot is
young, it can be eaten as a vegetable. When the stem is
strong, it can be used to build houses. That's why there's a
Nepali saying that goes "when young, a vegetable; when
mature, a house". In the villages, they also say that bamboo
can be used for anything, except as a plough share. The traditional way of propagating bamboo is by digging up the root
and transplanting a section to a new place. But this involves a
lot of difficult work, takes much time, and many other plants
can be damaged as it is transplanted.
So in this chapter, we show an easy and quick way of
propagating many more bamboo than was previously possible.
Why
make a
bamboo cutting ?
Planting a bamboo from cuttings gives more benefits

from less work. In less time, many more cuttings can be
planted, saving work for farmers.
The traditional way of digging up bamboo with its roots
causes damage to other plants, and much soil needs to be
moved. So by using cuttings, this damage is also prevented.
How
to make a
bamboo cutting ?
Which bamboo can be used to make cuttings ?

There are many types of bamboo, from hot, tropical, low
lying areas to cold, high altitude areas. Most types can be
used, except cane bamboo, and bamboo which has only a
very small hole, or no hole in the middle.
Materials Needed to make bamboo cuttings
Benefits of
Bamboo cuttings
It's a quik and easy method
With less work, many
1-2 year old

bamboo
sharp
tool
cuttings can be planted

One bamboo branch can
make many cuttings
The original clump isn't
damaged by making
cuttings
This Chapter's Author

Mr Laxman Rana
water
oil seed
cake
digging
tools
leaf litter
rocks
saw
fresh cow
dung
compost

2
Chapter 9 - Bamboo Cuttings
Things to consider when selecting the cutting
The tip is young and

soft, so is not able to
regenerate from cuttings
the bamboo should be between 1-2 years old

the bamboo should be healthy and free of
disease
Time to plant
In hotter, lowland areas, cuttings are taken
from mid-winter (mid January in N.Hemisphere) for
up to 1 month. In hilly, cooler areas, the time starts
up to one month later, until late spring (April).
Length of time to sprouting
12
A successful cutting will sprout within 3 months.
Method of cutting
Considering the above points, the first stage is to select
the bamboo for cutting.
Things to consider when cutting the bamboo
The mid section,

from nodes 5 - 12, is
suitable for cuttings it has a good capacity to regenerate.
Be careful not to damage the chosen
bamboo as you fell it

Also be careful not to damage nearby
bamboo stems
Use sharp tools (axes, machete, hook, etc.)
As soon as the branch is felled, immediately cut off the tip from 1 inch diameter,
otherwise this drains its capacity to regenerate
Use the base and tip for something else
11
10
9
8
7
The base section up to the

4th node is also not good
for use as cuttings
6
5
4
3
2
1
Selecting and
trimming the
nodes on the
cutting
Selecting cuttings
after the branch is
felled
cut
here
3 branches on the
node of the cutting
2
As soon as the branch is

felled, the tip is immediately cut off
Select and cut the cuttings as descibed below.

The numbers below match with the numbers on
the diagram on page 7.
3 The mid branch of these 3 should be about 18 inches

long and have 3-5 nodes (if the distance between nodes
is long, there may be 3 nodes, if the distance is short,
there may be 5 nodes).
4 The other 2 side branches of the node are cut shorter, to
have 2-3 nodes in total.
5 Other, smaller branches are cut off.
6
cut
here
cut
here
node of the cutting
1 There should be no damage or disease on the cuttings.

2 Only leave 3 branches on each node of the cutting.
cut
here
This is how it looks after the

cutting has been trimmed
3
4
3
4
5
5
Use a sharp tool to trim off

either side of the node.
Fill the hollow
ends of the cutting
with soil and compost. If there is a
risk of termites,
mix oil seed cake
with the soil to fill
If the bark splits like this,
the hollows. Use
the cutting may not grow.
one part of oil seed
cake to 5 parts soil
or compost mix. This will protect the cutting against
termites, ants and other soil-living pests.
Fill the hollow

ends with light,
fertile soil.
When the hollows

are filled, cap the
ends with fresh
cow dung.
While doing this,

be careful not to
split the bark.
Where to plant the cutting ?
Place the cutting

in the pit.
The cutting can be planted direct in the corners

and edges of fields.
It can also be planted in the fence, river banks, in
gulleys and areas of soil erosion.
The cuttings can also be temporarily planted in a
nursery, and transplanted out when roots have
developed.
Planting the
cuttings in a pit
The length of the pit

depends on the length
of the cutting
If oil seed cake is needed,
mix it with all the soil
covering the cutting.
To bury the
cutting, dig a
pit 18 inches
(50cm) deep
and 18
inches wide.
Before planting the cutting, put 3-4 inches of fertile soil in the bottom.
If there's a risk of termites, mix oil seed cake with
the fertile soil in the bottom of the pit
10
Soil and oil

seed cake
is mixed to
cover the
cutting
Then fill in the pit with soil. Leave the

middle branch of the node sticking out
of the pit a few inches.
11
Then mulch the pit with leaf litter

and cover with small rocks.
A newly sprouted cutting
add a pot of water
xfufsf]
6'Kkf
tip of the middle
branch b]vfpg]
rocks
leaf litter
The cutting
will sprout
3-4 weeks after
planting,
Finally, soak the

pit with a pot of
water. The mulch
of leaves and
rocks will conserve moisture. Even so, it's best to water the
cutting 2-3 times a week in the dry season, if
possible.
If there were no bamboo

neither would there be flute
Roots growing
And without nature, there'd be no culture
12
13
How to
a bamboo cutting
The cutting should be protected from livestock. People also
shouldn't step where the cutting is planted.
Water the cutting 2-3 times a week if possible.
The bamboo grown from cuttings can be harvested for use
after it is 3 years old.
Uses of bamboo
Important household items like baskets, winnowing trays,
etc. are made from bamboo

Craft industries using bamboo provide many people with
employment
Local bamboo can replace timber and plastics bought in
from the outside, which helps to make the community
more self reliant
This also saves money
It's using a local resource
Bamboo helps in1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
erosion control and
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Once planted, bamboo
lasts many years
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From the cradle 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
to the grave, bamboo is
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an essential part 1234567890123456789012345678901212345678901234567890123456789
of daily life
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bamboo utensils
a plane made from bamboo
14
Farmers'
Experience
Mrs Mayasu
Garanja
From Nepal, Surkhet district, Dahachaur - 3, and a

member of "Evergreen"
women's group, Mrs
Mayasu Garanja has
planted many bamboo
cuttings. Now let's read
about her experiences.
I leaned how to make
bamboo cuttings from the
Homestead Programme (JPP).
Mrs Mayasu Garanja
At first it was difficult without
knowing, but after training I found it easy to grow bamboo
from cuttings. First you need a branch which is 1-2 years old.
This is cut into sections, each with a node in the middle and
hollow on either side. You fill the hollow ends with fertile
soil, and cap the ends with cow dung. Plant this cutting in a
pit, mulch well and add water. I've found the best time to do
this is mid-January to mid-March. It's so useful to plant bamboo like this. You can make so many things from bamboo baskets, trays, etc., all useful in the house. If you have bamboo in your fields it saves having to buy lots of things from
outside. Now, with this method we can plant lots of cuttings
and so grow lots of bamboo, because it's such an easy
method.
15
Subjects Related to Bamboo Cuttings

able to make your own bamboo cuttings. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's
Soil Conservation
and Improvement
chapter
Bamboo is
very useful
f o r soil conservation.
In this chapter, we
describe the nature of
soil, how to protect
existing soil, and show
how to regenerate
damaged soil making it
into into productive
land again.
Bamboo Cuttings
chapter
Living Fence
chapter
Planting
bamboo, as
well as other useful
trees and shrubs, helps
to protect the land as
well as providing many
other important benefits.
Information about planting and maintaining a
living fence is given in
this chapter.
Read On !
What is a
Farmers' Handbook "The Fields", Chapter 10 - Living Fence
Living Fence ?
A living fence along a path, Nepal

A Living Fence is a fence made of living trees and
shrubs. Made from thorny or non-thorny plants, it can also be
called a green fence, or hedge.
There are many ways of using a barrier to prevent harmful pests from coming onto the land. Everyone knows that
stone and mud, bricks, barbed wire, bamboo, or even cut
branches can be used to make a fence. But the most productive form of barrier is the living fence, because as well as
being a barrier, it can also produce many other benefits for the
home.
In this chapter, information is given about making and
managing a living fence.
Why
make a
Living Fence ?
How
to make a
Living Fence ?
Benefits of the Living Fence
Where to make a living fence ?
Crops are protected against harmful pests.

The living fence can act as a windbreak.
As well as protecting the land, various products such as
fodder, firewood, medicines, timber, nectar, etc. can be
taken from the living fence.
Beneficial animals such as predator insects can also find a
place to live in the living fence.
The living fence saves money.
It prevents soil erosion.
It can prevent terraces from collapsing
It can be used where materials for fencing are not found,
e.g. plentiful rocks, barbed wire, large branches or trees, etc.
According to your location and its climate, landscape,

soil, etc. there are many plants that can be used for a living
fence. Planted on the edges of the land, the living fence protects against harm from the outside, including the wind.
Within the farm, living fences are useful along edges such as
pathways and edges of fields or terraces. They can give shade
and shelter, as well as other useful farm produce. The kitchen
garden can be protected by a living fence, and even separate
vegetable or nursery beds can have their own small living
fences.
So, as well as using the live fence for protection, it can also
be used to increase farm production. If a fence has tree cotton
in it, for example, this is even a cash crop. Citrus varieties
such as orange, lime, lemon, etc. can make very good fences.
They also produce valuable fruit, and are good
for bees.
Materials Needed to make a Living Fence

seeds
sharp cutting tools
seedlings
digging
tools
cuttings
leaf litter
Mr Bhuvan Khadka
Surkhet, Nepal
2
Chapter 10 - Living Fence
Choosing what to plant in the living fence

Many types of plant can be grown in home-made nurseries and planted in the fence when they are large. Many species grow from burying branches in the soil like cuttings. The
fence can also be planted with suitable seedlings collected
from the forest. Different methods for growing seedlings are
descibed in the Home Nursery chapter.
By collecting seed and cuttings from around the community and local forest, and making home nurseries, we can
grow small, large, climbing vine, or any type of seedling. In
the living fence it is good to have as many thorny plants as
possible, such as blackberry, Berberris, babool (Acacia
nilotica), baer (Aeglis), blackthorn, hawthorn, honey locust,
mesquite (Prosopis),
khayer (Acacia catechu), etc. Thorny
plants are mainly
useful around the
boundary of the farm.
Let's See
how to make a
living fence
A young living
fence on the
edge of a field.
At high altitude, castor in

the fence produces lots of
biomass.
Living plants
make a fence and
also give various
other products
4
A fence can also be

planted within the
farm. Here, various
useful trees are
planted along the
edge of a path.
The fence shades

the path as well
as giving other
products.
Within the farm

and on the edge of
paths, useful
plants like wormwood, Lucaena,
lemon grass and
marigold have
been planted.
Ipomea (morning
glory) is grown
easily from direct
cuttings, and
woven into a
thick, strong
fence.
6
Lemon grass
helps to stop
weeds from
growing into
the kitchen
garden, and
can be cut
for mulch
Maintenance
Things to consider when making a living fence

After planting seed, seedlings or cuttings in the living
fence, mulch thickly with straw, leaf litter, etc. This controls
the weeds, and allow the plants to grow well. Weeds need
removing, and the plants should be watered if possible. Replace any plants that die.
Once the plants have grown, there is not much maintenance. Well planned harvesting of products from the fence is the
only maintenance that is needed. Cutting or pruning branches
will give yields of fodder, firewood, mulch material, etc. If there
is too much shade, branches can be cut to let in more sun.
In Britain, willow
branches are densely
planted. They sprout
and are woven together to make a
strong fence
8
How to
maintain a
Living Fence
Firewood collected only

from the living fence
The kitchen garden needs a good fence around it to

protect against strong sun and wind, livestock, weeds and
other harmful things. Inside the kitchen garden, each vegetable bed can be surrounded by small fences of comfrey, lemon
grass, basil, marigold, wormwood, and Adhatora which protect against invasive weeds and even flying insect pests.
There are other beneficial yields of mulch material, fodder,
flowers, etc. This can also be called edge farming or companion planting.
Biomass cut from the living

fence helps to increase yields
from the land
Mulch from
outside
Mrs Khagisara
Gharti

women's group, Mrs
Khagisara Gharti has planted
her own living fence. Now
let's hear what she says.
Mulch from
agroforestry
Mulch
from
edge
plants
water
10
Farmers'
Experience
It's been 5-6 years since I

planted our living fence. I
learned it from the Homestead
programme (JPP). There are
many benefits from the fence.
Mrs Khagisara Gharti
I'm always cutting fodder and
bedding, firewood and so on
from the fence. Leaves can be cut and mulched directly on the
soil, or carried to the livestock and used as bedding or fodder.
Because it's in your own fence, it's close and only takes a
moment to cut and gather. It takes a few years to start producing well, but now this method has saved me a lot of time. I've
planted mulberry, Lucaena, tree cotton, Ipomea, Melia, and
the like in the fence. If any gaps appear, I plant something
else to fill it straight away.
11
Subjects Related to Living Fence

able to make your own Living Fence. However, this information is also linked to other methods. For extra benefits let's
Planting trees on farmland can bring farmers many benefits.
But you can't plant just any tree, anywhere. This chapter gives
information on how to plant trees without affecting farm yield.
Chapters on how to make various nurseries

Different types of nursery are needed to grow a variety of
different plants. Information on how to build and manage
the home nursery, fruit nursery, air nursery, hot bed and leaf
pots is given in these chapters.
Mulching chapter
Mulch keeps the soil covered, keeps weeds down and conserves water. Information on how to mulch the soil is given
in this chapter.
Livestock Management chapter

In this chapter information is given about producing fodder
near the house and other easy methods to improve management and health of livestock.
Read On !
What is
S.R.I. ?
It has become difficult
to increase production from
traditional rice farming. It
needs extra labour and a lot
of compost. Farming with
modern methods is also
expensive in outside inputs.
With conventional methods,
only by using expensive
chemical fertilisers, pesticides and hybrid seed can
farmers increase their production.
It is increasingly difficult for ordinary farmers to
afford all these things. It is
also known that using
chemicals is harmful to the
environment
A clump of rice grown with

the SRI method. This has
grown from a single seed.
So here we are demonstrating a new method of growing

rice which can use local seed and organic compost, while still
increasing rice production. This method is called System of
Rice Intensification (S.R.I.), and in this chapter we describe the principles and methods of SRI.
Why
do SRI ?
Benefits of practicing SRI
rice production increased

less water needed
less seed needed
no extra external inputs needed
can use local/traditional seed
due to better soil and water management:
- less pests & disease
- better quality grain
- more fertile soil
How to
do SRI ?
1. The seedlings grown in the nursery beds are transplanted

after just 8-10 days, or at the 2-leaf
stage. It is the biological age of the
seedling which is important rather than
the number of days. In warmer areas
the 2 leaf stage is reached in just 8-10
days. This may take 3 or even 4 weeks
in colder areas. The old seed case is
still attached to the plant at this stage.
Such a small seedling should be transplanted with much care not to disturb
2-leaf seedlings
the roots, and when planting, the roots
should be pointing down, not bent upwards as often happens
when planting quickly. When are left pointing upwards, the
ability of the plant to grow and seed well is reduced. When
the seedling is planted small, it can grow without being disturbed, its roots grow bigger and so it can produce better
grain.
SRI involves four major changes from conventional rice

production:
1. The seedlings grown in the nursery beds are transplanted
after just 8-10 days, or at the 2-leaf stage.
2. Seedlings are transplanted singly, not in a bunch.
3. Seedlings are transplanted at a wide spacing, from 20 to
50 cm apart.
4. Much less water is kept on the paddies.
2
The Farmers Handbook The Fields
At Sunrise Farm in Kathmandu, Nepal, rice seed is

sown in old egg boxes filled with soil. This means less
root disturbance when planting the seedlings.
Booklet 11 - SRI Rice Cultivation
2. Single seedlings are transplanted. In the conventional or

traditional method, a bunch of 3-6 seedlings are planted together in a clump. This leads to competition between the
roots, and later the leaves. Single seedlings do not compete
and they can get more access to nutrients and water.
4. After transplanting, much less water should be allowed

onto the paddy. In the conventional method, paddies are kept
flooded only to control weeds in the rice. But this means that
less air is allowed in the soil. When the soil is waterlogged,
scientists have found that up to 75% of roots can die. When
there is too much water, the roots do not grow well. In SRI,
out once the seedlings are established, water is managed to
keep the soil moist and sometimes even dry. This promotes
good root growth, so the plant can find plenty of nutrients
from a bigger area.
paddy with
the right
moisture
paddy with
too wet soil
left
Conventional method
SRI method
3. Seedlings are planted at wide spacing. There can be between 20 to 50 cm between single seedlings. Seedlings that
are in clumps and planted close together suffer from competition (as in 2. above). They will compete for water, nutrients
and light. Planting far apart means that each seedling has lots
of light and plenty of space to obtain nutrients and water.
Also, when single seedlings are spaced wide apart much less
seed is needed. If the conventional method needs 100 kg per
hectare of seed, with SRI only 7 kg of seed is needed to plant
a hectare.
4
right
always
wet
On the left, as in the conventional method, the soil is always
wet, air cant get in the soil, so
roots cant grow well and therefore find less nutrients. On the
right, with the right moisture,
roots can grow well and so can
find more nutrients.
sometimes
dry,
sometimes
wet
Taking the above 4 differences into account, the

SRI method is described below
As in the traditional paddy rice cultivation, first sow the
seeds in a nursery, but sowing more thinly makes it
easier to transplant the small seedlings later on.
Joshua Harber
When transplanting the 2-leaf

seedlings great care
must be taken not to
damage the roots, or
expose them to the sun.
The seedlings should be
planted as soon as possible - if possible within
15-20 minutes of uprooting.
2 Seedlings are
planted when
they are 8-10 days
old (in warm areas)
or whenever the 2leaf stage is
reached. At this
time the rice seed
husk is usually still
attached to the
seedling.
A rake is
used to mark
out planting
distances.
The distance
between
teeth of the
rake becomes the
planting
distance of
the seedlings
Shyams rake has

holes on the horizontal bar at different distances. This
means he can set
different widths to
mark out his planting distances.
2-leaved seedlings being

lifted from the nursery.
4 When planting the seedlings, the roots should point

downwards, not be bent upwards.
The seedlings are

then planted according to the
marks of the rake,
anywhere between
20-50cm.
Gamini
Gamini Batuwitage
Batuwitage
Gamini Batuwitage
5 Plant the seedlings

singly, one-by-one.
The distance between
seedlings can be 20 to
50cm. Farmers can research this themselves to
find which distance is
best for management and
yield. Some farmers
prefer 40cm, some 30, etc.
The
roots of
the
seedling
should
point
downwards
For up to 2 weeks, as the seedlings are establishing , the

paddy should be kept wet. After this, water should be
managed to allow just the right amount of moisture. Once
every 1-2 weeks the soil can be allowed to completely dry
out, even crack. In the monsoon season, rain should be
enough to satisfy water needs. If irrigation is needed, flood
the field once in the evening, allow it to soak in overnight,
then drain off any excess water. When the rice flowers, more
water can be allowed to flood the field. From 3-4 weeks before harvest, no irrigation should be done & the field drained.
Gamini Batuwitage
Fields under SRI, one month after planting

Compost
Good organic fertilizer for the soil is crucial for the
success of SRI, to give good root growth. Because plants are
far apart, mulch can also be added. Mulching will also help
control the weeds. Green manures can also be used. For example, before planting rice, sesbania can be grown and
ploughed into the soil. Mustard can also be sown with the
transplanting to control weeds, and be dug in at time of first
weeding.
9
Weeding
In SRI because the soil is not saturated with water, and
seedlings are further apart, more work is required in weeding. The first weeding should be done about 10 days to 2
weeks after transplanting. The next weeding may be 2
weeks later. At least 3-4 weedings will be needed, but in
SRI the more weeding is done, the better the rice production
will be. Uprooted weeds should be left to rot on the soil.
Because seedlings are small and planted far apart, for up

to 1 month the crop may look very poor. But at this time,
most development is going on in the roots. In the second
month, tillering starts and in the third month the above-soil
plant grows very fast and becomes a thick clump. Most work
is needed at planting because the seedlings are small and need
great care. But as experience grows, this work can be done
faster. Weeding takes more work than traditional paddy cultivation, but production increases as a result. Mulching and
green manures can reduce the amount of weeding needed.
Planting time
Rice
seedlings
After 1
month
After 6
weeks
After 2
months
Mustard green
manure seen
close-up
2-leaf
seedling
At Sunrise Farm, after planting the rice a

green manure of mustard is sown. This helps
to control weeds, and after 2-3 weeks is dug
in, which helps to aerate the soil as well as
providing a source of nutrients.
10
Root
growth
only
Typical
growth pattern in S.R.I.
planted rice
A little leaf
growth,
more root
growth
Now the leaves

start to grow
fast
11
Rice plants in
SRI method
On the left
is a rice
plant grown
with the SRI
principles.
On the right
is a plant
grown with
the conventional
method.
After the SRI rice has been planted, green manures like
Sesbania, mustard or buckwheat can be sown and then be dug into
the soil. Any form of mulch can be also be laid down. Either of
these will help to control weeds as well as add fertility to the soil.
A machine
for weeding
between rows
of paddy.
This can only
be used when
the paddy is
flooded, or at
least very
wet.
12
Rice, planted
as single seedlings at 40cm
distance, is
starting to
ripen.
13
Paddy managed under SRI

has shown good increases
in yield. Double yields are
not difficult to achieve, and
some farmers have
achieved up to 4 times their
normal yield. To try out
SRI, start experimenting
with the above ideas on a
small area of your land. If
you find good results, increase the area. Form a
network with other farmers
and research/development
A large, multi-tillered clump of
organisations, so more
rice from a single seedling
people can try and share
experiences. Keep good records of inputs and outputs, and
any new approaches which work well for you, in your area.
Comparison between conventional and SRI methods
14
No: seedlings per clump
No: tillers per seedling
8.3
55
No: seeds per tiller
114
189
No: seeds per plant
824
5858
Yield (tonne/Ha)
2.0
7.3
Joelibarison 1998
Conventional
SRI
method
method
Farmers'
Experience
Mr Shyam
Shrestha
Mr Shyam Shrestha, owner and

manager of Sunrise Farm, Sita Paila
on the outski-rts of Kathmandu in
Nepal, has been growing rice using
the SRI principles since 2001. Now
lets hear about his experience.
My experience since 2001 has shown me
that although SRI requires more thought
and work in some areas, the benefits
Shyam Shrestha
more than compensate for this. But I also
think that once we get more practice and
develope a habit of planting this way, jobs like planting seedlings and
weeding, which take more time at the moment, will become quicker as
we get more experienced. You should take care not to put too much
water on the fields. I use more mulch to control weeds. You shouldnt
weed late - this makes it more difficult later. Before if we weeded twice,
with SRI we weed 3 or 4 times. Ive used green manures of mustard and
Sesbania. This keeps the soil more loose and makes weeding easier.
With mustard I got a benefit of some greens to eat as well as
the weed control and soil improvement. So overall
Ive seen that with extra work, the fruits are
more abundant!
This booklet was produced with the participation of the SRI
Group-Nepal, an alliance of (I)NGOs and individuals interested to
research, evaluate and network SRI practice in Nepal.
http://groups.yahoo.com/group/sri-nepal
sri-nepal@yahoogroups.com
SRI homepage (International) - http://ciifad.cornell.edu/sri/
15
Subjects Related to SRI

book about SRI. However, this information is also linked to
other methods. For extra benefits lets read, learn and practice
from other related chapters.
SRI chapter
Mulching
Green
Manures
Agro-Forestry
Compost
Seed Saving
Green Manures chapter - use green manures to add
fertility to the soil and produce more crops
Mulching chapter - how to grow more crops with
less work while keeping the soil covered
Seed Saving chapter - information on methods to produce and store various quality seeds at home
Compost chapter - information on how to make
good compost quickly is given in this chapter
Agro-Forestry chapter - how to plant and manage trees
on farmland to increase and diversify farm yield
Grihasthi Publications
Read On !
Forest, Soil, &

Other Topics
CONTENTS
Subject
This Volume's Authors : Chris Evans, Laxman Rana, Hari Dhungana, Mrs Malati Lakoul
Proof reading: thanks to Mike Feingold, Margaret Evans, Ted Albins, Rupert Greville, Andy
Langford, Looby Macnamara
Addional photo credits are given at the end of this Volume
Typing: Chris Evans
This Volume : 99933-615-5-0
Chapter No:

Forest Management ...................................... 2
Soil Conservation and improvement ............ 3
A-Frame ........................................................ 4
Community Fund .......................................... 5
Land Design .................................................. 6
Glossary ......................................................... 7
The Farmers' Handbook is about techniques for sustainable farming and this is the fifth
of 5 volumes. There are 5 techniques and several miscellaneous topics presented here. In five
volumes there are 40 techniques and approaches in total.
Practical Literacy .......................................... 8

Acknowledgements ....................................... 9
quality.
Introduction to Permaculture....................... 10
Grihasthi Publications' resources ................ 11
Aims
The Farmers'
Handbook - o; efusf] kl/ro
ls;fgsf]
xft]lstfa
this Volume's Introduction
This is the fifth volume of a five volume production of

the Farmers' Handbook. In all, there are forty techniques &
approaches shown, of which six are in this fifth volume.
Because this is the final volume, its design is slightly different
to the previous 4 volumes. At the start of this volume we
introduce you to some of the techniques used in community
forests, and for regenerating land. The chapter on Land
Design then summarises all the chapters in this Farmers'
Handbook. Finally, there are some miscellaneous topics.
information about sustainable farming techniques as well as
is provided in this volume. As well as technical information, a
glossary of new and difficult words is also provided in this
volume.

Background
fence.

Thank You
We would like to say a big thanks to all the friends who
helped us to complete this Farmers' Handbook. Apart from
those named and pictured here, there are countless others
who have supported us throughout the task.
Proof
reader
Techniques
Community Fund 5
Proof
reader
Proof
reader
Proof
reader
Printer
Land Design 6
system
cambi
um Glossary 7
n
o
sci
Practical Literacy 8
Picture Acknowledgements 9
Introduction to Permaculture 10
So on behalf of the Farmers'

Handbook, here's a
very, very big Thank You !

From the Producers and Designers
Chris Evans
Soil Conservation and Improvement 3

A-Frame 4
Various farmers'
groups have helped to
develop and evaluate
the Handbook. It is
for such groups that
the Handbook has
been produced.
Computer
support
Forest Management 2
Jakob Jespersen
Grihasthi Publications' resources 11

P.O. Box 8975 EPC 849
Kathmandu, Nepal
tel: +977 1 5549774
nepal@arasia.org.uk
www.atasia.org.uk
London WC1N 3XX
Tel: +44 845 4581805
Distributor and
main contact
addresses
tel: +44 1730 823311


;'v]{t

Tel: +977-1- 252597
Funding
Support
Support for the production and printing of The Farmer's
Handbook has come from ActionAidNepal, MSNepal,
Methodist Relief & Development Fund (UK), GTZ Food
for Work, Hill Agriculture Research Project (HARP). In
this volume, the chapter on "Soil Conservation and
Improvement'' has been supported by Helvetas Nepal
The Farmers' Handbook - "Forest, Soil and other Topics", Chapter 2 - Forest Management
What is
Forest Management ?
Forest Management is the way that
forests and the trees
within them are protected and used to provide forest products and
other benefits. In order
to manage a forest, the
different objectives must
be decided upon, and a
work plan is made acThe forest we keep, keeps us.
cording to this. Just like
any farm management, the work plan to manage a forest
means what work to do, where, when, and how. Before starting forest management, the capacity and working process of
those who are to do the work and benefit from it (user group)
should be considered. This may be a community, family,
individual, or other organisation which will work in and benefit from the forest.
In Nepal, community forest is a resource of primary
importance. That's why it's very important for communities
and user groups to learn about forest management. In this
chapter, information is given in particular about community
and private forest mangement.
Why
do Forest
Management ?
Most people already know that the forest gives them

many direct and indirect benefits. Daily needs such as fodder,
firewood, leaf litter, timber, and various herbal medicines are
available in the forest. The forest not only protects and improves the environment around settlements, it even helps to
provide us with safe, clean drinking water.
This is something that people have come to understand
since early days. It is also why forest management has been
part of the local community for a long time.
But for many reasons, the forest has been disappearing
before our eyes. As population has continued to increase, on
one hand more forest resources are needed, yet on the other
hand, population pressure has decreased
the forest area and had a bad affect on
the environment. With efficient and
appropriate ways of conserving and
developing forest products such as trees
and medicinal herbs, the well-being and
productivity of the family and community can increase, and poverty will decrease.
Hari Prasad Dhungana

Federation of Community Forest Users'
Groups, Nepal
The Farmers' Handbook, "Forest, Soil and Other Topics"
2
How
to do Forest
Management ?
Background
A very important factor together with "how" to manage
forests is "who" is managing them. Considering this, the
Nepali government has made various regulations. The Forest
Department, together with non-government and other organisations have participated in developing a set of regulations to
help forest user groups manage their own forests.
The forest law covers the management and use of religious forests, leasehold forests, government managed forests
and protected forests. However, community forest and private
forest are considered to be the most important types of forest.
In recent years, the amount of community managed
forest has increased greatly. However, user groups have still
not been able to realise the benefits of truly sustainable forest
management.
Over time, there have been many ways that the forest
has been protected, developed and its products distributed
amongst its users in homes and villages. These management
methods have been improved in different places and at different times, but there is still room for improvement. We should
now use the lessons of experience, and take forest management forward to cater for the increasing population.
Chapter 2 - Forest Management
Needs and abilities of the community or individual
This is where national forest has come under a local

management plan, and has been handed over from the district
forest office to a village committee responsible for the implementation of the management plan.
The different needs of a community or individual will

determine why and how to manage the forest. In community
forestry, the needs and hopes of the community are most
important. But individual or family needs usually take priority in private forests.
In managing a community forest, the opinions of all
users of the forest are important to create the management
plan. This may include religious or cultural reasons for protecting or using the forest.
Private Forest
This is where trees and forest on any private, registered
land may be managed.
Some details of registering community and private forest
are give on page 14.
By planting trees on farm land, forest products are brought

closer to the home. This saves time and helps to protect the
forest. Read the Agroforestry chapter to learn more.
Things to consider in forest management

Objectives of forest management
The forest can be managed for various objectives. The
main objective of managing community forest is often to
sustainably provide for the needs of firewood, fodder, timber,
etc. in the community. Management of private forest may, for
example, be for the maximum output of good quality timber.
There may be many other objectives in forest management.
Just as the objectives are different, the management work in
the forest will also be different.
4
This a map made by the user group

for a forest management plan in
Kavre district, Central Nepal
Community Forest
What is a Forest Management Plan ?

A forest management plan is a written or understood
agreement for a programme of work in the forest, in terms of
who does it, and where, when and how the work is done. In
community forestry terms this can also be called an "action
plan", and can include issues relevant to national forest law.
Forest Site Conditions
Finding the resources to manage the forest
The condition of the forest will differ in different places.

Factors such as types and species of trees and shrubs, soil type,
moisture, fertility, and aspect all cause great diversity, and
affect productivity in the forest. While preparing the forest
management plan, an evaluation of the growing stock of productive trees and shrubs, and their growth rates is an important
step. Keeping good records of this will enable the user group to
estimate the amount of products which can be sustainably
gathered from the forest area.
There are various resources needed in the process of

forest management. For example, if making a plantation, or
other activities, there must be good public participation to
form the users' group committee, and agree on the management plan. This can be called the human resource. It costs to
produce seedlings to plant, and there are many other visible
and invisible costs that the people managing the forest will
need to bear. These human, financial and physical resources
have a big affect on management work in the forest.
Here you can see

the trees, but it's
not a good forest.
There are no
plants in the
ground layer, so
this space has no
productivity.
There are many

types of plants
in a good forest.
6
Important resources such as

soil are lost
without the
forest cover.
In this community
forest, unwanted
species have just been
cut back, and useful
thinnings harvested.
Naturally regenerated seedlings usually

grow better than
planted seedlings.
planted
naturally regenerated
The same area 1 year

later, the forest has
grown back well. After a
while it will be cut back
again. Such work improves the forest..
In a productive
and truly sustainable forest there
are many types of
trees and shrubs
which fill all
layers of the forest, from ground
layer to upper
canopy.
Work in the Forest

Plantation
Bare ground, clear glades in the forest, and even terrace
edges in fields can all be planted with useful trees. Appropriate non-timber and medicinal plants which are needed by the
household and community can be chosen and planted, as well
as trees grown for timber. These can be grown in a nursery, or
wild plants can be collected from the forest and planted. To
learn about species selection, planting distance, propagation
and planting methods, you should seek technical advice from
the relevant places, such as the local district forest office or
appropriate NGO, and request extra training.
Plant more useful plants in

bare areas of
the forest.
Forest killers
Thinning
Thinning practice is different depending on the different
objectives of the forest management plan. For example, if the
objective is only firewood production, trees can be grown
closer together. But for good quality timber, the lower
branches of selected trees may need pruning. Some types of
fodder tree are best cut in different ways at different times of
the year. To make space for more valuable species, less useful
trees and shrubs can be gradually cleared. For example, if
there is too much pine, this can be thinned out and other more
useful or desired species planted in the gaps.
If many branches regrow from the stumps of cut trees
(coppicing), a good tree can be grown by selecting the best
one or two stems and cutting the remainder.
Weeding and Fire

Control
Clear weeds from around newly planted or regenerated
seedlings to help them grow, and protect the area from the
harmful effects of fire and free-range livestock. Some trees
may suffer more from fire, while slow growing plants suffer
more from weed competition. This work protects trees from
pests and diseases, and helps the seedlings to grow faster.
10
11
More information about this is given in the Soil Conservation and Improvement, Integrated Orchard, and
Agroforestry chapters.
Final Harvest
Fodder trees may be cut several times a year, or once
every 2 years, after which they will regrow. Harvesting timber
means felling the whole tree. Some herbal medicines come
from harvesting roots, some from fruit, or flowers, or bark,
etc. In this way benefits are harvested according to the management plan. The management should include planning and
preparation for future rotations of crops.
By selecting and
thinning, useful
products are
harvested as well
as improving the
remaining forest.
Registering a Community Forest

According to the current forest law in Nepal, community
forest is given priority for development. The forest user committee is given
responsibility for
protection of and
distribution of
products from the
community forest.
The local community forms the user
group to manage all
Bhaisepati Women's
this responsibility.
Community Forest
Saibu-4, Bhaisepati, 1998
If the future
regrowth of the forest is part of the
management plan, it
can be sustainable.
12
For sustainable harvesting from the forest, products

should not all be harvested at the same time. Once an estimate
has been made of the growing stock and growth rates, according to this a fixed proportion of the growth can be harvested.
This will help to improve the forest without over-harvesting.
The community should

form a users' committee which can make an application to the District Forest Office.
Taking advice from the Forest Office and/or related NGOs,
the committee should prepare a clear, simple constitution.
After registering the constitution at the forest office, a
forest management plan is made.
When the plan is approved, the forest is handed over to the
community.
It's a good idea to take advice from related organisations for
technical and management advice while managing the forest.
13
Registering a Private Forest

Farmers' land is often left unused, for example because
they do not have the time or other resources to farm it. By
planting trees, or by protecting naturally regenerated trees on
such wasteland, or even on existing farmland, it is possible to
make a private forest.
Output from the private forest goes to the landowner. When
the private forest is registered, these products can be sold
or traded .
To register the forest, the land and its distribution of trees
should be described in the application to the forest office.
The forest office will check your application against what
is on the land, then issue you a certificate of registration for
the private forest.
Once the forest is registered, you do not need to go through
any other process of registry in order to sell products from
the forest.
Mr Surya Adhikari of
Begnas, Nepal, changed this
land from bare ground to a
rich, diverse food forest. As
well as producing fodder,
firewood, etc. for the home,
he also produces fruit for
cash income.
14
Farmers'
Experience
Mr Ammar
Bahadur Gurung

Gumi - 4, Mr Ammar
Bahadur Gurung is the ViceChairman of "Longlake Community Forest". Now let's
read about his experiences.
Our local forest was very
good up until 1980. After that,
people stopped caring. Livestock were let loose into the
forest, and people cut wherever
they liked. That led to more
Ammar Bahadur Gurung
landslides and floods, and even
whole houses were washed away. Then, in 1994 this forest
was handed over to the community as Lampokhari Community Forest. It is 9 hectares in area. After making a forest
management plan, various rules were made. Livestock
aren't allowed in, and the forest is opened twice a year to
cut fodder and firewood, which isn't allowed any other
time. Each person pays 2 rupees to be allowed to cut a
load. Because of laws like this, the forest has grown and
developed very well. Dead and badly shaped branches are
taken out, and dead trees can be bought and cut for timber.
The cash income from sale of forest resources goes into the
local community fund.
15
Subjects Related to Forest Management

This book provides much of the information needed to
help manage your own forest. However, this information is
Soil Conservation and Improvement chapter

Information is given about the nature of soil, how to
protect existing soil, and lots of ideas about how to
regenerate damaged soil into productive land again.
Planting trees on farmland can bring farmers
many benefits. But you can't plant any type of tree
just anywhere. This chapter gives information on
how to plant trees without affecting farm yield.

benefits for less work is given in this chapter.

By planting a fence made of trees, production can
be much more than just a barrier. This chapter
tells how to make and manage a living fence.
Read On !
The Farmers' Handbook - "Forest, Soil and other Topics", Chapter 3 - Soil Conservation and Improvement
What is
Soil Conservation
& Improvement ?
All plant
life needs soil
to germinate,
grow and live
its life. If the
soil and soil
management is
good, farm
production
will also be
good. The
condition of
Bare land becomes greener as the
soil recovers in Surkhet, Nepal
our environment, society
and economy all depend on the health of the soil. If the soil
can be kept fertile, production increases, the local economy is
strong, and society is safe.
Just like skin covers our bodies, so soil covers the Earth.
Just like our bodies are damaged if our skin is broken, or
wounded, so the Earth is harmed, and production decreases if
the soil is damaged or washed away. If the soil is damaged,
the farming community also suffers great harm. So we need
to understand the needs of soil, and what can damage it. This
chapter also gives information on how soil can be sustainably
protected and improved.
Soil and its Needs
The roots of the plant

in picture 1 are shown
close up in picture 2.
This is shown even
closer in picture 3.
Different climates have different types of soils . Often,

one type of climate will also have many different types of
soil. But whatever the soil, they all have similar ingredients in
them. Such as :
mineral particles - these forms the main part of soil

air
moisture (water)
animal life (visible and microscopic)
roots of living plants
organic matter (dead plants and animals that are in the
process of being broken down)
Fertile soil gives

good production
for all the
farm's crops
The ingredients listed above are found in all soils in a

greater or lesser amount. When they are in the right amount,
the soil is naturally fertile.
2
1
3
organic
matter
root hair
(this takes up
nutrients and
water for the plant)
air
mineral
particle
root
Everything else is soil water, or moisture. In the

water are many nutrients, and countless microscopic organisms are also active in this water.
Chapter 3 - Soil Conservation and Improvement
According to the soil type, these

different elements are present in different amounts. For example, let's
compare sandy and clay soils.
Sandy Soil
mineral particles are large
air spaces between the mineral
particles are large
lots of air in the soil
As a result of this : soil is light and well aerated
the soil doesn't hold water, and
dries out faster
nutrients are washed out quickly
Needs of the soil

Testing Soil
What is needed to protect and maintain fertility in the soil ?
Put a handful of
soil in a jar of
water and shake
well. Leave it to
settle for 4-5
days. The different types of
mineral particles will settle
into separate
layers
The contents of the soil descibed above - air, minerals,

organic matter, living roots, moisture and living organisms are all essential in the right quantities for healthy soil. When
they are all present, soil is naturally self-fertile. Adding the
right quantities as needed also maintains the quality of the
soil. But if any one ingredient is present in a lesser or greater
amount than normal, the quality of the soil can be harmed, or
it can also be improved.
A small wound on the

skin of the Earth.....
Clay Soil
mineral particles are small
space between the particles is
small
less air in the soil
As a result of this : the soil is heavy
as soon as it rains, the soil is
saturated and stays wet for a long
time. But when it dries, the soil is
very hard
nutrients are held in the soil but if
there is less air in the soil, plants
can't get the nutrients so easily
4
1
2
3
4
1. Organic matter
2. Clay particles
3. Loam particles
4. Sand particles
..... can make a big landslide.

This should be prevented
from starting.
All the different ingredients in the soil work together to
help plants to grow. But more
important than these minerals, living roots, organic matter,
etc. are the living organisms in the soil. In particular, the tiny,
invisible organisms, such as bacteria,and fungi play a huge
role in maintaining and increasing soil fertility. These are
collectively called micro-organisms.
5
Soil life and micro-organisms

Actually, micro-organisms are probably the most important life on our planet. Living in one teaspoon of fertile forest
soil there are 2 billion micro-organisms. Larger organisms,
and many types of fungi are also responsible for breaking
down dead plants and animals. This forms organic matter.
Then, the smaller micro-organisms - mainly bacteria and
fungi - take the organic matter and change it so plant roots
(the root hairs) can absorb the nutrients, as we cook bread
from flour. Even if there is plenty of organic matter in the
soil, without the work of micro-organisms, this cannot be
taken up by the roots of living plants until it is "cooked".
Leaves and branches, dead animals, etc. fall on the soil
and are broken down. Micro-organisms eat them. Then, it is
their waste in the soil which plant roots absorb as nutrients.
This allows the plants to grow and continue the cycle of life.
Plants take the

nutrients and
grow
Cycle of nutrients
and the work of
micro-organisms
Life in the Soil
earthworm
Larger organisms which can be seen will
break down larger pieces of organic matter,
and help to get air into the soil. The smaller
micro-organisms eat their waste.
fungi
Plants absorb the waste from

micro-organisms
bacteria
How soil is damaged
Soil
fertility
micro-organisms
eat the nutrients and
excrete them as
waste
6
Soil organisms
break down
organic matter
organic matter is
made into nutrients
When soil is left bare, it can be damaged very easily.

Many things can damage bare soil, such as : sun :- strong sun will dry out the soil. Dry soil hardens and
cracks the soil. Micro-organisms will die in dry, hard soil.
water :- when it rains on bare soil, the top layer will set
hard. On slopes, the topsoil is washed away downhill.
wind :- wind will dry out all the moisture from bare soil,
and can actually blow the top soil away.
Comparing soil with and without mulch

On these 2 pages the effects of mulching and not mulching are compared together. The left page diagram (a) shows
what happens with no mulch on the soil, while the right page
diagram shows the example of a mulched soil. The top diagram
shows water 1 lost to evaporation, 2 running off the soil, and
3 soaking into the soil. The cycle below each drawing also
shows the effects of mulching or not mulching on soil quality.
Cultivated, un-mulched soil
a
sun
rain
1
weak plant
2
less soil life
b
more need
to plough
difficult to
cultivate
less moisture small roots
soil
ploughed,
left bare
Spiral of
destruction
hard soil
less
organic
matter
Rain washes
away fertile
soil, more
water is lost
to the sun,
less nutrients are held
in the soil,
plants are
weak.
Protected from the sun, wind and rain, the organic matter,
soil moisture and beneficial micro-organisms all benefit from
mulching the soil. You need to consider where resources for
mulching can be found, such as leaf litter, straw, etc. Leaves
can be brought from the forest, but this takes time. To produce
more resources for mulching, its best to use Agroforestry and
a Living Fence - see these chapters for more details. Learn
more about the methods and benefits of mulching in the
Mulching chapter.
Mulched, un-cultivated soil
a
sun
rain
2
more
soil life
b
less air
in soil
less
moisture
fewer
earthworms
healthy
soil
more
moisture
lots of
plants
Soil is deep,
fertile, and
strong
well proplant tected. More
moisture,
3
more soil life,
plants are
healthy and
strong.
bigger roots
lots of
mulch
Spiral of
productivity
softer
soil
roots grow
deeper
more
earthworms
more
moisture
richer
soil
Other things which damage the soil

Chemical fertilizers :- these harm the soil microorganisms and so cause the soil structure and nutrient
uptake to be damaged.
Artificial poisons :- as well as killing pests, these kill many
beneficial insects and organisms which work in the soil.
Big, heavy machinery :- big machines such as tractors
compress the soil so that there is less air space. They
destroy the structure of the soil, as well as damaging soil
organisms.
Large livestock :- on wet soil, the feet of large livestock
such as cows and buffaloes also compress the soil and
damage soil structure.
Nutrient management for plant growth

Symptoms of lack of certain nutrients
Symptoms seen on mature leaves
lack of
Leaves yellow, starting from tips
nitrogen
Leaves die from the edges
potassium
Leaves yellow between the veins

Grey/white spots on fruit and grain
magnesium
manganese
Leaves and stems turn red colour
phosphate
Symptoms seen on young leaves
lack of
Yellow spots on leaves & veins yellow

Yellow spots on leaves & veins green
sulphur
Grey spots on seed, pods and fruit
manganese
copper
Newest leaves die back or have white tips

10
iron
So, what to do if nutrient deficiencies are recognised by

these symptoms ? The chart below gives examples of plants
which accumulate greater amounts than usual of certain
nutrients. These can be used in mulch, compost or liquid
manure so those nutrients which are lacking can be added to
the soil. They are called dynamic accumulators.
plant
mustard
buckwheat
carrot (leaf)
comfrey
legumes
marigold
nettle
amaranth
contains lots of
phosphate, nitrogen, iron
phosphate
potassium, magnesium
nitrogen, potassium, magnesium, iron
nitrogen
phosphate
nitrogen, potassium, iron, sulphur, copper
nitrogen, phosphate, potassium, manganese
The main thing to consider in soil conservation

and improvement :We need to understand what benefits the soil as well as
what that damages the soil, and plan our work according to this.
There are 3 main strategies :1. We need to feed the soil micro-organisms, and allow a
good habitat for them to live and work in.
2. The soil should not be bare. We need to keep it covered as
much as possible. Especially, take care to cover and protect
the soil when there is strong sun, rain and wind.
3. Stop water from running off down a slope for any distance it runs faster, and carries off much soil and nutrients with it.
11
Methods of soil conservation and improvement ?

1. For the micro-organisms :- mulching, good compost,
liquid manure, green manures, agroforestry, afforestation.
2. To cover the soil :- mulching, green manures (when land is
fallow), agroforestry, afforestation, etc.
3. To stop water running off :- mulching, green manures,
agroforestry, afforestation, use A-frame to make contour
ditches, terrace maintenance.
Let's See
1
how to conserve
and improve the soil
Bare land becomes
dried out and
wounds start to
appear on the
Earth's skin.
Compost
Mulching
Read about how

these methods
improve the soil
in each chapter
Green
manures
A-Frame
These wounds
can be healed by
protecting the
land and planting
extra trees.
3
Double
digging
Agroforestry
Liquid
manure
In this chapter, up till now we have read about soil,

what it needs and how we can increase its fertility.
Now, we look more at regeneration of damaged soil.
12
In 1989, this land

was bare - 13
years later it is a
rich, fertile and
diverse orchard.
13
Here seedlings
have been planted
and the site
protected
Napier
grass
planted
Bare and unproductive

land on the river edge....
6
....when
protected, can
produce many
of a farmer's
needs.
After 1 year the

Napier is big
enough to cut
for fodder
10
10
Ipomea (Morning
Glory) planted on
the river bank to
prevent erosion
Outside the wall the

land is degraded,
while inside has
grown green
14
k'l:tsf g+3= -# Soil

df6f]
sf] ;+/If0f and
/ ;'wImprovement
f/
Chapter
Conservation
15
Repair of Damaged Land

A high altitude
Resource
Centre farm
being started in
1990 in
Jajarkot, Nepal
11
The canal, made

using an Aframe, allows
the water to
infiltrate the soil
12
Up until now in this chapter, information has been given

to assist in good soil management. If there is good soil on the
farm, it is not difficult to maintain and increase soil quality.
Where soil has become degraded, the difficult work is to
improve it again. But this is very important work - no
community can claim it is poor as long as it has degraded
land in its region , because they can improve productivity
simply by repairing this land.
All the things discussed above will help in the repair of
damaged soil. But before putting much work into land
regeneration, we should first understand how nature does the job.
This is a poor
village. No
forest, no soil, no
wealth.
This means bare

land improves
very quickly (this
picture in 1993)
13
But the ability

to improve the
land is in the
community's
hands. Nature
also wants to
improve itself.
Maize stalks are

used to strengthen
the terrace and
stop soil erosion
16
17
Soil Improvement and Succession

Improving the soil doesn't take so much work. It's often
enough just to prevent it degrading. Left alone, soil will
gradually improve itself, in a process called succession. For
example, when any bare land is protected, special ground
cover plants called pioneers will start to grow first. They will
start the soil improvement process. Then, larger shrubs and
trees will start to grow. Eventually, a mature forest will
develop, and the soil will get a new life.
So the first need for improving the soil is protection. The
easiest type of protection is a "community fence" - the
community decides to protect an area of land, and prevent
livestock going into it. After that, stone walls, thorny brush, etc.
can be used to make a fence. Most difficult is the individual
protection of trees, by surrounding them with thorny branches.
Communally protected land

grows through succession
The seeds of many pioneer plants are already in the soil.

Many types of fruit, such as Ficus, mulberry, etc. are eaten by
birds and spread on the land through their manure.
We can speed up this process by providing perches over
a bare area for birds to sit on. Bury tall posts on a contour
line, and tie string between them. Under the string where
birds sit, the seed they carry will germinate.
On bare land, it's much easier to work with nature. With
a few years' protection, nature
will plant the best species
to improve the soil.
Then people can plant
the larger species they
need, such as walnut, oak,
etc., and they will survive,
and grow much better.
This improvement doesn't cost much and the land will
improve sustainably. The right plants will grow according to
site and climate. Making a plantation on a bare site is very
expensive, and more trees will fail. It's much cheaper and
more effective to use succession for soil improvement.
Land improvement - who benefits?

A walled area
Each tree is protected

by thorny branches
18
The aim of improving community land is to prevent

erosion, and produce more fodder, firewood, etc. But we
must consider who benefits from this work. There are
many examples where resource-poor people gain less
than they should. So we must make sure from early on
that benefits from land improvement are shared equally
amongst the community.
19
1
Succession on bare land
When
land is bare, there
are no benefits except
a few handfuls of grass for
livestock. In fact, the soil will be
degrading in the opposite direction. At
first it's most important to protect the site.
By allowing natural plants to grow the
soil will improve by itself.
When an
area is protected
from grazing, within 12 years grasses and small
shrubs will start to grow. These
cover the soil, conserve moisture, and start
to improve the soil. Livestock must be fed at
home. Grasses which grow on the
protected site can be used as
fodder for them.
4
Within 3-4 years
small trees will
start to grow on the land.
The soil will have improved
well by this time. Now we
can start planting large types of
tree. In between, smaller, shade loving species such
as coffee, pineapple, cardamon, medicinal herbs, etc. can
be planted.
3
After
another 1-2 years
other seed will be
brought to the land by the
wind or by birds, and start to
grow. As well as providing fodder,
these shrubs and trees can also provide small
firewood.
20
5
Eventually, both
nature and the
community can provide
for more of their needs.
Nature is protected, and
human benefits also increase. When
nature and the community work together, such
benefits are sustainable.
21
One piece of land improvement
It is important to prevent water from running off a bare

slope. This can be done by using an A-frame to mark out
contour ditches, or swales. This is described in the A-Frame
chapter. Let's see how the A-frame can be used.
A stone wall
protects the land
where seedlings
have been planted
Some trees will

grow easily from
cuttings when
planted at the right
time. These are
Ficus cuttings.
After just 2
years, the
area is green
and
productive
22
The A-frame is used to mark horizontal lines.

These make swales for soil improvement.
Swales made with

the A-frame hold
water, soil and
nutrients on the
land. These can be
used by growing
plants, instead of
being washed
away.
23
The distance between swales

depends on the steepness of
the slope. The steeper the
slope, the closer together the
swales should be. In diagram
1 the slope is steeper, and the
swales are dug deeper and
more narrow. In diagram 2
the slope is less steep, swales
are less deep, and wider. In
diagram 3 the soil dug from
the swale is put above rather
than below the ditch. This can
be used to make terraces for
cultivation as the soil accumulates above the ditch.
Instead of digging
swales, rocks or
branches can be laid
out on the contour
lines marked by the
A-frame to prevent
soil erosion. Small
shrubs can also be
planted. Their roots
will bind the soil and
won't fall over and
cause more erosion,
as big trees may do.
24
Planting of fodder
species will
increase compost
production....
....or the trees can be

cut and leaves put
directly on the land
(mulching).
Soil will collect above

trees planted like this, and
slowly level land will be
formed for easier farming.
By stopping soil
erosion in this way,
hill farmers can can
make their own land
more fertile and
productive.
25
Ways to increase soil fertility
livestock compost
compost made of sweepings from the house and yard
legumes to fix nitrogen
earthworms
silt from ponds, streams, etc.
silt and dust collected from the run-off of the first rains
deep-rooting trees to cycle fertility
mulch using leaf litter to cover the soil
dead insects, birds, etc
soil and leaves blown in by the wind
human excrement
laying turf
green manures
rotation cropping
keeping land fallow
no-tillage, to allow natural soil fertility
If farmers can use as many of these various local

resources as possible to increase fertility, they can help to
protect and improve the soil themselves. In this way they can
increase production locally and make the homestead strong
and productive.
26
The soil is our life.

Protect it and be happy !!!
Farmers'
Experience
Mr Surya Prasad
Adhikari
From Nepal, Kaski district,

Lekhnath - 10, Begnas village, Mr Surya Prasad
Adhikari has worked to
improve the soil on his own
farm. Now let's read about
his experiences.
I started my mixed
orchard in 1988. My aim was
to work with nature to improve
the soil and make it more
productive. The area is 1.5
acres, and it was completely
bare and degraded, with hardly
any grass. First I planted
Surya Prasad Adhikari
seedlings and mulched all the
land with leaves and compost. In the second year I sowed
legumes and planted bananas. I cut the bananas and used
them for mulch. Then I planted oranges, pineapple, fodder
trees, broom grass, and so on. In total there are 55 species I've
planted. It's all protected from livestock. The annual
production has increased each year, and I even sell seedlings
which grow there. There are 800 fruiting coffee seedlings,
and I sell oranges and pineapple too. I produce all the fodder
and firewood needed at home as well.
27
Subjects Related to Soil Conservation

and Improvement
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Plant more trees on farmland to increase production
without affecting yields of field crops
A-frame chapter
An easy method of saving soil and water on sloping land
Compost chapter
Make good compost for the soil faster and easier
Mulching chapter
Mulching protects and improves the soil
Green Manures chapter

A method of increasing soil fertility and crop production
Sweepings Pit chapter

Make great compost from domestic waste resources
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Make not just a fence, but a productive part of the farm
Forest Management chapter

Good forest management is essential for the soil
Double Digging chapter

Dig twice as deep to get 4 x the vegetable production
Read On !
Let's See
1
how to make
an A-Frame
Lay the sticks out
in the shape of the
English letter "A"
These pictures show how the A-Frame is put

together. More details are given along with
the colour photos.
The A-Frame is constructed by joining the legs, level

stick and string as in drawings 1, 2 and 3 above. It is NOT
essential that the long sticks which make the legs of the Aframe are exactly the same length, nor that the middle stick is
exactly horizontal. It doesn't matter if lengths are different, or
if the sticks are not exactly straight. As in the drawing below,
some A-frames can be more uneven, but they all do the same
work.
The most important part of the A-frame, so it can mark

out contours accurately, is the relationship between the
string and the horizontal stick. The way that this is done
is shown in detail in colour photos 7 to 14
Now the A-Frame is ready to use

4
4
3
To join the pieces
use nails or string
Chapter 4 - A-Frame
The Farmers' Handbook - "Forest, Soil and other Topics", Chapter 5 - Community Fund
What is a
Community Fund ?
A Community
Fund can be started by
village men and women
agreeing to make a
group, and collecting
money from all the
members of the group
according to their capacity. When the group has
an objective of making
loans and charging interest as needed from this
fund, this is usually
called a savings and
loans group. These
Controlling your own finance
groups can be made up
of men and women, some are made up of women only. The
members of the group discuss and decide on when to meet and
how much money to collect. Usually they meet once a month,
on the first Saturday, or any other day they decide on. Everyone agrees to pay an equal amount, which can increase over
time. Members can then take a loan according to their needs. A
rate of interest is payable on the loan, which increases the
fund. This has proved to be very successful in allowing communities to control and improve their own local economy.
Why
make a
Community Fund ?
protection from the high interest rates of merchants

to have access to funds at times of emergency
to be able to pay for family committments, such as weddings, school fees, funerals, etc.
to be able to take loans easily whenever needed
so that marginal families with minimum incomes can get
access to credit and cash
to make managing the household's finances easier
How
to make a
Community Fund ?
In this chapter, first we'll look at selecting the group and

how it manages itself. Then we'll look at examples of simple
ways of keeping and managing accounts. Finally, we'll briefly
look at some good ways of investing the fund, and see case
studies of successful women's groups and their funds.
Where does savings money come from ?

from a certain percentage of income taken at the start,
before any spending (produce, save, and then spend)

from increasing the fund by income-earning work
from giving up being lazy and improving work habits
reducing unnecessary expenses
reducing consumption of damaging items such as alcohol
and cigarettes
from community or social work, such as festivals, cultural
programmes, bulk buying and marketing, etc.
Materials Needed to make a Community Fund

Discussing the business of the Community Fund
pens
trusting
friends
Mrs Malati Lakoul

World Education,
Kathmandu, Nepal
2
"piggy bank"
money
accounts
books
Chapter 5 - Community Fund
How to start a group

The various
responsibilities of
the group
should be
Good
divided up, so
leadership
that savings
and credit
groups can manage themselves
effectively. Not
everyone has the same
skills, and it should be decided and agreed who is best to do
which job.
Things to consider when selecting members

Group leader (Chairperson)
able to lead the group

able to manage the group successfully
able to listen, and understand inputs from the group
able to explain about the group and how it works to other
people and groups.
Secretary
Treasurer
able to read and write able to read and write
able to keep accounts able to explain about the group to
others
able to network with other groups
4
Choosing the group's leaders

The group
chooses the chairperson, treasurer
and secretary by
Group
consensus,
participation
election, or by
whatever
method is appropriate. For
example, here are 2
methods of selecting the posts
:
Method 1
The group selects people with the right qualities to play
the leadership roles, who then state whether they wish to have
the post. When there is consensus and everyone agrees, the
posts are given.
Method 2
A selection of suitable candidates are presented or
present themselves. There is a vote, and whoever gets the
most votes gets the post.
How to keep the group's accounts ?

The keeping of the group's accounts means the group can
keep a record of funds saved, loans given and interest earned,
so the total amount of the fund is always known. The treasurer
has the responsibility to keep the accounts clear and transparent. On the following pages are samples of a group's accounts.
Keeping the group's accounts
Savings and loans pass book
To keep accounts of the group's savings, the chairperson

records the names and savings of the group members, with
each signing their name against the account. Everybody
watches as accounts are written, and the accounts are read out
as well. Below is an example of the records kept.
It's best to have a pass book for each member of the

group. This can be copied from any other group or organisation who are keeping similar accounts. An example of the
way accounts can be kept of savings and loans is given below.
Item
In- Loan Loan Amount Amount

in
come taken left to in
repay bank Group
1. 1.4.01
Last
months
items
2. 1.4.01 Dhanmaya Aprils 10/saving
200/-
3. 1.4.01 Sunmaya Aprils 10/saving
220/-
S. Date
No:
Item
Savings
deposited
Loan
taken
Total
Savings
1. 1.4.01
April
10/-
10/-
2. 1.5.01
3. 1.6.01
May
June
10/10/-
20/30/-
e
ur
Name
Signature
S.
Date
No:
Group Ledger
at
gn
Si
Month April
Savings Passbook
Loans Passbook
S. Date
No:
Item
Paid back
Left
Loan Interest
taken to pay Loan Interest to
pay
1. 1.4.01
April
180/-
e
ur
at
gn
Si
210/-
9/-
note : due to lack of space not all accounts are written. After
Dhanmaya and Sunmaya there are another 12 members
whose savings are not shown, but the method is the same.
15. 1.4.01 Sita
Aprils
saving
Group ledger
340/-
Here, the accounts of members 16 to 20 are not shown

21. 1.4.01 Phulmaya Aprils
saving
400/-
Saving and
loan passbook
Phulmaya is the Treasurer

6
Providing loans from the fund

Decide what type of work loans can be given for.
Decide the amount of interest to charge, depending on the
type of loan.
Decide how and when the loan will be repaid.
Prioritise which types of loan are available.
Discuss and decide regularly how to keep the group and its
finances running well.
Coordinating the group's activities

1.The group meets regularly to make decisions.
2.Work is divided among the
group.
3.Bylaws are made : how much to save ? (per
member)
when to save it ? (monthly, etc.)
All decisions are recorded.
Usually, the group
members will meet
once a month.
There are benefits to the

group and the individual.
8
4. Managing the fund's ledger :

How much does each member
have?
How much loan have they
taken?
How much is kept in the bank ?
5. Keeping the savings :
Hold formal meetings;
Provide details of accounts to
the group.
6. Agree interest rates :
How much interest is charged
on different types of loan ?
By using the loan to

start a business, the
local economy benefits,
7. When will loan repayment start ? while loan repayment
How will the loan be paid off ? also increases the fund.
When will the loan be paid off ?
weaving
8. Plan for the
future. Discuss
how to get access
to relevant techniques and resources to make
programmes
connected to
areas of health,
education, farming, etc.
fruit
shop
vegetable
growing
skills
training
9
Joining in community work related to the fund

Why should an
active and well run
savings group only
manage a fund ?
They can also be
involved in community work such
as maintaining
paths, drinking
water systems and
plantations.
Women's ability and awareness
increases. They can participate in making
decisions about various community
issues along with the men.
10
A success story of a community fund

In 1994 in Gauripara village in Bardiya district, of Western Nepal, the women started a savings and credit group. At
first the members raised 5 rupees a month and invested this in
various activities. They grew a potato crop, and raised pigs
successfully. Then they rented some land and grew rice,
which also produced well. Now they have started to build a
community hall, and plan to open a community shop. Even
though they invested this much, as of 2000 they still had over
50,000/- rupees left in the fund. Now this active and successful group also advises and teaches other groups.
Members of Gauripara Group
11
Mrs Purnakala
Gharti

Gumi - 5, and chairperson of
"Protect the Forest" women's
group, Mrs Purnakala Gharti
has experience in running her
local group's community
fund. Now let's read about
what she says.
We learned how to form the
group from the Homestead ProMrs Purnakala Gharti
gramme (JPP). First all the
members raised 4 kg each of
grain, then on the first of every month we meet and each pay
10 rupees into the savings. We give loans if someone has
sickness, or runs out of food, and the loan is collected with a
small interest. Up until May the interest was 2 rupees per
hundred. Since May it's now one and a half rupees per hundred. At the moment we have 500 rupees in the fund, and
7000 rupees is out in loans. This has made things very easy
for us. There's no need to take loans from the merchants, who
charge interest at least 5 rupees per hundred. For one thing,
we don't have to go searching for a loan, and we can
use our fund. For another, when we pay the interest,
it increases our own fund.
Farmers'
Experience
The Farmers' Handbook - "Forest, Soil and other Topics", Chapter 6 - Land Design
What is
Land Design ?
Farming is
part of the body of
rural communities.
Everybody wants to
make these communities more sustainable. Permaculture
is the direct application of the principles of nature in the
design of sustainPermaculture designer Govinda
able human habitats.
Sharma in his kitchen garden
Design can make a
farming system which relies on the observation of nature and
the adaptation of nature's stability, fertility and resilience to
create a sustainability which benefits not only people, but the
whole earth. Permaculture is a way of designing which uses
mainly local resources to help individuals and communities be
self reliant and abundant. It is also a design system which helps
us to run our lives and cultures in a sustainable way .
Permaculture combines the best of natural systems, traditional skill and wisdom, community values, and modern technology. In this chapter we give an introduction to Permaculture
and its principles, and how it is used in design. This chapter
also combines all the other chapters of the Farmers' Handbook to help make households more sustainable.
Benefits of using Permaculture design

To repair degraded land and make it
productive again
to produce more benefits from less
land
to protect basic natural resources of
soil, water, biodiversity, etc.
to reduce the cost of farm production
to create sustainable life systems
to design a sustainable agriculture.
What is "Sustainable" ?
Nowadays the word "sustainable" is widely used, like
"sustainable development", "sustainable economics", and so
on. But we must only use this word when we understand it.
What is a sustainable place like ? What do we gain from it ?
A "sustainable" system is permanent, stable, resilient and
self sustaining, never breaking down and always meeting the
needs of its populations of plants and animals.
Actually, in modern times people have never made a
truly sustainable system, so where do we get our "sustainable" vision from ?
If we wish to be truly sustainable, where can we go to
learn how, when we have never done it ourselves ? Modern
developement has given us billions of dollars and thousands
of politicians and scientists, but still we are not sustainable.
So where to go and what to do, to be sustainable ?
2
Where can we see sustainability ?

If we really want to create a sustainable lifestyle for
ourselves, and for future generations, we must learn from
places where systems are sustainable. These are the selfreliant, self sustaining, resilient, stable and productive natural
systems of the world.
An example of a sustainable natural system can be seen
in a natural forest. But traditionally the forest is a dark, forbidding place, where crops can't be grown and tigers hide to
take our livestock. That's why we are more accustomed to
clearing forest in order to grow crops. But at the same time,
most people understand that without the forest there is no life,
because so much of what we need in life comes from the
forest.
But have we ever thought how the

forest is a teacher of sustainability ?
These training participants learn

about sustainability from the forest
Chapter 6 - Land Design
Go to the forest and see !

The Forest needs no work but is always productive.
The Forest never degrades itself, and is always growing.
The Forest does not need fertilizing or irrigating, but it is
always fertile and moist.
The Forest is warm when it's cold, and cool when it's hot.
The Forest is permanent, resilient, and self reliable.
And the forest is sustainable !
So how would it be if we could make our homes, communities and economies as sustainable as the forests ? To
make our homesteads as sustainable as nature, we need to
understand the importance of natural systems, and use that
understanding in our lives. Permaculture is a way of designing the land using this knowledge.
Natural Systems and Permaculture Design

How is a Natural System Sustainable ?
What is a Natural System ?
A Natural system is made up of living and non-living elements.
In a natural system there are various elements, such as
trees, shrubs, insects, ponds, rocks, birds, etc. These elements
have their own different characteristics, habits and qualities.
Some trees are short, some tall. Some are thick, some thin.
Some need full sunlight, some grow in the shade. All the
elements, with their own habits, live in a functional relationship to the other elements around them in any place. That is
called a natural system.
Permaculture
Ethics
Natural System
element
(1) Care of the Earth

(2) Care of People
(3) Recycling of Wealth
by design
4
elemen
l
loca
charac ts'
teristic
ent
m
n
o
s
r
i
env
relationships
between elements
In some languages, a system may have a
different name if it is made by people,
e.g. a farming system.
Principles of Natural Systems

Natural Systems follow a group of principles which
enable them to be sustainable. By using the same principles in
the design of farming systems, the objective is to work towards a sustainable agriculture. Permaculture is used as a
design system to enable this.
Principles of Natural Systems and

Permaculture Design
There is information about

the history and
founders of
Permaculture at
the end of this
fifth volume.
Succession
Beneficial, functional relationships between elements
Diversity
Cycles and Re-cycling
Use of local resources
Each element performs multiple functions
Each function is supported by multiple elements
Stacking for efficient use of space
Use of biological (living) resources
Use of microclimate
Energy efficient planning
Permaculture design uses these principles to make agriculture more productive and sustainable. That's why the principles are the same for permaculture as for natural systems.
6
Succession
Bare, degraded land will improve itself naturally. This process of regeneration is called succession. For example, when any
bare land is protected, special ground cover plants called pioneers
will grow first. They will start the soil improvement process.
Then, larger shrubs and trees will grow. Eventually, a mature
forest will develop, and the soil will have a new life. This principle is used to regenerate unproductive land into productive systems quickly, successfully, and at low cost. We can also use species that follow this principle, but are more useful for human needs.
1
4
3
Beneficial, functional relationships
cow
peach
ttle
ne
be
lemon gra
ss
In nature, living and non-living elements are connected

to each other. This is a relationship of cooperation, not competition. For example, birds eat seed and disperse it elsewhere
in their manure. Also, bees take nectar from flowers, so helping pollination.
In farming systems also, different elements can be related to each other. Anything that any one element needs can
be provided by another element, and the outputs of that are
used by something else. In the diagram below are examples
of sixteen elements in a homestead. There are various connections linking the needs of one element to the outputs of another, in a way that helps the system to be sustainable.
grap e
hen
kitc
neem
mar
Diversity
igold
b ea n
bank
gar
au
lifl
ow
od
wo
rm
wo
lic
h
fis
nt
i
m
For example, the

bee takes nectar from
the peach flower, and
the peach can produce
better fruit from the
pollination. Wormwood
and nettle can help the
bean, garlic, cauliflower
in the kitchen garden by
being used for mulch.
Newly sprouting shoots
of the peach can be
rubbed on the cow to
prevent skin parasites, while the cow provides manure to
many elements in the system. Garlic, wormwood, nettle,
marigold, etc. are all useful in the vegetable garden and orchard for companion planting, liquid manure and pest control.
Design looks to put the right elements together in the
right place, so that needs and outputs are met within the system. This reduces work and waste, and the need for external
inputs, while increasing production. The right elements in the
right place will create their own beneficial connections.
er
Nature is diverse, with many types of plants, animals

and habitats. For example, though Nepal is a small country it
has a huge diversity of climates and wildlife. The more diversity there is, the more beneficial relationships there are between the various elements in the system. This helps the
system to be sustainable.
An example of using diversity in farming is with mixed
vegetable gardening, the integrated orchard, and agroforestry.
Cycles and Re-cycling
Use of local resources
In nature, living things die and rot down. The nutrients

they are made of are released back into the system for use by
the plants. This cycle always runs, so elements which the
forest needs, such as water and soil nutrients, are always
made available, and never run out. In farming systems, the
cycle of nutrients in agroforestry is shown below.
The forest doesn't need to travel anywhere to find its

basic resources. There are no transport costs to bring in its
needs. The more a farming system relies on external inputs,
the more are its costs of production, and the less sustainable
the system is. This is a very important principle in achieving
sustainability.
Cycle
Each element performs multiple functions

Tree leaves are
cut and mulched
on the land
2 Fodder and leaf

litter are given to
livestock to
produce compost.
2
1
3
Trees
use the
nutrients to
grow.
5
3 Compost
goes back on
the fields.
4
4
Excess nutrients are

taken up by the roots of
the trees below the crops.
Another example can be seen in the kitchen garden.

Waste water from washing can be used for irrigating the vegetables, and sweepings from the house and yard can be recycled as compost for the kitchen garden. Without cycles like
this, it is very difficult to be sustainable.
10
In nature, each element perfoms several functions. A

single tree will provide leaf litter,
fibres
habitats for birds and insects to
live in, a support for climbmedicine
leaf litter
ing plants, protects the
soil, and so on. Trees
planted on the farm can
fruit
honey
fodder
also provide many benefits according to their
firewood
characteristics, such
as fodder, mulch,
medicine, etc. Extra
windbreak
fence
benefits come by planting them in the right
timber
conserve
place and in relation to
water
shade
other elements, such
soil
as giving shade. In
protection
design, each element should produce at least 3
different benefits
or functions
Trees can meet all our needs
within the system.
11
Each function is supported by multiple elements
Stacking for efficient use of space
In nature, many elements combine to support any one

function. For example, the function of maintaining soil fertility in the forest is provided by the leaves of trees, by soil
bacteria, earthworms, bird droppings, dead animals, fungus,
the wind blowing dust, etc. This principle is also related to
diversity.
In nature one reason why there is such great production

with such small input is that space is used very efficiently, and
there are many elements in a small space. By stacking one
species on top of another, more species can grow. In one forest,
up to 7 layers can be seen :- a ground or weed layer, shrub
layer, lower, mid and upper canopy layers, a climbing plant
layer, and a root layer. Different species are stacked into this
system, giving production from 10-20 metres below the ground
to 30-40 metres above the ground. No space is wasted.
Planting layers of trees and shrubs in farming systems is
very productive. In the living fence, agroforestry and the integrated orchard, species are planted according to their size and
shape, and whether they need shade or sun, to make many
levels and produce many more benefits than a field of grain,
which only uses a metre of vertical space.
There are many

types of tree in the
living fence
top layer of
big trees
mid canopy
layer
In farming, this principle can be seen in the living fence,

or hedge. The single function is for protection, and this is
made up of many species of trees and shrubs (elements). So if
one species of the fence is unsuccessful for any reason, other
species will continue the function, so the protection is not
lost. In mixed vegetable gardening, there are many varieties
of vegetable growing together which all provide food. If
insects attack one type, there will always be others to provide
food, so production is not lost. This principle is used to reduce risk in the system.
12
lower canopy
layer
shrub layer
ground
layer
13
To recognise the state of the land, many things must be

understood. What are the problems ? Where are important
resources such as soil, water, fertility, money or time being
lost from the homestead, or damaged ? If so, before trying
out any new methods to increase production, a first priority
is to protect and conserve those resources being lost.
livestock can get in here

here is soil erosion
soil erosion here
low fertility for crops
no toilet
damage from wind

fertile soil
collects at the
bottom
washing
water
wasted
soil is bare
raw compost
no vegetables
no fruit
What are the resources on the land ? What techniques can be added to the farm ?
Which resources need to be increased to get better production for less cost ?
How can natural principles be used to do this ? There are many such questions.
As design experience increases, it becomes easier to answer the questions, and
farmers' capacity to make systems more sustainable will increase.
Examples of fruit and multi-purpose species for lowland

and highland, suitable for different stacked layers
Big trees :- mango, jackfruit, avocado, walnut, neem, chestnut, soapnut, oak, etc. Mid-canopy trees :- apple, pear,
peach, plum, apricot, persimmon, etc. Low-canopy trees :orange, lime, banana, custard apple, guava, coffee, sea buckthorn, papaya, Gliricidia, mulberry, hazel, Lucaena, elder,
etc. Bush layer :- cardamon, pineapple, napier grass, lemon
grass, tumeric, broom grass, Crotalaria, Sesbania, etc.
Ground layer :- sweet potato, taro, bean, groundnut, clover,
comfrey, wormwood, chamomile, etc.
Use of microclimate
The climate inside and around the forest is different to
the surrounding climate. There are areas of different moisture,
temperature, and light levels. These small areas of diverse
temperature, light and moisture are called microclimates. In
farming, use can be made of microclimates by growing the
type of plant that grows best in that particular place. Microclimates can also be created, for example by planting windbreaks or making ponds. Species are then selected according
to their site needs. This also brings diversity onto the farm.
2
Inside a mixed vegetable

bed. Because plants are
densely planted the temperature at the ground 1
is cooler than at the top
2 . This is an example of
a microclimate.
Use of biological (living) resources

In nature, it is the living, organic resources which are
responsible for running the system. Important functions such
as making the soil fertile, distributing seed, conserving moisture, etc. are all served by living things. Trees, birds, worms
and bacteria all work for the development of the system.
For fertility and crop protection in sustainable agriculture, benefits from green manures, liquid manure, legumes,
predator insects and companion planting are greater than
chemical fertilisers and pesticides.
Urea
UREA
Legumes
Which is best ?
16
1
The sun side of the
house 1 is hotter and
dryer than the shaded
side 2 . So, different
plants can be grown
having different light
and water needs.
There's nothing new about using microclimates. The terraces in front of houses are traditionally kept on the sunny side.
That makes them ideal for drying seed and vegetables, making
pickles, etc. The sun gives free energy in this place. The shade
side is good for shade-loving crops, or a nursery can be made.
17
1. Near the house 2/3. The fields 4. Grazing land 5. Forest
Energy-efficient planning
Areas of the farm are divided by zone. Inside the house is zone
0 and close to the house is zone 1. Zone 1 has techniques and
systems that need more maintenance, such as the kitchen garden, which is visited 2-3 times a day for maintenance and
harvesting. Various nurseries also belong in zone 1, because
they need extra care, such as daily watering. By placing them
near the house, less time and energy are used for harvesting or
maintaining these systems. Below are more examples :zone
number
of visits
suitable technologies and systems
1 - near
kitchen garden, nurseries, waste water,
the house 1 many sweepings pit, toilet, bees, etc.
2&3the fields
2 fewer
4 - grazing area 3
5- forest
0. Inside
the house
In this diagram, the relationship of the house to other parts of

a well designed farm is shown by the different thickness of
the arrows. A thick arrow shows a frequent connection, and
thinner arrow shows where less visits are needed.
18
agroforestry (fodder, firewood, timber

production, fruit trees, mixed with field
crops, orchard, green manures, etc.
less soil erosion control, soil improvement,

still plantation, integrated orchard, etc.
very forest management, wild and culti4 rarely vated herbs, education, etc.
Having the right Attitude

The principles descibed above are necessary to design a
sustainable system, but most important is the attitude of the
designer and user. As long as people don't have a deep desire
to achieve the goals of sustainability within ethical guidelines,
then no type of design can help to reach these goals. Some
people feel that they can't make a difference by themselves, or
are scared of making a change, or of losing resources.
19
But good design can solve many problems. With the right
attitude, problems can become solutions, and a progressive
design will develop. We can also design to learn. People need
to work together to find the right techniques and resources to
solve their own problems and meet their own needs, as well
as those of nature.
Building Blocks of Design

When designing land to be more productive and sustainable, it is very important to understand the factors which can
both limit, or aid, the progress of the design. Then the design
can be adapted and changed in the early stages, so that no
mistakes will prevent the objectives of sustainability being
reached. Factors which can affect the design are divided into
2 groups - those which are visible, and those which are invisible. This is shown below :landscape
climate
soil
water
vegetation
visible factors
energy
Building
Blocks of
Design
economic
traditions
invisible factors
livestock
buildings
culture
political
social
communications
belief
20
The effects of some of these factors are illustrated below

in the farming system's cycle of rice production.
growth
planting
harvest
preparation
consumption
There are many

parts to the cycle of
crop production
storage
processing
distribution
marketing
Many of the visible and invisible factors shown on the

previous page will affect the crop production, and so they will
determine the strategy which needs to be used in design. In
the monsoon, there is more heat and water, and so sickness is
more common. Yet this is the time when most human labour
is required, and also when there are more pest problems. If
communal oxen are not available, ploughing, planting and
weeding work is delayed. When all these issues are sorted
out, there may be a good crop, but then rats can destroy the
crop in storage, or the price in the bazaar may be low, and all
the work can again be wasted.
So when making a design, all these factors must be considered. Which factors, at what stage, and where they may
cause problems for production should be considered at the
very start of the design process. Whether the solution to that
problem can be solved with local resources or not, should
also be considered early on.
21
The Design Process

The process of creating the design, and then implementing it, is a step by step approach which enables the design to
reach its goals more easily. Following the design process
helps with many decisions :- what to do first, which areas are
most important, how to use the available technologies and
any other resources, how the design grows in a natural way,
and so on. A summary of the main steps in the design process
is given below :-
1. Gathering information about the people and the

land involved in the design.
Collect information
about the people's
vision and goals, their
resources, needs, constraints, capacity, costs,
problems, skills, income, etc.
that place is
In the same way,
very windy there is less
collect information
fertility
about the site - the soil,
water, climate, aspect,
there is
slope, vegetation,
erosion
microclimate, livestock, pests and diseases, erosion, expothere is
sure to wind, and any
over
other relevant informagrazed
tion about problems
and resources.
22
When creating and implementing a design, it is a priority

to repair damaged systems, and stop loss of resources from
the existing system - this will give immediate results. Below
are examples of how we can lose resources from farming :-
Farm losses
nutrients in the soil are
compost dries out
lost if not used (leaching)
in the sun
nitrogen
is lost to
the air
all types
of nutrients are
lost deep
in the soil
nutrients leak from compost

all types of
nutrients
can be lost
much time is wasted

gathering from the far
away forest
waste water is not

used at home
soil is washed away

by rain
fire destroys nutrients in

the soil
nutrients in sweepings are lost
wind dries out

moisture in the soil
So we should discover leaks to the system early in the

design process. Then, it can be decided what techniques are
needed, when and where, to find the solutions and prevent
valuable resources being lost.
23
2. Deciding which functions are needed
4. Placement
According to what we have found out about the people

and the site, what are the needs of the design ? For example,
increasing fodder and firewood production, growing more
nutritious food, protecting from livestock, preventing soil erosion, protecting from wind, increasing fertility, earning more
cash, etc. are all examples of the types of functions needed.
Where should the systems be placed for them to give

maximum benefit ? They should be placed in beneficial relationship to each other, so that the needs of one are met by the
outputs of another, instead of competing. The principles of
nature can be used to help with this. For example, the nursery
should be placed where there is shelter, water is near, and it is
easy to care for the site. In the same way, the best places are
selected for the compost, fruit orchard, fodder trees, etc.
3. Selecting techniques
To carry out the functions identified in 2, what methods
are needed ? For example, agroforestry, living fence, beekeeping, fruit production, kitchen garden, compost making,
mulching, home nursery, improvement in livestock management, seed production, green manures, etc. are all methods of
providing for the identified needs of the farmer and the site.
kitchen
garden
there
Finally, the best species to fulfil the needs of the site and
the functions required are selected and placed, understanding
their characteristics, yields and needs. For example, when
selecting trees for the orchard, ask the following questions :-
living
fence there
how to protect
me from pests ?
livestock
shed
there
agroforestry
there
fruit trees
there
irrigation
canal
there
dnvfb
compost
there
Toxf
24
5. Species' selection
path there
do you know my
flowering and
fruiting times ?
what are the
marketing
arrangements ?
how much space

do I need to grow ?
what can be
planted underneath me for
companions ?
what other
problems may I
face ?
where is the best
soil and climate
for me ?
25
6. Timetable
This work of implementing the design can't all be done at
the same time. So it's good to arrange the work according to
priority. Some systems can wait until later to establish. This
will make the design much easier to implement. The most important systems to design and implement first are usually for site
protection, access, water and soil improvement, as they all allow
other parts of the design to develop.
Evaluation
As the design is being created and implemented, time
should be spent evaluating progress against the aims and needs
of the people and site. The design can be changed and adapted
as necessary. Are the principles being applied ? What has
changed ? What problems have been solved ? Will more problems be created ? Will the design help the people to reach their
goals ? Questions like this should constantly be evaluated, and
all stakeholders in the design should be consulted.
Design cycle
evaluate
change
and improve
design
evaluate
26
change and
improve
observation and
gathering of
information
There are 2 types of place to implement a design :1. Where there is no production - like a degraded, bare site.
2. Where there is on-going production - e.g. a working farm.
1. Where there has been no production (such as degraded land), the design will definitely create productivity on
that site. The design will help to create the best regeneration
and production, in the shortest time. There are more details
about this in the Soil Conservation and Improvement chapter.
2. Where there is on-going production (such as a working
farm), that existing production should not decrease as the design
is implemented and other types of production begin. Otherwise,
the farmer or the community may have problems meeting
basic needs in the short term. The design will help to improve
and increase resources, reduce costs, and diversify production.
How to tell if the design is working ?

1
At first there is
more work and
less output from
the investment
sustainable
future
2
gradually, the
work is less and
production
increases
make the
design
3
later there is very
little work and
high, diverse
productivity
implement the
design
27
Mr Govinda
Sharma
From Nepal,
Kavrepalanchowk district,
Patlekhet VDC, Mr Govinda
Sharma has used
permaculture design on his
own farm. Now let's read
about his experiences.
I took a Permaculture design course in 1991. After that I
started to learn from friends,
then started to put all that experience into practice. Now, I also
Govinda Sharma
help other organisations to make
and implement designs. A farming system which is planned
using this method is very productive, and easy to use. Instead
of having just one crop, many diverse crops can be grown.
Instead of just growing corn, I find it's better to mix beans,
pumpkins, and plant fodder around the edges to give a higher
total yield. At first, the other local farmers didn't accept what
I was doing, but when they saw the crops I was growing, with
only small extra inputs and mainly local resources after the
start, they became interested, and have started copying some
of the methods. They are understanding that you can reap the
fruits of your investment, and that investment isn't just
strength and sweat, it's also design.
Farmers'
Experience
Glossary
This Farmers' Handbook can also be used by people who

have just started to learn how to read and write, to help them
increase these skills. That's why there may be some words
used in the Handbook which are more difficult to understand.
We have evaluated the books with many groups, and below is
a list of some of the words they found difficult. Discuss the
words and try to write down what they mean. You can add
any other words that you and your group don't understand in
the space available.
Word
Fallow
Monoculture
Habitat
Legume
Tap root
Cambium
Element
Nutrient
Shrub
Terrace
Secateurs
Micro-organism
Bacteria
etc.
Meaning
Word
Meaning
Pollination
Biomass
Mulch
Pruning
System
Integrated
Nature
Micro-climate
etc.
Meaning
Word
Economic
Diversity
Bio-diversity
Evaluation
Scion
Bud
Rootstock
etc.
Some new
plants
Velvet
bean
Scion
Sea
Buckthorn
Comfrey
Chapter 7 - Glossary and Other Topics
Adhatoda
vasica
Clover
Horsetail
Your own word list

Here you can add any of your own words which are
difficult to understand, and keep a list to ask someone who
may know what they mean.
word in the book
meaning
Practical Literacy
1.Why Literacy ?
To learn to read, write and calculate is a priority to many.
There are good reasons for this. If you are literate you can
correspond with friends and relatives who live far away, you
can read labels, books, signs, contracts, and you can make
bigger calculations if you know how to write them down on
paper. Furthermore, for many people being literate makes
them more respected by others who believe that being
illiterate means being ignorant. You never need to ask others
to read for you, and you can't be cheated by being made to
sign something you don't understand. It will also increase
your self confidence.
2. Production
However, for many small farmers, learning to read and
write may not be their highest priority. Their main concern is
to make ends meet - to produce enough to meet the needs of
their family. This means that poorer farmers often drop out of
adult literacy classes (and many children drop out of school),
because most people believe that literacy isnt the solution to
their daily problems.
4. How ?
The PLP course starts by participants describing their own
situations, past and present, using maps, trend lines, ranking etc.
From these descriptions words are chosen by the participants, and
their spelling is learnt. Very basic reading and writing skills are
learnt at this stage. On one day participants will learn and practice
how to establish and manage various techniques such as waste water
management, grafting, terrace improvement, etc. That evening, or
on the next day, they can read about the method from the Handbook,
and write their own words about what they have done. These can
gradually be formed into sentences as comments and evaluations of
the method, or to make stories, proposals and reports.
Hot Bed Nursery

1
Discussing words
Class
work
3. Why Practical Literacy ?
In Practical Literacy we combine meeting the basic needs

of the family with the benefits of learning to read and write.
During a Practical Literacy Programme (PLP) the participants
will learn both reading, writing and calculation skills, and
learn about farming and household techniques. This means
that they can improve their farm production, and their general
well-being.
Practical work
6
Illustrations
Can talk with
anyone
Can write letters,

notes, ideas, etc.
The producers of the Farmers' Handbook gratefully acknowledge

the work of the following individuals and institutions whose
illutrations have been used in the publication.
Though most illustrations for the handbook are made by Grihasthi
Communications, some illustrations have also been taken from :
Empowered and
self confident
Can read books,

labels, signs,
letters, etc.
8
Can listen and

understand
* Clip Art Book, CERID

* A Farmer's Primer on Growing Soybean on Riceland, IRRI
* Management of Forest Nurseries, HMG/UNDP/FAO
* Religious and Useful Plants of Nepal and India, Majupuria & Joshi
* A Handbook of Gravety-Flow Water Systems, IT Publications
* Common Tree Species, HMG/UNDP/FAO
* Tropical Leaf vegetable in Human Nutrition, Kononklijk Instituut voor Tropen
* Focus, GAD, Denmark
* Agroforestry in Dryland Africa, ICRAF
* Regeneratice Agriculture Technologies for the Hill Farmers of Nepal, NERRA & IIRR
* The Grafter's Handbook, CASSEL
* Plant Propagation, Royal Horticultural Society, UK
* Instant Illustrations, UNICEF/Nepal
* Tropical Field Crops, Evan Brothers Limited
* The Fruit Expert, ExpertBooks
* Monocotyledons, Longman
* Dicotyledons, Longman
* Farm Implements for arid and tropical regions, FAO
* Permaculture, A Designers Manual, Tagari Publications
* Queen Rearing Simplified, Cook
* Beekeeping for Honey Production in Sri lanka, R W K Punchihewa
* Zambian beekeeping Handbook, GVS
* Beekeeping Trainer's Resource Book, ICIMOD, Nepal
* Pollination Management of Mountain Crops through Beekeeping, ICIMOD
* World Education, Kathmandu, Nepal.
* United Mission to Nepal, Kathmandu
* Christine A. Sobel, ECHO, U.S.A.
* World Neighbours, Kathmandu
* Roland Bunch, COSECHA, Honduras, Central America.
* Green Manures p.22 photo Eric Holt-Gimenez
* Mike Feingold, Bristol, UK
* Volume Cover drawings by Motilal Pauja, Thati Gaun, Lekh Pharsa VDC, Surkhet
We hope that we have remembered all & not violated any corpyright rules. We trust that
using these illustrations for a non-profit publication to benefit farmers worldwide and
published on a limited scale will not offend any of the illustrations' copyright owners.
What is
Permaculture ?
The word Permaculture was first used in 1973 by

Bill Mollison and David Holmgren, from Australia. Permaculture is an English word, made up from the words
Permanent and Agriculture. Because agriculture is our
primary producer of food, clothing and shelter made from
natural resources, and these are the material and economic base
for society as a whole, it can also be taken to mean a
permanence in culture itself. Permaculture is a system of
design. It takes it's methods from observation of the stability,
diversity, resilience and productivity of natural systems, to
benefit people and all living and non-living things in a
sustainable way.
Permaculture makes
Natural
excellent use of local and
Systems
biological resources to
create systems which
foster self reliance,
Permaculture
through an ecological
Design
agriculture,
Modern
Traditional
balanced with the
Wisdom
local economy and Knowledge
society.
In fact, there is not
much new in permaculture. It's a synthesis of the
understanding of natural systems, traditional wisdom, and
modern scientific and applied knowledge. It takes the best of
all of these to assist in creating/living a life with more
quality and choice.
10

Regional Contact Addresses
Nepal Permaculture Group :- registered in 1995 to

promote sustainable development, NPG is a national network
of over 250 individual and 8 organisational members. It
works in education, research, capacity building and
networking of permaculture related activities.
If readers of this Handbook are interested to learn more
about any of these, or other, technology information, they can
contact NPG through any of the following regional membercontacts.
Own country's
networks
2. Mid Region
1. Eastern Region
Basanta Ranabhat,
Ecological Service Centre,
Chitwan
Tel: 053-23663, 24574
Fax: 20135, 20482
ecoce@mos.com.np
Durga Niroula,
Women's Development
Organisation, Biratnagar
nbs@brt.wlink.com.npc
3. Western Region
Padya Kiran Rana, TOLI,
Pokhora. Tel: 061-23370
toli@mos.com.np
4. Mid and Far

Western Region
Himalayan Permaculture
Group, P.O. Box 19121,
Kathmandu, Nepal
c/o ATA (01) 5549774
nepal@atasia.org.uk
5.
4.
3.
2.
1.
Map of
Nepal
11
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Grihasthi
Communications
The following useful educational materials for farmers are

also published in Nepal and available from Grihasthi
Communications,
Posters on Health
Herbs for Health
Herbs for Women's
Health
Let's Stop Using
Poisonous Chemicals
Books on Health
Common Local Herbal
Medicines for Health
Herbal Medicines for
Women's Health
Video
"Our Seeds, Our Life"
Video
"Ancient Futures"
Farmers' Workshop on Loss

of Genetic Biodiversity and
Seed Saving
The effects of modern

development on traditional
systems in Ladakh
Contact
Distributors :Nepal Permaculture Group,

P.O. Box 8132, Kathmandu,
Nepal.
Tel: + 977 1 252597
npg@earthcare.wlink.com.np

Nepal Permaculture Group Farmers' Handbook

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Inside the House

Near the House - part 1

Forestry, Integrated Literacy,

The handbooks are available from:

Structure of the Chapters :

Each chapter deals with one or a few techniques

all in all over

450 colour photos

Inside the House

The Farmers' Handbook

Introduction to this Volume

Hay Box Stove ............................................... 5

Chapters are separated by a yellow page

The Farmers' Handbook this Volume's Introduction

Evaluation & Feedback

Structure of the Handbook

"What is?" - the method is defined and described.

2. Diet & Nutrition

5. Hay Box Stove

Appropriate Technology Asia

Nepal Permaculture Group

In order to live, grow and to protect us from various

From the time we are in the mother's womb, for our

Common problems of poor diet in the

Nutritious food, in brief,

helps us to remain healthy

The Authors of this Chapter

The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House"

2. Anaemia - lethargic; poor skin colour; yellowish skin,

3. Vitamin "A" Deficiency

For Health through nutrition we need to pay attention to

The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House"

3. We need to know how to prepare and serve the right foods

To get health from

Food to protect the

Food to protect the body

1. Foods Which give Energy (Carbohydrates)

2. Foods Which Help the Body to Grow

The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House"

3. Foods which Protect the Body(Vitamins & Minerals)

Chapter 2 - Diet & Nutrition

Free Nutrition from the Forest

A mixed diet means many different kinds of food are

Community and private forest provides

What, is this Poor People's Food ?

The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House"

Amla for sale collected from the forest

Chapter 2 - Diet & Nutrition

How to Preserve Nutrients in Food During Cooking

Cooking potatoes with their skins and in

Soak pulses for

Rice de-husked by hand or pre-boiled

Millet contains more calcium than

When eaten together, grain and

There are more

The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House"

This is like getting free increase in benefits! There are

Chapter 2 - Diet & Nutrition

For a Balanced Diet

2 Foods for the

The Farmers' Handbook, "Inside The House"

Partially fermented vegetables in-

Additions to the Normal Diet