1.

Water is distributed on Earth as a solid, liquid and gas

Define the terms solute, solvent and solution
Solute: a substance (present in a lower amount) that dissolves to form a solution
Solvent: the substance (present in a larger amount) with dissolves the solute
Solution: a homogenous mixture composed of a solute and solvent
Identify the importance of water as a solvent
Water is the most abundant and widely used solvent. It is also referred to as the universal
solvent because its polarity allows it to dissolve more substances than any other liquid.
Compare the state, percentage and distribution of water in the biosphere, lithosphere,
hydrosphere and atmosphere

Sphere States water is found in Percentage of Earths water
(%)
How water is distributed
Biosphere Liquid 0.0001 In living things
Lithosphere Liquid 0.6 In the rocks of the earth
and as underground
water
Hydrosphere Liquid/solid 99.4 Oceans seas, ice caps and
glaciers
Atmosphere Liquid/solid/gas 0.001 Water vapour, rain and
snow


Outline the significance of the different states of water on Earth in terms of water as
- A constituent of cells and its roles as both a solvent and a raw material in metabolism
- A habitat in which temperature extremes are less than nearby terrestrial habitats
- An agent of weathering of rocks both as liquid and solid
- A natural resource for humans and other organisms
A constituent of cells and its roles as both a solvent and a raw material in metabolism
- Used in chemical reactions that constitute life
- Water is where bodily chemical reactions take place
- It is a solvent where reactions occur
- Transport medium for bringing nutrients to cells and removing wastes from the body
- A regulator for sudden and large temperature variations
- Metabolic water is produced by respiration when carbohydrates, fats and proteins under-go
cellular respiration. This is important in living organisms to regulate inner temperature
- Water is needed in reproduction as sex cells need liquid to swim around in
- Water is required for photosynthesis as it is absorbed in the roots and delivered to
photosynthetic cells to be processed
- It is required to digest dietary fat
A habitat in which temperature extremes are less than nearby terrestrial habitats
- It is a habitat for life forms such as fish, algae and bacteria the place where they live.
- Water bodies have the advantage that they show less temperature fluctuations than they do land and
air masses.
- Areas surrounding water bodies have a relatively sustained atmospheric temperature as water has the
tendency to absorb heat

An agent of weathering of rocks both as liquid and solid
- Rain and rivers physically weather rocks and soil to lower altitudes and eventually to the sea.
- Glaciers cut a swathe from mountain tops through weaker rocks to the oceans, and
- A freeze-thaw mechanism sees liquid water seep into small cracks in rocks, freeze and expand and so
widen the crack until large fragments of rock break away. This is also called ice wedging
- Carbonic acid containing water chemically dissolves rocks
- Feldspar (KAlSi
3
O
8
) weathers chemically from water to form a clay called Kaolinite (Al
2
Si
2
O
5
)

A natural resource for humans and other organisms
- For drinking, food preparation, washing and recreation
- For irrigation of crops, and watering of livestock
- As a working fluid in electricity generating stations and as a coolant in them and in many industries
- For generating electricity directly
- In industry as a reactant, solvent and cleaning agent and for waste disposal and settling dust
- As a mode of transport (now less used planes and trains are more widely used).

Perform an investigation involving calculations of the density of the water as a liquid and
a solid using

Analyse information using models to account for the differing densities of water


plan and perform an investigation to identify and describe the effect of anti-freeze or salt
on the boiling point of water

2. the wide distribution and importance of water on Earth is a consequence
of its molecular structure and hydrogen bonding


construct Lewis electron dot structures of water, ammonia and hydrogen
sulfide to identify the distribution of electrons











Ammonia





Hydrogen sulfide






Water

Water is most dense in solid state.
This is because the water molecules
have stronger intermolecular forces
as opposed to water in its liquid
state that has a weaker bonding and
gas which has the weakest
intermolecular bonding
Compare the molecular structure of water, ammonia and hydrogen sulfide, the differences in their
melting and boiling points
Lewis dot
Structure
Molecular geometry Molecular shape Boiling
point
Melting
point
Water





100
o
C 0
o
C
Ammonia



-33.34
o
C -77.73
o
C
Hydrogen
sulfide



-60
o
C -82
o
C

Describe hydrogen bonding between molecules

- 10 times stronger that dipole- dipole forces but one tenth of ionic or covalent bond.
- Important in biological systems
E.g. structure of proteins such as hair and in the double helix of DNA
- a special type of dipole-dipole attraction only applied to hydrogen bonded with
- Fluorine
- Oxygen
- Nitrogen
- The unshared pair of electron in neighboring F,O or N atoms can attract partially positive
hydrogen atoms
-
Identify the water molecule as a polar molecule
The water molecule is a polar molecule as it is
- A polar covalent bond
Oxygen is slightly negatively charged
Hydrogen is slightly positively charged
- The oxygen atom attract electrons more strongly than the hydrogen atoms

Describe the attractive forces between polar molecules as dipole-dipole forces
Attractive forces between polar molecules are dipole-dipole forces where there is a force of
attraction between the oppositely charged ends of neighboring polar molecules.
Explain the following properties of water in terms of its inter molecular forces
- Surface tension
- Viscocity
- Boiling and melting points
Surface tension
Surface tension: a measure of elastic forces in the surface layer
The molecules well inside a liquid experiences intermolecular attractions from other molecules all
around it whilst the molecules on the surface layer of the liquid experiences intermolecular forces
only from molecules below and beside it. These unbalanced forces on the surface of the molecules
result in an inward tension acting on the molecules on the surface.
*the stronger the intermolecular forces, the greater the surface tension of the liquid.
Water with strong hydrogen bonding, strong intermolecular forces and strong cohesive forces has
high surface tension.
Viscosity
Viscosity: measure of a fluids resistance to flow
Depends on
- The structure and size of molecules
- Strength of intermolecular forces between molecules
Long chain molecules (larger molecules) often have high viscosity because their long chains can
become entangled as they flow. E.g. grease and tar whereas petrol is not.
The stronger the attraction between pairs of the molecules, the more resistance there is to flow
Water has relatively high viscosity because there is extensive hydrogen bonding (small molecular
size)
Viscosity decreases as temperature increases due to increased motion of particles.
e.g. honey
Boiling and melting points
This is related to the strength in the intermolecular forces. The stronger the intermolecular bonds,
the more energy required to break them apart and therefore a higher boiling point.
Water, because of its hydrogen bonding has a relatively high boiling and melting point
3. Water is an important solvent

Explain changes, if any, to particles and account for those changed when the following
types of chemicals interact with water
- A soluble ionic compound such as sodium chloride
- A soluble molecular compound such as sucrose
- A soluble or partially soluble molecular element or compound such as iodine,
oxygen or hydrogen chloride
- A covalent network structure substance such as silicone dioxide
- A substance with large molecules such as cellulose or polyethylene
Ionic compounds (soluble)
easily dissolve in water e.g. NaCl
The charged atoms are attracted to the slightly oppositely charged ends of the water
molecule which separate them into individual ions.
Soluble molecular compound (soluble)
dissolves in water e.g. Sucrose
The slightly negatively and slight positively charged polar areas are attracted to the
oppositely charged areas in water molecules
Molecular element or compound (soluble/partially soluble)
iodine is slightly soluble because of induced polarity
Dispersion forces of attraction between uncharged molecules all them to mix through
one another
sulfur is insoluble in water because dispersion forces stabilize the solute particles in the
solvent
Covalent network structure
They do not dissolve e.g. SiO is insoluble
The bonds in the 3D lattice is stronger than the attractive forces between the water
molecules
Substance with large molecules
Generally do not dissolve e.g. polyethene, cellulose
The force of attraction (electronegativity) is far greater than the weak attractions it
has with the water molecules

Analyse the relationship between the solubility of a substance in water and the polar
nature of the water molecule.
A substance is most soluble in water when it is polar
4. The concentration water will vary according to their solubility, and precipitation can occur when
the ions of an insoluble salt are in the solution together
Identify some combinations of solutions which will produce precipitates using
solubility data

Solubility rules
Anions/salts Soluble Insoluble
Nitrates NO3
-
ALL -
Acetates C2H3O2 ALL -
Halides Cl
-
, Br
-
, I
-
ALL* Salts of Pb
2+
, Hg
2+
, Ag
+
and Cu
+
ions
e.g. AgCl, Hg
2
Cl
2
, PbCl
2
, CuBr
Sulfates SO4
2-
ALL* BaSO
4
, SrSO
4
, PbSO
4,
(Ag SO
4,
CaSO
4
, Hg
2
SO
4
are
slightly insoluble)
Salts of group 1A ALL -
Salts of ammonium NH4
+
ALL -
Acids ALL -
Oxides O
2-
Group 1A
Group 11A (Ca**, Sr, Ba)
ALL
Hydroxide OH
-
Group 1A
Group 11A (Ca*, Sr, Ba)
ALL
Carbonates CO3
2-
Group 1A (NH
4
)
2
CO
3
ALL
Sulfides S
2-
Group 1A, Group 11A, (NH
4
)
2
S ALL
Phosphates PO4
3-
Group 1A (NH
4
)
3
PO
4
ALL
Chromates Cr2O4
2-
Group 1A (NH
4
)
2
Cr
2
O
4
, MgCr
2
O
4
ALL


Describe a model that traces the movement of ions when solution and precipitation
occur

Solution of NaCl
The polar molecules of water are attracted to the positive sodium and
negative chlorine. The attraction between the water molecules and ions are
strong enough to separate the ions causing them to dissolve which are then
surrounded by water molecules (become hydrated)

Precipitation
The two solutions are mixed. The insoluble ions AD forms a solid whilst
ions C and B remain in the solution.


Identify the dynamic nature of ion movement in saturated dissolution
- When a solution is saturated, there are excess solutes that are not dissolved.
- The excess solute that remains undissolved is called a saturated solution.
- The excess solution also breaks away from the crystals
- But at the same time, an equal number of ions pairs from the solution
precipitate out on to the solid.
This is the dynamic nature of ion movement in saturated dissolution
the speed of dissolution = speed of precipitation

Describe the molarity of a solution as the number of moles of solute per litre of
solution using

The molarity of a solution is the number of moles of solute per litre of solution.
Explain why different measurements of concentration are important
There are various ways of expressing the concentration of solutions such as
- Mass per unit volume
- Percent by volume
- Percent by weight
- Parts per million
Mass per unit volume
- Used in commercial labels
Provides information about the concentration of the product
Percent by volume
- Used to express the concentration of liquids dissolved in other liquids
e.g. general labelling in medicines and foods for liquid sources such as alcohol
Percent by weight
- Used in commercial labeling for solid solutes
e.g. fluoride in tooth paste, glucose in soft drinks
Parts per million
- Used in expressing small concentrations especially of pollutants in water or air




5. Water has a higher heat capacity than many other liquids

Explain what is meant by specific heat capacity of a substance
Specific heat capacity is the amount of heat required to raise 1kg of a substance by 1
o
C or 1K
(1 Kelvin)
Compare the specific heat capacity of water with a range of other solvents
Substance Specific heat capacity
(x10
3
Jkg
-1
K
-1
)
Water 4.18
Acetone 2.17
Ethanol 2.42
Aluminum 0.88


Explain and use the equation


q is heat energy in J
m is the mass of the water in kg

c is the specific heat capacity
T
f
-T
i
)
*cancel common units from numerators and denominators on the right to see if the give J
The amount of heat released or absorbed can be calculated with this formula given the m, c, and
If the reaction is exothermic, is positive so the q value is negative
If the reaction is endothermic, is negative so the q value is positive





Explain how waters ability to absorb heat is used to measure energy changes in
chemical reactions
Calorimetry
Calorimetry is the measurement of heat changes in a system
A calorimeter is any equipment used to measure the heat change
Water is used as the liquid in calorimeters because it has a high specific heat capacity of
4.1810
3
JKg
-1
K
-1
A calorimeter consists of a thermally insulated container such as expanded polystyrene containing a
known mass of water. Heat is released or absorbed from a change and then absorbed or releases
(respectively) by the water.
This causes a change in the temperature of the waters
The water in the calorimeter absorbs/releases most of the heat

Other substances used in calorimeters have substances with low heat capacities
Describe dissolutions which release heat as exothermic and give examples
The dissolving process of sodium hydroxide (NAOH) is exothermic.
It releases heat to the water and therefore the temperature of the water increases

Describe dissolutions which absorb heat as endothermic and give examples
The dissolving process of Ammonium Nitrate is
endothermic.
it absorbs heat from the water and therefore, the
temperature of the water decreases.



Heat released by exothermic reaction = heat absorbed by calorimeter
Heat absorbed by endothermic reaction = heat released by calorimeter

Explain why waters ability absorb heat is important to aquatic organisms and to life
on earth generally
Water acts as an insulator to water which keeps a sustained temperature for aquatic life
to adjust to. As the temperature decreases at the surface, the water density of the water
increases until it reaches its maximum density at 4
o
C. The dense water sinks and sets up
convection currents in the water body until all of the water is at 4
o
C. When the surface
water freezes, this acts as an insulator for the water below.

Water also regulates the temperature of its surroundings which is why the temperature
is cooler and more consistent in around oceans than in desserts where temperatures
fluctuate at high ranges.

It also cools the body.

Explain what is meant by thermal pollution and discuss the implications for life if a
body of water is affected by thermal pollution

Thermal pollution occurs when unwanted heat is released into the environment (in
particular in to natural waters)
This problem is often related to the production of electricity (e.g. nuclear reactors)
because the processes involve taking cold water and releasing warm water back into a
natural body of water such as a stream or lake.

When it rains on a hot day, the rain landing on the pavements will heat the water up and
not absorb it. The heated water will run off into a storm drain to be released in to
natural water bodies which will also raise the temperatures of the water surroundings. If
the water is a habitat to aquatic life, it may severely impact the overall population
existing in that water body.

When soil enters streams, rivers and lakes, the water becomes cloudy and absorbs more
sunlight to heat up water, which may also be hazardous to the living aquatic life in that
area.

Thermal pollution of water implies that
- There will be a rapid loss of oxygen levels and increases in temperature can
cause stress for many cold water fish
- Photosynthesis will be encouraged which may cause the growth of algae
This process of aerobic respiration uses a lot of oxygen which adds to the
stress of organisms and may cause a change in reproduction, growth and
behavior patterns in the marine food chain.
- There will be a sufficient wipe out of marine animals since they
- cannot cope with a temperature rise of more than 2-3
o
C
- There will be further unwanted chemical reactions
- There will be long term damages to the body of water