Issues of Human Development

Theories on growth and development are often considered from the perspective of seven issues. These issues help explain how development occurs and what humans are like
and can be applied to theories of human development. These issues answer questions related to the importance of biology or the environment on development, whether children are
inherently good, bad, or actively involved in their own development, if development occurs gradually or abruptly, if children are more similar than different from one another, or if one's
personality or way of interacting with others remains stable throughout life. The issues discussed include nature versus nurture, continuity versus discontinuity, passivity versus activity,
critical versus sensitive periods, universality versus context specificity, assumptions about human nature, and behavioral consistency.

Nature versus Nurture
One of the more important and oldest issues discussed in human development is the nature/nurture controversy. This debate concerns the influence that biology (nature) and the
environment (nurture) have on an individual. Nature describes genetically inherited traits such as eye color or body type, or disease such as cystic fibrosis or hemophilia. This view sees
development as predetermined by genetic factors and not altered by the environment. A person believing in the principle of nature would suggest that all normal children achieve
identical developmental milestones at a similar time due to maturational forces. If children differed in achieving these milestones, it would be because of differences in their genetic
makeup. Nurture refers to the influences that the environment has on development, and includes the influences that child-rearing methods, culture, learning experiences, and society
have on development. A person believing in the principle of nurture would suggest that development can take different paths depending on the experiences that an individual has over a
lifetime.
Today, most developmentalists believe that both nature and nurture are important, and that the relative contribution of each depends on the aspect of development studied.
Developmentalists today are also more concerned about how biological and environmental factors interact to produce developmental differences and changes, rather than the
importance of one over the other .

Continuity versus Discontinuity
This issue addresses the nature of change across development. Continuity suggests that change is orderly and built upon earlier experiences. Development is a gradual and
smooth process without abrupt shifts; the course of development looks like a smooth growth curve. This issue also suggests early and late development are connected; aggressive
toddlers become aggressive adults, curious infants become creative adolescents, and shy preschoolers become introverted adults. Finally, continuity proposes that changes occur
quantitatively, or in degrees. For example, when children grow older, they become taller, run faster, and learn more about the world around them.

Discontinuity
Suggests development is a series of discrete steps or stages that elevate the child to a more advanced or higher level of functioning with increased age. The course of development
looks like a flight of stairs. There is no connection between early and later development; behavior seen later in life has replaced behavior seen earlier in life. For example, infants once
comfortable around strangers may come to fear them as they get older; a shy and introverted preschooler may become an outgoing, extroverted adolescent. Discontinuity would also
argue that adult behavior cannot be predicted by knowing what the person was like as a child. Finally, discontinuity implies qualitative change, or changes that make the individual
different as growth occurs, as when a nonverbal infant becomes a toddler using language, or when a prepubertal child becomes a mature adolescent.

Passivity versus Activity


Issues of Human Development
Theories on growth and development are often considered from the perspective of seven issues. These issues help explain how development occurs and what humans are like
and can be applied to theories of human development. These issues answer questions related to the importance of biology or the environment on development, whether children are
inherently good, bad, or actively involved in their own development, if development occurs gradually or abruptly, if children are more similar than different from one another, or if one's
personality or way of interacting with others remains stable throughout life. The issues discussed include nature versus nurture, continuity versus discontinuity, passivity versus activity,
critical versus sensitive periods, universality versus context specificity, assumptions about human nature, and behavioral consistency.

Nature versus Nurture
One of the more important and oldest issues discussed in human development is the nature/nurture controversy. This debate concerns the influence that biology (nature) and the
environment (nurture) have on an individual. Nature describes genetically inherited traits such as eye color or body type, or disease such as cystic fibrosis or hemophilia. This view sees
development as predetermined by genetic factors and not altered by the environment. A person believing in the principle of nature would suggest that all normal children achieve
identical developmental milestones at a similar time due to maturational forces. If children differed in achieving these milestones, it would be because of differences in their genetic
makeup. Nurture refers to the influences that the environment has on development, and includes the influences that child-rearing methods, culture, learning experiences, and society
have on development. A person believing in the principle of nurture would suggest that development can take different paths depending on the experiences that an individual has over a
lifetime.
Today, most developmentalists believe that both nature and nurture are important, and that the relative contribution of each depends on the aspect of development studied.
Developmentalists today are also more concerned about how biological and environmental factors interact to produce developmental differences and changes, rather than the
importance of one over the other .

Continuity versus Discontinuity
This issue addresses the nature of change across development. Continuity suggests that change is orderly and built upon earlier experiences. Development is a gradual and
smooth process without abrupt shifts; the course of development looks like a smooth growth curve. This issue also suggests early and late development are connected; aggressive
toddlers become aggressive adults, curious infants become creative adolescents, and shy preschoolers become introverted adults. Finally, continuity proposes that changes occur
quantitatively, or in degrees. For example, when children grow older, they become taller, run faster, and learn more about the world around them.

Discontinuity
Suggests development is a series of discrete steps or stages that elevate the child to a more advanced or higher level of functioning with increased age. The course of development
looks like a flight of stairs. There is no connection between early and later development; behavior seen later in life has replaced behavior seen earlier in life. For example, infants once
comfortable around strangers may come to fear them as they get older; a shy and introverted preschooler may become an outgoing, extroverted adolescent. Discontinuity would also
argue that adult behavior cannot be predicted by knowing what the person was like as a child. Finally, discontinuity implies qualitative change, or changes that make the individual
different as growth occurs, as when a nonverbal infant becomes a toddler using language, or when a prepubertal child becomes a mature adolescent.

Passivity versus Activity
Community and Public Health Nursing
PRACTICUM

Global View of Infant, Toddler, and Preschool Health. Health Problems of Infants, Toddlers, and Preschoolers.


Theoretical Approaches to the Growth and Development of Children
Understanding human development is an essential part of the nursing process.
Knowledge of normal behavior for specific age groups allows for individualizing assessments and care plans. Emphasis on promoting and maintaining health, anticipatory guidance
related to human development, and assisting children and families to achieve optimal development are all important aspects of pediatric nursing. Knowledge of several principles,
issues, and theories help us to understand holistic optimal development and care. This chapter will describe the various principles and issues that are interwoven within the major
developmental theories discussed. Each theory will be fully explained and analyzed. The discussion will also include ideas on how the nurse can apply the theories to practice.

G

Issues of Human Development
Theories on growth and development are often considered from the perspective of seven issues. These issues help explain how development occurs and what humans are like
and can be applied to theories of human development. These issues answer questions related to the importance of biology or the environment on development, whether children are
inherently good, bad, or actively involved in their own development, if development occurs gradually or abruptly, if children are more similar than different from one another, or if one's
personality or way of interacting with others remains stable throughout life. The issues discussed include nature versus nurture, continuity versus discontinuity, passivity versus activity,
critical versus sensitive periods, universality versus context specificity, assumptions about human nature, and behavioral consistency.

Nature versus Nurture
One of the more important and oldest issues discussed in human development is the nature/nurture controversy. This debate concerns the influence that biology (nature) and the
environment (nurture) have on an individual. Nature describes genetically inherited traits such as eye color or body type, or disease such as cystic fibrosis or hemophilia. This view sees
development as predetermined by genetic factors and not altered by the environment. A person believing in the principle of nature would suggest that all normal children achieve
identical developmental milestones at a similar time due to maturational forces. If children differed in achieving these milestones, it would be because of differences in their genetic
makeup. Nurture refers to the influences that the environment has on development, and includes the influences that child-rearing methods, culture, learning experiences, and society
have on development. A person believing in the principle of nurture would suggest that development can take different paths depending on the experiences that an individual has over a
lifetime.
Today, most developmentalists believe that both nature and nurture are important, and that the relative contribution of each depends on the aspect of development studied.
Developmentalists today are also more concerned about how biological and environmental factors interact to produce developmental differences and changes, rather than the
importance of one over the other .

Continuity versus Discontinuity
This issue addresses the nature of change across development. Continuity suggests that change is orderly and built upon earlier experiences. Development is a gradual and
smooth process without abrupt shifts; the course of development looks like a smooth growth curve. This issue also suggests early and late development are connected; aggressive
toddlers become aggressive adults, curious infants become creative adolescents, and shy preschoolers become introverted adults. Finally, continuity proposes that changes occur
quantitatively, or in degrees. For example, when children grow older, they become taller, run faster, and learn more about the world around them.

Discontinuity
Suggests development is a series of discrete steps or stages that elevate the child to a more advanced or higher level of functioning with increased age. The course of development
looks like a flight of stairs. There is no connection between early and later development; behavior seen later in life has replaced behavior seen earlier in life. For example, infants once
comfortable around strangers may come to fear them as they get older; a shy and introverted preschooler may become an outgoing, extroverted adolescent. Discontinuity would also
argue that adult behavior cannot be predicted by knowing what the person was like as a child. Finally, discontinuity implies qualitative change, or changes that make the individual
different as growth occurs, as when a nonverbal infant becomes a toddler using language, or when a prepubertal child becomes a mature adolescent.

Passivity versus Activity


Issues of Human Development
Theories on growth and development are often considered from the perspective of seven issues. These issues help explain how development occurs and what humans are like
and can be applied to theories of human development. These issues answer questions related to the importance of biology or the environment on development, whether children are
inherently good, bad, or actively involved in their own development, if development occurs gradually or abruptly, if children are more similar than different from one another, or if one's
personality or way of interacting with others remains stable throughout life. The issues discussed include nature versus nurture, continuity versus discontinuity, passivity versus activity,
critical versus sensitive periods, universality versus context specificity, assumptions about human nature, and behavioral consistency.

Nature versus Nurture
One of the more important and oldest issues discussed in human development is the nature/nurture controversy. This debate concerns the influence that biology (nature) and the
environment (nurture) have on an individual. Nature describes genetically inherited traits such as eye color or body type, or disease such as cystic fibrosis or hemophilia. This view sees
development as predetermined by genetic factors and not altered by the environment. A person believing in the principle of nature would suggest that all normal children achieve
identical developmental milestones at a similar time due to maturational forces. If children differed in achieving these milestones, it would be because of differences in their genetic
makeup. Nurture refers to the influences that the environment has on development, and includes the influences that child-rearing methods, culture, learning experiences, and society
have on development. A person believing in the principle of nurture would suggest that development can take different paths depending on the experiences that an individual has over a
lifetime.
Today, most developmentalists believe that both nature and nurture are important, and that the relative contribution of each depends on the aspect of development studied.
Developmentalists today are also more concerned about how biological and environmental factors interact to produce developmental differences and changes, rather than the
importance of one over the other .

Continuity versus Discontinuity
This issue addresses the nature of change across development. Continuity suggests that change is orderly and built upon earlier experiences. Development is a gradual and
smooth process without abrupt shifts; the course of development looks like a smooth growth curve. This issue also suggests early and late development are connected; aggressive
toddlers become aggressive adults, curious infants become creative adolescents, and shy preschoolers become introverted adults. Finally, continuity proposes that changes occur
quantitatively, or in degrees. For example, when children grow older, they become taller, run faster, and learn more about the world around them.

Discontinuity
Suggests development is a series of discrete steps or stages that elevate the child to a more advanced or higher level of functioning with increased age. The course of development
looks like a flight of stairs. There is no connection between early and later development; behavior seen later in life has replaced behavior seen earlier in life. For example, infants once
comfortable around strangers may come to fear them as they get older; a shy and introverted preschooler may become an outgoing, extroverted adolescent. Discontinuity would also
argue that adult behavior cannot be predicted by knowing what the person was like as a child. Finally, discontinuity implies qualitative change, or changes that make the individual
different as growth occurs, as when a nonverbal infant becomes a toddler using language, or when a prepubertal child becomes a mature adolescent.

Passivity versus Activity


Issues of Human Development
Theories on growth and development are often considered from the perspective of seven issues. These issues help explain how development occurs and what humans are like
and can be applied to theories of human development. These issues answer questions related to the importance of biology or the environment on development, whether children are
inherently good, bad, or actively involved in their own development, if development occurs gradually or abruptly, if children are more similar than different from one another, or if one's
personality or way of interacting with others remains stable throughout life. The issues discussed include nature versus nurture, continuity versus discontinuity, passivity versus activity,
critical versus sensitive periods, universality versus context specificity, assumptions about human nature, and behavioral consistency.

Nature versus Nurture
One of the more important and oldest issues discussed in human development is the nature/nurture controversy. This debate concerns the influence that biology (nature) and the
environment (nurture) have on an individual. Nature describes genetically inherited traits such as eye color or body type, or disease such as cystic fibrosis or hemophilia. This view sees
development as predetermined by genetic factors and not altered by the environment. A person believing in the principle of nature would suggest that all normal children achieve
identical developmental milestones at a similar time due to maturational forces. If children differed in achieving these milestones, it would be because of differences in their genetic
makeup. Nurture refers to the influences that the environment has on development, and includes the influences that child-rearing methods, culture, learning experiences, and society
have on development. A person believing in the principle of nurture would suggest that development can take different paths depending on the experiences that an individual has over a
lifetime.
Today, most developmentalists believe that both nature and nurture are important, and that the relative contribution of each depends on the aspect of development studied.
Developmentalists today are also more concerned about how biological and environmental factors interact to produce developmental differences and changes, rather than the
importance of one over the other .

Continuity versus Discontinuity
This issue addresses the nature of change across development. Continuity suggests that change is orderly and built upon earlier experiences. Development is a gradual and
smooth process without abrupt shifts; the course of development looks like a smooth growth curve. This issue also suggests early and late development are connected; aggressive
toddlers become aggressive adults, curious infants become creative adolescents, and shy preschoolers become introverted adults. Finally, continuity proposes that changes occur
quantitatively, or in degrees. For example, when children grow older, they become taller, run faster, and learn more about the world around them.

Discontinuity
Suggests development is a series of discrete steps or stages that elevate the child to a more advanced or higher level of functioning with increased age. The course of development
looks like a flight of stairs. There is no connection between early and later development; behavior seen later in life has replaced behavior seen earlier in life. For example, infants once
comfortable around strangers may come to fear them as they get older; a shy and introverted preschooler may become an outgoing, extroverted adolescent. Discontinuity would also
argue that adult behavior cannot be predicted by knowing what the person was like as a child. Finally, discontinuity implies qualitative change, or changes that make the individual
different as growth occurs, as when a nonverbal infant becomes a toddler using language, or when a prepubertal child becomes a mature adolescent.

Passivity versus Activity
ROWTH, MATURATION, AND DEVELOPMENT
Growth, maturation, and development are common terms used to describe human development. An explanation of these terms and of the age ranges associated with child development
is needed before principles, issues, and theories can be understood. Growth refers to a physiologic increase in size through cell multiplication or differentiation. This is most
obviously seen in weight and height changes occurring during the first year of life. Maturation refers to changes that are due to genetic inheritance rather than life experiences,
illness, or injury.
These changes allow children to function at increasingly higher and more sophisticated levels as they get older. Development refers to the physiological, psychosocial, and cognitive
changes occurring over one's life span due to growth, maturation, and learning, and assumes that orderly and specific situations lead to new activities and behavior patterns (Figure
1).

Principles of Growth and Development
At least eight principles providing a framework for studying human development are embedded within the issues and theories discussed in the following pages. Although not all of these
principles are proven by research, they are often observed in children and generally assumed to be true (Hetherington & Parke, 1993; Murray & Zentner, 2001).

1. Development is orderly and sequential
This principle suggests that maturation follows a predictable and universal timetable. For example, children learn to crawl before they learn to walk, and they learn to walk
before they learn to run. These changes occur rapidly during the first year of life and slow during middle and late childhood. Even though the onset and length of each
developmental change vary among children, the basic sequence is the same, allowing comparison to norms.

2. Development is directional
Skill development proceeds along two different pathways: cephalocaudal and proximodistal. Cephalocaudal development proceeds from the head downward. Therefore,
areas closest to the brain or head develop first, followed by the trunk, then legs and feet. For example, head control is followed by sitting, then crawling, and then walking.
Proximodistal development proceeds from the inside out. Controlled movements closest to the body's center (trunk, arms) develop before controlled movements distant to the
body (fingers). For example, grasping changes from using the entire hand to just the fingers as infants get older.

3. Development is unique for each child
Every child has a unique timetable for physiological, psychosocial, cognitive, and moral development. For example, some children can name four colors by the time the y are
3 years old, whereas others cannot name four colors until they are 4V2 years old. Some children walk well at 11 months; others do not walk well until they are 14 months old.

4. Development is interrelated
Physiological, psychosocial, cognitive, and moral aspects of development affect and are affected by one another. For example, central nervous system maturation is necessary
for cognitive development. Children cannot be independent in toileting if they are not aware of the urge to void and cannot independently remove clothing.

5. Development becomes increasingly differentiated
This means responses become more specific and skillful as the child grows. Young infants respond to stimuli in a generalized way involving the entire body, whereas older
children respond to specific stimuli in a more refined and specialized way. For example, infants will react with their entire body to pain by crying and withdrawing, whereas a child is
able to localize the pain, can often identify its source, and may only withdraw the extremity experiencing the pain. An infant will use the entire hand to grab a toy before developing
the fine motor ability necessary for the pincer grasp.

6. Development becomes increasingly integrated and complex
This means, as new skills are gained, more complex tasks are learned. For example, learning to drink from a cup initially requires eye-hand coordination, then grasping, and
then hand-mouth coordination. Infants' cooing is followed by babbling, before these sounds are refined into the understandable speech of a child.

7. Children are competent
They possess qualities and abilities ensuring their survival and promoting their development. For example, newborns can cough, sneeze, suck, swallow, digest, breathe, and
elicit caretaking responses from adults. Children make their needs known to caregivers in increasingly sophisticated ways so that others know if they are cold, hungry, or in pain.


8. New skills predominate
This occurs because of the strong drive to practice and perfect new abilities, especially early in life, when the child is not capable of coping well with several new skills
simultaneously. For example, when children are learning to walk, talk, or feed themselves with utensils, their attention and effort is focused on developing that one skill; they do not
usually learn to walk, talk, and feed themselves at the same time.


Issues of Human Development
Theories on growth and development are often considered from the perspective of seven issues. These issues help explain how development occurs and what humans are like
and can be applied to theories of human development. These issues answer questions related to the importance of biology or the environment on development, whether children are
inherently good, bad, or actively involved in their own development, if development occurs gradually or abruptly, if children are more similar than different from one another, or if one's
personality or way of interacting with others remains stable throughout life. The issues discussed include nature versus nurture, continuity versus discontinuity, passivity versus activity,
critical versus sensitive periods, universality versus context specificity, assumptions about human nature, and behavioral consistency.

Nature versus Nurture
One of the more important and oldest issues discussed in human development is the nature/nurture controversy. This debate concerns the influence that biology (nature) and the
environment (nurture) have on an individual. Nature describes genetically inherited traits such as eye color or body type, or disease such as cystic fibrosis or hemophilia. This view sees
development as predetermined by genetic factors and not altered by the environment. A person believing in the principle of nature would suggest that all normal children achieve
identical developmental milestones at a similar time due to maturational forces. If children differed in achieving these milestones, it would be because of differences in their genetic
makeup. Nurture refers to the influences that the environment has on development, and includes the influences that child-rearing methods, culture, learning experiences, and society
have on development. A person believing in the principle of nurture would suggest that development can take different paths depending on the experiences that an individual has over a
lifetime.
Today, most developmentalists believe that both nature and nurture are important, and that the relative contribution of each depends on the aspect of development studied.
Developmentalists today are also more concerned about how biological and environmental factors interact to produce developmental differences and changes, rather than the
importance of one over the other .

Continuity versus Discontinuity
This issue addresses the nature of change across development. Continuity suggests that change is orderly and built upon earlier experiences. Development is a gradual and
smooth process without abrupt shifts; the course of development looks like a smooth growth curve. This issue also suggests early and late development are connected; aggressive
toddlers become aggressive adults, curious infants become creative adolescents, and shy preschoolers become introverted adults. Finally, continuity proposes that changes occur
quantitatively, or in degrees. For example, when children grow older, they become taller, run faster, and learn more about the world around them.

Discontinuity
Suggests development is a series of discrete steps or stages that elevate the child to a more advanced or higher level of functioning with increased age. The course of development
looks like a flight of stairs. There is no connection between early and later development; behavior seen later in life has replaced behavior seen earlier in life. For example, infants once
comfortable around strangers may come to fear them as they get older; a shy and introverted preschooler may become an outgoing, extroverted adolescent. Discontinuity would also
argue that adult behavior cannot be predicted by knowing what the person was like as a child. Finally, discontinuity implies qualitative change, or changes that make the individual
different as growth occurs, as when a nonverbal infant becomes a toddler using language, or when a prepubertal child becomes a mature adolescent.

Passivity versus Activity
This issue views the child as either a passive recipient shaped by external environmental forces, or as internally driven and actively participating in development. The passive view
suggests that child-rearing beliefs, practices, and behaviors cause children to be either shy or assertive. Children become delinquent because of their association with an antisocial peer
group. Talented and creative teachers deserve credit for a child's interest in mathematics or literature. Those disagreeing with this view believe children purposefully, creatively, and
actively seek experiences to control, direct, and shape their development. Active children also modify caregiver, peer, and teacher behavior (Figure 2).

For example, an inquisitive, friendly child may encourage that same behavior in an otherwise indifferent or unfriendly peer or adult.

Critical versus Sensitive Period
This issue concerns the importance of different time periods in development, and asks if some phases are more important than others in developing particular abilities,
knowledge, or skills. The critical period refers to a limited time span when a child is biologically prepared to acquire certain behaviors, but needs the support of a suitably stimulating
environment. Indeed, there are