Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook: A Manual of Quick, Accurate Solutions to Everyday Pipeline Engineering Problems
By M.J. Kaiser and E.W. McAllister
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About this ebook
Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook: A Manual of Quick, Accurate Solutions to Everyday Pipeline Engineering Problems, Ninth Edition, the latest release in the series, serves as the "go-to" source for all pipeline engineering answers. Updated with new data, graphs and chapters devoted to economics and the environment, this new edition delivers on new topics, including emissions, decommissioning, cost curves, and more while still maintaining the quick answer standard display of content and data that engineers have utilized throughout their careers. Glossaries are added per chapter for better learning tactics, along with additional storage tank and LNG fundamentals.
This book continues to be the high-quality, classic reference to help pipeline engineers solve their day-to-day problems.
- Contains new chapters that highlight costs, safety and environmental topics, including discussions on emissions
- Helps readers learn terminology, with updated glossaries in every chapter
- Includes renovated graphs and data tables throughout
M.J. Kaiser
Mark Kaiser is Marathon Professor and Director of the Research and Development Division at the Center for Energy Studies at Louisiana State University. His areas of expertise include cost estimation, decommissioning, fiscal systems, offshore infrastructure and service industries, refining, and regulatory modeling.
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Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook - M.J. Kaiser
Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook
A Manual of Quick, Accurate Solutions to Everyday Pipeline Engineering Problems
Ninth Edition
Mark J. Kaiser
Louisiana State University, Baton Rouge, LA, United States
E.W. McAllister
Houston, TX, United States
Table of Contents
Cover image
Title page
Copyright
List of Contributors
About the Authors
Preface
1. General Information
System Schematics
Cables and Ropes
How to designate and classify PE piping materials
2. Construction
Right of Way
Ditching and Trenching
How engineers make pipe fit the ditch
Welding
Cross-country pipeline—vertical down electrode consumption, pounds of electrode per joint
Directional Crossing
Polyethylene Piping
3. Pipe Design
Steel pipe design
How to identify the series number of flanged fittings
4. Electrical Design
Electrical design
Hazardous locations
NEMA enclosure types
Size portable electric generators
Typical wattages for tools and appliances
Knockout dimensions
National Electrical Code tables
Electrical formulas
Full-load currents–single-phase transformers
Conduit size for combinations of cables with different outside diameters
Minimum bending radius for insulated cables for permanent training during installation
Full-load currents–three-phase transformers
Motor controller sizes
Voltage drop on circuits using 600V copper conductors in steel conduit
Determine the most economical size for electric power conductors
How to find the resistance and weight of copper wires
What you should remember about electrical formulas
How to calculate microwave hops on level ground
Quick determination of hp per ampere for induction motors (3 phase) at different voltages
Chart of electric motor horsepower for pumping units
Pumping stations
Floodlighting calculations
Point-by-point method
Beam-lumen design method
Conductor size conversion chart—metric to AWG
Commonly used switchgear device numbers
Bonding the grounding system to building and structure foundations
5. Hydrostatic Testing
History of gas pipeline pressure test requirements
The benefits and limitations of hydrostatic testing
Hydrostatic testing for pipelines
Pressure testing and recordkeeping requirements – reconciling historical practices with new requirements
6. Pigging, Cleaning & Drying
A brief history of pipeline pigging
Pipeline dewatering, cleaning, and drying
Moisture content of air
Vacuum drying
Pig trap design
7. Control Valves
Control valve sizing formulas
Sizing control valves for throughput
Avoid cavitation in butterfly valves
How to read a regulator flow curve
8. Corrosion and Coatings
Types of corrosion and control methods
Fundamentals of pipeline corrosion
Estimate the pounds of sacrificial anode material required for offshore pipelines
Advances in pipeline protection
Estimate the number of squares of tape for pipe coating
Minimizing shock hazards on pipelines near HVAC lines
Pipeline external corrosion direct assessment process
9. Gas—General
Know the gas laws
How to calculate the specific gravity of natural gas
Nomograph for calculating density and specific volume of gases and vapors
Facts about methane and its behavior
Conversion table for pure methane
Glossary of common gas industry terms
10. Gas—Compression
Compressor definitions
Generalized compressibility factor
Nomograph aids in diagnosing compressor cylinder ills
Centrifugal compressor performance calculations
11. Gas—Hydraulics
Gas pipeline hydraulics calculations
Calculate the velocity of gas in a pipeline
Nomograph for calculating Reynolds number for compressible flow friction factor for clean steel and wrought iron pipe
12. Liquids—General
Determining the viscosity of crude
Calculate viscosity of a blend
Calculate specific gravity of a blend
Nomograph for calculating viscosity of slurries
Nomograph for calculating velocity of liquids in pipes
Nomograph for calculating velocity of compressible fluids in pipes
Nomograph for calculating velocity of liquids in pipes
Carbon capture and sequestration processes
CO2 pipeline infrastructure in the United States
Effect of variability on CO2 pipeline operation
13. Liquids—Hydraulics
Marine hose pressure loss
Nomograph for calculating pressure drop of liquids in lines for turbulent flow
Drag-reducing agents
How to estimate the rate of liquid discharge from a pipe
14. Pumps
Centrifugal pumps
Centrifugal pump parameters and applications
How to examine centrifugal pump systems
Estimate the discharge of a centrifugal pump at various speeds
Nomograph for determining specific speed of pumps
Nomograph for determining horsepower requirement of pumps
How to select motors for field-gathering pumps
The basics of NPSH and pump operating regions
15. Measurement
Multiphase flow meter
Mass measurement light hydrocarbons
Master meter proving orifice meters in dense phase ethylene
Gas or vapor flow measurement—orifice plate flange taps
Properties of gas and vapors
Determine required orifice diameter for any required differential when the orifice and differential are known
Matching the flow meter to the application
Handling entrained gas
Proving liquid ultrasonic flow meters for custody transfer measurement
V-Cone® flow meter
Sampling and testing program for unrefined petroleum-based products
16. Instrumentation
Types of control systems
Automatic tank gauging systems and proof testing
Instrumentation and sensors for automatic tank gauging
17. Integrity Management
Overview of leak detection technologies
Inspection tools and case studies
Factors to consider when evaluating damage on pipelines
Understanding mechanical damage in pipelines
Understanding stress corrosion cracking in pipelines
When does a pipeline need revalidation?
Modeling pipeline risk assessment
A risk management tool for establishing budget priorities
Floating roof failure modes and risk
Floating roof tanks rainfall risk
18. Tanks
Classification of storage tanks
What is the difference between fixed and floating tank types?
Tank styles and appurtenances
Floating roof applications and components
Summary of federal requirements for aboveground storage tanks
Design and containment for atmospheric storage tanks
Overview of petroleum storage tank standards
Tank weight estimation tool using diameter as input variable
How to estimate flow rate from a leaking tank hole
Charts give vapor loss from internal floating-roof tanks
Estimating the contents of horizontal cylindrical tanks
Tank farm line sizing
Managing oil movement and storage in tank farms
Standard construction practices for LNG storage tanks
Choosing the best containment for LNG storage
A review of API 2350 overfill protection, 4th and 5th edition
Manual tank gauging procedures
How to apply vapor cloud analysis methodology to tank overfills
Simplified procedure to calculate emissions for liquid organic storage tanks
Calculating tank emissions with BREEZE TankESP
19. Economics
Time Value of Money
Decision and Evaluation Criteria
Sensitivity Analysis
Decision Tree Analysis
Accounting Fundamentals
20. Cost
Cost Estimation
Onshore Construction
Onshore FERC gas pipeline cost statistics in the United States, 2014–2019
How to estimate onshore pipeline construction cost using unit costs?
Offshore Construction
U.S. Gulf of Mexico pipeline cost statistics, 1995–2019
How to estimate shallow water pipeline construction cost bounds in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico using empirical data?
Offshore Decommissioning
Offshore pipeline decommissioning cost factors
How to estimate the cost to decommission shallow water pipeline in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico?
How to estimate deepwater umbilical, flowline, and riser decommissioning cost in the U.S. Gulf of Mexico?
Typical workflows for offshore pipeline decommissioning
Gas Compression Stations
Scaling Rules
Tariff Rates
How to calculate firm service with fixed maximum daily quantity and reservation charge?
How is the cost of service formula applied?
How to compute price adjustments in pipeline system quality banks
21. Health, Safety and Environment
Health
Safety
Crane and hoist safety
Tank fire types and causes
Firefighting protection systems for atmospheric storage tanks
Carbon dioxide pipeline safety and integrity
Environment
Estimating oil spill thickness on water visually
Fast discharge volume calculator for offshore leaking pipeline
Guidelines on oil characterization to inform spill planning and decision making
Oil spills inland response good practice guidelines
Calculating volatile organic compounds flash emissions from crude oil and condensate tanks at oil and gas production sites
22. Specifications
Pipeline Steel Specifications
Main differences between API 5L PSL 1 and PSL 2 pipeline
Pipeline Material Coating Specifications
Fuel Specifications
Transportation fuel specifications
Pipeline Product Specifications
23. Conversion Factors
Metric conversions—metric to English, English to metric
Density conversions
General liquid density nomograph
Chart gives specific gravity/temperature relationship for petroleum oils
Weight density and specific gravity of various liquids
True vapor pressure of crude oil stocks with a Reid vapor pressure of 2–15 psi
Low temperature vapor pressures for light hydrocarbons
High temperature vapor pressures for light hydrocarbons
Hydrocarbon gas viscosity
Viscosity—equivalents of kinematic and Saybolt Universal Viscosity
Viscosity–equivalents of kinematic and Saybolt Furol Viscosity at 122 °F and 210 °F
Viscosity—general conversions
ASTM standard viscosity temperature chart for liquid petroleum products
Pressure conversion chart
Energy conversion chart
Flow conversion chart
Petroleum fuels volume, weight and calorific value factors
Crude oil approximate conversion factors
Refined products approximate conversion factors
Natural gas and LNG approximate conversion factors
Units and calorific equivalents
Weight of water per cubic foot at various temperatures
Index
Copyright
Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier
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The Boulevard, Langford Lane, Kidlington, Oxford, OX5 1GB, United Kingdom
Copyright © 2023 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
No part of this publication may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopying, recording, or any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the publisher. Details on how to seek permission, further information about the Publisher’s permissions policies and our arrangements with organizations such as the Copyright Clearance Center and the Copyright Licensing Agency, can be found at our website: www.elsevier.com/permissions.
This book and the individual contributions contained in it are protected under copyright by the Publisher (other than as may be noted herein).
Notices
Knowledge and best practice in this field are constantly changing. As new research and experience broaden our understanding, changes in research methods, professional practices, or medical treatment may become necessary.
Practitioners and researchers must always rely on their own experience and knowledge in evaluating and using any information, methods, compounds, or experiments described herein. In using such information or methods they should be mindful of their own safety and the safety of others, including parties for whom they have a professional responsibility.
To the fullest extent of the law, neither the Publisher nor the authors, contributors, or editors, assume any liability for any injury and/or damage to persons or property as a matter of products liability, negligence or otherwise, or from any use or operation of any methods, products, instructions, or ideas contained in the material herein.
ISBN: 978-0-12-822788-6
For information on all Gulf Professional Publishing publications visit our website at https://www.elsevier.com/books-and-journals
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List of Contributors
Michael S. Choi, Process Engineering Fellow in ConocoPhillips, Houston, TX, United States
Philip E. Myers, Founder and Director, PEMY Consulting, Pleasant Hill, CA, United States
Brock Trotter, E.I.T., PEMY Consulting, Oklahoma City, OK, United States
George G. Woodworth, Data Analyst, PEMY Consulting, Pleasant Hill, CA, United States
About the Authors
Mark J. Kaiser is a Professor at the Center for Energy Studies at Louisiana State University in Baton Rouge, Louisiana, where he has focused mainly on the oil, gas, and refining industry. His areas of specialization include cost evaluation, economic analysis, field development, production, and infrastructure. He has worked in the United States and internationally on numerous infrastructure and regulatory projects and started at the Center in 2001.
Edward W. McAllister has more than 50 years of experience in the pipeline industry as an Engineer, Administrator, and Project Manager. He has worked for Chevron Pipe Line Company and Gulf Pipe Line Company and has directed his own engineering services consulting firm in Houston, Texas, since 1983.
Preface
Pipeline Rules of Thumb columns began in the 1960s in Pipeline Industry Magazine, where it was conceived and written by Don Taylor, the first editor of the magazine. Don had been a pipeline engineer before transitioning to the publishing business, and he thought it would be helpful to provide veteran and new engineers some basic tips on various aspects of pipelining.
This was years before the pipeline technology that is available today. SCADA systems weren't in wide use at that time. Desktop computers were in someone's dreams, and engineers were still using slide rules. The Office of Pipeline Safety had not been established, and the pipeline infrastructure, especially the natural gas systems, was just starting to expand across North America.
Initially, the Rules of Thumb columns were published each month as a brief item, covering not only oil, gas, and product pipelines but also the power, water, utility, and chemical process industries. Early subjects dealt with the basics, such as how to determine the depth of cover for a new pipeline, the pressure required for a particular length and diameter line, the degrees of a pipe bend, etc.
By the late 1970s, there were sufficient tips to produce a book, and the first printing of the Pipeline Rules of Thumb Handbook (RoT) was by Gulf Publishing Company in 1978. In 1986, an advertisement for someone to update RoT was placed in Pipeline Industry Magazine. After retiring from Gulf Pipeline Company after 33 years in the pipeline business, Ed McAllister was looking for a new project and answered the ad. After interviewing with B.J. Lowe, who later formed Clarion Technical Conferences, Ed agreed to take on the task of updating the Handbook.
The second edition of the Handbook was published in 1988 and doubled in size to about 400 pages. Subsequent editions appeared every five years or so. The third edition in 1993 was released with a software version, and the 602 page fourth edition was printed in 1998. The seventh edition was printed in 2009 by Gulf Professional Publishing, an imprint of Elsevier, and the eighth edition in 2014 came with an online companion website hosting interactive data tables.
In this ninth edition, Mark J. Kaiser, Professor at the Center for Energy Studies at Louisiana State University, joins as co-editor. After 31 years in academia and not quite ready for retirement, MJK's goal was to update RoT with the latest technical information while maintaining its basic organizational structure and layout.
Today, the pipeline industry is a multibillion-dollar global enterprise that keeps growing with new products, new methods, new technologies, and new standards to improve economics, safety, and reliability. In the future, pipelines will continue to play an important role in the efficient use and distribution of gas and liquid products, and an integral component in the transition to cleaner burning fuels, the sequestration of carbon dioxide, the transport of hydrogen, and new uses we haven't yet imagined.
The Handbook's enduring popularity and success is undoubtedly due to its focus on: (1) short practical quantitative rules of thumb, (2) clear and abundant illustrations, and (3) broad coverage of all topics related to pipelines, from A to Z. In this edition, we build upon each of these features, enhancing and expanding coverage on most major subjects, and expunging antiquated material where needed.
Four new chapters have been added on Cost, Integrity Management, Safety and Environment, and Specifications, along with a significantly expanded Tanks chapter. There is also new material on CO2 pipelines, corrosion fundamentals, hydrostatic testing, lead pipes, LNG, mechanical damage, PE piping, pigging, reading pump curves, risk management, sampling standards, proof testing sensors, stress corrosion cracking, trench shoring, and more. RoT 9th edition checks in at a healthy and hunky 6.2 pounds 2.5 inches.
Long-time readers already know that RoT contains many different types of information in many different forms in addition to rules of thumb—worked examples, design guidelines and operational tips, specification sheets, nomographs, physical properties, numerical simulations, ... Methods described range from back of envelope calculations to the results of mathematical modeling, and the wide variety of technical papers and excerpts provide detailed information to complement engineering basics.
Written by engineers for engineers, managers, and regulators, RoT aims to serve both working professionals and those new to the industry. We hope you agree that one of the pleasures of thumbing through the handbook is in the discovery of hidden gems written by the experts themselves. One cannot help feel sublime awe in the presence of such vast accumulated knowledge and experience.
Readers' comments are welcome.
Mark J. Kaiser
Baton Rouge, LA
E.W. McAllister
Houston, TX
August 2022
1: General Information
Abstract
This chapter explains the basic formulas, rules of exponents, cables and ropes, belts and shafts, and pipeline pigging. Various kinds of rope and chains are available; the possible strength factors are reviewed in this chapter. They allow for safety factor of 4 as based on mild plow steels. Stress in guy wires is also defined, which states that guys are wire ropes or strands used to hold a vertical structure in position against an overturning force. The most common types of guyed structures are stacks, derricks, masts for draglines, reversible tramways, and radio transmission towers. As a general rule, stresses in guys from temperature changes are neglected, but in structures such as radio masts, this is an important feature and must be subject to special analysis. The number of guys used for any particular installation is contingent on several variable factors such as type of structure, space available, and contour of the ground.
Keywords
Belts; Cables; Drills; Pipeline pigging; Ropes; Shafts
System Schematics
Schematic of hazardous liquid pipeline system networks
Schematic of natural gas pipeline system networks
Hydrocarbon classification of gases and products
Typical pipeline construction sequence
U.S. Pipeline Maps
Gas transmission and hazardous liquid pipelines circa 2020
Hazardous liquid pipeline accident heat map, 2010-2020
Gas transmission pipeline incident heat map, 2010-2020
LNG plants connected to natural gas pipeline systems, 2020
CO2-EOR operations and infrastructure in the U.S. circa 2020
Permian Basin CO2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020
Gulf Coast CO2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020
Rocky Mountain CO2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020
Mid-Continent CO2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020
U.S. Statistics
Annual mileage for hazardous liquid or carbon dioxide systems in the United States, 2004-2019
Annual mileage for natural gas transmission and gathering systems in the United States, 1984-2019
Annual mileage for gas distribution systems in the United States, 1984-2019
Billion barrels delivered by liquids pipeline in the United States, 2014-2018
Liquefied natural gas facilities in the United States circa 2020
Cables and Ropes
Estimating strength of cable
Find the working strength of Manila rope
How large should drums and sheaves be for wire rope?
Find advantages of block and tackle with pull out friction
Safe loads for wire rope
Stress in guy wires
Strength and weight of popular wire rope
Measuring the diameter of wire rope
Wire rope: field troubles and their causes
Capacity of drums
Belts and Shafts
Determine length of a V-belt
Calculate stress in shaft key
Estimate the horsepower that can be transmitted by a shaft
Miscellaneous
Area formula
Surface and volume formula
Recommended drill sizes for self-tapping screws
Determine pulley speed
ASTM standard reinforcing bars
Pressure rating for carbon steel flanges
How to estimate length of material contained in roll
Convenient antifreeze chart for winterizing cooling systems
How to determine glycol requirements for desired protection
Weight in pounds of round steel shafting
Properties of shafting
Tap drills and clearance drills for machine screws
Common nails
Drill sizes for pipe taps
Carbon steel–color and approximate temperature
Bolting dimensions for flanges
Flange bolt tightening sequence
Steel fitting dimensions
ANSI forged steel flanges
Trenching and excavation safety
Reuniting separated mercury in thermometers
Typical wire resistance
How to cut odd-angle long radius elbows
How to read land descriptions
Size an air receiver for engine starting
Dimensions of hex nuts and hex jam nuts
Color codes for locating underground utilities
Approximate angle of repose for sloping sides of excavations
Wind chill chart
Fluid power formulas
How is pipeline manufactured?
How to designate and classify PE piping materials
Pipeline books published after 2000
System Schematics
Schematic of hazardous liquid pipeline system networks
Figure 1 Schematic of hazardous liquid pipeline systems from the wellhead to the consumer. Source: PHMSA
Schematic of natural gas pipeline system networks
Figure 2 Schematic of natural gas pipeline systems from the wellhead to the consumer. Source: PHMSA
Hydrocarbon classification of gases and products
Figure 3 Hydrocarbon classification of gases and products. Source: Norwegianpetroleum.no IEA/MPE
Typical pipeline construction sequence
Figure 4 Typical pipeline construction sequence. Source: AOPL
U.S. Pipeline Maps
Gas transmission and hazardous liquid pipelines circa 2020
Figure 5 Gas transmission and hazardous liquid pipelines systems circa 2020. Source: NPMS
Hazardous liquid pipeline accident heat map, 2010-2020
Figure 6 Hazardous liquid pipeline accident heat map, 2010-2020. Source: NPMS
Gas transmission pipeline incident heat map, 2010-2020
Figure 7 Gas transmission pipeline incident heat map, 2010-2020. Source: NPMS
LNG plants connected to natural gas pipeline systems, 2020
Figure 8 LNG plants connected to natural gas pipeline systems, 2020. Source: NPMS
CO2-EOR operations and infrastructure in the U.S. circa 2020
Figure 9 CO 2 -EOR operations and infrastructure in the U.S. circa 2020. Source: DOE/NETL
Permian Basin CO2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020
Figure 10 Permian Basin CO 2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020. Source: DOE/NETL
Gulf Coast CO2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020
Figure 11 Gulf Coast CO 2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2015 and potential proved and produced-to-date tertiary reserves estimates circa 2013
Rocky Mountain CO2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020
Figure 12 Rocky Mountain CO 2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020. Source: DOE/NETL
Mid-Continent CO2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020
Figure 13 Mid-Continent CO 2 pipeline infrastructure circa 2020. Source: DOE/NETL
U.S. Statistics
Annual mileage for hazardous liquid or carbon dioxide systems in the United States, 2004-2019
Figure 14 Annual mileage for hazardous liquid or carbon dioxide systems in the United States, 2004-2019. Source: PHMSA
Annual mileage for natural gas transmission and gathering systems in the United States, 1984-2019
Figure 15 Annual mileage for natural gas transmission and gathering in the United States, 1984-2019. Source: PHMSA
Annual mileage for gas distribution systems in the United States, 1984-2019
Figure 16 Annual mileage for gas distribution systems in the United States, 1984-2019. Source: PHMSA
Billion barrels delivered by liquids pipeline in the United States, 2014-2018
Figure 17 Billion barrels delivered by liquids pipeline in the United States, 2014-2018. Source: AOPI, API
Liquefied natural gas facilities in the United States circa 2020
Figure 18 Liquefied natural gas facilities and total storage capacities in the United States circa 2020. Source: PHMSA
Cables and Ropes
Estimating strength of cable
Rule
1. Change line diameter to eighths
2. Square the numerator
3. Divide by the denominator
4. Read the answer in tons
Example
Estimate the strength of ½-in. steel cable:
The approximate strength of ½-in steel cable is 2 tons.
Find the working strength of Manila rope
The working strength of Manila rope is approximately 900 × (diameter)²:
where d is expressed in inches and W is given in pounds.
Example
What is the working strength of a ¾ in Manila rope?
The maximum recommended pull is
Example
Find the maximum working pull for a 1½ in Manila rope.
For rope diameters greater than 2 in, a factor lower than 900 should be used. In working with heavier rigging it is advisable to refer to accepted handbooks to find safe working strengths.
How large should drums and sheaves be for wire rope?
Construction Methods and Machinery, by F. H. Kellogg, Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1954.
The diameter of sheaves or drums should preferably fall within the table for most efficient utilization of the wire rope.
Example
What size should the hoisting drum on a dragline be, if the wire rope is 6 × 19 construction, ¾ in in diameter?
From the table, good practice calls for 30 diameters, which in this instance would be 22½ in. Loads, speeds, bends, and service conditions will also affect the life of wire rope, so it is better to stay somewhere between the good practice
and best wear
factors in the table.
Find advantages of block and tackle with pull out friction
The efficiency of various sheaves differs. For one with roller bearings the efficiency has been estimated at 96.2%. For plain bearing sheaves a commonly used figure is 91.7%. The following formula will give close results:
where
MA = Mechanical advantage,
W = Total weight to be lifted by the assembly,
= Maximum line pull at the hoist,
n = Number of working parts in the tackle,
E = Efficiency of individual sheaves.
It is assumed that the line leaving the upper block goes directly to the hoist without additional direction change (requiring a snatch block).
Example
Find the mechanical advantage of a four-part block and tackle using upper and lower blocks having journal bearings, which have an efficiency of 91.7%.
If the load weighed 3250 lb, what pull would be required on the lead line?
Safe loads for wire rope
Stress in guy wires
Guys are wire ropes or strands used to hold a vertical structure in position against an overturning force. The most common types of guyed structures are stacks, derricks, masts for draglines, reversible tramways, and radio transmission towers.
As a general rule, stresses in guys from temperature changes are neglected, but in structures such as radio masts this is an important feature and must be subject to special analysis. The number of guys used for any particular installation is contingent on several variable factors such as type of structure, space available, contour of the ground, etc., and is not a part of this discussion.
It is desirable to space guys uniformly whenever possible. This equalizes the pull, P, on each guy insofar as possible, particularly against forces that change in direction, as when a derrick boom swings in its circle.
It is also desirable to equalize the erection tensions on the guys. When no external force is acting on the structure, the tension in each guy should be the same. A tension indicator is sometimes used to determine the tension in guys. If this instrument is not available, the tension can be very closely approximated by measuring the deflection at the center of the span from the chord drawn from the guy anchorage to the point of support on the structure. A good average figure to use for erection tension of guys is 20% of the maximum working tension of the guy.
Figure 1
This discussion outlines the method for determining the stresses in guys. One of the first considerations is the location of the guy anchorages. The anchorages should be so located that the angle α, between the horizontal plane and the guy line, is the same for all guys (to equalize erection tensions). Angle α, in good practice, seldom exceeds 45°, with 30° being commonly used. The tension in the guys decreases as angle α becomes smaller. The direct load on the structure is also less with a smaller value of α.
To find the maximum extra tension, T, that will be applied to any single guy by the force, F, first determine the pull, P, which is the amount required along the guys, in the same vertical plane as the force to resist the horizontal component of the force. This pull is entirely independent of the number of guys. Assume that the following are known:
F = The total resultant external force acting on the structure,
G = The angle between the horizontal plane and the force F,
h = The height of the structure,
d = The horizontal distance from structure to guy anchorage,
m = The vertical height of anchorage above or below the base of the structure,
α = The angle whose tangent is (h ± m) ÷ d. m is added if the anchorage is below the base of the structure and subtracted if it is above.
P represents the total pull acting along the guys at an angle, α, with the horizontal, and in the same vertical plane as the force, F:
As cos α is always less than 1, P is always greater than F cos γ, the horizontal component of force F.
If only one guy were used, P would represent the extra tension, T. In practice, however, a number of guys are always used, and, therefore, the pull on any one guy will not be equal to P. The following table gives factors for any number of guys from 3 to 15, equally spaced about a central structure. To find the maximum extra tension, T, that will be applied to any single guy by the force, F, capable of rotating 360° around a vertical axis, it is only necessary to multiply the value of P, as determined above, by the factor for the number of guys used. It must be clearly understood in using this table that the guys are uniformly spaced and under equal tension when no load is acting on the structure.
Example
A derrick mast 90 ft high is supported by nine equally spaced guys anchored at a horizontal distance of 170 ft from the mast, and the elevations of the guy anchorages are 10 ft below the base of the mast. The load on the structure is equivalent to a force of 10,000 lb, acting on an angle of 10° below the horizontal. What is the maximum pull on any single cable?
From Figure 1:
h = 90 ft,
d = 170 ft,
m = 10 ft,
Table 1
∗ These factors are for average conditions. If the guys are erected under accurately measured tensions of not less than 20% of the working load, the factors for five or more guys may be reduced by 10%. If the erecting tensions are low or not accurately equalized, the factors for five or more guys should be increased 10%.
g = 10°00′,
F = 10,000 lb,
From Table 1, T = 11,427 × 0.50 = 5714 lb.
If erection tension is 10% of total working tension, 5714 is 90% of total working tension. Therefore, working tension = (5714 × 100)/90 = 6349 lb.
Strength and weight of popular wire rope
The following tables give the breaking strength for wire rope of popular construction made of improved plow steel.
To apply the above table to wire rope of other construction, multiply by the following factors:
Example
Find the breaking strength of 6 × 29 improved plow steel wire rope 2 in in diameter.
The weight can be found the same way.
Measuring the diameter of wire rope
Wire rope: field troubles and their causes
All wire rope will eventually deteriorate in operation or have to be removed simply by virtue of the loads and reversals of load applied in normal service. There are, however, many conditions of service or inadvertent abuse that will materially shorten the normal life of a wire rope of proper construction although it is properly applied. The following field troubles and their causes give some of the field conditions and practices that result in the premature replacement of wire rope (it should be borne in mind that in all cases the contributory cause of removal may be one or more of these practices or conditions):
Capacity of drums
The capacity of wire line drums may be figured from the following formula:
Figure 1 Capacity of wire line drums.
where
M = Rope capacity of drum, inches,
A = Depth of flange, inches,
B = Diameter of drum, inches,
C = Width of the drum between flanges, inches,
K = Constant depending on rope size
Belts and Shafts
Determine length of a V-belt
Rule: To find the nominal length of a V-belt, lay the belt on a table and place within it a pair of circular objects of the same diameter (flanges, tin cans, or whatever may be at hand). Pull them apart until the belt is fully extended without stretching. Then measure the shortest distance between the two circles, in inches. The belt size is then twice this figure, plus 5.14 times the diameter of the circles. This value, for any standard belt, should be a whole number of inches, which is the belt size.
V-belts are made in four standard sections, classified as A, B, C, and D; the widths (at the widest part) are ½, ⅝, ⅞, and 1⅛ in, respectively. The complete designation of the belt is the letter showing the width, followed by the length in inches; thus, an A26 belt is ½-in. wide and 26 in. long on the inside edge. The pitch length of the belt is measured along a median section and corresponds to the length that runs on the pulley diameter, which determines the actual speed ratio—about half of the depth of the groove. Pitch lengths for A, B, C, and D belts are greater than their nominal lengths by 1.3, 1.8, 2.9, and 3.3 in, respectively.
Calculate stress in shaft key
The shear and compressive stresses in a key are calculated using the following equations:
Ss = Shear stress in psi,
Sc = Compressive stress in psi,
T = Shaft torque inch-pounds,
d = Shaft diameter, inches (for taper shafts, use average diameter),
w = Width key, inches,
L = Effective length of key, inches,
h1 = Height of key in the shaft or hub that bears against the keyway, inches,
h1 = h2 for square keys. For designs where unequal portions of the key are in the hub or shaft, h1 is the minimum portion.
Key material is usually AISI 1018 or AISI 1045 with the following allowable stresses:
Example
Determine key stresses for these conditions: 300 HP @ 600 RPM; 3″ diameter shaft, ¾ × ¾ key, 4″ key engagement length.
The AISI 1018 key should be used since it is within allowable stresses. Note: If shaft had been 2¾″ diameter (4″ long hub), the key would be ⅝ × ⅝ and Ss = 9200 psi, Sc = 18,400 psi, and a heat-treated key, AISI 1045, would have been required.
Reprinted with permission: The Falk Corporation.
Estimate the horsepower that can be transmitted by a shaft
1. Where there are no stresses due to bending, weight of the shaft, pulleys, gears, or sprockets, use
where
D = diameter of shaft, inches,
N = revolutions per minute.
2. For heavy duty service use
Example
What horsepower can be transmitted to an atmospheric cooling coil by a 2 in shaft turning at 1800 revolutions per minute?
Miscellaneous
Area formula
Surface and volume formula
Recommended drill sizes for self-tapping screws
Determine pulley speed
Speed of Driven Pulley Required:
Diameter and speed of driving pulley and diameter of driven pulley are known.
D1 = Diameter of driving pulley 15 in,
RPM1 = 180 (driving pulley speed),
d2 = Diameter of driven pulley 9 in,
RPM2 = Speed of driven pulley,
Diameter of Driven Pulley Required:
Diameter and speed of driving pulley and speed of driven pulley are known.
D1 = Diameter of driving pulley 24 in,
RPM1 = 100 (driving pulley speed),
RPM2 = Speed of driven pulley = 600.
Diameter of Driving Pulley Required:
D1 = in,
d2 = 36 in,
RPM2 = 150,
RPM1 = 600,
Speed of Driving Pulley Required:
D2 = 4 in,
RPM2 = 800,
D1 = 26 in,
Speed of Driven Pulley in Compound Drive Required:
RPMA = 260,
RPMD = 720 (required),
required speed ratio.
Resolve into two factors
Multiply by trial numbers 12 and 1:
The values 12 and 13 in the numerator represent the diameter of driven pulleys B and D, and the values 24 and 18 in the denominator represent the diameter of the driving pulleys A and B.
ASTM standard reinforcing bars
Pressure rating for carbon steel flanges
How to estimate length of material contained in roll
Where material of uniform thickness, like belting, is in a roll, the total length may be obtained by the following rule:
Measure the diameter of the hole in the center, and of the outside of the roll, both measurements in inches; count the number of turns; multiply the sum of the two measured diameters by the number of turns, and multiply this product by 0.13; the result is the total length of the material in feet.
Example
A roll of belting contains 24 turns. The diameter of the hole is 2 in, and that of the outside of the roll is 13 in.
The roll contains 46.8 ft of belting.
Note: The rule can even be applied to materials as thin as pipeline felt; counting the turns is not as difficult as it might appear without a trial.
Convenient antifreeze chart for winterizing cooling systems
This plot of water volume versus glycol volume at various conditions of temperature and percent of glycol in the system makes winterizing field engines relatively easy.
Example
Determine the amount of glycol to be used in a 200 gallon system for protection to 16 °F.
To use the chart, first find the total system capacity, 200 gallons, at point A on the water volume axis. Point A also can represent 2, 20, 2000, etc. Proceed along the 45° line from point A to point B at the intersection with the 16 °F line. Then, move from point B to point C and read 160 on the water volume axis. This is the amount of water the system should contain. Move from point B to point D on the glycol axis and read 40. This is the amount of glycol that must be added to the system.
How to determine glycol requirements for desired protection
Solve the equation below to find the number of gallons of aqueous solution that must be removed and replaced with glycol.
where
d = Gallons of aqueous solution to be removed from the system and replaced with an equal number of gallons of glycol,
D = Total gallons of glycol required for protection at desired temperature less gallons of glycol in original system,
B = 1.0 − fraction of glycol in system.
Example
Find the number of gallons of existing aqueous solution that must be removed and replaced with glycol in a 1200 gallon system to give protection to −10 °F. Glycol in the system determined by a hydrometer test is 28% (0.28 fraction). The published figure for −10 °F protection is 519 gallons of glycol in the 1200 gallon system.
Then:
Gallons of glycol in system = 1200 × 0.28 = 336 gallons,
D = 519 − 336 = 183 gallons difference,
B = 1.0 − 0.28 = 0.72.
Therefore, 254 gallons of existing aqueous solution need to be removed and replaced with 254 gallons of glycol for the desired protection to −10 °F.
Weight in pounds of round steel shafting
Properties of shafting
Steel shaft sizes calculated for strength
Base Fiber Stress = 60,000 lb sq in.
C = 50 corresponds to very little bending; C = 75, average conditions of bending; C = 100, severe conditions of bending
Haven-Swett Treatise on Leather Belting,
American Leather Belting Association.
Tap drills and clearance drills for machine screws
Common nails
Drill sizes for pipe taps
Carbon steel–color and approximate temperature
Bolting dimensions for flanges
ASME/ANSI B16.5 provides weld neck, slip-on, socket weld, threaded, lap joint and blind flange dimensions for pipes ranging 1/2 to 24
in classes ranging 150 to 2500.