1

Thermal Expansion and Thermal Conductivity

Objective: To familiarize with measurements of thermal expansion and thermal
conductivity of some common metals and construction materials, respectively.

References:

[1] Charles Kittel, Introduction to Solid State Physics, 7
th
Ed., John Wiley & Sons,
Inc., 1996.
[2] Instruction Manual and Experiment Guide for the PASCO scientific Model TD-
8579A, Computer-Based Thermal Expansion Apparatus.
[3] Instruction Manual and Experiment Guide for the PASCO scientific Model TD-
8561, Thermal Conductivity Apparatus.

Apparatus:

Expansion based with 10 k? thermistor
Thermistor Sensor (PASCO CI-5627)
3 metal tubes brass, copper (99.5% Cu, 0.5% Te), and aluminum (98.9% Al, 0.7%
Mg, 0.4% Si): 6.4 mm outside diameter
Rotary motion sensor (PASCO CI-6538) with 6:1 ratio pinion
Steam generator (PASCO TD-8556A)
DataStudio (version 1.5.2) software on the data acquisition computer and 2 USB
interface adaptors for PASCO sensors
Tape measure and vernier caliper
Stop watch
Freezer and Ice mold containers
Balance
Sealing grease (Vaseline)
Integrated steam chamber, thermal conductivity sample holder and tilted base
(PASCO TD-8561)
5 different samples for thermal conductivity measurements: Masonite, Wood (pine),
Lexan, Sheetrock, and Glass.
Miscellaneous items: plastic and rubber tubing, foam wrap, beakers, Styrofoam cups

Introduction:

This section of the laboratory includes two separate experiments, both are related to the
thermal properties of matter, namely the thermal expansion and thermal conductivity of
materials.

Introduction of Thermal Expansion

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Most materials expand when heated through a temperature range that does not produce a
change in phase. The added heat increases the average amplitude of vibration of the
atoms in the material, which increases the average separation between the atoms.

Following a treatment in Ref. 1 on thermal expansion, we may understand thermal
expansion by considering the effect of anharmonic terms in a classical oscillator potential
energy on the mean separation of a pair of atoms at a temperature T. The potential energy
of the atoms at a displacement x from their equilibrium separation at absolute zero can be
approximated as

3 2
) ( bx ax x U = , (1)

with a and b being positive. In equation (1) the term in x
3
represents the asymmetry of the
mutual repulsion of the atoms and any higher anharmonic terms have been neglected. The
average displacement can be calculated using the Boltzmann distribution function, which
weights the possible values of the x according to their thermodynamic probability.

>= <
dx e
dx xe
x
x U
x U
) (
) (

, (2)
with =1/k
B
T. For displacement such that the anharmonic term in the energy is small in
comparison with k
B
T, the following average displacement is resulted

T k
a
b
x
B 2
4
3
> < , (3)

[Question #1: prove that (3) is the case under the assumption that the anharmonic term is
small compared with k
B
T.]

Equation (3) shows that the average inter-atomic distance scales positively and linearly
with temperature. For a macroscopic system, these increased inter-atomic distances will
accumulate into an easily observable change in the samples sizes as a function of
temperature.

Suppose an object of length L undergoes a temperature change of magnitude T. If T is
reasonably small, the change in length L, is generally proportional to L and T. Stated
mathematically:

L = L T , (4)

where is called the coefficient of linear expansion for the material. [Question #2: use (3)
to derive (4), hand-waving is fine.]

Materials that are not isotropic, such as an asymmetric crystal for example, can have a
different value depending on the axis along which the expansion is measured. The
3
coefficient () can also vary somewhat with temperature. Therefore, the degree of
expansion depends not only on the magnitude of the temperature change, but also on the
absolute temperature.

In the Exercise 1, you will measure for copper, aluminum, and brass. These materials
are isotropic, so it is sufficient to measure along only one dimension to characterize the
linear expansion of them. Also, within the limits of this experiment, does not vary with
temperature.

Introduction of Thermal Conductivity

Heat can be transferred from one point to another by three common methods: conduction,
convection and radiation. Each method can be analyzed and each yields its own specific
mathematical relationship. In this experiment we will investigate the rate of thermal
conduction through five common materials used in building construction.

The equation giving the amount of heat conducted through a material is:

Q = k A T t / h, (5)

In this equation, Q is the total heat energy conducted. A is the area through which
conduction takes place, T is the temperature difference between the sides of the material,
t is the time during which the conduction occurred and h is the thickness of the material.
The remaining term, k, is the thermal conductivity of a given material.

Experimental and Data reduction procedures

Thermal Expansion

1. Measuring the effective length L of the aluminum rod mounted on the expansion
base at room temperature. Measure from the centre of the stainless steel ring (in
the groove of the small end block), to the centre of the rotary pin at the other end
(see Fig. 1). Note: When aligning the rod on the expansion base, hook the spring
clip (on the support rod) over the top metal rod and to the left side of the grip ring.
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2. Insulate the rod and Thermistor with the slitted, tubular foam wrap. Its better
done by releasing the grip ring and taking the rod out of the expansion base. The
wrap should cover the circumference of the rod and the spring clamp should be
just out from the top of the foam slit. Note: When attach the Thermistor to the
metal rod, place its lug over the top of the metal rod (see Fig. 2) , such that the
concave side fits snugly over the rod. Align the lug with the axis of the rod, so
that there is maximum contact between the lug and the rod.





3. Place the plastic tubing over both ports on top of the lid covering the Steam
Generator. Plug one tubing end off with a tube clamp. Connect the plastic tubing
on the other port to the end of the metal rod which is away from the Rotary
Motion Sensor. Use hose clamps to secure the joints if steam or water leakage
occurs at those places.
4. In DataStudio, load the provided setup CD.

5. Fill the Steam Generator half to three-quarters full with tap water. (Note: The
Steam Generator should be connected to a three-receptacle electrical outlet for
safe operation.)

Figure 2:
Figure 1:
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6. Turn on the Steam Generator and wait for it to warm up. When you first hear a
gurgle sound but before the steam travels through the clear tubing, click the
START button to begin recording the temperature. Steam will begin flowing
through the rod shortly thereafter. As steam begins to flow, watch the temperature
rise in the DataStudio Graph display as the rod heats. When necessary, use a
container to capture the steam running off the rod at the end closest to the Rotary
Motion Sensor.

CAUTION: THE STEAM GENERATOR AND METAL ROD WIKK BE HOT.
TO AVOID BURNS, DO NOT TOUCH!

When the temperature reading stabilizes, record the temperature change (DT).
Also record the expansion of the rods length (DL), as indicated by the position
displacement. Note: If you want to increase the precision of your measurements, click
on the Calculator button. In the Calculator dialog, click on Properties. Under
Precision, enter the number to indicate the number of decimal places to display.

7. In DataStudio, save your activity file for the aluminum rod. Repeat the
experiment for the copper and brass rods.

Thermal Conductivity

1. Fill the ice molde with water and freeze it. Do not freeze water with lid on jar.
2. Run jar under warm water to loosen the ice in the mold. Note: Do not attempt to
pry the ice out of the mold.
3. Meaure and record h, the thickness of the sample material.
4. Mount the sample material onto the steam chamber as shown Fig. 3. Note: Take
care that the sample material is flush against the water channel, so water will not
leak, then tighten the thumbscrews. A bit of grease between the channel and the
sample will help create a good seal.
5. Meaure the diameter of the ice block. Record this value as d
1
. Place the ice on top
of the sample as shown in Fig. 3. Do not remove the ice but make sure that the ice
can move freely in the mold. Just place the open end of the mold against the
sample, and let the ice slide out as the experiment proceeds.
6. Let the ice sit for several minutes so it begins to melt and comes in full contact
with the sample. Dont begin taking data before the ice begins to melt, because it
may be at a lower temperature than 0 C.
7. Obtain data for determing the ambient melting rate of the ice, as follows:
a. Determine the mass of a small container used for collecting the melted ice
and record it.
b. Collect the melting ice in the container for a measured time t
a

(approximately 10 minutes).
c. Determine the mass of the container plus water and record it.
d. Subtract your first measured mass from your second to determine m
wa
, the
mass of the melted ice.
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8. Run steam into the steam chamber. Let the steam run for several minutes until
temperatures stabilize so that the heat flow is steady. Place a container under the
drain spout of the steam chamber to collect the water that escape from the
chamber.
9. Empty the cup used for collecting the melted ice. Repeat step 7, but this time with
the steam running into the steam chamber. As before, measure and record m
w
, the
mass of the melted ice, and t, the time during which the ice melted (5-10 minutes).
10. Remeasure the diameter of the ice block and record the value as d
2
.
11. Take the average of d
1
and d
2
to determine d
avg
, the average diameter of the ice
during the experiment.
12. User your value of d
avg
to determine A, the area over which the heat flow between
the ice and the steam. (Assume that A is just the area of the ice in contact with the
sample material.)
13. Divide m
wa
by t
a
and m
w
by t to determine R
a
and R, the rates at which the ice
melted before and after the steam was turned on.
14. Subtract R
a
from R to determine R
0
, the rate at which the ice melted due to the
temperature differential only.
15. Calculate k, the conductivity of the sample: use 19.108 joule/gram as the latent
heat of melting for ice
k = (watt m/m
2
K) = [R
0
(19.108 joule/g) h]/A T,
where T= boiling point of water (100 C at sea level) 0 C.







Figure 3. Thermal conductivity experiment setup.





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Exercises

1) Measure the linear thermal expansion coefficient of the 3 metal tubes (along their
longer dimension).

Question #3: The accepted values for the linear expansion coefficient for copper, brass
and aluminum are 17, 19, and 23 (x 10-6/C), respectively. Compare thes values with your
experimental results. What is the percentage difference in each case? Is your
experimental error consistently high or low?

Question #4: On the basis of your answers in question #3, speculate on the possible
sources of error in your experiment. How might you improve the accuracy of the
experiment?

2) Measure the thermal conductivity of the 5 samples provided.

Question #5: Given that the aluminum thermal conductivity is about 250 Wm/m
2
K, and
the thickness of the aluminum cover layer on some of your samples is about 0.1 mm,
estimate the effect of this cover layer in your experiment, i.e. what if any would be the
error introduced by this cover layer to your results?

3) Measure the thermal conductivity of a water soaked wood. Compare with the result of
the dry wood to see if theyre different and explain why.



(1
st
draft Dec. 24, 2006)