Bridge - Concrete Structures

Comprehensive Bridge Engineering
Oct. 27, 2008

4 Concrete Structures

Tatsuya Tsubaki

MINISTRY OF LAND, INFRASTRUCTURE,
TRANSPORT AND TOURISM
JAPAN BRIDGE ASSOCIATION
JAPAN INTERNATIONAL COOPERATION AGENCY
Comprehensive Bridge Engineering Concrete Structures
1
1
Concrete Structures
Tatsuya Tsubaki
Department of Civil Engineering
Yokohama National University
2
ABSTRACT
The properties of concrete, their modeling, and the structural analysis method
considering their effects are discussed in relation to the design of concrete structures.
In Part 1, the properties of the materials used for concrete structures are discussed.
In particular, the mechanical properties of concrete are outlined.
In Part 2, models to represent the mechanical behavior of the materials used for
concrete structures are introduced.
In Part 3, analysis methods for concrete structures are investigated.
The analysis method for concrete structural members and the finite element method
for two-dimensional and three-dimensional structures are outlined.
The aim of this lecture is to understand the basic theories and the recent developments
on the modeling of concrete properties and the structural analysis method. It is
intended to obtain the knowledge of the fundamental theory related to the design of
concrete structures such as concrete bridge.
2
3
CONTENTS
1. Properties of Materials
1.1 Introduction
1.2 Strength of Concrete
1.3 Stress-Strain Relation of Concrete
1.4 Volume Change of Concrete
1.5 Fatigue of Concrete
1.6 Durability of Concrete
1.7 Other Properties of Concrete
1.8 Reinforcement
2. Modeling for Structural Analysis and Design
2.1 Introduction
2.3 Stress-Strain Relation of Concrete
2.4 Time Effects for Concrete
2.6 Temperature Effects for Concrete
2.7 Stress and Strain Rate Effects for Concrete
3. Structural Analysis Methods
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Analysis of Concrete Member
3.3 Analysis of 2D and 3D Concrete
Structures
4
Cable-Stayed Bridges:
Tomei Ashigara Bridge
3-span continuous prestressed concrete cable-stayed bridge,
5-span continuous framed box-girder bridge, road bridge,
Shizuoka Pref., Koyama Town, 1991 open.
3
5
Extradosed Bridges:
Odawara Blueway Bridge
3-span prestressed continuous extradosed box girder bridge,
road bridge, length 270m (73.1 + 122.0 + 73.0), Kanagawa Pref.,
Odawara City, 1995 open.
6
Arch Bridges:
Beppu Myoban Bridge
Fixed RC arch bridge, road bridge,
length 411m (arch span 235m),
Oita Pref., Beppu City, 1989 open.
4
7
Stress Ribbon Bridges:
Shiosai Bridge
Stress Ribbon
with Prestress
Stress ribbon bridge, pedestrian bridge, length 232m
(55+61+61+55), sag ratio 1/10.6, Shizuoka Pref., 1995 open.
8
Yume Tsuribashi Bridge
Stress-ribbon bridge, pedestrian bridge, length 172.6m, span
147.6m, sag ratio 1/42.2, Hiroshima Pref., 1996 open.
5
9
Yunohana Bashi Bridge
Stress-ribbon bridge, road bridge, length 34.5m,
span 22m, sag ratio 1/10, Ehime Pref., 1997 open.
10
Problems:
Construction of Concrete Structures
It is important to prevent rapid moisture loss from the surface by direct sunshine,
wind and so on especially in case of early age concrete.
Applying vibration, impact or excessive load to insufficiently hardened concrete
under curing causes cracking and damage.
Curing under high temperature for a long time causes a large increase of long-
time strength of concrete.
When drying of sheathing is anticipated, drying should be prevented by spraying
water.
A concrete joint should be placed at the position of bending moment as small as
possible and the joint plane should be perpendicular to the direction of compression
acting on a member.
6
11
Problems:
Construction of Concrete Structures
When new concrete is cast at a vertical joint, re-compaction by vibration should
not be done after casting concrete.
When it is necessary to have a tapered pipe or a curved pipe at the intermediate
position, it is recommended to use a concrete pump with large pumping pressure.
To make the pumping length longer, it is recommended to have an intermediate
pump in the middle and furthermore to remix concrete by an agitator.
It is recommended to pump concrete of high mortar ratio to prevent the leak of
water and cement paste from the pipe joint.
In concrete pumping it is recommended to always keep 4 to 5 agitator trucks
standing by in order to prevent interruption of pumping concrete.
12
Problems:
Construction of Prestressed Concrete Structures
In hot weather grouting it is desirable to use water-reducing agent having a
function of retarder for an admixture.
In hot weather grouting it is better to mix grout materials as quickly as possible to
make the grout temperature after mixing low.
In making a falsework it should be considered that the distribution of self-weight
of concrete member is not the same before and after prestressing.
When uplifting of falsework becomes large during prestressing, that part of
falsework is to be lowered after prestressing.
Considering the deformation of concrete member due to prestressing, a formwork
should have suitable camber and some means for shortening.
7
13
Problems:
Construction of Prestressed Concrete Structures
When the length of tendon is not the same, prestressing should be started from
the shortest tendon.
At the end section of a member prestressing should be started from the tendon
allocated near the centroid of the cross section.
The push-out erection method is the commonly used erection method when the
ground condition at the erection site is good and there is no particular limitation in
choosing an erection method.
The cantilever erection method has an advantage in the case of erection over a
mountain valley or a road of heavy traffic where the construction of falsework is not
possible.
The precast block (PC precast segment) erection method can reduce the amount
of work at the construction site and is superior in rapid construction because
members are prefabricated in a factory.
14
URL for Related Documents
and Programs
Related Documents and Programs
(1) Programs for Structural Analysis and Manuals
(2) Program for Quiz on Concrete Structures
(3) Database of Creep and Shrinkage of Concrete
(4) Other Related Documents
URL for Download
http://www.cvg.ynu.ac.jp/G5/tsubaki/conc-struct/
8
15
Concrete Structures
Part 1
Properties of Materials
16
1.1 Introduction
The properties of materials used in concrete structures such as concrete and
reinforcement have considerable significance to designers of concrete
structures or products.
The physical properties of concrete depend upon a number of factors
including mix proportions, aggregates, type of cement, curing conditions, and
age. They are also affected by environmental conditions such as temperature
and relative humidity.
The durability of concrete is related to these same factors with particular
emphasis on the cement content and amount of entrained air.
In addition to the mechanical properties of hardened concrete itself, the
mechanical properties of reinforcement and the bond of concrete to steel are
summarized in this part.
9
17
Failure of RC Bridge Pier (Case 1)
Gas Pressure Welding
Hoop Reinforcement
Hanshin-Awaji earthquake, 1995.1.17
18
The bridge pier failed in the Kobe earthquake on January 17, 1995.
It is a bridge pier of the overturned piltz viaduct of the Hanshin
Expressway Kobe Line.
The failure of the longitudinal reinforcements is observed.
The gas pressure welded joints were used for the reinforcement.
The amount of hoop reinforcement was not sufficient.
Gas pressure welding
10
19
Shear Failure
Shear Force
2-Layer, 3-Span Rigid Frame
Viaduct of San-yo Shinkansen.
Shear Failure Occurred at Either
Lower or Upper Layer.
20
The bridge pier failed by shear in the Kobe earthquake.
It is a rigid frame 2-story bridge pier of the railway viaduct of the Sanyo
Shinkansen.
The shear failure of the columns occurred either in the upper layer or in
the lower layer.
PD
11
21
Limit State Design
Service Limit State
Ultimate Limit State
Fatigue Limit State
Safety Factors:
Material Factor
Load Factor
Structure Factor
Structural Analysis Factor
Member Factor
k f d m k d
d a d b d d
d
d
i
F F f f
F S S f R R
R
S

= =
= = s

; /
) ( ; / ) ( ; 0 . 1
22
Seismic Design (JSCE2007)
Level 1 Earthquake (Several times during lifetime of structure)
Seismic Performance 1 :
Stress is less than design strength
No need of repair
Level 2 Earthquake (Very small possibility during lifetime of structure)
Displacement is less than limit value
Easy restoring of function, no need of reinforcing
No shear failure
No collapse
12
23
Seismic Design (Road Bridge)
Design Earthquake Motion and Seismic Performance of Structures (Road Bridges)
A B

Design Earthquake
Motion
Type-A Bridge Type-B Bridge
Level-1 Earthquake
Motion
Level-2
Earth-
quake
Motion
Type-I
Type-II
Seismic Performance 1
S.P. 3 S.P. 2
A B

Design Earthquake
Motion
Type-A Bridge Type-B Bridge
Level-1 Earthquake
Motion
Level-2
Earth-
quake
Motion
Type-I
Type-II
Seismic Performance 1
S.P. 3 S.P. 2
Response Control Design Method
Passive Control: Passive consumption of seismic energy; anti-seismic show,
TMD (Tuned Mass Damper), oil damper
Active Control: Active consumption of seismic energy; AMD (Active Mass Damper),
Variable Stiffness / Decay Devices
Type-I: Large scale, plate-
boundary type
Type-II: Inland, local type
Level-1: Several times during
lifetime of structure
Level-2: Very small possibility
during lifetime of structure
24
Strength of Concrete
Compressive Strength
Tensile Strength
Bond Strength
Bearing Strength
Flexural Cracking Strength
Fatigue Strength
(1) The compressive strength of concrete has a direct influence on the load
carrying capacity of both plain and reinforced structures.
(2) Among all the properties of hardened concrete, compressive strength can
usually be determined most easily.
(3) The compressive strength can be used as a qualitative indication of other
important qualities of hardened concrete.
13
25
Strength gain with age: limestone
concretes moist cured until tested
Influencing Factors
Quality of Materials
Curing Temperature
Entrained Air
Confining Pressure
High/Low Temperature
Impact Loading
Comp. Test
26
Self-compactable concrete
High-Strength Concrete
Mix Proportions
Curing Conditions
Admixtures
(Superplasticizer)
Self-Compactable Concrete
14
27
Use of High Strength Concrete
UHSC
Steel Pipe
UHSC
Steel Pipe
Slump flow: 680x675mm, Air content: 1.6% Comp. Strength: 150 MPa, Design Strength: 120 MPa
Conventional HSC: Design Strength: 40 MPa
(Top Slab, Web, Bottom Slab)
Ultra HSC: Design Strength: 40 MPa (Top
Slab), 120 MPa (Web, Bottom Slab)
28
- Curing Temperatures
Effect of low temperatures on concrete
compressive strength at various ages
Effect of high temperatures on concrete
compressive strength at various ages
15
29
- Confining Pressure
Stress-strain relations of concrete
(a) Biaxial compression (b) Biaxial compression-tension (c) Biaxial tension
30
- Effect of High Temperature Exposure
Extremes of the influence of heat exposure on
the compressive strength of concrete
Influencing Factors
Moisture Content
Evaporation Condition
Heating/Cooling Rate
Aggregate
Original strength of the
concrete has little effect
on the percentage of
strength retained after
heating and subsequent
cooling.
16
31
- Effect of Low Temperature Exposure
Effect of low temperatures on compressive strength:
(a) moist concrete; (b) moisture condition
Influencing Factors
Cement Content
Water-Cement Ratio of Mix
Aggregate
Age
Moisture Condition
32
- Impact Loading
Effect of rate of stressing on the compressive strength of concrete
17
33
- Effect of Lateral Tensile Strain
Collins
Seya & Taniguchi
Naganuma & Yamaguchi
34
- Effect of Specimen Shape
d
h
d
h
18
35
Tensile Strength
Age-strength relations for moist-cured concrete:
compressive strength and flexural strength
Tensile Strength
Direct Tensile Strength
Flexural Tensile Strength
Splitting Tensile Strength
Splitting test
36
Tensile Strength
- Effect of High Temperature Exposure
Influence of heat exposure on the flexural or tensile
strength of concrete
Concrete exposed to
temperature well above
normal room temperature
generally shows a
deterioration in flexural
strength.
The rate of strength
deterioration is highest at
temperatures above 400
o
F
(204
o
C).
19
37
- Effect of Curing Condition
Effect of moist curing and drying time on
splitting tensile strength
During drying of the concrete,
moisture loss progresses at a slow
rate into the interior of concrete
members, resulting in the probable
development of tensile stresses at
the exterior faces and balancing
compressive stresses in the still
moist interior zones.
The tensile resistance of drying
lightweight concrete will be reduced
from that indicated by continuously
moist-cured concrete.
38
- Effect of Temperature
Effect of low temperature on splitting strength:
(a) moist concrete; (b) moisture condition
Effect of temperature on splitting
cylinder tensile strength of a
siliceous aggregate concrete
20
39
Tensile Strength
- Relations between Tests
Relation between direct tensile and splitting
strengths of lightweight concrete
The ratio between the direct
strength and the splitting strength
changes with variations in the
composition of the concrete and
depends to a considerable degree
on the type and properties of the
aggregates.
The ratio of direct tensile strength
to modulus of rupture increases
with increasing specimen size and
compressive strength. When the
size of the modulus of rupture
beam becomes very large, the
strain gradient diminishes, and the
modulus of rupture approaches the
tensile strength.
40
Tensile Strength
- Relations between Tests
Relation between splitting strength
and flexural strength of concrete
Relation between splitting strength and
compressive strength of concrete
21
41
Shear Strength
- Size Effect
Effective Depth
S
h
e
a
r

S
t
r
e
n
g
t
h

R
a
t
i
o
Flexural Failure
Eq. by Okamura
& Higai
Size effect on shear strength Specimens for shear test
42
1.3 Stress-Strain Relation of
Concrete
Stress-strain curve of normal and lightweight concrete in compression
22
43
Stress-Strain Relation
Stress-strain curves for different
temperatures
Stress-strain curves for
high-strength concrete
44
Stress-Strain Relation (FRC)
Stress-strain curves for fiber-cement
composite
Stress-strain curves for fiber-reinforced
concrete
23
45
Failure of PC Bridge (Case 1)
Koror-Babelthaup Bridge
Center Span 241m
Balanced Cantilever PC
Box Girder Type
(Palau, 1996.9.27)
46
3-span continuous hybrid extradosed bridge
(Length 412.7m, Span 82+247+82m, Width 9.2m) 2001.12
Japan-Palau Friendship Bridge (Reconstructed)
24
47
The bridge is the Koror-Babelthaup Bridge in Palau.
Description of Bridge:
1) Bridge Type: Balanced cantilever PC box girder bridge with movable
joint at the center connecting both sides.
2) Center Span: 241m
3) Start of Service: 1978
4) Failure: 1996.9.27
5) Conditions: Deflection at center was 1.2m in 18 years after completion.
The repair was finished three months before the collapse.
48
The failure of this prestressed concrete bridge happened as follows.
1) The concrete of the upper flange with more than 300 PC tendons in
the longitudinal direction near the bridge pier began to delaminate.
2) The sound of concrete crushing was heard inside the box girder from
30 minutes before the collapse.
3) The web of the box girder with 360mm thickness failed in tension at
the top fiber.
4) The bottom slab with 1100mm thickness failed in shear and the
cantilever fell down.
5) The other cantilever fell down by being pulled by the external cable
with which it was connected to the cantilever failing first.
25
49
The bridge was repaired before the collapse occurred.
The deflection of 1200mm at the movable joint was considered due to
creep.
The proposed repair methods:
1) Replacement of whole bridge
2) Replacing the center part of 40m by a PC simple beam
3) Connecting both cantilevers by external cables of 310m and lifting up
the center by 300mm; the remaining deflection is filled by additional
concrete slab.
The actual repair method was to insert twelve flat jacks at the movable
joint etc. to reduce the stress in the upper flange.
The possible cause of the failure is considered that the jacking force
exceeding the design value might have caused excessive stress in the
upper flange of the box girder at the movable joint.
50
1.4 Volume Changes of
Concrete
Volume Changes
(a) Temperature [thermal expansion]
(b) Chemical process in hydration [autogeneous shrinkage]
(c) Drying [drying shrinkage]
(d) Sustained stress [creep]
Thermal Properties
(a) Coefficient of expansion or contraction
(b) Thermal conductivity; (c) Specific heat; (d) Thermal diffusivity;
(e) Adiabatic temperature rise
Shrinkage and Creep
Influencing factors:
(a) water-cement ratio; (b) physical characteristics of aggregate;
(c) cement paste content; (d) age of concrete at drying or loading;
(f) amount of steel reinforcement; (g) environmental conditions;
(h) curing conditions
26
51
Drying Shrinkage and Creep
Relation between shrinkage and drying
time for concretes stored at different
relative humidities (wet curing until the
age of 28 days)
Creep of concrete moist-cured for 28
days, then loaded and stored at
different relative humidities
52
Shrinkage and Creep
- High Strength Concrete
Shrinkage
Autogeneous shrinkage
Creep
27
53
Shinsuge Bridge, Kiso Village, Nagano Pref. (1989)
Post-tensioned simple box girder bridge (1965.3),
Kiso Village, Nagano Pref. Failure: 1989.6,
No casualty, Cause: Failure of PC wire by rust
54
The bridge is the Shinsuge Bridge in Kiso Village, Nagano Pref. Japan.
Description of Bridge:
1) Bridge Type: Post-tensioned simple PC box girder bridge
2) Bridge Length: 25.8m
3) Start of Service: March 1965
4) Failure: June 1989
5) Cross-section: Hollow box type with 27 PC strands (diameter 27mm)
of 37 wires of 3.8mm diameter, 4 diaphragms for deviators of
external PC cables
PC Cable PC Cable
28
55
The bridge failed suddenly in June 1989 at the mid-span when a dump
truck of 9.4t self-weight carrying 10t (7m
3
) sand about to finish going
through the bridge.
Possible causes seem to be the effect of fatigue and corrosion (rust) of
PC wire and collapse of joint. Once prestressing tendons fail, a PC bridge
collapses in a brittle manner. The rust seems to be due to condensation
inside steel pipe for PC strand, water leak from anchorage zone,
residual chloride ion, and quality of PC tendon. The structure type is not
suitable for inspection for maintenance.
Failed Part
7m
7m
11.8m
Kiso River
Failed Part
7m
7m
11.8m
Kiso River
56
S-N curves for plain concrete beams showing various ratios of
minimum to maximum stress in the loading cycles
29
57
1.6 Durability of Concrete
Effect of compressive strength on the
abrasion resistance of concrete
Weathering Resistance
Resistance to Deicers
Chemical Resistance
Abrasion and Skid Resistance
Damage
58
Allowable Crack Width (JSCE2007)
- - 0.004c PC Tendon
0.0035c 0.004c 0.005c
Deformed Bar,
Round Bar
Severe
Corrosive
Condition
Corrosive
Condition
Normal
Condition
Environmental Conditions
Kind of
Steel
c: Cover Length (100mm)
Normal Environment: Ordinary outdoor condition, Underground condition
Corrosive Environment: More frequent wet-dry cycle, Underground water
with harmful substance, In sea water, Ordinary sea shore environment
Severe Corrosive Environment: Harmful effect on steel corrosion,
Tidal zone or splash zone, Severe sea wind
30
59
Design for Chloride Attack
(JSCE2007)
Examination of Chloride Ion Concentration at Steel Position
0 . 1
lim
s
C
C
d
i
i Structure Factor (General: 1.0, Important: 1.1)

Clim Corrosion Initiation Concentration (1.2kg/m
3
Cd Design Chloride Ion Concentration at Steel Position

Design Chloride Ion Concentration at Steel Position
Cd Design Chloride Ion Concentration at Steel Position
C0 Chloride Ion Concentration at Concrete Surface (kg/m
3
)
ci Safety Factor for Scatter of Cd (1.3 in general)
cd Reduced Cover (mm) = c ce
c Cover (mm)
ce Construction Error (mm)
t Design Durability Limit (year)(100 yrs at most)
Dd Design Diffusivity for Chloride Ion (cm
2
/ yr)
|
|
.
|
\
|
=
t D
c
erf C C
d
ci d
2
1 . 0
1
0
d
60
(JSCE2007)
Design Diffusivity for Chloride Ion
0
2
D
w
w
l
w
D D
a
k c d
|
|
.
|
\
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
c Material Factor of Concrete
(1.0 in general, 1.3 for Upper Surface)
Dk Characteristic Value of Diffusivity for Chloride Ion
(cm
2
/ yr)
D0 Constant for Effect of Crack (cm
2
/ yr)
(Only for Flexural Crack) 200 cm
2
/ yr in general
w Crack Width (mm)
wa Allowable Crack Width (mm)
l Spacing of Crack (mm)
Relationship between Crack Width and Crack Spacing
|
|
.
|
\
|
+ =
'
3
csd
s
se
E l
w
c
o
w Crack Width (mm)
l Crack Spacing (mm)
csd Constant for Shrinkage and Creep of Concrete
General150x10
-6
High Strength Concrete 100x10
-6
se Stress Increment in Steel from Zero Stress Condition(N/mm
2
)
When steel is PC tendon, replace seEs by peEp.
31
61
(JSCE2007)
W/C
D
i
f
f
u
s
i
v
i
t
y

D
d
(
c
m
2
/
y
r
)
No Crack
Allowable Crack Width wa = 0.2mm
W/C
D
i
f
f
u
s
i
v
i
t
y

D
d
(
c
m
2
/
y
r
)
No Crack
Allowable Crack Width wa = 0.2mm
Influence of W/C and crack width on diffusivity
62
1.7 Other Properties of
Concrete
Shear and Torsion
Bond of Concrete to Steel
Permeability
(a) Water Permeability
(b) Water Vapor Permeability
(c) Air Permeability
Acoustical Properties
(a) Sound Absorption; (b) Sound Transmission Loss;
(c) Impact Noise; (d) Vibration Isolation
Electrical Properties
32
63
Permeability
Water permeability and capillary
porosity of cement paste
Water permeability and water/cement
ratio for mature cement paste
(93% of cement hydrated)
Permeability
64
1.8 Reinforcement
Reinforcing Bars
(1) Deformed bar
The standards govern strength grades, rib patterns, sizes, and
markings of bars.
All bars are furnished deformed that is, with lugs, ribs or
protrusions rolled into the bar, which increase bond performance
with concrete.
(2) Round bar
Prestressing Tendons
(1) Wire
(2) Strand
(3) Bar
33
65
Reinforcing Bars
- Stress-Strain Curves
Typical force-strain curves for rebars
Ultimate strength design of reinforced
concrete sections is based on the assumption
of an ideal elastoplastic (flat-top) stress-strain
relation for the reinforcement.
The actual stress-strain relation for high-
strength reinforcement may not be ideally
elastoplastic, not having a well-defined yield
point and a flat plateau.
Even those steels that have a well-defined
yield point exhibit strain-hardening; some of
these have a very short flat plateau, and
others a considerably long one.
The modulus of elasticity for all reinforcing
bars is practically the same and is taken as
Es = 200GPa.
66
Reinforcing Bars
- Fatigue
Experimental test data on fatigue of deformed bars
Influencing Factors
Range of stress
Minimum stress
Bar size
Deformation
geometry
Mechanical
characteristics of
the bar
Fabrication
procedures
34
67
Prestressing Tendons
- Stress-Strain Curve
Effect of postdrawing treatment on wire Typical tensile tests in elastic region on
uncoated stress-relieved wire for PC
68
Prestressing tendons
- Creep and Relaxation
Relaxation test in stress-relieved and stabilized (low
relaxation), 0.275in. diameter, prestressed concrete
wire
35
69
Splices
Splicing of reinforcing bars is only for the purpose of providing
continuity.
Splices are needed because of
(a) limitations set up by the physical length of the bar
(b) transitions from a larger to a smaller bar
(c) construction requirements, i.e., construction joints
Traditional methods:
(a) lap splices by bond
(b) welded lap or butt splices
Newer methods:
(a) couplers (for tension or compression)
(b) end-bearing (for compression only)
(c) semiautomatic butt-welded splices with commercially available
equipment
Splice
70
Corrosion of Steel and Nonferrous
Metals
Galvanic corrosion is influenced by differences in:
(a) the composition of the solution at the two electrodes
(b) the nature of the metals of the electrodes
(c) environmental conditions, such as the presence of oxygen
chloride concentration, alkalinity, moisture, temperature,
or large air- or liquid filled spaces next to the metals
(d) permeability, thickness, or uniformity of concrete
Stress-Assisted Corrosion
Stress-Corrosion
Corrosion-Fatigue
Corrosion Protection
(a) Coating (Metal, Non-metal)
(b) Cathodic Protection
(c) Anticorrosive Steel
Corrosion
36
71
Durability Improvement of
Concrete Bridge by New Materials
Coated PC tendon
Pre-grouted PC tendon
Plastic sheath
FRP tendon
Carbon
Aramid
Glass
72
Life Cycle Cost of Structure
LCC = I + M + R
Cost
Time
L.C.C.
Scenario 1
Scenario 2
Scenario 3
Initial Cost (I) Maintenance Cost (M) Renewal Cost (R)
Cost
Time
L.C.C.
Scenario 1
Scenario 2
Scenario 3
Initial Cost (I) Maintenance Cost (M) Renewal Cost (R)
37
73
Problems:
Materials for Concrete Structures
Steel PC tendon has about the same Young's modulus as steel reinforcing bar, but
its elongation at rupture is smaller than that of steel reinforcing bar.
The shape and spacing of the ribs and indentations of deformed steel PC wires
influences the bond with concrete and the fatigue strength of wire itself.
The pre-grout steel PC tendon is covered with polyethylene sheet and the
hardening behavior of the resin inside the sheet is not influenced by ambient
temperature.
When PC wire or PC strand is shipped in the form of coil, it is recommended that
the diameter of the coil is no less than 150 times as long as the steel diameter so as
not to have permanent deformation.
The rapid hardening portland cement is used for prestressed concrete and
manufactured products because of early strength development.
74
Problems:
The low-alkali-type portland cement is the one specified as cement with total
alkali amount of Na
2
O equivalent no more than 0.6%, and is used to suppress alkali-
aggregate reaction.
The concrete using blast-furnace cement has smaller diffusion coefficient against
chloride ion penetration than that using ordinary portland cement, and is suitable for
marine structures.
The moderate heat portland cement has higher chemical resistance against
various salts than the low-heat portland cement, and is suitable for underground
structures.
The reinforced concrete structures which are always in sea water suffers less salt
damage than those exposed in the coastal atmosphere.
The rate of carbonation development is accelerated with time.
38
75
Problems:
The diffusion coefficient of chloride ion is larger for concrete with smaller water
cement ratio.
When phenolphthalein 1% ethanol solution is sprayed on the split surface of
concrete, the color of the concrete under carbonation changes to red violet.
The expansion of concrete by the alkali aggregate reaction becomes large as the
amount of reactive aggregate increases.
The frost resistance of concrete becomes high as the air content of concrete
increases.
The flexural strength of concrete is 1/5 to 1/7 of the compressive strength.
76
Problems:
The Poisson's ratio of concrete in the elastic range is 1/5 to 1/6.
The drying shrinkage of concrete is large as the strength increases.
The creep coefficient of concrete becomes small as the strength increases.
The tensile strength of the continuous fiber reinforced material (rods) using
carbon or aramid fibers is larger than that of steel reinforcing bar.
The corrosion resistance against chloride ion of the continuous fiber reinforced
material (rods) using carbon or aramid fibers is more superior to that of steel
reinforcing bar or steel PC tendon.
39
77
Exercise 1
The stress-strain curve of concrete subjected to
compression is given as follows.
where cd
f '
ck
f '
cu
' 80 52 . 0 c | + =
: characteristic comp. strength (N/mm
2
)
: design comp. strength (N/mm
2
)
: strain at the peak stress (=0.002) 0
'
c
c
Show the flexural capacity of a singly reinforced rectangular section by using the
rectangular equivalent stress block based on the above stress-strain curve.
1
k = o ;
78
References
[1.1] Fintel, M.(Ed.): Handbook of Concrete Engineering, Second Ed.,
Van Nostrand Reinhold Company, New York, 1985.
[1.2] Neville, A.M.: Properties of Concrete, Fourth Ed., Prentice Hall, 1995.
[1.3] Zia, P.(Ed.): International Workshop on High Performance Concrete,
Bangkok, Thailand(1994), ACI SP-159, 1996.
[1.4] JSCE: Standard Specifications for Concrete Structures-2007, Design,
JSCE, 2007.
[1.5] JSCE: Standard Specifications for Concrete Structures-2007, Materials
and Construction, JSCE, 2007.
[1.6] JSCE: Recommendations for Design, Fabrication and Evaluation of
Anchorages and Joints in Reinforcing Bars [2007], JSCE, 2007.
40
79
Concrete Structures
Part 2
Modeling for Structural Analysis and Design
80
2.1 Introduction
The mechanical properties of materials are modeled in the form of design
formula to analyze concrete structures for design.
In the following, the formulas mainly in CEB Model Code 1990 are introduced for
the representative mechanical properties of materials.
In addition to those, some formulas of other design codes are introduced.
The following equations for concrete apply to concrete with normal weight
aggregates so composed and compacted as to retain no appreciable amount of
entrapped air other than intentionally entrained air.
Though the following relations in principle also apply for heavy weight concrete,
special consideration may be necessary for such concrete.
41
81
Stress Rate and Strain Rate
The information given in this section is valid for monotonically
increasing compressive stresses or strains at stress rate 1.0MPa/s
or strain rate 3010
-6
s
-1
, respectively.
For tensile stresses or strains it is valid for stress rate 0.1MPa/s
or strain rate 3.310
-6
s
-1
, respectively.
Characteristic Compressive Strength
Strength below which 5% of all possible strength measurements for
specified concrete may be expected to fall.
82
Test and Specimen
The uniaxial compressive strength fc of cylinders, 150mm in diameter
and 300mm in height stored in water at 202, and tested at the age
of 28 days.
Mean Value of Compressive Strength
where
: Characteristic compressive strength
42
83
Tensile Strength
Test Method
The term tensile strength refers to the axial tensile strength fct
determined in accordance with RILEM CPC7.
Mean Value of Tensile Strength
where
;
where
: Mean splitting tensile strength
84
Strength under Multiaxial States
of Stress
Biaxial strength of concrete
Failure Criterion
43
85
of Stress
Biaxial failure envelope
Stress Invariants and Constants
86
of Stress
Failure envelope for triaxial compression
Biaxial Comp. and Tens.-Comp.
for
Biaxial Tension
Biaxial Tens.-Comp. for
44
87
Concrete
Stress Rate and Strain Rate
The information given in this section is valid for monotonically
increasing compressive stresses or strains at stress rate 30MPa/s
or strain rate 3010
-6
s
-1
, respectively.
For tensile stresses or strains it is valid for stress rate 0.03MPa/s
or strain rate 310
-6
s
-1
, respectively.
88
Elastic Constants
Modulus of Elasticity
Poissons Ratio
: Modulus of Elasticity (MPa) at a concrete age of 28 days
; ;
= 0.10.2
for a range of stresses
45
89
Stress-Strain Relations for Short-
Term Loading
Stress-strain diagram for uniaxial compression
Stress-Strain Curve in Compression
Limit Strain
90
Stress-Strain Relations for Short-
Term Loading
Stress-strain and stress-crack opening
diagram in uniaxial tension
Stress-Strain Curve in Tension
for
for
Stress-Crack Opening Relation for
a Cracked Section
for
for
;
46
91
Multiaxial States of Stress
Equivalent uniaxial stress-strain diagram
Stress-Strain Relation in Principal Stress Direction
Stress-Strain Relation Using Equivalent
Uniaxial Strain
92
Stress-Strain Relations for Seismic
Design (JSCE2007)
Simplified hysteresis model of concrete in
compression
Stress-Strain Relation for Seismic
Design in the Analysis of a Linear
Member (for fc<50MPa)
47
93
Design (JRA2002)
Stress-strain curve of concrete in compression
94
Design (JSCE2007)
Stress-strain relation of concrete
in tension
Stress-Strain Relation in Tension
(1) Linear member
In the analysis of a linear member the
stress-strain relation in tension may be
neglected. Even if the tensile stress is
neglected, the effect to the response of
structures is small because the nonlinear
region is limited in a certain portion of a
linear member.
(2) Planar member
In the tensile zone perpendicular to the
direction of a crack, tension stiffening
effect due to bond on the average stress-
strain relation is considered to apply to
tension field of reinforced concrete with
sufficient amount of reinforcement.
48
95
Equivalent Stress Block
d
b
x
|x
of'
c d
T A
s
Neutral Axis
}
= =
x
u c cd c
x y dy b C
0
' ' ' '
/ / c c o
}
=
x
cd c c
ydy b C y x
0
' '
) ( o
Moment w.r.t Neutral Axis y
c
,
Compressive Stress Resultant , k
1
y
c
: Position of Compressive Stress Resultant
The compressive stress distribution of
concrete may be assumed to be a
rectangular distribution (equivalent stress
block) except for the case of compressive
strain all over the cross-section.
96
2.4 Time Effects for Concrete
Development of Strength with Time
Strength under Sustained Loads
Development of Modulus of Elasticity with Time
;
;
49
97
Creep and Shrinkage
Definitions
The total strain at time t of a concrete member uniaxially loaded at
time t
0
with a constant stress may be expressed as follows.
where
: initial strain at loading
: creep strain at time t>t
0
: shrinkage strain
: thermal strain
98
Creep and Shrinkage
Creep (CEB1990 Model)
: creep function, creep compliance
: creep coefficient
;
50
99
Creep and Shrinkage
Shrinkage (CEB1990 Model)
;
100
S-N relations
S-N Relation
For a constant stress amplitude
the number N of cycles causing
fatigue failure of plain concrete
may be estimated by the S-N
relations.
Fatigue Relation for Pure
Compression
Fatigue Relation for compression-
tension
Fatigue Relation for Pure Tension
51
101
2.6 Temperature Effects for
Concrete
Range of Temperature
Normal temperature: -20+40
Deviation from a mean concrete temperature of 20
for the range of approximately 0 to +80
Maturity
Thermal Expansion
;
Temperature Effects on Other Material Properties
Modulus of Elasticity
Creep and Shrinkage
102
2.7 Stress and Strain Rate
Effects for Concrete
Type of Loading Strain Rate(s
-1
)
Traffic 10
-6
10
-4
Gas Explosion 5x10
-5
5x10
-4
Earthquake 10
-2
5x10
0
Pile Driving 10
-2
10
0
Airplane Impact 5x10
-3
5x10
-2
Hard Impact 10
0
10
2
High-Vel. Plate Impact 10
2
10
6
Strain rate of various loading
Effect of Stress Rate
Effect of Strain Rate
52
103
Effect of Strain and Stress Rates
Effect of strain rate Effect of stress rate
104
Impact Loading on RC Structures
Penetration
Punching Shear Failure
Response of
Structure
(Flexure)
Spalling
Scabbing
Penetration
Punching Shear Failure
Response of
Structure
(Flexure)
Spalling
Scabbing
Impact loading
Static
Dynamic(1)
Dynamic(2)
Dynamic(3)
Dynamic(4)
Dynamic(5)
RC beam under impact loading
53
105
Reinforcing Steel
Stress-strain relation of reinforcing steel under cyclic loading (JSCE2007)
106
Problems:
Design of Concrete Structures
The deformation increases and the stress resultants develops due to creep of
concrete even in the case where the structural system does not change in during
and after construction as in erecting a continuous girder at once.
In a PC bridge pier subjected to reversed cyclic loading, the energy absorption
capacity decreases, and the residual displacement and the damage become
smaller, as the amount of prestress increases.
In the internal cable method, the loss due to the friction by the angle change
of PC tendon only has to be considered for the frictional loss of prestress in PC
tendon.
As an effect of prestress to the shear force in the external cable method, the
force component of the tension in PC tendon in the direction of shear force can be
taken into consideration, but the shear force supported by concrete does not
increase.
54
107
Problems:
The examination of the diagonal tensile stress for suppressing the diagonal
cracking in the member designed as a PC structure is recommended to be done for
the section of the maximum normal stress at the bottom fiber of the member cross
section.
The balanced reinforcement ratio is the tensile reinforcement ratio of a section
where the main tensile reinforcement reaches the design yield strength and the
strain of concrete at the compressive top fiber becomes the ultimate compressive
strain at the same time.
A PRC(PPC) structure is a structure which allows cracking in a serviceability limit
state condition and controls the crack width by using deformed steel bars and
prestressing.
108
Problems:
Once cracking occurs in concrete, the tensile stress of PC tendon suddenly
increases compared to that of the state where the whole cross section is effective.
The spacing between sheaths in a post-tensioned member should be no less than
4/3 times the maximum aggregate size and sufficient to insert a vibrator.
It is recommended to arrange PC tendons at the centroid of cross section in
sections close to the section in which the sign of bending moment for various load
combinations is different.
55
109
Problems:
Quality Control and Test Methods
The alkali-aggregate reaction is a phenomenon in which cracking occurs in
concrete by the chemical reaction between hydroxide alkali in concrete and the
alkali-reactive minerals in aggregate, and it becomes active when concrete is in a
dry condition.
The salt damage is a phenomenon in which corrosion occurs in steel reinforcing
bars and steel PC tendons by the action of chloride ion in concrete, causing
damage of the structure, and it considerably develops if water and oxygen are
supplied.
The carbonation is a phenomenon in which the alkalinity of concrete decreases
by the action of the carbon dioxide in air, and its development is slow for concrete
with dense internal structure.
110
Problems:
The frost damage is a phenomenon in which concrete fails by the hydraulic
pressure due to volume expansion and subsequent water flow by freezing of water,
and it is closely related to the air content of concrete.
The compressive strength of concrete becomes large as the ratio h/d (h: height,
d: diameter) of a cylindrical specimen increases.
The strength of a cubic specimen is about equal to the strength of a cylindrical
specimen with diameter equal to the side length of the cube and height twice as
long as the diameter.
The strength of concrete becomes larger as the loading rate increases.
56
111
Problems:
It is recommended that concrete is moist-cured by covering with sheet to
prevent direct sunshine, wind, cold air and so on immediately after completing
casting concrete.
Higher temperature of concrete at casting is in general advantageous for long-
time strength development of concrete if the water cement ratio is the same.
In general the slump value becomes larger due to decrease of viscosity when
the temperature of concrete increases.
112
Exercise 2
For the rubber support used in a PC bridge,
the size and the thickness are determined
by the reaction and the horizontal
displacement respectively.
The design horizontal displacement of a
movable support is calculated as follows.
; ;
; ;
;
In case of symmetric deflection of a simple beam, calculate the horizontal
displacement for T=40, =1010
-6
, l=30m,
cs
=-20010
-6
,
P
t
/A
c
=-6.5N/mm
2
, =2.0, E
c
=3.110
4
N/mm
2
, h=1.0m, =1/300(rad).
57
113
References
[2.1] ACI Committee 209: Prediction of Creep, Shrinkage, and Temperature Effects in
Concrete Structures, ACI SP-76, Designing for Creep and Shrinkage in Concrete
Structures, American Concrete Institute, pp.193-301, 1982.
[2.2] BSI: British Standards: Structural Use of Concrete, BS8110, Part 2, Section 7,
British Standards Institution, pp.7/1-7/5, 1985.
[2.3] CEB: CEB-FIP Model Code 1990, Thomas Telford, pp.53-58, 61-65, 1993.
[2.4] Chen, W.F.: Plasticity in Reinforced Concrete, McGraw-Hill, 1982.
[2.5] DIN: Prestressed Concrete: Structural Components Made of Ordinary Concrete
with Partial or Total Prestressing DIN 4227, Part 1, DIN, pp.10-14, 1975.
[2.6] JSCE: Standard Specifications for Concrete Structures-2002, Structural
Performance Verification, JSCE Guidelines for Concrete, No.3, Chap.3, Design
Values for Materials, Japan Society of Civil Engineers, pp.22-51, Jan. 2005.
114
References (cont.)
[2.7] JSCE: Standard Specifications for Concrete Structures-2002 Seismic
Performance Verification, JSCE Guidelines for Concrete, No.5, Chap.4,
Analytical Model, Japan Society of Civil Engineers, pp.24-39, Mar. 2005.
[2.8] JRA: Specifications for Highway Bridges, Part V, Seismic Design, Chap.10,
Lateral Strength and Ductility Capacity of Reinforced Concrete Columns,
Japan Road Association, pp.174-230, Mar. 2002.
[2.9] JSCE: Standard Specifications for Concrete Structures-2007, Design,
JSCE, 2007.
[2.10] JSCE: Standard Specifications for Concrete Structures-2007, Materials
and Construction, JSCE, 2007.
58
115
Concrete Structures
Part 3
Structural Analysis Methods
116
3.1 Introduction
For the design of concrete structures with various shapes, numerical
structural analysis is conducted. In order to assure the satisfactory
performance under severe loading conditions, nonlinear numerical
structural analysis is necessary.
In this part, the structural analysis method for a prismatic concrete
member and that for two-dimensional and three-dimensional concrete
structures are discussed.
Conc. Struct.
Appl. FEM
59
117
Analysis for Seismic Design
Seismic Performance (JSCE 2007)
(1) SP1: Sound Function; No Need of Repair
(2) SP2: Easy Restoring Function; No Need of Reinforcing
(3) SP3: No Collapse
Structural Models for Examination of Performance
(1) SP1: Frame Model, Linear Model
(2) SP2, SP3: 3D Finite Element Model; Nonlinear Material Properties
Analysis Methods of Seismic Design
(1) Static Analysis Method (Level1: Elastic / Level2: Elastoplastic)
Seismic Intensity Method (High-Stiffness Structures)
Design Earthquake Force = Mass x Design Seismic Intensity
Modified Seismic Intensity Method (Low-Stiffness Structures)
Dynamic Characteristics of Structure Design Seismic Intensity
(2) Dynamic Analysis Method (Level1: Elastic / Level2: Elastoplastic)
118
Static Analysis Method for
Seismic Design of Road Bridge (2002)
Level 1 Earthquake Motion
(Seismic Intensity Method)
Standard Seismic Intensity = 0.2 0.3
Foundation Type: I, II, III
Level 2 Earthquake Motion
(Limit State Design Method)
Type-1 (Large-Scale, Plate-Boundary Type) 0.7 1.0
Type-2 (Inland, Local) 1.5 2.0
60
119
Linear and Nonlinear Analysis
Load
Displacement 0
F
1
U
1
K
1
K U
1
= F
1
Load
Displacement 0
F
2
F
1
U
1
U
2
K
2
K
1
dF
2
dF
1
dU
1
dU
2
K
i
dU
i
= dF
i
(i=1,2)
Load
Displacement 0
F
0
K
0
K
1
U
0
U
1
t=t
0
t=t
1
dU1
(t
1
>t
0
)
U
1
= (1 + p) U
0
K
1
= K
0
/ (1 + p)
Creep Coefficient (p)
Load
Displacement 0
F
0
K
0
K
1
U
0
U
1
t=t
0
t=t
1
dU1
(t
1
>t
0
)
U
1
= (1 + p) U
0
K
1
= K
0
/ (1 + p)
Creep Coefficient (p)
(a) Linear analysis (b) Nonlinear analysis
(incremental method)
(c) Analysis for time-dependent materials
120
3.2 Analysis of a Concrete Member
Constitutive Relation of Concrete
Stress-strain relation of concrete
The incremental stress-strain
relation of concrete is given
in the following form to
express the nonlinear
behavior.
where
(Stress increment)
(Inelastic stress increment)
(Strain increment)
61
121
Inelastic Behavior of Reinforcing
Steel
Stress-strain diagram for reinforcing steel
The Bauschinger effect in the cyclic response of a reinforcing steel bar is
modeled by Agrawal, G.L. et al. (ACI Journal, Vol.62, No.7, 1965) and
Brown, R.H. et al. (ACI Journal, Vol.68, No.5, 1971).
where
u
: strain at ultimate stress
u
in the first loading
ip
: strain between successive points of zero stress immediately preceding a given cycle
122
Internal Force-Displacement
Relations for a Beam
Geometry, discrete cross sections, and mode of
deformation of a concrete beam
: Inelastic force
increment
Force increment:
Stiffness matrix:
Curvature and strain:
62
123
Internal Force-Displacement
Relations for a Beam
Moment-curvature relation for a concrete beam
124
Layered Beam Element Model
x
y
z
z
y
0
1 i ny
nz
j
1
Centroidal Axis
Element and Coordinate Cross Section
x
y
z
z
y
0
1 i ny
nz
j
1
Centroidal Axis
Element and Coordinate Cross Section
Discretized
Section - i
+
o
+
o
i
+
i
M
N
Centroidal
Axis
z
i
(1) Bernoulli-Euler Assumption
(2) Perfect Bond between Concrete and Steel
Discretized
Section - i
+
o
+
o
i
+
i
M
N
Centroidal
Axis
z
i
(1) Bernoulli-Euler Assumption
(2) Perfect Bond between Concrete and Steel
25
75
75
25
25 75 75 25 (mm)
N
N
E
W
W
E
S
S
(1)
(2)
20 0 20
50
0
50
Displacement (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Spec. U80
Model
Test
Li, Otani, Aoyama, 1986
25
75
75
25
25 75 75 25 (mm)
N
N
E
W
W
E
S
S
(1)
(2)
20 0 20
50
0
50
Displacement (mm)
L
o
a
d

(
k
N
)
Spec. U80
Model
Test
Li, Otani, Aoyama, 1986
63
125
3.3 Analysis of 2D and 3D
Concrete Structures
Experimental crack patterns of beams
failing in shear
Analytical model of beams failing in shear
Modeling of Concrete Member
126
Analytical models and linkage elements
Linkage Element
The bond between steel
reinforcement and surrounding
concrete is modeled by bond link
elements. The position of crack is
assumed along the inter-element
boundary.
A linkage element has two nodes
and is made up of two springs, i.e.,
normal spring and tangential spring,
connecting its nodes.
A linkage element is used to
represent the bond of reinforcement
and the shear transfer across crack
surfaces.
64
127
Finite elements for analysis of prestressed reactor vessels
To model a three-
dimensional concrete
structure, solid elements are
used.
Examples of axisymmetric
elements and three-
dimensional elements used
to model prestressed
concrete reactor vessels are
shown.
128
Stiffness Equation and Solution
Technique
Isoparametric finite element
: Global stiffness matrix
: Global nodal displacement vector
: Global nodal force vector
Stiffness Equation
65
129
Technique
Iterative solution techniques for nonlinear analysis
130
Technique
Solution techniques for nonlinear analysis:
(a) unbalanced load iteration method total equilibrium approach;
(b) direct forward marching strategy incremental equilibrium approach
66
131
Simple flow chart for a typical
nonlinear finite element program
Technique
132
Modeling of Crack
Possible crack configurations for multiple cracking models
67
133
Modeling by Finite Element
Method
134
Finite Elements
68
135
Modeling of Concrete
Stress-strain curve Cracking properties
Failure envelope
Crack model
136
Example of FEM Analysis
- RC Shear Wall under Shear
69
137
- Shear Failure of RC Beam
138
- Pullout of Anchor Bolt
70
139
Exercise 3
An example of 2D FEM analysis of RC
beam is shown in the figure using
triangular elements.
Complete the input data shown below.
nodal coordinates; element data;

nodal load; displacement boundary condition;
material data
140
References
[3.1] Chen, W.F.: Plasticity in Reinforced Concrete, McGraw-Hill, 1982.
[3.2] Zienkiewicz, O.C. and Taylor, R.L.: The Finite Element Method, Fourth Ed.,
Vol.1, 1994, Vol.2, 1991, McGraw-Hill.

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