Ancient History of Central Asia by Adesh Katariya

AncientHistoryofCentralAsia(ArticleNo01)
*Notacopyrightmaterial,onlyastudymaterialCompiledBy:AdeshKatariya
AncientHistoryof
CentralAsia
(Articleno01:NotesonCentralAsianHistoryduring200BCandits
effectsonlaterhistory,RoleofYuezhimigrationinAncientHistoryof
CentralAsia,settlementofYuezhiaftermigrationandvarioustheories
aboutcurrentformofAncientYuezhitribe:Gurjar/Gujjar/Khazar)
Imp.Note: Till now many researches publoished on the history of Great

yuezhi tribe but schollers are not in position to clearify all happinings in a
series. In this article, we are trying to compile all happinings as per their
timings. We also would like to clarify that the material under this article is
not a copyright matter and main motive of this article is, to attract good
scholers to discuss and research on the great Yuezhi Tribes.
CompiledBy:
AdeshKatariya
(ChemicalTechnologistandHistoryResearcher)
Email:plast.adesh@gmail.com,Contactno:+919540992618
EarlyHistoryofYuezhi/Tochorian:
ThemovementofnomadicAryansthroughoutthesteppeofCentralAsiahadbeenboth,fromeast
to west and from west to east. While some tribes had penetrated a long way in the northeastern
region and Minusinsk Pazyryk (today Mongoloia Northwest northern Altai Mountains), Scythian
andSarmatianothertownhadoasesoftheTarimfromKashgartoKucha,KaraShahr,Turfanasto
the lake in the region of Amdo Qinghai Kokonor. From there they had entered the steppe and
alpinemeadowsKokonorTibet.TocharianIndoEuropeanlanguagespokenintheTarimBasin.Itis
an archaic IndoEuropean language, which was separated at an early date the common Indo
European group and was subjected to considerable isolation of IndoEuropean languages and the
influence of IndoEuropean languages no place. These people Tarim Basin, Tukhara called, were
known as YuehChih by the Chinese. The YuehChih resided in northeastern Kokonor as early as
2500BCMahabharatTime.
ReferencewasmadeinthenameYuezhiGuanziaround7thcenturyBCEbytheChineseeconomist
Guan Zhong, though the book is generally considered to be a forgery of later generations. The
authorattributes,GuanZhong,describedtheYuzhi,asapeoplewhichsuppliesnorthwesternjade
(nephrite)ChinesenearbymountainsofYuzhi.
ThenameoftheYuzhioccursinalistoftributebearersfromtheBeidi(ornorthernminorities)for
thefirsttimeinYiZhoushu(LostBookofZhou).TheYuezhireachedtheShangcourtinKingTangs
era (corresponding to 11th century B. C.) and arrived again in the Zhou court to contribute the
Yuezhis Taotu (a kind of horse, equal to Chigatai in Mongol) during the Zhou King Chengs era
(corresponding to 11th century B. C.).[1] Besides, Guan Zi, compiled in third century B. C., states
thatapoliticiannamedGuanZhongputforwardhissuggestionthat[we]shouldacceptthejades
oftheYuzhifromtheNorth.[2]ThesefactsshowthattheYuezhihadoriginallylivedinnorthwest
partofancientChina.
The country of the yuezhi, "Yuzhi" covers the areas of Lyanchzhou, Ganchzhou, Suchzhou and
Yanchzhou, which correspond to the modern provinces of Gansu and Shanxi in the northern
regionsofModernChina.LaterChinesecommentatorsspecifythattheyuzhi/yushiarenorthwest
barbarians. Sima Qian wrote that one of the main sites of the production of jade are the Kunlun
mountainsandthecityofHotan,orthatmountainYuzhiisactuallyKunlun.(inhereasternmost
branches). The next mention of the "yuezhi" people is recorded written as Yuzhi , in The
JourneyofMu,SonofHeaven(MuTianzizhuan),writtenabout43centuryB.C.E..Init,itisstated
that "the country Yuzhi is 5 days away on foot and is situated west of the Yanmenguan mountain
pass, north of Shanxi and east of the corner of Huanhe, where the Jade Mountain is1". (YuT
MTZh,pp.910)
ThenameyuezhiintheearliesttextsiswrittenwithChinesecharactersinthefollowingway:As
or , in the Guanzi treatise, and in Mu Tianzi zhuan, (The Journey of Mu, Son of Heaven). The
threedifferentvariationsareeasilycomparable:,andcanbereducedtotwo:.Atthattimethefirst
twothecharacters:and,werepronouncedinaverysimilarway:*ngu/*ngk.Thelattertwothe
characters,resp.and,alsosoundedverysimilar:*tig/*dig.
The foreignname ismentioned inmore than two older sources before the Hanera, and probably
reflectedaforeignwordthattheChinesespeakersinterpretedasYuji(Judsi).
ItisinterestingtonotethatSimaQianusedthecharacterstorelaythenameyuezhi.Findingthe
transcription inGuanzi inaccurate, he replaced the two alternative the characters and with , the
first syllable of the name of which is pronounced as *nk, while the second the character , is
unchanged*dig,which,inmodernChineseispronouncedasasYuji(Yudsi).Thesefluctuationsin
theimpositionofthetranscriptionofthisimportantethnicnameappearinChapter129oftheShi
jiwherewefindyetanothertranscriptionfrombeforetheHanera:*dig,whichinmodern
Chinese would sound like, Odzi which shows that the name contains the original, atypical for
Chinese sound. The first syllable of the name is obviously difficult, if not impossible to transcribe
the way he wrote it. We very well know that in such cases, the sound n, or (ng), usually
representsthealienanddifficulttopronouncefortheChinesersound,whichdoesnothavean
equivalent in modern Chinese, yet existed in protoChinese and exists in the similar Tibetan
language.Ifthiswerethecase,wouldntwehaveseenthewordwrittenas*rdig?
TheYuezhiwasthemajorsupplierofhorsesduringthethirdcenturyBCE,whenXiongnubecamea
real threat to the border of the Chinese empire. In dealing with the incursion of the horse riding
nomads from the north, mainly the Xiongnu, cavalry was most important. Securing the supply of
horseswasagreatconcernoftheFirstEmperoroftheQinDynasty.Goodhorses,however,must
have come from the steppe where the vast grassland provides the environment for breeding and
training. Chinese agricultural societies who needed horses and other draft animals had to obtain
them from the pastoral peoples. During the Qin Dynasty (221207 BCE), the conflicts with the
Xiongnu who caused the great endeavor of building the Great Wall created demand rather the
supply for horses. The Yuezhi tribe, which was still powerful on the steppe and kept a friendly
trading relationship with Chinese rulers, was naturally the provider for horses. According to Sima
Qian, a chief named Lou of the Wuzhi was the major horse supplier of the First Emperor.
WuzhiwasanothervariationofYuezhiinarchaicChinese.Thechieftradedhorsesandcattlefor
silksthenresoldsilkstootherchiefsofthesteppe.ItwassaidthatLoumadetentimesprofitout
of his principle in this trade and became very rich. The First Emperor was so pleased with his
services that granted him a very high status that he could join ministers in the court for the
emperorsaudience.
If Sima Qians record is reliable, we may consider the Yuezhi as the very people who initiated the
Silk Road trade. While redistributing silks to tribes on the steppe, they stimulated the silkhorse
transactions as well as the fame of silk productsyarn, floss and textilesfrom China around the
thirdcenturyBCE.Meanwhile,theYuezhisoldsomanyhorsestoChinaforsilk,thereputationof
theirhorsesspreadtosedentarysocieties.
ThefameofYuezhihorseswasnotlimitedinChinabutspreadtotheentireCentralAsia.A
SogdhianwriterfromthethirdcenturyCEoncesaidinhisgeographicalbookthatwhileChinawas
famousforitsnumerouspeople,andRomewasfamousforitsnumeroustreasures,theYuezhiwas
famousforitsnumeroushorses.1[6]ThisreputationoftheYuezhiprobablypromptedtheEmperor
oftheHanDynasty,HanWudi,sentZhangQiantothewesttoseekthealliancewithYuezhiinthe
warfare against the Xiongnu. When the Xiongnu made Chinese pay them silks, food grains and
other products of agricultural societies, the Han court heard the news of the animosity between
theXiongnuandtheYuezhi.Meanwhile,rememberingthemorefriendlytransactionsbetweenthe
YuezhiandChinese,theHanemperornaturallyassumedthattheYuezhishouldbehisallyagainst
theXiongnu.ZhangQiancouldnotconvincetheYuezhi,whoalreadysettledatthefertilebankof
theOxus,tofightwiththeXiongnuagain.ButtheHanChinafinallyfoundtheYuezhiwholostfrom
thesightforseveraldecadesandresumedtheexchangesofgoods.
AlargepartoftheYuezhi,vanquishedbytheXiongnu,weretomigratetosouthernAsiainthe2nd
centuryBCE,andlaterestablishtheKushanEmpire.GeneralCunninghamidentifiedtheKushansas
GurjarsorGujjar.ThewordGusurisreferencedintheRabatakinscriptionofKushankingKanishka.
Accordingtosomescholars,inthisinscriptionthewordGusur,whichmeansKulputraora"manor
woman born in high family", stands for Gurjara. Kusana is a gotr (Part ) Gurjars living in India and
Pakistan.Nowadays,thistheoriesiswidelyacceptedthatGurjarsofIndia,Pakistan,afganitanare
descendentofancientYuezhiortocharofTarimbesin.
Othertheoriesaboutmeaningofword,GujjarorGurjar:
In different countries the word Gujjar has come to be known differently but yet it has not changed
altogether e.g. Gurjar, Gorjar, Gojar, Gujar.

In Sanskrit the word Gurjar was used and now-a-day. Gujjar is used in place of Gurjar which
predicts the qualities of a warrior Tribe. The historians tried to explain the meaning of word
Gujjar/Gurjar with their views and logics. Some opinions about the creation of word Gujjar are:

1. Few people estimated that the word Gujjar has formed from the word Gauchar (means the
person who grazes cow). However this is completely wrong because the word Gujjar has
deformed from the word Gurjar not Gauchar. In addition, the word Gurjar has used in the several
pillar inscription, not Gujjar or Gujar. The word Gurjar could not be form by any means with the
word Gauchar.
2. According to Prof Abdul Gani Shashi, a famous scholar of Arabic and Persion history, the word
Khizar(a tribe name that had left for Koh-e-Kaf during the era of Christ) got changed to Garz
to Garzar and with the passage of time this Tribe come to be called as Gujjar.
3. Another perspective is of Ch. Fayez Ahmed written in Marat Gujjran Tareekh. He had
consulted several scholars before reaching his conclusion. According to Ch. Fayez Ahmed, when
Gujjar used to rule in India. Their armies fought with the help of Gurz that is Gada (weapon
of lord Hanuman), which was their symbol, Gada was to later become Gurzar and then changed
to Gurjar or Gujjar.
4. According to Gujjar Histories like Tareekh-e-Gujran, Shahan-e-Gujjar, Gurjar Itihas,
Gujjar aur Gujri Zaban, Gujjar Tareekh aur Sakafat, the word Gujjar has been derived
from Persian word Gauzar which mean Body Builder or Fighter. Because this community was
famous for its moves and tactics in wars, its members were called Gauzar who gradually came
to be called as Gujjars.
5. Few scholars agree that Gujjar actually have come from Georgia which is located near Russia
and is after called as Gurjistan. According to them Gurjar is derived from Gurjistan.
6. Abdul Malik Chouhan in the book Shahan-e-Gujjar has described the word Gujjar in a
different way.
7. Ali Hassan Chouhan writes in his history that the word Gujjar is derived from the word Gurjar
or Garjar. In Urdu, Hindi and English the word Guarjar or Gujjar is in use but in all ancient
records upto 1300-AD, It is Gurjar its Prakrit is Gujjar which is generally spoken by the people.
8. Sanskrit dictionary complied by Pandit Radha Kant (Shakabada 1181) explains:
Gurjar Gur (enemy) +Ujar (destroyer)
Gurjar means destroyer of the enemy
9. The most acceptable view is given by Pandit Chotalal Sharma and M.R.A Phulera in the book
Khslria Vansh Pardeepika, is that the word Gurjar is derived from Guruttar. It has explained
that Guruttar has deformed into Gurujan and Gurujan has changed to Gurjar wih time. Also
explained that word Guruttar has used fro Maharaja Dashrath in Ramayann of Valmiki.
10. Pundit Vasudeva Prasad a famous Sanskrit Pandit of Banaras, has proved through ancient
Sanskrit literature that the word Gujjar used to be spoken after the names of antique
Kashatrias.
Scientific evidence also has proved that Gujjar belong to Aryans.
11. Mr. Baij Nath Puri, a famous historian of India, in his book The History of Gurjars and
Pratharas and historian K.M. Munshi, in his book The Glory that was Gurjar Desh, Ali
Hassan Chouhan, in his book A Short History of Gurjars and Tareekh-e-Gurjar (5 volume in
Urdu), Mr. J atinder Kumar Verma, in his book Gurjar Ithas, by way of historical records, have
fully proved that Gurjar and Gujjar were same word and they belonged to Aryan Density

According to these historians, Lord Krishan J i with some of the Kashatrias who survived the
Mahabarat War abandoned Mathura and went towards the west to Dwarik. The ancient Kashatria
clans thronged around Lord Krishna who United them into a class and named it as Gurjar and
their Government come to be known as Gujratar, the first capital of which was established at
Dawarika.
OccupationOFYuezhi:
SomeoftheYuzhiwerefarmersbutmostwereknownastraders.Theyoftenwereinvolvedinthe
long distance trading of jade and horses to the rulers of agricultural China (Liu: 286). The Yuzhi
were known for being great traders in their former land of China, where they constantly were
tradingtheirresources.AccordingtoSimaQuin,anancienthistorian,theYuzhimaybeconsidered
asthepeoplethatinitiatedthetradingalongtheSilkRoads.HealsoaddsthattheYuzhistartedthe
horseforsilktransactions,andthusgavefametotheChinesesilkproducts(Liu:278).
EvidencesofYuezhi/Tochorian:MummiesfoundinTarimBesin:
I would like to start my thesis with currently escavated wellpreserved human bodies remains
men, women, and infantsaround the Tarim Basin of northwestern China. In the dry hills of the
central Asian province of Xingjiang, archaeologists have unearthed more than 100 corpses
astonishingly wellpreserved and Caucasian! Who were these people, and where did they come
from? Some evidence indicates, they were displaced IndoAryan peoples .All together, these
bodies, dating from about 2000 B.C. to 300 B.C., constitute significant addition to the world's
catalog of prehistoric mummies. Although they are no actual mummies but bodies are naturally
preservedthroughdesiccationintheariddesertenvironment.AndweareusingtermMummifor
thesepreserverhumanbodies.
Xinjiang,(formerly Sinkiang), the northwestern province of China in which these mummies have
been excavated, is one of the most landlocked regions in the world, situated justnorth of Tibet.
Sincethen,numerousothermummieshavebeenfoundandanalysed,manyofthemnowdisplayed
inthemuseumsofXinjiang.MostofthesemummieswerefoundontheeasternendoftheTarim
Basin(aroundtheareaofLopnur,SubeshinearTurpan,Kroran,Kumul),orfrom(Khotan,Niya,and
Cherchen or Qiemo), along the southern edge of the Tarim Basin. Xinjiang covers over 600,000
squaremiles,incorporatingonesixthoftheentirelandareaofthePeoplesRepublicofChina(PRC)
(Kamberi1994:1).Itisalsotheregioninwhichtheworldssecondlargestdesert,theTaklamakan,
is situated. The region is surroundedby some of the worlds tallest mountains: the Pamirs on the
west, the Altai Mountains on thenorth, and the Kunlun Mountains to the south. The province is
bisected by the Tianshan (Tngri Tagh), or Heavenly Mountains. The famous Silk Road passed
throughthisregion.In1884,theQingDynasty,theManchuDynastyrulingChinaatthetime,named
theregion. Xinjiang , meaning New Territory. After 1955, the region was renamed the
XinjiangUyghur Autonomous Region (XUAR) (id.), so called because the XUAR is the
traditionalhomeland of one of the largest minority groups in China: the Turkicspeaking
Uyghurs.However,theXUARisactuallyhometo47differentethnicgroups(MalloryandMair2000:
9).The Uyghurs arrived in the Tarim Basin ca. 800 CE from their Mongolian homeland.
Biologicalevidence, as we shall see, supports the arrival of East Asians, or early Chinese, ca. 300
BCE.Priortothis,theTarimBasinwasinhabitedprimarilybythosewenowcallTokharians.
This certainty on behalf of most European and American scholars of the IE origin of many of
themummies from the Tarim Basin has led to the connection of these mummies with a now
extinctIEgroupcalledtheTokharians(GreekTokharoi,SanskritTukhra,ChineseTuHouluo).
Thisconnection,andthenameTokharianitself,originallyarosefromanOldUyghurtranslationof
a Sanskrit Buddhist text, called theMaitreyasamiti (UyghurMaitrisimit) in whichone of the
languagesintowhichthesetextsweretranslatedwascalledTwghry,ortokhriOriginalOldUyghur
text(basedonAdams1998:2):3
Scholars then associated tokhri with Strabos writings in which the Tokharians were named as
anomadic group that defeated one of the Greek rulers of Bactria (now Kazakhstan), across
thePamirMountainstothewestofXinjiang.BaumerfurtherplacestheseKaukasier,Caucasians,
inmodern Turkmenistan with the YamnayaKultur, woraus die AfanasievoKultur hervorging(id.).
Later we will see that the Afanasievo Culture was likely formed by migrants from theYamnaya
horizon,asBaumersuggests.ManyChinesescholarsassociateTokharianspeakerswiththeYuezhi,
nomadic residents of the Tarim mentioned in Chinese texts of the Han period(Thornton and
Schurr2004:92).
The Celts have been linked to the Hallstatt Culture that extended across central Europe,ca. 1200
475 BCE (Barber 1999, James 1993), strategically located at the headwaters of theDanube, Rhine,
Seine, Loire, and Rhne Rivers. The Hallstatt Culture in turn developed into theLa Tne Culture,
whichGreeksandRomansdocumentedasCeltic(Barber1999:144).TheseProtoCeltsarebelieved
to have commanded a lucrative trade network, mining and selling saltand salted meat ,around
much of Late Bronze Age Europe, including with the large Greek port,established in what is now
France,ofMassalia,modernMarseilles(id.).
ThesacredbookMaitreyasamitiwhichtheBodhisattvagurucryaryacandra,whowasbornin
the country of Nagaradea, hadcomposed in the Twghry language out of the Indianlanguage, and
which the guru crya Prajaraksita, who was born in Ilbliq, translatedfrom the Twghry language
into the Turkish language.Hal(l) appears to be an old Celtic term for salt; for this reason, hal
orgal seems to recur in place namesthroughout Europe, including the names Gaul, Halych or
Galicia,Hallein,andHallstatt,thelattermeaningsaltcity(Barber1999:136137).
Although the evidence is inconclusive, the mummies, particularly the earlier ones, are frequently
associated with the presence of the IndoEuropean Tocharian languages in the Tarim Basin.
Notablemummiesarethetall,redhaired"Chrchnman"orthe"UrDavid"(1000BCE);hisson
(1000BCE),asmall1yearoldbabywithbrownhairprotrudingfromunderaredandbluefeltcap,
withtwostonespositionedoveritseyes;the"HamiMummy"(c.1400800BCE),a"redheaded
beauty" found in Qizilchoqa; and the "Witches of Subeshi" (4th or 3rd century BCE), who wore 2
footlong (0.61m) black felt conical hats with a flat brim.
6
Also found at Subeshi was a man with
traces of a surgical operation on his abdomen; the incision is sewn up with sutures made of
horsehair.
The mummies had aquiline nose and long skulls, thin lips, reddishblond or brown hair; deepset
round eyes and among the adult males, prolific facial hairand other unmistakably IndoAryan
features. These Aryan feature of mummies, has led to considerable historical and political
controversyaboutalltheoriesaboutancientcentralAsianpeoples.
One such mummy of a teenaged girl with blond hair and blue eyes, found in a cave, has become
quiteatouristattractioninBeijing.Herremainsareinsucharemarkablestateofpreservationthat
the dead girl looks as if she were just sleeping.She has been nicknamed "The Lady of Tarim" and
she is on display to throngs of museum visitors in the Chinese capital. Apparently she was a
princessorapriestessofsomekindover3,000yearsago,forshewasburiedinfineembroidered
garmentsofwoolandleather,alongwithbeautifuljewelry,jarsandornamentsofgold,silver,jade
andonyx.HereitisremarkablepointthatYuezhipeoplesarefamousforjadeandjemstradefrom
India to China and these linkages indicates about expansion of the Indo European people from
theirhomeland,Aryavert(AncientIndia)toNorth.
According to the independent invention theory, the list of things nonWhites have independently
invented includes the dozens of Asiatic dialects from Hindu to Punjabi to Uighur, all clearly based
onacommonAryanrootlanguage;purecoincidence,saythePCprofs!Theagriculturaltechniques
oftheAztecsandIncassuchascroprotationandterracefarming,sosimilartoancientRomanand
medieval European practices; bah, say the intellectual gangsters of liberalism, the Indians made it
upthemselves!
UnliketheroughlycontemporaneousmummiesofancientEgypt,theXinjiangmummieswerenot
ruler or nobles; they were not interred in pyramids or other such monuments, nor were they
subjectedtodeliberatemummificationprocedures.Theywerepreservedmerelybybeingburied
intheparched,stonydesert,wheredaytimetemperaturesoftensoarover100degrees.
In the heat the bodies were quickly dried, with facial hair, skin, and other tissues remaining
largely intact. Where exactly did these apparent Caucasians come from? And what were they
doingatremotedesertoasesincentralAsia?
Anyanswerstothesequestionswillmostlikelyfuelawiderangingdebateabouttheroleoutsiders
playedintheriseofChinesecivilization.AsfarbackasthesecondcenturyB.C.,Chinesetextsrefer
to alien peoples calledthe Yuezhi and the Wusun, who lived on China's far western borders; the
textsmakeitclearthatthesepeoplewereregardedastroublesome"barbarians."
Untilrecently,scholarshavetendedtodownplayevidenceofanyearlytradeorcontactbetween
China and the West, regarding the development of Chinese civilization as an essentially
homegrownaffairscaledofffromoutsideinfluences;indeed,thisviewisstillextremelycongenial
to the present Chinese regime. Yet some archeologists have begun to argue that these supposed
barbarians might have been responsible for introducing into China such basic items as the wheel
andthefirstmetalobjects.
Exactly who these central Asian outsiders might have been, however what language they spoke
and where they came from is a puzzle. Nowonder, then, that scholars see the discovery of the
blondmummiesasasensationalnewclue.ButweshouldfocusonAncientIndianSourcesalso.As
perMahabharatandRamayan,WheelandmetalwereusedinIndiafromBC5000andIndianshad
knowledge of many languages, Weapons, Clinical techniques, Society rules , Justice Rules at that
time. Though the idea is highly speculative, a number of archeologists and linguists think the
spreadofIndoEuropeanlanguagesmaybelinkedtothegradualspreadofhorseridingandhorse
drawnvehicletechnologyfromitsoriginsinAryavart,6,000yearsago.Thesemummiesmayhelp
confirmthesespeculations.Intriguingly,evidenceofalongextinctlanguagebelongingtotheIndo
EuropeanfamilydoesexistincentralAsia.
CouldtheXinjiangpeoplehavebeentheirancestors,speakinganearlyversionofTocharian?"My
guessisthattheywouldhavebeenspeakingsomeformofIndoEuropean,"commentsDonRinge,
a historical linguist at the University of Pennsylvania, "but whether it was an early form of
Tocharianorsomeotherbranchofthefamily,suchasIndoIranian,wemayneverknowforsure."
Perhaps a highly distinctive language would help explain why the Xinjiang people's distinctive
appearance and culture persisted over so many centuries. Eventually they might well have
assimilated with the local population the major ethnic group in the area today, the Uygur,
includespeoplewithunusuallyfairhairandcomplexions.
Yuezhi(Tocharians)andotherCentralAsianPeopleinIndianLiterature:
The Ancient Sanskrit literature refers to Tocharians as Tusharas, Tukharas, Tokharas and Tuharas
etc.TherearenumerousreferencestothispeopleintheancientSanskrittexts.
There are extensive references to people of Central Asia in Indian literature like Atharvaveda,
Vamsa Brahmana of Samveda, Aitareya Brahmana, Satapatha Brahmana, Puranas, Manusmiriti,
Ramayana, Mahabharata, Raghuvamsa, BrihatKatha Manjari, KathaSaritsagara, Rajaratrangini,
Mudrarakshasa, Kavymimansa and host of other oldSanskritliterature. A brief outline is given

below:
Atharvaveda:
Atharvavedamakes references toGandhari, Mujavat and Bahlika from northwest (Central Asia).
Gandharis are Gandharas, the Bahlikas are Bactrians,Mujavat(land of Soma) refer to Hindukush
Pamirs(theKambojaregion).
PostVedicAtharvavedaParisista(Ed Bolling & Negelein) makes first direct reference to the
Kambojas (verse 57.2.5). It also juxtaposes the Kambojas,BahlikasandGandharas.At another
place, it juxtaposes the Shakas,Yavanas,Tusharasand Bahlikas (Saka. Yavana. Tushara.
Bahlikashcha). This shows the Kambojas, Shakas, Tusharas, Bahlikas and Gandharas at this time
werealllocatedasneighborsintheUttarapatha.
SamaVeda
TheVamsa Brahmana 1of theSama Vedarefers toMadrakara Shaungayanias the teacher
ofAupamanyava Kamboja. Sage Shangayani Madrakara, as his name itself shows, and as the
scholarshaverightlypointedout,belongedtotheMadrapeople.
Prof Jean Przylusky has shown that Bahlika (Balkh) was an Iranian settlement of the Madras who
wereknownasBahlikaUttaramadrasi.e.thenorthernMadras,livinginBahlikaorBactriacountry.
TheseBahlikaUttaraMadrasaretheUttaraMadrasoftheAitareyaBrahamana.
This connection between theUttara Madrasand theKambojasis said to be but natural, as they
werecloseneighborsinthenorthwest.
The Kambojas as neighbors of the Uttara Madras here obviously refers to the trans
Himalayanbranch of the Kambojas who became known as ParamaKambojas in epic times. Both
thesenationsbelongedtoCentralAsia.
AitareyaBrahmana
AitareyaBrahmanareferstosomeancientnationslyingbeyondTransHimalayaboundaries.Asan
illustration,thenameofUttaraKuruandUttaraMadraaregiven.Butotherliteratureaffirmsthat,
besides Uttara Kuru and Uttara Madra, thejanapadasofParama Kambojas,Rshikasand the Lohas
etc were also located beyond Himalaya boundaries into Central Asia. These Central Asian people
wereundoubtedlyinintensiveintercoursewithancientIndianpeople.
Indianepics
ThevastareaacrosstheHimalayasandHindukushfromPamirsuptoArctic(Somagiri)isstatedby
some to form ancientUttara Kuru. There is picturesque mention of this region in
theepicsRamayanaand theMahabharata. There are also numerous references to the people
formingpartofthisvastregion.
ValmikiRamayana
TheValmikiRamayanaportraysthetopographyofthewholelandofCentralAsiainverydetailsand
insomecases,verypicturesquely.ItgivesveryvividaccountofUttarapathaandseveralcountries
located in that direction. It mentions the lands and towns of the Kambojas, Shakas,
Yavanas,Varadas(=Paradas: according to Dr Jayswal, Dr Singh and others) along with Himavanta.
After this mentions is made of Uttara Kuru and Somagiri (Arctica). The region is described as
withoutthesunandyetverymuchlighted.TherearesaidtobenoNationalboundariesthere.
TheBala Kandasection (1.55/23) of Ramayana refers to a jointmythicalcreation of the Central
AsiantribesoftheKambojas,Yavanas,Shakas,ParadasandMlechchasbysageVasishathathrough
thedivinepowersofhisKamdhenu.
Bala Kanda of Ramayana also refers to the famed horses imported byprincesofAyodhyaof Mid
IndiafromtheCentralAsiannationsofKambojaandBahlika(Bactria).
Mahabharata
According to Mahabharata, the kings of the Kambojas and the Tusharas were present in
theRajasuyaYajna ofYudhisthira. They had later participated in Mahabharata war from the
Kauravaside.Theywereveryferociouswarriors.
The Shakas, Xiongnu as, Paradas and Tusharas had paid tribute to Yudhishtra. The epic also
mentionsthatPandavaNakulahaddefeatedtheXiongnuas,Pahalvas,YavanasandShakasinthe
westernhorizon.
Mahabharata mentions thatArjunahad brought tributes from the Daradas, Kambojas,
Lohas,Rishikas,ParamaKambojasandtheUttaraKurusoftransHimalyanregions.
Mahabharata attests that the northernRishikasand theLohaswere close neighbors and allied to
ParamaKambojasi.e.TransHindukushKambojasoftheTransHimalyanterritories.
17
Atotherplaces(5.4.18)inMahabharataalso,theRishikasareshownasveryintimitatelyconnected
withtheKambojas.
TheRishikasaresaidtobesameastheYuezhis(DrV.S.Aggarwala).TheKushanasorKanishkasare
alsothesamepeople(DrJ.C.Vidyalnkara).ProfSteinsaysthattheTukharaswereabranchofthe
Yuechi orYuezhi. Tusharas/Tukharas (Tokharois/Tokarais) and the Yuezhi are stated to be same
people(DrP.C.Bagchi).
According toVayu PuranaandMatsya Purana, river Chakshu (Oxus) flowed through the countries
ofTusharas(Rishikas?),Lampakas,Pahlavas,ParadasandShakasetc.
The above references indicate that the countries of Rishikas (=Tusharas?), ParamaKambojas,
Lohas, Pahlavas, Paradas, Shakas etc wereclose geographical neighbors and were all located in
CentralAsia.
King Drapupada of Panchala had advisedYudhishtrato invite the Kambojas, Shakas, Pahlavas,
RishikasandtheDaradas(Paradas?)intheMahabharatawaronPandava'sside.Butitwastoolate
forYudhishtra.
GeneralSudakshinaof the Kambojas had joined the Mahabharata war on Kurus' side leading one
Akshauhini army of ferocious Central Asian warriors which included Shakas, andYavanas, besides
the Kambojas. Of the ten distinguished military Generals appointed byDuryodhanato efficiently
managehisvasthostofarmy,SuadakshinKambojwasoneofsuchdistinguishedGenerals.
This ancient epic evidence shows that there was an intensivepoliticalandmilitaryintercourse
betweentheMidIndiansandtheCentralAsians.
MahabharatabracketstheKambojas,ShakasandtheKhashastogetherandstylesthemastribesof
UdichyaorUttarapatha,whichobviouslymeansCentralAsia.
TheBhishamaparavaandShantiparavasofMahabharatarepeatedlyassertthatbeyondtheUttara
(north) are located the Mlechcha Janas (tribes) like the Yavanas, Kambojas, Darunas, Kiratas and
otherMlechchas/Barbarians.
TheseabovereferencesalsoobviouslypointtoCentralAsianfringeofpeoplelocatedonthenorth
ofBharatavarsa.
However, theAnusasanaparvaof Mahabharata also asserts that theclansof the Kambojas,

Yavanas, Shakas, Pahlavas were formerly noble Kshatriyas, but in later time had turned into
degradedKshatriyasduetothewrathoftheBrahminas.
Manusmriti
Manusmritiasserts that the Kambojas, Sakas, Yavanas, Paradas, Pahlavas etc were originally
Kshatriyas of good birth but were gradually degraded to thebarbaricstatus due to their not
followingtheBrahmanasandtheBrahmanicalcodeofconduct.
ThisstatementofManuisdesignedtoaccommodatetheseforeignhordesintothesocialsetupof
theHindus. The foreigners were expected to practice same normal pieties as the Hindus and the
later,inreturn,regardedthemhenceforthasbelongingtotheirownsocialorganisation.
24
AccordingtoJamesTod,thisancienttestimonyfromManupresentsaconclusiveproofofaperfect
intercourse which had existed between the people of Oxus (Central Asia) and those of
theGangesregioninremoteantiquity.
Puranas
According to BahuSagara legend, the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Paradas and Pahlavas, the so
calledfivehordes(pancaganah),fromnorthwestwereinvitedbytheHaihayaYadavasformilitary
supportagainstkingBahuofAyodhya.BahuwasdefeatedandranoffAyodhya.Agenerationlater,
Bahu'sson,SagararegainedAyodhyaaftertotallydestroyingtheHaihayaandTalajanghaKshatriyas
in the battle. He was about to annihilate the five assisting hordes, but Sagara'spriestVashishta
intervenedandpersuadedhimtosavetheirlivesbysubjectingthemtolighterpunishments.Story
says that King Sagara consented to the advice of hisspiritualguide but punished these foreigners
bychangingtheirhairstylesandturningthemintodegradedKshatriyas.
Thesearethefirstknowninvadersintherecordedhistoryofthesubcontinent.Theinvaderswere
eventuallyassimilatedintothelocalcommunityasKshatriyas2.
AlberunireferstothisPuranicstoryinhisclassicbookAlberuni'sIndiaandtestifiesthattheabove
referredtofivehordesbelongedtohisownpeoplei.e.CentralAsia.
Puranic traditions (Bhagavata Purana) say thatBudha, thepatriarchicfigure the Yadu, Turvasa,
Druhyu, Anu and Puru clans had come fromCentral AsiatoBharatkhandto perform
penitentialritesand he espousedElla, the daughter of Manu, by whom was bornPururavas.
Pururavas had six sons, one of whom is said to beAyu. ThisAyuorAyis said to be the patriarch
figureoftheTartarsofCentralAsiaaswellasofthefirstraceofthekingsofChina.
Whatever may be value of these conjectures, this literary tradition definitely alludes to intimate
relationswhichexisted,sinceantiquity,betweentheIndianpeopleandtheCentralAsians.
Puraniccosmographydivides our earth into seven concentric islands, viz.Jambudvipa,
Plakasadvipa,Salmalidvipa,Kushadvipa,Krounchadvipa,Shakadvipa,andPushkaradvipa,separated
bysevenencirclingseas.InsularcontinentJambudvipaformstheinnermostconcentricislandinthe
aboveschemeofcontinents.Jambudvipaincludesninevarsaandninemountains.VarsaofIllavrta
lies at the center of Jambudivipa at whose center is locatedMount Meru(Plateau of Pamir). The
varsaofUttaraKuruliestothenorthofMountMeruandextendingbeyondnorthwards.Thevarsa
ofIllaVrtaincludespartsofCentralAsia.
The Puranic Bhuvanakosha attests that the boundaries ofBharata varsaextended in the
Uttarapatha as far as the Vamkshu or Oxus in Central Asia.The Oxus to be the northmost limit of
thegeographicalterritoriesonceincludedintheBharatavarsawasarealfactinpoliticalhistoryof
ancient India. It was the most welldefined geographical feature delimiting the boundaries of
BharataVarsainthenorth.
The PuranicBhuvanakoshaattests that Bahlika orBactriawas the northernmost
PuranicJanapadaofancientIndiaandwaslocatedinUdichyaorUttarapathadivisionofIndiansub
continent.
TheUttarapathaornortherndivisionofJambudvipacomprisedveryvastareaofCentralAsia,asfar
astheUralsandtheCaspianSeatotheYeniseiandfromTurkistanandTienShanrangestoasfaras
theArctic(DrS.M.Ali).
MudraRakashasadrama
TheBuddhistdramaMudrarakshasbyVisakhaDuttaasalsotheJainaworkParisishtaparvanrefer
to Chandragupta's alliance with Himalayan king Parvatka. The Himalayan alliance gave
Chandragupta a composite formidable army made up of the Shakas, Yavanas, Kambojas, Kiratas,
ParasikasandBahlikasasattestedbyMudrarakashas.Withthehelpofthesefrontiermartialtribes
from Central Asia, Chandragupta was able to defeat theGreeksuccessors ofAlexander the
Greatand the Nanda/Nandin rulers ofMagadha so as to found the powerful Maurya empire in
northernIndia.
Raghuvamsha
PoetKalidasaprovidesgraphicpictureofnorthernmountainousregionofIndia.Thisisespeciallyso
in the case of his works like Meghdoota, Vikramorvashiam andRaghuvamsha. He also brings
refreshingreferenceoftheUttaraKuru.
Raghuvamsha tells of a war expion of kingRaghu(Chandragupta Vikramaditya) against the
Parasikas (Sassanians), Xiongnu as and the Kambojas located in northern division or Uttarapatha.
The encounters with the Xiongnu as and the Kambojas had occurred around river Oxus, right in
CentralAsia.
32
Rajtrangini
Rajataranginiof Kalhana makes kingLalitaditya MukatapidaofKashmirundertake a war expion
againsthisneighboringcountries.Helaunchedontotheregionofnorth(fromKashmir)againstthe
Kambojas, Tusharas, Bhauttas, Daradas, Valukambudhi, Strirajya and Uttarakurus (mythical or
not).There is also a reference to the humiliation of the Xiongnu as by Lalitaditva in the
Rajataramgini.
34
ThenationsnamedabovearealllocatedinCentralAsia.
BrahataKathaofKshmendra
BrahataKathaindicatesthatkingVikramadityaofUjjaini(60cBC)hadmobilisedhisforcesagainst
the invading hordes of theMlechchasfrom north west. He had ridded the mother earth off the
sinfuls by completely destroying the Mlechcha hordes of the Sakas, Kambojas, Yavanas, Parasikas
etc.
KathaSaritsagaraofSomadeva
TheKathaSaritsagaraof Somadeva also refers to the subjugation of numerous kings and the
destruction of theSanghas(republics) of the Mlechchas by king Vikramditiya. Those who survived
paid tributes to him or joined him militarily.The reference to theSanghas of the Mlechchas,
undoubtedly alludes to the Sanghas of the Kambojas, Yavavans, Abhiras as well as of the Vahikas
etc.
This,againaffirmstheongoinginteractionbetweentheIndianmainlandandthepeopleofCentral
Asia.
KavyamimamsaofRajashekhara
The 10th century CEKavyamimamsaof Pandit Rajashekhara knows about the existence of several
CentralAsiantribes.Hefurnishesanexhaustivelistoftheextanttribesofhistimesandplacesthe
Shakas, Tusharas, Vokanas, Xiongnu as, Kambojas,Vahlika,Vahlava, Tangana,
Limpaka,Turukshasetctogether, styling themall as the tribes from Uttarapatha or north division.
There is also a mention of TusharaGiri (Tushara mountain) in the Mahabharata, Harshacharita of
BanaBhataandKavyamimansaofRajshekhar.
ConclusionofIndiaLiteraureaboutCentralTribes:
This ancient epic evidence shows that there was an intensivepoliticalandmilitaryintercourse
between theMid Indiansand theCentral Asians.Mahabharata brackets the Kambojas, Shakas and
theKhashastogetherandstylesthemastribesofUdichyaorUttarapatha,whichobviouslymeans
Central Asia.The Bhishamaparava and Shantiparavas of Mahabharata repeatedly assert that
beyond the Uttara (north) are located the Mlechcha Janas (tribes) like the Yavanas, Kambojas,
Darunas, Kiratas and other Mlechchas/Barbarians. These above references also obviously point to
Central Asian fringe of people located on the north of Bharatavarsa.The Rishikas are said to be
samepeopleastheYuezhis(DrV.S.Aggarwala,K.D.Sethna).TheKushanasorKanishkasarealso
thesamepeople(DrJ.C.Vidyalnkara).ProfSteinsaysthattheTukharas(Tokharois/Tokarais)were
a branch of the Yuechi or Yuezhi. Thus, the Rishikas (q.v.), Tusharas/Tukharas (Tokharoi/Tokaroi)
and the Yuezhis probably were either same or an allied people. Prof Stein says that the Tukharas
(Tokharois/Tokarais) were a branch of the Yuechi or Yuezhi. Thus, the Rishikas (q.v.),
Tusharas/Tukharas (Tokharoi/Tokaroi) and the Yuezhis probably were either same or an allied
people.
In Balmiki Ramayan , there is no details about Tocharion unlike other Central Asiantribesof the
Kambojas,Yavanas,Shakas,ParadasandMlechchas.InBalmikiRamayan,KingDasrathawasknown
as Gurtar, i.e. Gurjar . In many research it is proves that Yuezhi is Chineeese nomenclature for
Gurjars. Also it is proves that Tocharion and Yuezhi were same . "It is important to note that the
Chineseword'Yueche"ispronouncedas"Gu(r)ttia"accordingtoKarlGren,meaningthe"Moon
People".
WhileTocharians/RishikasarementionedinlaterIndianliteratures.ExceptionisAtharavaveda,but
it could be later amendment in original Atharavaveda. However, theAnusasanaparvaof
MahabharataalsoassertsthattheclansoftheKambojas,Yavanas,Shakas,Pahlavaswereformerly
noble Kshatriyas, but in later time had turned into degraded Kshatriyas due to the wrath of the
Brahminas.
OnbehalfofIndianLiteratureitcouldbeantheorythatTocharian(Yuezhi)werebelongtoAncient
IndiaduringRamayanPeriodandTheywouldfull/partiallymovedintoNorthbeforeMahabharata
period, may be due to political reason or for trade.As per Chineese Literatures, Yuezhi were sell
Zade in Ancient China. May be , these people gone for another places for trading of Zade and
James.Fromancientperiod,Gurjaratra(Gujarat)RegionofIndiawaswellknownforJems.
Tocharianlanguages
Wooden plate with inscriptions in theTocharian language.Kucha,China, 5th8th century.Tokyo

NationalMuseum.
The Tocharians appear to have originally spoken two distinct languages of theIndo
EuropeanTocharian family, an Eastern ("A") form and a Western ("B") form. According to some,
onlytheEastern("A")formcanbeproperlycalled"Tocharian",asthenativenamefortheWestern
formisreferredtoasKuchean(seebelow).Tochariansharesofcoursecommonalitieswithallother
IndoEuropean languages, which does not help in identifying a next neighbor. However, nearly all
lexicostatistical studies put it as next neighbor to Hittite, with which it e.g. shares the absence of
palatalization,commonamongtheregionalneighborsasIndicandIranian.
TocharianAoftheeasternregionsseemstohavedeclinedinuseasapopularlanguageormother
tonguefasterthandidTocharianBofthewest,whereitwasmoreinsulatedfromoutsidelinguistic
influences.
6
It appears that Tocharian A ultimately became aliturgical language, no longer a living
one,atthesametimethatTocharianBwasstillwidelyspokenindailylife.Amongthemonasteries
of the lands inhabited by Tocharian B speakers, Tocharian A seems to have been used in ritual
alongsidetheTocharianBofdailylife.
EarlyRelationofYuezhiwithXiongnu:
XiongnuwereancientpastoralnomadictribethatformedastateandconfederacylocatednorthofChinain
Inner Mongolia. Xiongnu Tribe referred as Barbarian ofthe North Mangolia. This nomadic tribe of
Mongolia depended on grazing lands for their animalswith limited vegetation and agricultural resources.
Theirsurvivaldependentontheaccessofgrazinglandsfortheirdomesticatedanimals.Themeatanddairy
products from the animal provided thefood while skin hide provided clothing and tents fornomads.
Primarily of Bronze Ageculture, they were fierce and warlike nomads and excelled in horse riding and hit
and runmilitary strategy. Later they developed the access tothe Iron Age weapons that produces
devastating effect on other neighbors. China was one ofthe most effected Chineese kingdoms of the
warringstates to suffer from Xiongnu raids. Xiongnu must have realized that dailyhunt for food stealing is
not the final solution to their problem but to find alternate sites forgrazing lands that YuehChinh had
control over. The earliest known Xiongnu rulerwas Touman, who reignedapproximately between 225
BCand210BC.HespentmuchofhisruleoverunitingthevariousnomadiccomponentslivinginMongolia
StartingofGreatMigrationofYuezhi(Tocharian):
FirstWarbetweenXiongnuandYuezhi:
215214BCEGeneralMengTianoftheQindrovebarbariantribes(Xiongnus)outfromtheOrdos
andhebeganconstructionofa"GreatWall."
TheGrandHistorianSimaQian(SsumaCh'ien)(c.145c.90BCE)writesinShiJi110:TheAccountof
theXiongnu.
Finally Qin overthrew the other six states, and the First Emperor of the Qin dispatched Meng
Tian[MengT'ien]toleadaforceof100,000mennorthtoattackthebarbarians[Hu].Heseized
control of all the lands south of the Yellow River and established border defences along the
river,constructingfortyfourwalleddistrictcitiesoverlookingtheriverandmanningthemwith
convict labourers transported to the border for garrison duty. He also built the Direct Road
from Jiuyuan [Chiuyan] to Ynyang . Thus he utilized the natural mountain barriers to
establishtheborderdefences,scoopingoutthevalleysandconstructingrampartsandbuilding
installations at other points where they were needed. Thewhole line stretched over 10,000 li
from Lintao [Lint'ao] to Liaodong [Liaotung] and even extended across the Yellow River and
throughYangshan[YangMountains]andBeijia[Peichia].
"At this time the Eastern Barbarians were very powerful and the Yuezhi were likewise flourishing.
The Shanyu or chieftain of the Xiongnu was named Touman. Touman, unable to hold out against
the Qin forces, had withdrawn to the far north, where he lived with his subjects for over ten
years.".Afterthat,XiongnusdidnotreturntotheareatilltheendofQinDynasty.TheXiongnusin
209B.C.E.sentelderprinceMote(Modu)totheYuezhiashostage,andthenattackedtheYuezhito
induce them into killing Mote (Modu). The Yuezhi (Yuehchih) people were not weak at the
beginning. The Xiongnu s, in fact, needed to send in hostage to the Yuehchih (Yuezhi) on the
contrary.ThefatherofXiongnunicChanyuMote(Modu)hadatfirstplannedtoborrowtheYueh
chih (Yuezhi) knife in killing Mote (Modu) so that he could have his junior son succeed him. Mote
(Modu) was dispatched to Yuehchih (Yuezhi) as a hostage, but the Xiongnu s attacked the Yueh
chih(Yuezhi)thereafter.UponreceiptofModu,Toumangavehimaunitof10,000cavalriesunder
hiscommand.Modutrainedhismenlikeaspecialforce,expertinhitandrunguerrillawarfare.
Mote(Modu)hadbarelyescapedtheYuehchih(Yuezhi)alive.
InShiji110:TheAccountoftheXiongnu,SimaQianwrites:
"Touman'soldestson,theheirapparenttohisposition,wasnamedMaodun[Modun],buttheShanyu
alsohadayoungersonbyanotherconsortwhomhehadtakenlaterandwasveryfondof.Hedecided
thathewantedtogetridofMaodunandsetuphisyoungersonasheirinstead,andhethereforesent
MaodunashostagetotheYuezhination.Then,afterMaodunhadarrivedamongtheYuezhi,Touman
madeasuddenattackonthem.TheYuezhiwereabouttokillMaoduninretaliation,buthemanaged
tostealoneoftheirbesthorsesandescape,eventuallymakinghiswaybackhome.Hisfather,struck
byhisbravery,puthimincommandofaforceof10,000cavalry.
"Maodun had some arrows made that whistled in flight and used them to drill his troops in
shooting from horseback. 'Shoot wherever you see my whistling arrow strike!' he ordered,
'and anyone who fails to shoot will be cut down!' Then he went out Xiongnu ting for birds
and animals, and if anyof his men failed to shoot at whathe shot at,he cut them down on
the spot. After this, he shot a whitling arrow at one of his best horses. Some of his men
Xiongnu g back and did not dare shoot the horse, whereupon Maodun at once executed
them. A little later he took an arrow and shot at the horse, whereupon Maodun at once
executedthem.Alittlelaterhetookanarrowandshotathisfavoritewife.Againsomeofhis
menshrankbackinterrorandfailedtodischargetheirarrows,andagainheexecutedthem
onthespot.FinallyhewentoutXiongnutingwithhismenandshotawhistlingarrowatone
of his father's finest horses. All his followers promptly discharged their arrows in the same
direction, and Maodun at last knew that at last they could be trusted. Accompanying his
father, the Shanyu Touman, on a Xiongnu ting expedition, he shot a whitling arrow at his
father and every one of his followers shot a whistling arrow in the same direction and shot
the Shanyu dead. Then Maodun executed his stepmother, his younger brother, and all the
high officials of the nation who refused to take orders from him, and set himself up as the
new Shanyu(in 209 B.C.). He adopted suitable policies to stabilize society and develop the
economy.HencehiscountrybecameveryprosperousandstrongandsurpassedtheYuezhi.
SecondWarbetweenXiongnuandYuezhi:
When the king of Eastern Hu nomads heard about Mote (Modu)'s patricide, he challenged Mote
(Modu) by sending emissary to Mote (Modu) and demanding the 'qianlima' ('winged steed') and
againMote(Modu)'swife.Mote(Modu)gaveupthehorseandhiswifeonthefirsttwooccasions
andthenattackedtheDongHunomadswhenaskedtosecedethelandbetweentheXiongnusand
theDongHu.Mote(Modu)defeatedtheDongHunomadsandkilledtheirking.TheXiongnusthen
defeated two other tribal states called 'Loufan' and 'Baiyang' (white sheep) which were located
betweentheXiongnusandtheChinese.(BaiyangKingwasrecordedtohavedwelledsouthofthe
YellowRiver.)
"AtthistimetheHanforceswerestalematedinbattlewiththearmiesofXiangYu,andChinawas
exhausted by warfare. Thus Maodun was able to strengthen his position, massing a force of ver
300,000crossbowmen."NowModuDecidedtosuperpowerinthatareaandsubsequentlyModu
launched another war against the Yuezhi, which was second war against Yuezhi. This war took
placeinthe7thyearofModuera(203B.C.).Fromthiswar,alargeareaoftheterritoryoriginally
belonging to the Yuezhi was seized by the Xiongnu, the hegemony of the Yuezhi started to shake,
but their nation was not yet exterminated. It appears that the Yuezhi did not yet migrate from
Dunhuang.
The Xiongnu invaded Taiyuan in 200 BCE and were aided by the defected fiduciary allies; Xin
Emperor Gaozu (Shin Huangdi) personally ledhis forces through the snow to Pingcheng (near
modernDatong,Shanxi).IntheensuingBattleofBaideng,Gaozu'sforceswereheavilysurrounded
forsevendays;runningshortofsupplies,hewasforcedtoflee.Afterthisdefeat,thecourtadviser
Liu Jing convinced the emperor tocreate a peace treaty and marriage alliance with the Xiongnu
ChanyucalledtheHeqinagreement.Bythisarrangementestablishedin198BCE,theHanhoped
tomodify the Xiongnus violent cultural values with luxury goodsgiven as tribute (silks, wine,and
foodstuffs, ivory) andto make Modu's future children bornof Huangdi daughter, a Chinese
successor and a subordinate to grandfather Huangdi. The exactamounts of annual tribute
aspromisedbyEmperorGaozuHuangdigiventotheXiongnuinthe2ndcenturyBCafterthedefeat
are unknown.The emperor was known with many names such as Gaozu, Huangdi,shuangadi etc.
Emperor Gaozu was initially set to give his only daughter to Modu, but underthe opposition of
EmpressL,Gaozu(SinnHuangdi)madeafemalerelative,aprincessandmarriedhertoModu.The
offeringofprincessbridesandtributaryitemsscarcelysatisfiedtheXiongnuKing.
ThirdWarbetweenXiongnuandYuezhiandYuezhiMigration
In the fourth year of the Han Emperor Wen Qianyuan era (176 B.C.), Modu waged the third war
againsttheYuezhi.TheresultofthiswarwasdeclaredinaletterwrittentotheHanEmperorWen
byModu.TheXiongnunicChanyuwrotetoHanemperorsayingthatheorderedoneofhiskings,
Youxianwang(rightsidevirtuousking),togowesttostrikeattheYuehchih(Yuezhi)aspunishment
forbreakingpeaceneartheChineseborder.Yuezhicertainlydidnotexpectanattack,sotheywere
completelymassacred.Inthiswar,XiongnudefeatedtheYuezhianddominatedallofwhatisnow
the modern province of Xinjiang (Sinkiang). Yuezhi King was killed and a cup was made from his
skull (The skull utensil would become Xiongnu nic legacy which would be retrieved for
employmentonmajorcelebrations.PeoplewouldhavetoadmiretheXiongnunicspirittopreserve
this piece of work after Xiongnu dreds of years of wars, turmoil and relocations.). The cat
andmouse game between Xiongnu and YuehChinh that lasted over several generation and killed
number of peopleand resulted into massive displacement of the tribes from their original
homelandand subsequent influx into subcontinent that wasclearly unprecedented (and partly
explains How Indian Purana failedto track the Genealogy andmigration of various rulers of tribes
andclansintoIndia.)TheYuezhiqueenactedasaregentandledherpeopleinafurthermoveto
the west to their Big Exit the valley of the river Ili, and forever left the fertile lands around
Huanhe in Hesi. The valley of the rivers Ili and Chu iscalled Sedmorechie today (in Russian),
meaningSevenrivers(KazakhZhetisu,Jetisuw,Jetysu)butintheearlyMiddleAgesitborethe
nameArgu6,Argun,OrganaanamemostlikelyrelatedtotheArsi(Arsan)/Yuezhi.Thisisa
uniqueandfatefulmigrationofthemajorityoftheArsian/Yuezhicommunity.Theystumbleupon
the valley of the rivei Ili and after that in Sogdiana in Central Asia. Here, they founded a new
kingdom,whichaltergrewintheKushanEmpire.(CDGYuE,p.1326)ButnotallreachCentralAsia.
The son of Yuehchih (Yuezhi) was ordered to stay behind, One part of the Yuezhi follow him,
knowninChinesechroniclesasXiaoYuezhiorSmallYuezhi.
The defeat of the Yuezhi, submission of the Loulan (Loulan), the Wusun (Wusun), the Huzhieh
(Huchieh), and twentysix states contiguous to them gave the Xiongnu (Hsiungnu) control of the
prosperousoasiscitystatesofSinkiangaswellascontactwiththerulersofFerghanaandSogdia.
4
(Ferghana was spread across what is now part of central and eastern Kyrgyzstan and eastern
Tajikistan,eastoftheSyrDarya(Jaxartes)River.Sogdiawascenteredinwhatisnowsoutheastern
Uzbekistan, between the Amu Darya (Oxus) and Syr Darya (Jaxartes) Rivers. Sogdia also included
partofwhatisnowwesternKyrgistanandwesternTajikistan.)
InalettertotheHanemperorWen,Modunstated:
"With the assistance of Heaven, the talent of officers and soldiers, and the strength of horses the
wisekingoftherighthassucceededindestroyingtheYechih,andinunspairinglykillingthemor
bringing them into submission. Loulan, the Wusun, the Huchieh, and other twentysix states
contiguoustothemarenowpartoftheHsiungnu.Allthepeoplewhodrawthebownowbecome
oneonefamilyandthenorthernregionhasbeenpacified."
XiaoYuezhiorSmallYuezhi:
It is assumed, that they withdrew a little higher up in the mountains in the region of Tibet and
found a kind of coexistence with the Qiang tribes, already living there and later formed the
kingdom of Nanchao, presently in the Yunnan province and adopted the language of the Chiang.
The Kingdom of Dian was established around Kunming in Yunnan, and the township of Yizhoujun
wasestablishedin109BC.TheDianKingdomwasbuiltontheeastbankoftheDianchiLake.There
thenoblesandthecommonpeople,thewarriorsandtheslaves,allwerefondofsongsanddances.
They showed a vibrant culture that became among the best bronze cultures of the world. Then
NanchaoKingdomtookoverYizhoujun,andmadeKunmingoneofitscapitals.
.Theother,aforementionedpartoftheYuezhiremainedintheareaofLakeHuBostanandlaidthe
foundationofthekingdomofAgni.Itispossiblethatthelandoriginallybelongedtothekingdomof
Kuca.
YuezhiburngravesnearHamiYuezhiburnedtheirdeads
TypicallandscapeinGansuYuezhiraisedhorses,itwouldnotbeveryeasytoday,itistoodry.The
modernelandscapeseemstobebettersuitedforcamels
Notehow"QiangPeople"describedintheclassicaldocument"Weilu."
"Section3Qiangtribes
FromDunhuanginthewesternareaofChouQiang(insurgentQiang)inNanshanMountains(South
Mountains) and several thousand li against west to Congling (Pamir) are remnants of Yuezhi and
Congzi Qiang (Brown Onions Qiang) Baima Qiang (White Horse Qiang) and Huangniu Qiang
(YellowOxQiang)."
IaroslavLebedynskyandVictorMairspeculatethatsomeScythiansmayalsohavemigratedtothe
area of Yunnan in southern China following their expulsion by the Yuezhi in the 2nd century BCE.
ExcavationsoftheprehistoricartoftheDiancivilizationofYunnanhaverevealedhuntingscenesof
Caucasoid horsemen in Central Asian clothing. The scenes depicted on these drums sometimes
represent these horsemen practicing hunting. Animal scenes of felines attacking oxes are also at
timesreminiscentofScythianartbothinthemeandincomposition.
ATangardatKokoNorandintheNanshanMountains
Thegreekgeografer,Ptolemy,wholivedinEgypt,knewaboutapeoplecalled"Thagouroi",which
was roughly located in the Nanshan Mountains in Qinghai ("The Cambridge History" page 152).
Ptolemylivedfrom90to168AC,andtheXianbeitribeTuyuhunfirstestablishedtheirkingdomat
KokoNorin329AC;Therefore,wemustbelievethatthisThagouroiwasalittleYuezhi'sterritory.
TheYuezhikingShakawithbignoseandroyalhorsetailhairstyle.
In notes to the translation of "Weilu" John E. Hill writes: "Little Yuezhi were descendants of the
Yuezhi people, who took refuge in the Qilian Mountains in the early period of Han, when Yuezhi
wasattackedbythegreatXiongnuleader,Modun,andtheirmainforcewasdrivenwestwardinto
Central Asia ", and continued, "In late Han Dynasty time they could apparantly put in the field
aroundninethousandarmedmen,theirmaincentersweretheXiNingvalleyandLianjuTerritory
(eastandwestofKokoNor)inWuwei,withafewgroupsinthenorthofZhanggye.SeeHHS87/77,
2899."deCrespigny(1984),p.478,n.15".
AnothercommentfoundbyJohnE.Hill:"XiaHou'sLieutenantChangHocrossedHuangHo(ariver)
(lateintheyear217AC)andreachedLittleHuangTung'sterritoryeastofKokoNor,thecenterof
Yuezhi tribe, who had been the main force in the uprising." (Weilu)
SothisindicatesthatitwastheYuezhi,wholivedatKokoNor.
TheKingdomofTuyuhunattheKokoNor
However,itisalsoknownthatin329ACtheTuyuhunXianbeipeoplecreatedakingdom,centered
around the salty lake Koko Nor and the Qaidam basin in the northeastern part of the modern
Chinese province of Qinghai. What became of the little Yuezhi people, and how the country was
taken over by Tuyuhun, I do not know. .
Maybe they had already left the Tibetan plateau and sought new land to the west, like so many
otherpeopleintheMigrationAgedid.PerhapslittleYuezhiweredisplacedbytheinvaders,orthey
found a form of coexistence with the Tuyuhun. Maybe they were absorbed by Tuyuhun; nobody
knows. The migration state Tuyuhun around Koko Nor.The appearance of the Xianbei tribes was
commentedbythelearnedYanShigu,whoworkedatthecourtofthefirstTangrulerLiShimi.He
wroteinacommentinSimaQinshistoricwork,ShiJi:"Nowadays,these"Hu"peopleshavegreen
eyes, red beard and their appearance is like bearded monkeys, and they are originally from this
kind."
.
OnthetimeofYanShiguthedominantsteppebarbariansweretheXianbeitribes,soitmusthave
beenthose,hespokeabout.TheTuyuhunpeoplewasabranchoftheMurongXianbeipeople.
The scriptures from Dunhuang give us some information about Tuyuhun's language.
Stone lion near Dulan in Qinghai made by the Tuyuhun people. .
The Dunhuang documents, P. 1283 (in Tibetan), tells of the Qi Dan (See Chapter 17 "Qi Dan
people") people's language: "In the language they (Qi Dan) and Tuyuhun could broadly
communicate with each other." As Tuyuhun was a branch of Murong Xianbei and Qi Dan
descended from Tuoba Xianbei, this indicates that the migration time's Xianbei tribes spoke very
much the same language. .
The Xianbei peoples created the Wei Dynasty and many other migration states. Sui and Tang
Dynasty originated from Xianbei people, who had accepted Chinese culture. Their language must
necessarily have had a marked influence on the development of the Chinese language.
And since there are many words in both Danish and Chinese, that are similar and there are other
cultural similarities, this could indicate that the original Xianbei language and culture was a
common source, which has affected both Scandinavian and Chinese culture.
Ancient burial mounds in the Qaidam Basin of Qinghai. .
Around the salty Lake Koko Nor and in the Qaidam basin in the northeast of the modern Chinese
province of Qinghai hundreds of traces of ancient burial mounds have been found, believed to
originfromtheTuyuhun.Insomeoftheolddocuments,whichSteinandPelliotbroughtbackfrom
Dun Huang, it is said that an "Aza" people still had a foothold around Koko Nor about 800 to 900
AC. They conducted raids into the Chinese DunHuang area, where they abducted children and
young people as slaves or perhaps "thralls" (trlle in danish) (See "Life Along the Silk Road" page
176). In modern Tibetan slaves are still called "tralpas". .
In "The History of Tibet" by Alex Mcay (page 46) he makes the point that it was the royal family,
whocalledthemselves"Acha'i"(foundinTibetanLiteratureas"Asha")andthepeoplewerecalled
"T'uyuShe", in Tibetan "Thogon", "ThoYuGon." .
Tuyuhun tomb from the Tang Dynasty period in the Qaidam Basin on the Tibetan plateau. .
Tuyuhunwasarathermysteriouskingdom,asonedoesnotknowmuchabout.Whenthekingdom
was at its greatest extent it covered very near the same area as the later Dan Xiang kingdom,
namely the North Qinghai and parts of the modern provinces of Gansu, Xin Jiang, Ning Xia and
Sichuan. A branch of the Silk Road passed through the Qaidam Basin, and it seems to have made
the Tuyuhun people rather wealthy. Persian and Byzantine coins and hundreds of remains of silk
have been found. .
It is said about the AZha people: "After many years of war, they were finally defeated by the
Tibetansin663ACandneveragainregainedtheirindependence.
"See:Mole(1970),p.2,30and73,n.22"(Hill).
TheTuyuhunkingdomlastedforabout300years.Itceasedtoexistaround663AC.Somesources
sayitwasdestroyedbythekingofTibet,otherssayitwasconqueredbytheKingofTurfan,and
stillotherssayitwasconqueredbytheWesternWei.
ThehighaltitudeplateauinQinghaiProvince..
ThenationwideChineseCCTV1TelevisionChannelincooperationwithTheJapaneseTVbrought
anexcellentseriesabouttheSilkRoad.AmongwasaepisodeaboutQinghai,whichmakeupthe
westernpartoftheTibetanplateau,wherethelittleYuezhi,TuyuhunandAzaoncelived.The
broadcastingshowedtheQinghaiplateau,whichhasanaltitudeofaround3000m.Thelandscape
remindsaboutpartsofIceland,asfarasIcouldsee.Completelywithouttrees,cold,eveninthe
summertimetherecanfallsnow.Ontheplainsarealotofancientburialmounds,allrobbedonce
inthepast.Theyaredugup,andeverythinghasbeenremoved.Bytheconstructionofthese
moundslargeamountsofwoodhasbeenused.Theyarebuiltupinlayersoftimberlogsandsoil.
.
Logs of cypress used in Tuyuhun burial mounds. .
SomanypartsofQinghaimayinaremotepasthavebeencoveredbyforest.Itcanbeshown,that
for the older graves bigger timber logs had been used than for the younger graves. This suggests,
that big trees were increasingly difficult to find. It complies with the fact that cypress grows
extremelyslow.Todaytheareaisabsolutelytreeless.SomeTuyuhungravesfromtheTangDynasty
times resemble tombs on China's northern plain.
Despitethefactthatthegraveswererobbed,therehavebeenfoundsomethingsinQinghai.The
mostinterestingissomesilkcarpetsproducedwiththesametechniquethatwasusedintheWest
andwhatnowadaysiscalledMiddleEast.Thereconstructedsilkrugmotifsshowedanapparently
darkhaired people of European appearance, big noses, eyes, etc.. The subject of the carpets
displayspeople,wholiveanactiveandcheerfulllife,theygohunting,drinkingandgetssomegood
dinners. A man is shown throwing up, as if he had got too much to eat and drink. Many other
findingsindicatethattheyhadgoodconnectionswiththeWestandtheGreeksinBactria.
GreatYuezhiMigration(WestwardPath):
TheYuzhimigrationwasoneofmassproportions.Somescholarsbelievethattheirmigrationof
peoplecomprisedofhundredsofbowmenandthegroupofmillionspeopleofallagesandgenders
(Smith1999:248).
IntheirwestwardsearchforadequateagriculturallandtheYuzhiencounterednumeroushostile
groups.Thefirstofthesegroups,theWusan,werelocatedalongthebasinsoftheIliRiver(Smith
1999:248).
FirstYuezhiWusunWar
174BCEModun,theshanyuoftheXiongnu,died;hissonLaoShang,(Laoshan,propername:Jizhu)
succeeded him as shanyu. The Xiongnu s' attack against the Yuezhi to the west triggered a chain
reaction,In173BCEtheYuezhiattackedandoverrantheWusun.Wusan,werelocatedalongthe
basins of the Ili River (Smith 1999: 248).Nandoumi, the kunmo (supreme chieftain) of the Wusun,
waskilled.Afterthatdefeat,theWusunpeopleandtheheirtotheirthrone,stillaninfant,moved
toXiongnuandsoughtprotection.TheybecomevassalstotheXiongnuSometimelater,hisinfant
son Liejiaomi was left in the wild. Liejiaomi was eventually found by the Xiongnu. According to a
legendrecordedintheHanshu(anancientChinesehistorytextthatissequeltoSimaQuien'sShiji),
Liejiaomiwassuckledbyashewolfandfedmeatbyravenswhilehewasinthewild.Liejiaomiwas
eventually found by the Xiongnu. The Xiongnu's shanyu Jizhu (a.k.a. Lao Shang) adopted Liejiaomi
and raised him. When Liejiaomi came of age, Jizhu saw to it that he was made the kunmo of the
Xiongnu like his father had been. Jizhu also made Liejiaomi the commander of the far western
regionoftheXiongnuEmpireasavassaloftheXiongnu.Later,hewassentbytheshanyu,together
withhispeople,toprotectthewesternbordersofthestate.
FirstScythianYuezhiWar
.
Under the attack of the Wusun, the Yuehchih (Yuezhi) migrated southwest to the Oxus Valley,
pushingouttheScythiansagain,whohadalargernumberofindividualsthentheWusan,andalso
triedtodefendthemselvesbutfelltothemassfightingforceofYuzhi.TheYuzhithensettledinthe
prosperousagriculturalregionoccupiedbytheSakas(Smith1999:249).
According to the ancient Book of Han: "The Yuezhi attacked the king of the Sai who moved a
considerable distance to the south and the Yuezhi then occupied his lands." This forced the
Scythians to undertake their own migration, south to the Iran Plateau, Afghanistan and northern
India, where for a time they established a loosely defined IndoScythian Rule. The Yuezhi's high
percentage of men under arms relative to their total size (ancient sources estimate the Yuezhi
could deploy 200,000 horse archers out of a total tribal population of 400,000) made them a
formidable opponent. The new country in Central Asia would be called Yuehchih (Yuezhi) Major
theGreaterYehchih.Thistouchedoffawaveof'chainreactions'.TheScythianswenttotakeover
the GrecoBactria kingdom. They then settled west of the Yaksarat river (Syr Darya) in Sogdiana.
The event is briefly hinted at by Strabo, who simply calls them Sakas(Sakai) and places them
thereinhisGeography.Atthattime,SogdianawasprobablystillGrecoBactrianterritory.
YuezhisFurtherMigrationtoSouthWest
SecondYuezhiWusunWar
In173B.C.,HanEmperorWendirepliedtoMote(Modu)(Modok,wronglypronouncedasMaodun)
Chanyuemphasizingthewishforpeace.WithMotedead,hisson,Jiyu,gotenthronedasLaoshang
Chanyu.WendiorderedthataneunuchbythenameofZhongxingShuoaccompanyaHanprincess
to the Xiongnu s. Zhongxing Shuo tricked Laoshang Chanyu in saying that Han Dynasty intended
the Xiongnu s to wear the silk clothes instead of the cavalry clothes. Zhongxing Shuo would
instigatetheXiongnusinattackingHan,andhealsotaughttheXiongnushowtocountcattleand
horses.
In about 161 B.C.E., when Laoshang Chanyu was still alive, the Wusun Prince, Liejiaomi became a
strong young man anda ruler, he requested that the shanyu (Laoshan) allow himto take revenge
ontheYuezhi.HereceivedpermissionandattackedtheYuezhiwhowerethenlivingwestofhim,
defeatedtheYuezhiandtookovertoday'sIliarea.TheYuzhiremainedinthisagriculturalregionfor
fifteen to twenty years (Smith: 249). At the time of Junchen Chanyu, under the attack of Wusun
Xiongnu alliance ,the Yuezhi, continued their march westward and settled in the valley,Oxus
wheretheyconqueredtheTahaiwhohadlivedthere(Smith:250).
However, shortly afterwards the shanyu died and kunmo remained in his new country and
declared himself independent. In other words, the war with and the conquest of the Yuezhi
occurredduringthelastyearsofLaoshansreign,thereforein160/161,whenhedied,theWusuns
werealreadymastersoftheAreaoftheSevenRivers,whichtellsustheYuezhionlyinhabitedthe
region for a few years.The Yuehchih (Yuezhi) people weredriven away from the Scythian landby
theWusunStatelet.Yuehchih(Yuezhi)movedontooccupyBactria.
Itisclearthatthetwoevents,themigrationtheRoyalSakasandtheconquestoftheAreaofthe
Seven rivers, and the Yuezhi by the Wusuni, with their subsequent migration to the
southwest,aroundDayuaninthelandofKangju(ThelandsbetweentheriversAmuDaryaandSyr
Darya)(1) and the conquest of Eastern Bactria,or Daxia (Tachara / Tochara) (2) occurred within a
fewyearsofeachother,almostsimiltaneously.TheChinesehistorianXuSung,wholivedintheXVIII
XIX century (17811848) drew attention to this fact in his commentary to Hanshu. He was
subsequently quoted by Stan Konov. If we look at the sentence Pompeiy Trogus uses in his
Prologues:HowtheAsiansbecamekingsoftheTochariansanddestroyedtheSakaraulians,we
see a full match. The Asians / Wusun conquered the Tocharians who are, technically, Yuezhi /
Arsians,anddrovetheRoyalSakasfromtheirland.(HSh),(CDZhQ,p.39)
YuezhiOccupyBectria:
TheYuezhithenconqueredthelandofKangjuandsettledwestwardalongthevalleyof
the Syr Darya (Yaxarat) river .There, they encountered the Sakaraukas / Saiwang once again
anddrovethemsouthfromSogdiana.TheSaiwanghadnootherchoicebuttocrosstheHissar
ridgeandinvadetheland,whichChangJiangcalledDaxia(Tachara/Tochara),locatedalongthe
upper stream of the Ox river (Amu Darya). They conquered the territory and kept for half a
generation.Theyaretheelusivenomads,whostormedandburnedtheancientHellenisticcityofAi
Hanuman (called Eucratideia at thetime) to the ground. With the fall of this greatGreek fortress,
theroadisopenforthemtotakeoverTocharainitsentiretyortheeasternpartofBactria.Bactria
was a key centre on the extensive trade routes developed to transport lapis lazuli, spinel rubies
and, quite possibly, emeralds see Giuliani et al (2000), pp. 631633 from the mines in the
mountains.LapislazulifromBadhakshanwasbeingtradedtoMesopotamia,andEgyptasearlyas
the second half of the fourth millennium BCE and to the Indus River cultures by the third
millennium.TheserouteswerelatertoformthebasisofthesocalledSilkRoutes.
FollowingthesettlementoftheYuezhi(referredtobytheGreeksasTkharoi),thegeneralareaof
Bactria came to be called Tokharistan. The territory of Tokharistan was identical with Kushan
Bactria,includingtheareasofSurkhandarya,SouthernTajikistanandNorthernAfghanistan.
Around 145 BC, the Yuezhi sacked the Greek city of Alexandria on the Oxus, presentday Ai
Khanoum. Archaeological evidence about this event was found during the excavations of the Old
Town of Alexandria / Eucratideia (Ai Hanum). Archaeological analysis shows that the fortress was
conqueredandburnedabout145B.C.E.
PoliticalStructureofYuezhiStates:
."TheYuezhiwereorganizedintofivemajortribes,eachledbyayabgu,ortribalchief,andknown
totheChineseasXim()inWesternWakhnandZibak,Kushan()inBadakhshanandthe
adjoiningterritoriesnorthoftheOxus,Shuangmi()intheregionofShughnan,Xidun()in
theregionofBalkh,andDm()intheregionofTermez.".
The claim that Da Yuezhi established the five Xihou after they had destroyed the
stateofDaxiaintheHouHanshu,ch.88,isbasedontheHanshu,ch.96A.Inthe
latteritisrecorded:
OriginallyDaxiahadnomajoroverlordorchief,andminorchiefswerefrequentlyestablished
inthetowns.Theinhabitantsareweakandafraidoffighting,withtheresultthatwhentheYuezhi
migrated there, they made them all into their subjects. They provide supplies for Han
envoys.TherearefiveXihou.ThefirstisentitledtheXihouofXiumi,andtheseat
of government is at the town of Hemo ; it is distant by 2,841 li from [the seat of] the
ProtectorGeneraland7,802lifromtheYangBarrier.ThesecondisentitledtheXihouof
Shuangmi,andtheseatofgovernmentisatthetownofShuangmi;itisdistantby3,741
lifrom[theseatof]theProtectorGeneraland7,782lifromtheYangBarrier.Thethirdis
entitledtheXihouofKushan,andtheseatofgovernmentisatthetownofHuzao;
itisdistantby5,940lifrom[theseatof]theProtectorGeneraland7,982lifromtheYang
Barrier. The fourth is entitled the Xihou of Bidun , and the seat of government isat the
townofBomao;itisdistantby5,962lifrom[theseatof]theProtectorGeneraland8,202li
from the Yang Barrier. The fifth is entitled the Xihou of Gaofu , and the seat of
governmentisatthetownofGaofu;itisdistantby6,041lifrom[theseatofthe]Protector
General and 9,238 li from the Yang Barrier. All the five Xihou are subject to the Da
Yuezhi.Accordingtothis,thefiveXihouwereinfactnottheYuezhipeople,but
werethepeopleinthestateofDaxia.Thisisbecausetherewasnosovereignwhocouldorder
thewholecountryinthestateofDaxia,whereeachtowncarriedoutitsaffairsinitsownway
andwasruledbyasocalledminorchief.TheYuezhididnotwipeouttheseminorchiefs,
butmadethemallintotheirsubjectsaftertheyhadconqueredthestateofDaxia.
LocationsofYuezhiStates:
Xim()inWesternWakhn:(RegionofmodernIshkashim):
ThiseasilydefendedterritorycontrolledallthemainstrategicroutesnorthintoBadakhshan,
southeastovertheDorahPass(4,554mor14,940ft)toMastujandChitral,andsouthwesttothe
PanjshirValleyandKabul.
TherearetworoadstowardsChitralfromGowkhanahandZbak;oneleadingthroughthe
districtofSanglichandcrossingthechainofHindKoshbythepassnamedDorah,nearly
southofZbak;theotherrunstothesoutheast,andaffordsthreedistinctpassesoverthe
mountains.Theroutebyoneofthese,theNuksanpass,hasbeenrecentlytraversedand
surveyedbyoneofMajorMontgomeriesemissaries.TheroadintoKaffiristanalsoleadsby
Sanglich,andthencebyapasscalledtheDozakhDara,orvalleyofhell.(FaizBaksh).Wood
(1872),p.202,n.1.
Inthisancientperiod,XiumimighthavebeenborderedbytheregionofIshkashim.BetweenIshkashimand
WakhanstandstheancientfortressofYamchum[=QalaPanjaQalehyePanjehorKilaPanj],whichwasin
existence in the Kushan period, perhaps marking the border between Xiumi as a part of the Great Yuezhi
andNandou.
ShuangmiintheregionofShughnn:
IntheHanshuthecapitalofthexihouofShuangmiissaidtohavethesamenameasthecountry.
Shughnn was of great strategic importance. Not only was it on the track running through Wakhn to
Badakhshn,butalsoformedthewesternterminusofanimportantroutethroughthePamirsleadingnorth
toSaryTash.Hereitconnectedwithtwoothermajorcaravanroutes.Thesewerethemaineastwestroute
betweenKashgaranddowntheKyzylSuuValleytowardsmodernDushanbe,andthemainroutenorthwest
into the Ferghana Valley and thence to Samarkand. Along the way to SaryTash there are at least two
reasonablyeasypassesacrosstherangestotheeastintotheKashgaroasis.Theyhadtheaddedadvantage
of avoiding the Ak Baital (White Horse) Pass that, at 4655 metres (15, 272 feet), was the highest pass on
theroutebetweenKhorogandSaryTash.Shughnnwasfamousforitsclimate,goodwaterandwine.Itwas
alsothesourceofthecelebratedBalasrubies(actuallyspinel,nottruerubies)oftheancientworld.
Shughnn nowadays refers to the area centred near the modern town of Khorough (Korog) on the upper
Oxus or AbiPanj River, north of Ishkashim and the entrance to the Wakhn Valley, but separated from
them,andfromlowerBadkashnbynarrowanddifficultgorges.Inwinter,iftheupperOxusfreezesover,it
is sometimes possible to travel from Shughnn to Badakhshn on the ice, but this was not possible every
year.
Kushan[Kueishuang]:
KushanreferredtotheregionofmodernBadakhshnplustheadjoiningregiontothenorthofthe
Amu Darya or Oxus river, particularly the Vakash and Kafirnigan valleys where imitations of
EucratidesandanumberofcoinsofHeraoshavebeenfound.Itseemslikelythattheircontrolmay
haveincludedtheregionaroundmodernDushanbewhereseveralimportantroutesconverge:the
route north via Ayni and then west to Panjakent to Samarkand; the route north through Aini and
the Ura Tyube oasis to the Ferghana Valley, and the route to the northeast along the Alai valley
through Garm and Sary Tash to Kashgar. According to the Chinese sources , it was located about
100kmeastofTermez,intheterritorylatercontrolledbyHeraus(cfr.Hulsewe&Loewe1979,122
3,n.296).
Thecircumstancesoftheformation(inthefirstcenturyBC?)ofthefiveyabghumentionedbythe
Chinese sources towards Termez, in the territory which was earlier occupied by the Sacaraucae,
havestilltobedetermined(Hulsewe&Loewe1979,1223,n.296).
Xidun[Hsitun]:
It seems to have included at least the region of Bactra or Balkh and the Shibirghan oasis to the east. The
nameoftheseatoftherulerofXidunisgivenintheHanshuasBomao[Pomao].Thisstatewaslocated
near Panjshir River. The heavily fortified town of Yemshitepe, just five kilometres to the northeast of
modern Shibarghan on the road to Akcha, is only 450 to 500 metres from the nowfamous necropolis of
Tillyatepe where an immense treasure was excavated from the graves of the local royal family by a joint
SovietAfghan archaeological effort from 1969 to1979.
ThiswasinthewesternmostsectionofancientBactriawhichhad,bythistime,beenunderKushanrulefor
over a hundred years. Six royal tombs were excavated at Tillyatepe revealing a vast amount of gold and
othertreasures.Thelatestdateforanyoftheseburialsisindicatedbythefindofseveralcoinsdatingupto
theearly1stcenturyCEwithnonedatingfromafterthatpointindicating,presumably,theextinctionofthe
localroyaldynastyaftertheconquestsofalltheotherYuezhixihoubyKajulaKadphisesaroundthemiddle
ofthecentury.Itisprobablyworthquotingthediscussionsofthevariouscoinsfoundinthetombsasthey
arecriticalfordatingtheburials.
Twocoinswererecoveredfromthethirdtomb.Oneisofgoldandbearsthebustinprofile
ofthewreathcrownedRomanEmperorTiberius.Onthereverseisanenthroned,
sumptuouslydrapedfemalefigureholdingasprayandscepter.Coinsofthisorderwere
mintedinthecityofLugdunuminGaul,betweenA.D.16and21.theTillyatepecoinisthe
firstcaseofsuchacointobefoundnotmerelyinAfghanistan,butincontiguousCentralAsia.
Thesecondcoinissilverandhasontheobversethestamped,beardedheadofarulerin
profilewearingadiadem.Depictedonthereverseisaseatedarcherholdingabowinhis
right,outstretchedhand;aninscriptioninGreekrunsaroundtherim.thecoinwasmintedby
theParthiankingMithridatesII,whoruledbetween123and88B.C.
ProceedingfromthelaterRomancoinwemaypresumethethirdtombtodatefromthe
firstcenturyA.D.Sarianidi(1985),p.34.Note:MarkPassehle(personalcommunication,7July2003)
haskindlypointedoutthatG.R.F.Asssar(2003),VI,pp.2629,hasrecentlyproventhatMithradatesII
actuallyruledca.Oct.122Oct.91B.C.
Discoveredinthisfourthtombwasbutonegoldcoin;itsobversehasembosseduponita
malefigurerestingontheWheelofDharmaandalsocarriesandinscriptionintheoldIndian
language(ill.131).Thereversedepictsalionwithupraisedpawandcarriestheinscriptionas
fearlessasalion.Thecoinisuniqueandwillnotbefoundinanynumismaticcataloguein
theworld.KingAgathoclesfromtheGrecoBactriancityofAiKhanoumisknowntohave
mintedasimilartypeofcoin;further,thelionwasoftenportrayedoncoinsstruckbythe
kingsofancientIndiaandtheSakas.Evidently,thecoinisofatypestruckduringthe
transitionalstagebetweentheIndoGreekandKushanepochs,andmostlikelyisofthefirst
centuryA.D.,whenthewarriorinthefourthtombwasapparentlyinterred.Ibid.p.44.
Whenthedeadwomanwaslaidtorest,asilvercoinwasinsertedintohermouthquitein
keepingwiththeGreekritualofinternment,asthecoinwasintendedtosymbolizethefeeto
CharonforferryingthedeadpersonacrosstheStyxtoHades(ill.129).Depictedonthe
obverseistheembossedbustofabeardedkingwearingadiademthatisknottedatthenape
oftheneckwithlong,flowingribbons.Toonesidethecoinhasbeencounterstampedwith
thedesignofaminiaturehelmetedwarriorenclosedinadottedcircle.Thereversecarries
thefigureofanenthronedarcherandaGreeklegendthattellsusthatthecoinwasinitially
struckduringthereignoftheParthianKingPhraatesIV(3832B.C.)
Thecountermark,whichisofparticularinterest,wasimpressedduringthereignof
Sapaeisis,anomadYehChihtribalchieftain,whoruledBactriabeforetheriseoftheGreat
KushanEmpire.Notethatthecounterstampwasneatlyaddedsoastonotdamagethe
portraitofthereigningParthianruler,which,asexpertscontend,indicatesacertaindegree
ofdependencyoflocalpotentatesupontheirParthianneighbours.
Claspedinthedeceasedslefthandwasonemorecoin,thisoneofgold(ill.128).The
obversedepictstheprofileofabeardedkingwithfinelyetchedfeatures,aslightlyaquiline
nose,deepseatedeyes,andfullishlips;hewearsaroundtiara.Intheemptyfieldbehindhis
headisaheavilyworncountermarkintheshapeofaminiaturefullfacedhead.Therevers
bearstheimageofanenthronedarcherholdingabow,andalongtherimrunsaGreek
inscriptionmentioningaParthianking.Nonumismaticcatalogueintheworldreproduces
anythinglikeit,fromwhichitmaybededucedthatthisgoldParthiancoinisunique.Ibid.pp.
5253.
ItisclearfromtheabovefindsthatShibarghanwastheseatofanimportantYuezhifamilyup
untiltheearly1stcenturyCE.Itseemsverylikelythatitformedthestrongholdofthexihouof
XidununtilKujulaKadphisescombinedallfiveBactrian(orYuezhi)xihouintoasingleunityaround
themiddleofthefirstcentury.
Althoughmuchofthisfabuloustreasurenowseemstohavedisappearedduringtherecent
depredationsoftheTalibanregime,thedetailsoftheseexcavationsandbeautifulcolour
photographsoftheextraordinaryfindshave,mostfortunately,beencarefullypreservedforusina
seriesofarticlesandbooksbythefamousRussianarchaeologist,ViktorSarianidi(seethe
BibliographyunderSarianidiforsomeofwhatisavailableinEnglish).
HereisasurveyofwhatlittlehasbeenpreservedforusinthelaterhistoryofShibarghan
untilthetimeofMarcoPolo:
Xuanzhang,afterrepeatedentreatiesfromtheirkings,madebriefvisitstotwokingdomsto
thesouthwestofBalkh:Ruimotuo[Juimoto]andHushijuan[Hushihchien].Thekings,being
overjoyed,offeredhimgoldandpreciousstones,andabundanceofdrinkandfood;theMasterof
theLawdeclinedallsuchgifts,andreturned.Beal(1911),p.51.
Thenameofthesecondofthesekingdoms,Hushijuan,was,accordingtoWatters(19045),
p.114,identifiedfirstbyM.SaintMartinwiththedistrictthePersianscalledJuskn(modern
Jowzjn)betweenBalkhandthedistrictofMerv;themaincityofwhichweknowwasShibarghan.
Thisidentificationappearstobecorrect.Xuanzhangsaysaboutit:
Thiscountryisabout500lifromeasttowest,andabout1000lifromnorthtosouth.The
capitalis20liincircuit[or,roughly6.5kmbasedontheTangliequivalenttoabout323
metres].Ithasmanymountainsandrivercourses.Itproducesexcellent(shen)horses
[literally:divineorHeavenlyhorses].TothenorthwestisDalajian.AdaptedfromBeal
(1884)I,p.48.Note:thisDalajianseemstobeidenticaltotheTalaqanofthelaterMuslim
writerswhichhasbeenvariouslyidentifiedintheregionofmodernChechaktuorQalaVali
(whichareveryclosetogether)about200kmsouthwest(notnorthwest)ofShibarghan.It
wasontheuppereasternreachesoftheMurqapRiverthatflowsintotheMervoasisand
consideredPersianterritoryatthattime.
Dumi[Tumi]:
almostcertainlyreferstoancientTarmita(modernTermez),onthenorthbankoftheOxusorAmu
Darya,andprobablyincludedthewholeoftheSurkhanDaryaregionwhereHelioclesimitations
dominatebyfar(SebastianStride,email,5January2003).Also,seePulleyblank(1963):pp.124,
213,222223;andtheexcellentdiscussioninCICA,p.122,n.296.
Yu(1998),pp.2728proposesthatthiswastheprincipalcourtoftheDaYuezhisituated
northoftheOxusRiveratthetimewhenZhangQianvisitedtheregionc.119BCEandlateron
(presumablyafterYuezhipowerbecamecentredinBactra[=Lanshi/Jianshi?]becametheseatof
oneofthexihou.Thissuggestionmakesverygoodsensebothonstrategicgroundsandcommercial
groundsandthefactwealsoknowitwasamajorcentrefortheYuezhi/Kushans.
TermeznotonlycontrolledoneofthemajorcrossingpointsoftheOxus,butthenorthern
approachestoBactra/Balkh,themajortradingcityoftheregion.Theseincludedthemainroutes
leadingfromKashgarviaXiuxunandalongthevalleyoftheKizylSuriverpasttheregionofmodern
Dushanbe,andtheroutesleadingsouthovertherangesfromtheFerghanaValley.Itwasalso
strategicallyplacedtoguardthewesternapproachestotheregionalongtheriverandwasclose
enoughtomaintaincontroloverthestrategicIronGatesguardingthemainroutethroughthe
HissarrangefromtheplainsofSogdianatothenorth.
Yu(1998),pp.2728agreeswiththeidentificationofDumiwithTermez/Taramita/Tirmidh
andaddstheinterestingandsuggestionthat:
TheDaYuezhihadpossiblyestablisheditsprincipalcourtinTirmidhatthebeginningoftheir
conquestofDaxia.Later,afterhavingmovedtheircapitaltothesouthoftheRiverGui
[Oxus],theDaYuezhimighthaveestablishedanotherXihouinTirmidh.
Later,astheygainedmoresecurecontroloftheregion,theypresumablymovedseatof
governmentacrosstherivertoBactra(nowBalkh),thelargestandmostimportantcityofthe
region,about50kmtothesouth,leavingTermeztobecomeoneofthefivexihou.
Now,theHanshu(seeCICA,pp.138139)saysthattheseatofthekingsgovernmentof
Xiuxun(calledXiuxiuintheWeilue)wasintheNiaofeiValley(thevalleywherethebirdsfly),and
thattheDaYuezhiwere1,610li[669km]tothewest.Thisisalmostexactlythefigureonegetsif
onemeasuresonthemapalongthevalleyfromtheregionofmodernDushanbetoBactra/Balkh,
providingadditionalsupportforbothidentifications.
ZhangQian'sTriptoCentralAsia:
WhenChineeseEmperorJingdigotenthronedin156B.C., hecontinuedtheintermarriagepolicy.
At one time, King of Zhao, together with Chu King and Yue King, for sake of rebelling against the
emperor,hadrequestedwiththeHunsforsupport.OnceZhaorebellionwasquelled,Hunsagreed
tointermarriage.HunshadsmallscaleborderharassmentthroughoutEmperorJingdi'sreign.Han
Emperor Wudi's Abortive Attempt At Ambushing the Huns
ItwouldbeduringthereignofEmperorWudi(14086BC)thattheChinesefoughtbackwiththeir
regularenemyHuns.HunsandChinesetradedwitheachotheratthefootoftheGreatWalltilla
HanemissaryfromMayicitywasdispatchedtotheHunsforsettingupatraptoambushtheHuns.
Huns were seduced to Wuzhousai border garrison with the offer of riches of Mayi city. A Han
general by the name of Wang Hui was the person who proposed that Han army set up a trap to
attract the Huns into an ambush. Yushi Dafu Han An'guo led 300,000 army and set up a trap at
Mayi, but Hunnic Chanyu, suspicious of the quietness along the way, caught a Han captain [Shi
Xingjiao at Yanmen] who disclosed the ambush scheme. Huns, in the number of 100,000 cavalry,
fled home. Chanyu conferred the title of "tianwang [heaven king]" onto Shi Xingjiao. Wang Hui,
with30,000men,didnotdaretoattacktheHunswhenHunsretreatedandhewasimprisonedfor
hiscowardice.HencetheHunsdeclinedintermarriageandbegantoraidintoChinafrequently.Ban
Gu stated that the Huns also traded with Han Dynasty in border fairs at the same time. From the
mouth of a defecting Hun, Emperor Wudi learnt about the relocation of the Yuehchih (Yuezhi)
Major to the west of the Huns. Hence, in 138 B.C.E., Wudi sent an emissary called Zhang Qian, a
Hun guide called Tangyifu (Ganfu) and 100 people on a trek across the west. Zhang Qian was
arrested bythe Huns soon, and he was forcedto live among the Huns for dozens of years and he
hadmarriedandborntwochildren.Zhang,however,didnotforgetaboutWudi'sorder,andhefled
withhisHunguidetothewestandreachedthestateofDayuan[Dawan](Kokand?,FerganaValley)
atabout128127B.C.E.WiththeassistancefromDayuan[Dawan]king,hewasescortedtoKangju
where the Kanju king assisted him further on his trip to Bactria, the place where the Yuehchih
(Yuezhi)Majorhadsettleddown.Afterastayofaboutoneyear,ZhangQianreturnedeastatabout
125B.C.E.
ZhangQian,recordedhisobservations,whichprovideaninsightintothesituationonthenorthside
oftheOxusatthatmoment.ZhangQianwrote:
"...theGreatYuezhilive...northoftheGuiOxusriver.They
areborderedonthesouthbyDaxiaBactriaandonthewest
byAnxiParthia...Theyareanationofnomads,movingfrom
placetoplacewiththeirherds...Theyhavesome100,000or
200,000archerwarriors."
AdescriptionoftheGrecoBactriankingdommadebyZhangQianaftertheconquestbyYuezhiis
revealing:
"DaxiaGrecoBactriaislocated...southoftheGuiOxus
river.Itspeoplecultivatethelandandhavecitiesandhouses.
...Ithasnogreatrulerbutonlyanumberofpettychiefs
rulingthevariouscities.Thepeoplearepoorintheuseof
armsandafraidofbattle,buttheyarecleveratcommerce.
AftertheGreatYuezhimovedwestandattackedthelands,
theentirecountrycameundertheirsway.Thepopulationof
thecountryislarge,numberingsome1,000,000ormore
persons.ThecapitaliscalledthecityofLanshiBactra,
presentdayBalkhandhasamarketwhereallsortsof
goodsareboughtandsold....Themenhavedeepseteyes
and...areskilfulatcommerceandwillhaggleovera
fractionofacent."
On his return trip he was again captured by the Xiongnu who again spared his life because they
valued his sense of duty and composure in the face of death. Two years later the Xiongnu leader
diedandinthemidstofchaosandinfightingZhangQianfledbacktoChinawithHunnicwife,two
childrenandtheHunguide.SimaQianandhistorychorniclescalledZhangQian'straveltothewest
bythetermof"piercingthevacuum"asaneulogyofhispersonalverificationoftheWest.
ZhangQian'sreports
The reports of Zhang Qian's travels are quotedextensively in the 1st century BCEChinese historic
chronicles "Records of the Great Historian" (Shiji) bySima Qian. Zhang Qian visited directly the
kingdom ofDayuaninFerghana, the territories of theYuezhiinTransoxiana, theBactriancountry
ofDaxiawith its remnants ofGrecoBactrianrule, andKangju (). He also made reports on
neighbouring countries that he did not visit, such as Anxi (Arsacidterritories), Tiaozhi
(Mesopotamia?),Shendu(Pakistan)andtheWusun.
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100,000 or 200,000 archer warriors." (adapted fromShiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans.
BurtonWatson).
ZhangQianalsodescribestheoriginsoftheYuezhi,explainingtheycamefromtheeasternpartof
theTarim Basin, a momentous explanation which has encouraged historians to connect them to
theCaucasoidmummies, as well as to theIndoEuropeanspeakingTochariansthat have been
identifiedfrompreciselythesamearea:
"The Yuezhi originally lived in the area between the Qilian or Heavenly Mountains (Tian
Shan)andDunhuang,butaftertheyweredefeatedbytheXiongnutheymovedfarawayto
thewest,beyondDayuan(Ferghana),wheretheyattackedthepeopleofDaxia(Bactria)and
set up the court of their king on the northern bank of the Gui (Oxus) river." (Shiji, 123,
ZhangQianquote,trans.BurtonWatson).
Daxia(Bactria)
Zhang Qian probably witnessed the last period of theGrecoBactrian Kingdom, as it was being
subjugated by the nomadic Yuezhi. Only small powerless chiefs remained, who were apparently
vassals to the Yuezhi horde. Their civilization was urban, almost identical to the civilizations
ofAnxiandDayuan,andthepopulationwasnumerous.
"Daxiaissituatedover2,000li(1,000kilometers)southwestofDayuan(Ferghana),southof
theGui(Oxus)river.Itspeoplecultivatetheland,andhavecitiesandhouses.Theircustoms
are like those of Dayuan. It has no great ruler but only a number of petty chiefs ruling the
various cities. The people are poor in the use of arms and afraid of battle, but they are
cleveratcommerce.AftertheGreatYuezhimovedwestandattackedandconqueredDaxia,
the entire country came under their sway. The population of the country is large,
numberingsome1,000,000ormorepersons.ThecapitalisLanshi(Bactra)whereallsortsof
goodsareboughtandsold."(Shiji,123,ZhangQianquote,translationBurtonWatson).
Shendu(NorthwestPartofIndia)
Zhang Qian also reports about the existence ofShendusoutheast of Bactria. The
nameShendu() comes from theSanskritword "Sindhu", meaning the Indus river of Pakistan.
Sindh was one of the richest regions of India at the time, ruled byIndoGreek Kingdoms, which
explainsthereportedculturalsimilaritybetweenBactriaandIndia:
"SoutheastofDaxiaisthekingdomofShendu(Sindh,Pakistan)...Shendu,theytoldme,lies
severalthousandlisoutheastofDaxia(Bactria).Thepeoplecultivatethelandandlivemuch
like the people of Daxia. The region is said to be hot and damp. The inhabitants ride
elephants when they go in battle. The kingdom is situated on a great river (Indus)" (Shiji,
123,ZhangQianquote,trans.BurtonWatson).
Anxi
Zhang Qian identifies "Anxi" as an advanced urban civilization, like Dayuan (Ferghana) and Daxia
(Bactria). The name "Anxi" is a transcription of "Arshak" (Arsaces),
[16]
the name of the founder
ofArsacid Empirethat ruled the regions along the silk road between theTedzhen riverin the east
andtheTigrisinthewest,andrunningthroughAria,Parthiaproper,andMediaproper.
"AnxiissituatedseveralthousandliwestoftheregionoftheGreatYuezhi.Thepeopleare
settledontheland,cultivatingthefieldsandgrowingriceandwheat.Theyalsomakewine
out of grapes. They have walled cities like the people of Dayuan (Ferghana), the region
containsseveralhundredcitiesofvarioussizes.Thecoinsofthecountryaremadeofsilver
andbearthefaceoftheking.Whenthekingdies,thecurrencyisimmediatelychangedand
new coins issued with the face of his successor. The people keep records by writing on
horizontalstripsofleather.TothewestliesTiaozhi(Mesopotamia)andtothenorthYancai
andLixuan(Hyrcania)."(Shiji,123,ZhangQianquote,trans.BurtonWatson).
Tiaozhi
ZhangQian'sreportsonMesopotamiaareintenuousterms.Hedidnothimselfvisittheregion,and
wasonlyabletoreportwhatotherstoldhim.
Tiaozhi (Mesopotamia) is situated several thousandliwest of Anxi (Arsacidterritory) and
borders the Western Sea (Persian Gulf/Mediterranean?). It is hot and damp, and the
people live by cultivating the fields and planting rice... The people are very numerous and
are ruled by many petty chiefs. The ruler of Anxi (the Arsacids) give orders to these chiefs
and regards them as vassals. (adapted fromShiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton
Watson).
Kangju()northwestofSogdiana()
ZhangQianalsovisiteddirectlytheareaofSogdiana(Kangju),hometotheSogdiannomads:
"Kangju is situated some 2,000 li (1,000 kilometers) northwest of Dayuan (Bactria). Its
people arenomads and resemble the Yuezhi in their customs. They have 80,000 or 90,000
skilled archer fighters. The country is small, and borders Dayuan. It acknowledges
sovereignty to the Yuezhi people in the South and the Xiongnu in the East." (Shiji, 123,
ZhangQianquote,trans.BurtonWatson).
Yancai(VastSteppe)
"Yancai lies some 2,000li(832 km) northwest ofKangju(centered onTurkestanat Beitian).
The people are nomads and their customs are generally similar to those of the people
ofKangju.Thecountryhasover100,000archerwarriors,andbordersagreatshorelesslake,
perhaps what is now known as the Northern Sea (Aral Sea, distance
betweenTashkenttoAralskis about 866 km)" (Shiji, 123, Zhang Qian quote, trans. Burton
Watson).
SocondTripofZhangQian:
About124123B.C.E.,ZhangQianwassentonanothertriptothewest,thistimetovisitingthe
Wusunpeople.Meanwhile,WudisentsearchteamsacrossSouthwesternChinatolookforthe
pathofIndiatoBactria.In123,ZhangQianassitedWeiQingincampaigningagainsttheHuns,and
thenextyear,assistedLiGuangonanothercampaign.AfterChinadefeatedtheHunsandtookover
theWesternCorridorterritory,EmperorWudidispatcheddozensofmissionstothewest,withup
totenmissionsinayearsometimes,andstaffedbyasmanyasseveralhundredsofpeople.Wudi's
anotherobjectivewastocheckoutthesourceoftheYellowRiver,wherethelegendaryMt.
Kunlun,i.e.,thelandwheretheimmortalslived.Inanotherword,HanEmperorWudi,likeQin
EmperorShihuangdi,waslookingfortheelixir.OtherthanTheLegendsoftheMountainsandSeas,
ancientclassicsErYastatedthattheYellowRiveroriginatedfromtheKunlunxu,i.e.,theRuinsof
Kunlun,andhintedKunluntobethelandofjade,whileclassicsYuBenJistatedthatthesame,
hintingthatKunluncouldbeastallas2,500li.HistorianSimaQianridiculedHanEmperorWudiand
emissaryZhangQianfortheirseekingthemythicalKunlunthatdidnotexistinhisopinion.Emperor
Wudi,infrustration,personallypinnedthemountainsouthoftoday'sKhotantobeMt.Kunlun.
(Possiblyfollowingthemorereliable"mountains"componentofTheLegendsoftheMountainsand
Seas,somelaterChinesewriting,ascontainedinthe"western[withintheover]seas"sectionand
the"western[overseas]wilderness"section,statedrespectivelythatKunlunxuwaslocatedtothe
northwestofChinaandthatKunlunqiu[hill]wasbetweentheChishui[RedWaterRiver]andHei
shui[BlackWaterRiver].
HitoricalChineserecordspointtoKunlunasthesourceofjadeanddiamondtrade;however,
nothingparticularbeyondChineseTurkistanwasmentioned.ThetradeontheSilkRoaddidnot
flourishtillhundredsofyearslater.Inhistory,therewereatleasttwopathsthatcouldhavemore
importantrolesthanSilkRoad2000yearsago.Certainly,thesearoutesalsoexistedbetweenRome
andChina,bywhichthesilkhadactuallybeenshippedratherthanviathemoreprecariouslandof
conflictingstateletsandtribes.TheprecariousnatureoftheRoadacrossdesertscouldbeseein
GeneralLiGuangli'slosing80%ofhissoldierswhenhefirstcampaignedagainstDayuan[Dawan]
(Kokand?,FerganaValley)in104BC.(Peoplewhoclaimednomadicpropagationofhorseand
cavalrytoChinamightproposeanorthernbeltroute.ShouldwereadtheChineserecords,thenwe
oftenencounteredpassageslikethenomadslosing67outof10peopleandcattleduringsome
storms.Agoodexampleofthesamekindofprecariousnatureonthesteppecouldbeillustratedin
ZhizhiChanyu'slosingthebulkoffightersduringtherelocationtoKangjuterritory.WhileZhizhi
ChanyustationedintheJiankunterritory,SogdiakingintendedtoattacktheWusunStateletwith
theHunnicassistance.ZhizhiChanyuarrivedinthedestinationwithonly3000remnants.)
UponZhang'sreturnfromthewest,afteraspanof13years,EmperorWudifirstordered4
expeditionstothesouthwestofChinatosearchforaroutetoIndia.ThisisbecauseZhangQian
reportedthathesawJujiang(somekindofspicysauce),Zangke(aplaceintoday'sSichuan
Province)bambooproducts(Qiongzang)andSichuanclothing(Shubu)whichtheBactria
merchantssaidwereshippedoverfromIndia.WudigotintouchwiththeYelangStateletandDian
YueStateletetc.AgoldsealwasconferredupontheDianyueking.
PoliticalStructureOfyuezhiKingdominBectria:
ThelocationoftheroyalcourtoftheDaYuezhinorthoftheAmuDaryaatthetimeofthevisitof
theChineseenvoyZhangQianisnotknown.Therearedifferenttheories,twoofwhichareshortly
described:
1.LazloTordaypointsout:ThegreatGermanIranistMarquartrecognisedintheYuezhithetribe
knowntoPtolemyastheIatioiThemostlikelyHanperiodpronunciationofYehshih
was *Ywati, sounds which a Hellenistic source could only have transcribed as Iati (oi)Ptolemy
marks the Yehshi (Iatioi) along the lowermost section of the Jaxartes.The kings camp was,
therefore, in the Scythian delta, formerly the site of Kangch winter camps, in the vicinity of
Babish Mulla, Balandy and Chirik, sites which give clear indication of having been suddenly
abandonedinthemiddleofthesecondcenturyBC.22
2.CraigG.R.Benjaminpointsout:By128/7BCthen,theYuezhiwerewellestablishedattheseat
of the (kings) government at Jianshi (Khalchayan?), and in their most comfortable position for
decadestheyhadestablishedthemselvesinastronglyfortifiedpositioninthe
SurkhanDaryavalley,andhadsubduedtheextensive,wealthyandorganisedstateofBactriatothe
south, where the land was rich and fertile and seldom troubled by invaders. They were also
protected by an important buffer state in Kangju/Sogdia, which already acknowledged nominal
sovereigntytotheYuezhi
Thus, Jianshi, the seat of the royal court of the Yuezhi at the time of early conquest, might be
locatedatthemiddlesectionoftheOxusRiverwhichwasborderingAnxi.Thereislowprobability
thattheroyalseatwasattheBokharaoasis.Thereforeitmightbepossiblethat
Jianshi,theroyalcourtoftheYuezhinorthoftheAmuDarya,waslocatedintheKashkaDarya
region.NearmodernKarshi,thecapitaloftheKashkaDaryaregion,theimpressive(1.5x1.5km2)
nomadiccityofKalaiZakhokiMaronhasbeenfoundwhichduetothearchaeologicalcontextwas
builtinthesecondtofirstcenturyBC.28ThissitemighthavebeenJianshi,theearlyYuezhicapital
northoftheOxusriver.
FirstYuezhiPerthianWar
Around124BC,theYuezhibecameinvolvedinawarwiththeParthianstotheWest.Kingof
PerthianswasArtabanusII(ruledtheParthianEmpirefromc.128to124BC.Thesonof
Phriapatius,hesucceededhisnephewPhraatesII).InBattle,PerthiankingDead.
"DuringthewaragainsttheTokharians,hewaswoundedinthearmanddiedimmediately"Justin,
Epitomes,XLII,2,2.
HissuccessorMithridatesIIpushedtheYuezhibackintopresentdayAfghanistan,wherethefinal
blowagainsttheGraecoBactrianKingdomtookplace.Strabo(thelate1stc.BCearly1stc.AD
Greekhistorian)recordedthefalloftheGraecoBactriansatthehandsoftheYuezhi,whichhe
referredtoasScythians,TochariandTokharians:
"MostoftheScythians...arearecalledDahaeScythae...but
eachtribehasitspeculiarname.All,orthegreatestpartof
them,arenomads.Thebestknowntribesarethosewhodeprived
theGreeksofBactriana,theAsii,Pasiani,Tochari,andSacarauli,
whocamefromthecountryontheothersideoftheJaxartes,
oppositetheSacaeandSogdianimeaningtheTarimBasim
inCentralAsiaandextremewesternChina."
Strabo,Geography
Rather than be annihilated by the Yuezhi advance, the last GraecoBactrian king Heliocles I the
final successor to Eucratides the Great retreated and move his capitalsouth to the Kabul Valley.
AstheYuezhisettledinBactria,circa125BC,thisgavethemcontrolofthemain,andincreasingly
busy, overland trade routes between China, India and the West. Now they leaved nomadic ways
and adopted Hellenized way of life, living in populated settlements, preserving the Greeks'
agricultural and trading systems, adopting the Greek alphabet and minting GraecoBactrianstyle
coins. This not only quickly made them rich and powerful, but their exposure to Persian, Hellenic
and Indian cultures helped turn them into a more sophisticated and effective force. It is thought
thatbeforetheyenteredBactriatheywerenotliterate.TheareaofBactriatheysettledcametobe
knownasTokharistan,sincetheYuezhiwerecalledTkharoibytheGreeks.
Yuezhi became very powerful in this region. The biography of the Chinese GeneralBan Chaoin
theHouHanshusaysin94CEthattheYuezhiwerearrangingamarriageoftheirkingwithaKangju
princess. The Chinese then sent "considerable presents of silks" to the Yuezhi successfully gaining
theirhelpinpressuringtheKangjutostopsupportingthekingofKashgaragainstthem.
TheYuezhicontinuedexpansionsouthintotheHinduKushmountainsispresumed,giventhatthe
lastIndoGreekkinginHinduKushHermaeus(ruledc.9070BC)hadnosuccessor.Asbefore,
theYuezhiemulatedthecoinsofHermeaus.
TimefromBC70toAD1wasverycrucialforYuezhi.Atthistime,theygainedpowerandMoney
from IndoGreek Kingdom .In AD 1, Heraios / Heraus / Miaos become chief of Kushan Clan of
Yuezhi. Actually, Heraios is the first recognisable Kushan ruler, gaining mastery within the Yuezhi
confederation and minting his own coins. However, it is his successor who really unifies the
confederationandleadsittoconquest.
InBC80,HeadofKushanState,HeraiosdeadandPrinceKujulaKadphesisbecomeKing.InBC65
45,KujulaKadphesisattackedonotherfourstatesandallregionscomeunderKushanaKingdom.
"...the prince [xihou] of Kushan, named Qiujiuque [Kujula Kadphises], attacked and exterminated
thefourotherxihou.Heestablishedhimselfasking,andhisdynastywascalledthatoftheKushan
[Kushan]King.HeinvadedAnxi[IndoParthia],andtooktheGaofu[Kabul]region.Healsodefeated
the whole of the kingdoms of Puda [Paktiya] and Jibin [Kapisha and Gandhara]. Qiujiuque [Kujula
Kadphises]wasmorethaneightyyearsoldwhenhedied."
HouHanshu
In the Hou Hanshu , ch. 88 (Memoir on the Western Regions), the origin and rise of the
Guishuang are recorded as follows:
Formerly, when the Yuezhi had been destroyed by the Xiongnu , they
moved to Daxia and divided the country into the five Xihou of Xiumi
, Shuangmi , Guishuang , Xidun , and Dumi . More than
a hundred years later, the Xihou of Guishuang [named] Qiujiuque
attacked and destroyed the [other] four Xihou and established himself
as king; the state was named Guishuang . [This] king invaded Anxi ,
took the country of Gaofu , and, moreover, destroyed Puda and J ibin
and completely possessed their territory. Qiujiuque died at the age of
more than eighty years, and his son Yangaozhen succeeded him as king.
He in his turn destroyed Tianzhu and placed there a general to control it.
Since then the Yuezhi have been extremely rich and strong. In the various
states [their ruler] is always referred to as the King of Guishuang , but the
Han , basing themselves upon the old appellation, speak about the Da Yuezhi
.
It is generally accepted that Qiujiuque , the founder of the Guishuang Dynasty, is identical with the
Kujula Kadphises shown on the coins and inscriptions of the Kushans. Therefore, the predecessor of the
Kushan Dynasty is undoubtedly the Xihou of Guishuang , one of the five Xihou of the Da
Yuezhi .
Since the memoir claims that the Da Yuezhi divided the country into the five Xihou of Xiumi ,
Shuangmi , Guishuang , Xidun and Dumi after they had moved to the land of Daxia ,
it appears that the five Xihou (including the Xihou of Guishuang ) were the Da Yuezhi
people. Moreover, this point seems to be confirmed by the assertion that the Han , basing themselves
upon the old appellation, speak about the Da Yuezhi after Qiujiuque had unified the other
four Xihou and established the Kushan Dynasty.
Kujulaissuedanextensiveseriesofcoinsandfatheredatleasttwosons,Sadakaa(whoisknown
from only two inscriptions, especially the Rabatak inscription, and apparently never have ruled),
andseeminglyVimaTakto.
KujulaKadphiseswasthegreatgrandfatherofKanishka.
InitialphaseofKushanaKingdomChangeinPolitics
andArt:
The Kushans had, in general, a reputation for moderate rule, and could have provided the Greeks
with much-needed patronage and protection. The military power of the Yue-zhi tribes, now under
the leadership of the Kushan clan, was able to afford protection to the Greeks, no less than to the
conveniently quietist Buddhist communities. At the same time, the burgeoning profits of the Silk
Road were providing the economic surplus for the creation of monuments, and for the patronage of
sculptural and no doubt graphic arts, where the technical proficiency of the Greeks could produce
results of a character highly impressive for that period.
****EndofArticleNo01****

Ancient History of Central Asia by Adesh Katariya

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