Head of state

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This article is about the political term. For other uses, see Head of state (disambiguation).
A photomontage made in 1! featuring the heads of state of se"eral countries at that time.
From left to right# $ohannes %& ('mperor of 'thiopia), Te(fik )asha (*hedi"e of 'gypt),
Abdul Hamid %% (+ultan of the ,ttoman 'mpire), -aser al./in +hah 0a1ar (+hah of )ersia),
2hristian %3 (*ing of /enmark), /om 4u5s % (*ing of )ortugal), William %%% (*ing of the
-etherlands), /om )edro %% ('mperor of 6ra7il), 8ilan % (*ing of +erbia), 4eopold %% (*ing
of the 6elgians), Ale9ander %%% ('mperor of :ussia), William % (;erman 'mperor < *ing of
)russia), Fran7 =oseph % ('mperor of Austria < *ing of Hungary), &ictoria (0ueen of the
>nited *ingdom of ;reat 6ritain and %reland < 'mpress of %ndia), =ules ;r?"y ()resident of
the French :epublic), 4eo 3%%% ()ope), 8ei1i ('mperor of =apan), ;uang9u ('mperor of
2hina), >mberto % (*ing of %taly), /on Alfonso 3%% (*ing of +pain), ,scar %% (*ing of
+(eden and -or(ay) and 2hester A. Arthur ()resident of the >nited +tates).
The head of state is the highest.ranking constitutional position
@note 1A
in a so"ereign state. The
head of state is "ested (ith po(ers to act as the chief public representati"e of that state. Heads
of state in most countries are natural persons holding an office. %n a monarchy the reigning
monarch is the head of state, though the title may not be king or Bueen. %n a republic the head
of state is usually titled president, but may ha"e other titles such as chairman. Ho(e"er, in
four >nited -ations member states the head of state position is held by a body of persons# the
Federal 2ouncil of +(it7erland, the )residency of 6osnia and Her7ego"ina, the 2o.)rinces of
Andorra and the 2aptains :egent of +an 8arino.
@1A@note CA
The role and functions of the office of
head of state may range from purely ceremonial or symbolic to the real e9ecuti"e po(er in a
state.
The office is usually distinct from a head of government. For e9ample, the distinction is made
in article D of the &ienna 2on"ention on the 4a( of Treaties, article 1 of the 2on"ention on
the )re"ention and )unishment of 2rimes against %nternationally )rotected )ersons, including
/iplomatic Agents and the >nited -ations protocol list.
@1A@CA@EA
For instance, in parliamentary
systems like the >nited *ingdom of ;reat 6ritain and -orthern %reland and the Federal
:epublic of ;ermanyF the 8onarch and the )resident are recogni7ed as their respecti"e heads
of state, (hile the )rime 8inister and the 2hancellor are recogni7ed as the heads of
go"ernment.
@1A@GA@HA
Ho(e"er, in republics (ith a presidential system, as in the >nited +tates
and the Federati"e :epublic of 6ra7il, their presidents are recogni7ed as being both heads of
state and heads of government.
@1A@IA@DA
The role of the head of state generally includes legitimi7ing the state and e9ercising the
functions and duties granted to the head of state in the countryJs constitution, la(s, un(ritten
customs, or by their traditions. The &ienna 2on"ention on /iplomatic :elations operates
under the presumption that the head of a diplomatic mission (i.e. ambassador or nuncio) of the
sending state is accredited to the head of state of the recei"ing state.
@A
%n nation states the head
of state position is often thought of, depending on the po(ers held by that position, as either
the official KleaderK or KmascotK of the nation.
2harles de ;aulle described the role he en"isaged for the French presidency before he (rote
the modern French constitution, stating the head of state should embody Kthe spirit of the
nationK for the nation itself and the (orld# Ka certain idea about FranceK (French# une certaine
ide de la France).
@!A
Today, many countries e9pect their head of state to embody their
national "alues (ith dignity in a similar fashion.
)art of the )olitics series on
Executive government
Head of state
8onarch
)resident
Government
Head of government
o 2hancellor
o 2hief '9ecuti"e
o 2hief 8inister
o First 8inister
o
)remier
o )rime 8inister
Cabinet
2abinet collecti"e responsibility
Ministry
o 8inister
o +ecretary
Other
o ;o"ernor
o 8ayor
Systems
)residential
+emi.presidential (cohabitational)
)arliamentary (Westminster)
Lists
-ational leaders
-ational go"ernments
Heads of +tate and ;o"ernment
)olitics portal
"
t
e
Contents
1 2onstitutional models
o 1.1 )arliamentary system
1.1.1 +tandard model
1.1.C -on.e9ecuti"e model
o 1.C +emi.presidential systems
o 1.E )residential system
o 1.G +ingle.party states
o 1.H 2omplications (ith categori7ation
C :oles of heads of state
o C.1 +ymbolic role
o C.C '9ecuti"e role
C.C.1 Appointment of senior officials
C.C.C /iplomatic role
C.C.E 8ilitary role
o C.E 4egislati"e roles
o C.G +ummoning and dissol"ing the legislature
o C.H ,ther prerogati"es
C.H.1 ;ranting nobility, knighthood and "arious titles and other honors
C.H.C %mmunity
C.H.E :eser"e )o(ers
C.H.G :ight of pardon
E +election and "arious types and styles of heads of state
o E.1 +hared and substitute heads of state
E.1.1 %nterim
E.1.C :epresentation
E.1.E '9traordinary arrangements
o E.C :eligious heads of state
E.C.1 2hristianity
E.C.C %slam
E.C.E Hinduism
E.C.G 6uddhism
o E.E 2ity states and cro(ned republics
o E.G 8ultiple or collecti"e heads of state
o E.H >niBue cases and titles
G 4egitimacy
o G.1 6y fiction or fiat
o G.C 6y di"ine appointment
o G.E 6y social contract
o G.G 6y constitution
o G.H 6y hereditary succession
o G.I 6y election
o G.D 6y appointment
o G. 6y force or re"olution
o G.! 6y foreign imposition
o G.1L 4oss
H Former heads of state
I +ee also
D -otes
:eferences
! 6ibliography
1L '9ternal links
Constitutional models
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article by adding citations to reliable sources. >nsourced material may be challenged
and remo"ed. (November 2012)
%n protocolary terms, states are distinguished as monarchy or republic depending on the style
(and usually mode of accession, see belo() of their head of state, a typical constitutional
pro"ision, but as such this is not defining for the actual political system, (hich often e"ol"es
significantly, or can remain unaltered in other respects despite a transition from monarchy to
republic (or, rarer, "ice "ersa).
/ifferent state constitutions (fundamental la(s) establish different political systems, but four
ma1or types of heads of state can be distinguished#
1. The parliamentary system, (ith t(o subset modelsF
1. The standard model, in (hich the head of state, in theory, possesses key
e9ecuti"e po(ers, but the e9ercise of such po(er is done on the binding ad"ice
of a head of go"ernment.
C. The non-executive model, in (hich the head of state has either none or "ery
limited e9ecuti"e po(ers, and mainly has a ceremonial and symbolic role.
C. The semi.presidential system, in (hich the head of state shares key e9ecuti"e po(ers
(ith a head of go"ernment andMor cabinetF and
E. The presidential system, in (hich the head of state is also the head of go"ernment and
has all e9ecuti"e po(ers.
The same role in a federal constituent and a dependent territory is fulfilled by the
corresponding office eBui"alent to that of a head of state. For e9ample, in each 2anadian
pro"ince the role is fulfilled by the 4ieutenant ;o"ernor, (hereas in most 6ritish ,"erseas
Territories the po(ers and duties are performed by the ;o"ernor. The same applies to
Australian states, %ndian states, etc. Hong *ongJs constitutional document, the 6asic 4a(, for
e9ample, specifies the 2hief '9ecuti"e as the head of the special administrati"e region, in
addition to his role as the head of go"ernment. These non.so"ereign.state heads, ne"ertheless,
ha"e limited or no role in diplomatic affairs, depending on the status and the norms and
practices of the territories concerned.
Parliamentary system
Standard model
0ueen 'li7abeth %%, one of the (orldJs best.kno(n and longest.ser"ing heads of state
%n parliamentary systems the head of state may be merely the nominal chief e9ecuti"e officer,
heading the e9ecuti"e branch of the state, and possessing e9ecuti"e po(er. %n reality, ho(e"er,
follo(ing a process of constitutional e"olution, po(ers are usually only e9ercised by direction
of a cabinet, presided o"er by a head of go"ernment (ho is ans(erable to the legislature. This
accountability and legitimacy reBuires that someone be chosen (ho has a ma1ority support in
the legislature (or, at least, not a ma1ority opposition . a subtle but important difference). %t
also gi"es the legislature the right to "ote do(n the head of go"ernment and his cabinet,
forcing it either to resign or seek a parliamentary dissolution. The e9ecuti"e branch is thus
said to be responsible (or ans(erable) to the legislature, (ith the head of go"ernment and
cabinet in turn accepting constitutional responsibility for offering constitutional ad"ice to the
head of state.
%n parliamentary constitutional monarchies, the legitimacy of the unelected head of state
typically deri"es from the tacit appro"al of the people "ia the elected representati"es.
Accordingly, at the time of the ;lorious :e"olution, the 'nglish )arliament acted of its o(n
authority to name a ne( king and Bueen (1oint monarchs 8ary %% and William %%%)F like(ise,
'd(ard &%%%Js abdication reBuired the appro"al of each of the si9 independent realms of
(hich he (as monarch. %n monarchies (ith a (ritten constitution, the position of monarch is a
creature of the constitution and could Buite properly be abolished through a democratic
procedure of constitutional amendment, although there are often significant procedural
hurdles imposed on such a procedure (as in the 2onstitution of +pain).
%n republics (ith a parliamentary system (such as %ndia, ;ermany, Austria, %taly and %srael)
the head of state is usually titled president, but the principal functions of such presidents are
mainly ceremonial and symbolic, as opposed to the presidents in a presidential or semi.
presidential system.
)ranab 8ukher1ee, )resident of %ndia.
%n reality, numerous "ariants e9ist to the position of a head of state (ithin a parliamentary
system. The older the constitution, the more constitutional lee(ay tends to e9ist for a head of
state to e9ercise greater po(ers o"er go"ernment, as many older parliamentary system
constitutions in fact gi"e heads of state po(ers and functions akin to presidential or semi.
presidential systems, in some cases (ithout containing reference to modern democratic
principles of accountability to parliament or e"en to modern go"ernmental offices. >sually,
the *ing had the po(er of declaring (ar (ithout pre"ious consent of the )arliament.
For e9ample, under the 1G constitution of the *ingdom of %taly, the Statuto lbertino, the
parliamentary appro"al to the go"ernment appointed by the *ing (as customary, but not
reBuired by la(. +o, %taly had a de facto parliamentarian system, but a de 1ure KpresidentialK
system.
+ome 2ommon(ealth parliamentary systems combine a body of (ritten constitutional la(,
un(ritten constitutional precedent, ,rders in 2ouncil, letters patent, etc. that may gi"e a head
of state or their representati"e additional po(ers in une9pected circumstances (such as the
dismissal of Australian prime minister ;ough Whitlam by ;o"ernor.;eneral +ir =ohn *err.)
,ther e9amples of heads of state in parliamentary systems using greater po(ers than usual,
either because of ambiguous constitutions or unprecedented national emergencies, include the
decision by *ing 4?opold %%% of the 6elgians to surrender on behalf of his state to the
in"ading ;erman army in 1!GL, against the (ill of his go"ernment. =udging that his
responsibility to the nation by "irtue of his coronation oath reBuired him to act, he belie"ed
that his go"ernmentJs decision to fight rather than surrender (as mistaken and (ould damage
6elgium. (4eopoldJs decision pro"ed highly contro"ersial. After World War %%, 6elgium "oted
in a referendum to allo( him back on the throne, but because of the ongoing contro"ersy he
ultimately abdicated.)
Nonexecutive model
T(o contemporary figurehead monarchs (ho do not e"en in theory possess any discretionary
go"ernance po(ers# Akihito, 'mperor of =apan (left), and 2arl 3&% ;ustaf, *ing of +(eden
(right.)
These officials are e9cluded completely from the e9ecuti"e# they do not possess e"en
theoretical e9ecuti"e po(ers or any role, e"en formal, (ithin the go"ernment. Hence their
statesJ go"ernments are not referred to by the traditional parliamentary model head of state
styles of KHisMHer 8a1estyJs ;o"ernmentK or KHisMHer '9cellencyJs ;o"ernment.K Within this
general category, "ariants in terms of po(ers and functions may e9ist.
The 2onstitution of =apan, also kno(n as the K2onstitution of the +tate of =apanK (
Nihon!o!u-"enp#
?
), (as dra(n up under the Allied occupation that follo(ed World War %%
and (as intended to replace the pre"ious militarist absolute monarchy (ith a form of liberal
democracy in a parliamentary system. The 2onstitution e9plicitly "ests all e9ecuti"e po(ers
in the 2abinet, chaired by the )rime 8inister (Articles IH < II) and responsible to the
-ational /iet (articles ID < I!). The 'mperorNdefined in the 2onstitution as Kthe symbol of
the +tate and of the unity of the peopleK (Article 1) and generally recogni7ed throughout the
(orld as the =apanese head of stateNis a ceremonial figurehead (ith no independent
discretionary po(ers related to the go"ernance of =apan.
@1A@1LA@11A
+ince the passage of the 1!DG %nstrument of ;o"ernment, the +(edish monarch no longer has
many of the standard parliamentary system head of state functions that had pre"iously
belonged to him or her, as (as the case in the preceding 1L! %nstrument of ;o"ernment.
-o(adays, the +peaker of the :iksdag appoints (follo(ing a "ote in the :iksdag) the )rime
8inister and terminates his commission follo(ing a "ote of no confidence or "oluntary
resignation. 2abinet members are appointed and dismissed at the sole discretion of the )rime
8inister. '9ecuti"e authority is "ested in the ;o"ernment, of (hich the *ing is not a member.
4a(s and ordinances are promulgated by t(o cabinet members in unison signing K,n 6ehalf
of the ;o"ernmentK. The ;o"ernmentNnot the *ingNis the high contracting party (ith
respect to international treaties. The remaining official functions of the *ing, by constitutional
mandate or by un(ritten con"ention, are to open the annual session of the :iksdag, recei"e
foreign ambassadors and sign the letters of credence for +(edish ambassadors, chair the
foreign ad"isory committee, preside at the special cabinet council (hen a ne( )rime 8inister
takes office, and to be kept informed by the )rime 8inister on matters of state.
@1CA@1EA
%n contrast, the only contact the )resident of %reland has (ith the %rish go"ernment is through
a formal briefing session gi"en by the Taoiseach (head of go"ernment) to the )resident.
Ho(e"er, he or she has no access to documentation and all access to ministers goes through
the /epartment of the Taoiseach. The )resident does ho(e"er hold limited reser"e po(ers,
such as referring a bill to the +upreme 2ourt to test its constitutionality, (hich are used under
the presidentJs discretion.
@1GA
Semi!residential systems
2harles de ;aulle, )resident of the French :epublic, established the semi.presidential system
in France.
8ain article# +emi.presidential system
+emi.presidential systems combine features of presidential and parliamentary systems,
notably a reBuirement that the go"ernment be ans(erable to both the president and the
legislature. The constitution of the Fifth French :epublic pro"ides for a prime minister (ho is
chosen by the president, but (ho ne"ertheless must be able to gain support in the -ational
Assembly. +hould a president be of one side of the political spectrum and the opposition be in
control of the legislature, the president is usually obliged to select someone from the
opposition to become prime minister, a process kno(n as 2ohabitation. )resident FranOois
8itterrand, a +ocialist, for e9ample, (as forced to cohabit (ith the neo.;aullist (right (ing)
=acBues 2hirac, (ho became his prime minister from 1!I to 1!. %n the French system, in
the e"ent of cohabitation, the president is often allo(ed to set the policy agenda in security
and foreign affairs and the prime minister runs the domestic agenda.
,ther countries e"ol"e into something akin to a semi.presidential system or indeed a full
presidential system. Weimar ;ermany, for e9ample, in its constitution pro"ided for a
popularly elected president (ith theoretically dominant e9ecuti"e po(ers that (ere intended
to be e9ercised only in emergencies, and a cabinet appointed by him from the :eichstag,
(hich (as e9pected, in normal circumstances, to be ans(erable to the :eichstag. %nitially, the
)resident (as merely a symbolic figure (ith the :eichstag dominantF ho(e"er, persistent
political instability, in (hich go"ernments often lasted only a fe( months, led to a change in
the po(er structure of the republic, (ith the presidentJs emergency po(ers called increasingly
into use to prop up go"ernments challenged by critical or e"en hostile :eichstag "otes. 6y
1!EC, po(er had shifted to such an e9tent that the ;erman )resident, )aul "on Hindenburg,
(as able to dismiss a chancellor and select his o(n person for the 1ob, e"en though the
outgoing chancellor possessed the confidence of the :eichstag (hile the ne( chancellor did
not. +ubseBuently )resident "on Hindenburg used his po(er to appoint Adolf Hitler as
2hancellor (ithout consulting the :eichstag.
Presidential system
;eorge Washington, the first )resident of the >nited +tates, set the precedent for an e9ecuti"e
head of state in republican systems of go"ernment.
8ain article# )residential system
Note$ %he head of state in a &presidential& s'stem ma' not actuall' hold the title of
&president& - the name of the s'stem refers to an' head of state (ho actuall' governs and is
not directl' dependent on the legislature to remain in office)
+ome constitutions or fundamental la(s pro"ide for a head of state (ho is not only in theory
but in practice chief e9ecuti"e, operating separately from, and independent from, the
legislature. This system is kno(n as a Kpresidential systemK and sometimes called the
Kimperial modelK, because the e9ecuti"e officials of the go"ernment are ans(erable solely and
e9clusi"ely to a presiding, acting head of state, and is selected by and on occasion dismissed
by the head of state (ithout reference to the legislature. %t is notable that some presidential
systems, (hile not pro"iding for collecti"e e9ecuti"e accountability to the legislature, may
reBuire legislati"e appro"al for indi"iduals prior to their assumption of cabinet office and
empo(er the legislature to remo"e a president from office (for e9ample, in the >nited +tates
of America). %n this case the debate centers on the suitability of the indi"idual for office, not a
1udgement on them (hen appointed, and does not in"ol"e the po(er to re1ect or appro"e
proposed cabinet members en bloc, so it is not accountability in the sense understood in a
parliamentary system.
)residential systems are a notable feature of constitutions in the Americas, including those of
the Argentina, 6ra7il, 2olombia, 'l +al"ador, 8e9ico and &ene7uelaF this is generally
attributed to the strong influence of the >nited +tates in the region, and as the >nited +tates
2onstitution ser"ed as an inspiration and model for the 4atin American (ars of independence
of the early 1!th century. 8ost presidents in such countries are selected by democratic means
(popular direct or indirect election)F ho(e"er, like all other systems, the presidential model
also encompasses people (ho become head of state by other means, notably through military
dictatorship or coup d*tat, as often seen in 4atin American, 8iddle 'astern and other
presidential regimes. +ome of the characteristics of a presidential system (i.e., a strong
dominant political figure (ith an e9ecuti"e ans(erable to them, not the legislature) can also
be found among absolute monarchies, parliamentary monarchies and single party (e.g.
2ommunist) regimes, but in most cases of dictatorship, their stated constitutional models are
applied in name only and not in political theory or practice.
%n the 1DLs in the >nited +tates, in the aftermath of the impeachment of )resident Andre(
=ohnson and his near.remo"al from office, it (as speculated that the >nited +tates, too, (ould
mo"e from a presidential system to a semi.presidential or e"en parliamentary one, (ith the
+peaker of the House of :epresentati"es becoming the real center of go"ernment as a Buasi.
prime minister. This did not happen and the presidency, ha"ing been damaged by three late
nineteenth and early t(entieth century assassinations (4incoln, ;arfield and 8c*inley) and
one impeachment (=ohnson), reasserted its political dominance by the early t(entieth century
through such figures as Theodore :oose"elt and Woodro( Wilson.
%n a sense, elected monarchies, such as the Holy +ee, the defunct Holy :oman 'mpire or pre
1Ith century +(edish monarchy, can be regarded as Jcro(nedJ presidential systems.
Single!arty states
The +tate 'mblem of the +o"iet >nion.
%n certain states under 8ar9ist constitutions of the constitutionally socialist state type inspired
by the former >nion of +o"iet +ocialist :epublics (>++:) and its constituti"e +o"iet
republics, real political po(er belonged to the sole legal party. %n these states, there (as no
formal office of head of state, but rather the leader of the legislati"e branch (as considered to
be the closest common eBui"alent of a head of state as a natural person. %n the +o"iet >nion
this position carried such titles as +hairman of the +entral ,xecutive +ommittee of the -SS.F
+hairman of the /residium of the Supreme SovietF and in the case of the +o"iet :ussia
+hairman of the +entral ,xecutive +ommittee of the ll-.ussian +ongress of Soviets (pre.
1!CC), and +hairman of the 0ureau of the +entral +ommittee of the .ussian SFS. (1!HIP
1!II). This position may or may not ha"e been held by the de facto +o"iet leader at the
moment. For e9ample, -ikita *hrushche" ne"er headed the +upreme +o"iet but (as First
+ecretary of the 2entral 2ommittee of the 2ommunist )arty (party leader) and 2hairman of
the 2ouncil of 8inisters (head of go"ernment).
This may e"en lead to an institutional "ariability, as in -orth *orea, (here, after the
presidency of party leader *im %l.+ung, the office (as "acant for years, the late president
being granted the posthumous title (akin to some ancient Far 'astern traditions to gi"e
posthumous names and titles to royalty) of &,ternal /resident& ((hile all substanti"e po(er,
as party leader, itself not formally created for four years, (as inherited by his son *im =ong %l,
initially (ithout any formal office) until it (as formally replaced on H +eptember 1!!, for
ceremonial purposes, by the office of 2hairman of the )residium of the +upreme )eopleJs
Assembly, (hile the party leaderJs post as 2hairman of the -ational /efense 2ommission
(as simultaneously declared Kthe highest post of the stateK, not unlike /eng 3iaoping earlier
in the )eopleJs :epublic of 2hina.
Com!lications "ith categori#ation
&adu7 2astle is the official residence of the )rince of 4iechtenstein.
While clear categories do e9ist, it is sometimes difficult to choose (hich category some
indi"idual heads of state belong to. %n reality, the category to (hich each head of state belongs
is assessed not by theory but by practice.
2onstitutional change in 4iechtenstein in CLLE ga"e its head of state, the :eigning )rince,
constitutional po(ers that included a "eto o"er legislation and po(er to dismiss the head of
go"ernment and cabinet.
@1HA
%t could be argued that the strengthening of the )rinceJs po(ers,
"is.a."is the 4andtag (legislature), has mo"ed 4iechtenstein into the semi.presidential
category. +imilarly the original po(ers gi"en to the ;reek )resident under the 1!DG Hellenic
:epublic constitution mo"ed ;reece closer to the French semi.presidential model.
Another complication e9ists (ith +outh Africa, in (hich the )resident is in fact elected by the
-ational Assembly (legislature) and is thus similar, in principle, to a head of go"ernment in a
parliamentary system but is also, in addition, recogni7ed as the head of state.
@1IA
The offices of
)resident of -auru and )resident of 6ots(ana are similar in this respect to the +outh African
presidency.
@1A@1DA@1A
)anama, during the military dictatorships of ,mar Torri1os and 8anuel -oriega, (as
nominally a presidential republic. Ho(e"er, the elected ci"ilian presidents (ere effecti"ely
figureheads (ith real political po(er being e9ercised by the chief of the )anamanian /efense
Forces.
$oles of heads of state
2oronations are a ma1or ceremony in monarchies# *ing 6humibol Adulyade1 is pouring the
(ater of donation at his coronation in the ;rand )alace in 6angkok on H 8ay 1!HL (left), and
0ueen 'li7abeth %% and the /uke of 'dinburgh in her coronation portrait on C =une 1!HE.
8ount :ushmore in +outh /akota has sculptures of presidents ;eorge Washington, Thomas
=efferson, Theodore :oose"elt and Abraham 4incoln (left to right) representing the first 1EL
years of the history of the >nited +tates of America.
,ften depending on (hich constitutional category (abo"e) a head of state belongs to, they
may ha"e some or all of the roles listed belo(, and "arious other ones.
Symbolic role
,ne of the most important roles of the modern head of state is being a li"ing national symbol
of the stateF in hereditary monarchies this e9tends to the monarch being a symbol of the
unbroken continuity of the state. For instance, the 2anadian monarch is described by the
go"ernment as being the personification of the 2anadian state and is described by the
/epartment of 2anadian Heritage as the Kpersonal symbol of allegiance, unity and authority
for all 2anadiansK.
@1!A@CLA
%n many countries, official portraits of the head of state can be found in go"ernment offices,
courts of la(, e"en airports, libraries, and other public buildings. The idea, sometimes
regulated by la(, is to use these portraits to make the public a(are of the symbolic connection
to the go"ernment, a practice that dates back to medie"al times. +ometimes this practice is
taken to e9cess, and the head of state becomes the principal symbol of the nation, resulting in
the emergence of a personality cult (here the image of the head of state is the only "isual
representation of the country, surpassing other symbols such as the flag.
,ther common iconic presences, especially of monarchs, are on coins, stamps and banknotesF
more discreet "ariations see them represented by a mention andMor signature. Furthermore,
"arious institutions, monuments and the like, are named for current or pre"ious heads of state,
such as streets and sBuares, schools, charitable and other organi7ationsF in monarchies (e.g.
6elgium) there can e"en be a practice to attribute the ad1ecti"e KroyalK on demand based on
e9istence for a gi"en number of years. Ho(e"er, such political techniBues can also be used by
leaders (ithout the formal rank of head of state, e"en party . and other re"olutionary leaders
(ithout formal state mandate.
+e"eral heads of state and their consorts, as the foremost representati"es of their nations,
gather at the funeral for the late )ope =ohn )aul %% in CLLH. Among those in the picture are
*ing Albert %% of the 6elgians, >.+. )resident ;eorge W. 6ush, French )resident =acBues
2hirac, )hilippine )resident ;loria 8acapagal.Arroyo, 'stonian )resident Arnold :QQtel,
and )ortuguese )resident =orge +ampaio.
;iorgio -apolitano, )resident of %taly, during a military ceremony.
Heads of state often greet important foreign "isitors, particularly "isiting heads of state. They
assume a host role during a state "isit, and the programme may feature playing of the national
anthems by a military band, inspection of military troops, official e9change of gifts, and
attending a state dinner at the official residence of the host.
At home, heads of state are e9pected to render luster to "arious occasions by their presence,
such as by attending artistic or sports performances or competitions (often in a theatrical
honor bo9, on a platform, on the front ro(, at the honours table, etc.), e9positions, national
day celebrations, military parades and (ar remembrances, prominent funerals, "isiting
different parts of the country and people from different (alks of life, and at times performing
symbolic acts such as cutting a ribbon, groundbreaking, ship christening, laying the first
stone, and so on. +ome parts of national life recei"e their regular attention, often on an annual
basis, or e"en in the form of official patronage.
The ,lympic 2harter (rule HH.E) of the %nternational ,lympic 2ommittee states that the
,lympic summer and (inter games shall be opened by the head of state of the host nation, by
uttering a single formulaic phrase as determined by the charter.
@C1A
As the potential for such in"itations is enormous, such duties are often in part delegated to
such persons as a spouse, a head of go"ernment or a cabinet minister or in other cases
(possibly as a message, for instance, to distance themsel"es (ithout rendering offense) 1ust a
military officer or ci"il ser"ant.
For non.e9ecuti"e heads of state there is often a degree of censorship by the politically
responsible go"ernment (such as the head of go"ernment), discreetly appro"ing agenda and
speeches, especially (here the constitution (or customary la() assumes all political
responsibility by granting the cro(n in"iolability (in fact also imposing political
emasculation) as in the *ingdom of 6elgium from its "ery beginningF in a monarchy this may
e"en be e9tended to some degree to other members of the dynasty, especially the heir to the
throne.
%elo" follo"s a list of exam!les from different countries of general !rovisions in la"&
"hich either designate an office as head of state and'or define its general !ur!ose(
Exam!le ) *!arliamentary monarchy+, +ection HI (1) of the +panish 2onstitution of
1!D states#
%he "ing is the 1ead of State2 the s'mbol of its unit' and permanence) 1e arbitrates
and moderates the regular functioning of the institutions2 assumes the highest
representation of the Spanish State in international relations2 especiall' (ith the
nations of its historical communit'2 and exercises the functions expressl' conferred on
him b' the +onstitution and the la(s)
@CCA
Exam!le - *!arliamentary absentee monarchy+, Article C of the -e( Realand
2onstitution Act 1!I states#
(1) %he Sovereign in right of Ne( 3ealand is the head of State of Ne( 3ealand2 and
shall be !no(n b' the ro'al st'le and titles proclaimed from time to time)
(2) %he 4overnor-4eneral appointed b' the Sovereign is the Sovereign*s
representative in Ne( 3ealand)
@CEA
Exam!le . *!arliamentary nonexecutive monarchy+, Article 1 of the 2onstitution
of =apan states#
%he ,mperor shall be the s'mbol of the State and of the unit' of the /eople2 deriving
his position from the (ill of the people (ith (hom resides sovereign po(er)
@1LA
Exam!le / *!arliamentary re!ublic+, Title %%, Article D of the 2onstitution of %taly
states#
%he /resident of the .epublic is the 1ead of the State and represents national unit')
@CGA
Exam!le 0 *!arliamentary re!ublic+, Article ID of the %raBi constitution of CLLH
states#
%he /resident of the .epublic is the 1ead of the State and a s'mbol of the unit' of the
countr' and represents the sovereignt' of the countr') 1e shall guarantee the
commitment to the +onstitution and the preservation of 5ra67s independence2
sovereignt'2 unit'2 and the safet' of its territories2 in accordance (ith the provisions of
the +onstitution)
@CHA
Exam!le 1 *semi!residential re!ublic+, Title %%, 2hapter %, Article 1CL of the
2onstitution of )ortugal states#
%he /resident of the .epublic represents the /ortuguese .epublic2 guarantees
national independence2 the unit' of the state and the proper operation of the
democratic institutions2 and is ex officio +ommander-in-+hief of the rmed Forces)
@CIA
Exam!le 2 *semi!residential re!ublic+, 2hapter %&, +ection 1, Article II of the
2onstitution of the :epublic of *orea states#
(1)%he /resident shall be the 1ead of State and represent the State vis-8-vis foreign
states)
(2)%he /resident shall have the responsibilit' and dut' to safeguard the independence2
territorial integrit' and continuit' of the State and the +onstitution)
@CDA
Exam!le 3 *semi!residential re!ublic+, 2hapter &%, Article DD of the 2onstitution
of 4ithuania states#
%he /resident of the .epublic shall be 1ead of State)
1e shall represent the State of 9ithuania and shall perform ever'thing (ith (hich he
is charged b' the +onstitution and la(s)
@CA
Exam!le 4 *semi!residential re!ublic+, 2hapter G, Article L, +ection 1.C of the
2onstitution of :ussia states#
1) %he /resident of the .ussian Federation shall be the 1ead of State)
2) %he /resident of the .ussian Federation shall be the guarantor of the +onstitution
of the .ussian Federation and of human and civil rights and freedoms) 5n accordance
(ith the procedure established b' the +onstitution of the .ussian Federation2 he (she)
shall adopt measures to protect the sovereignt' of the .ussian Federation2 its
independence and State integrit'2 and shall ensure the coordinated functioning and
interaction of State government bodies)
@C!A
Exam!le )5 *!residential re!ublic+, +ection D (+econd /i"ision, 2hapter 1) of the
2onstitution of Argentina pro"ides that#
%he ,xecutive /o(er of the Nation shall be vested in a citi:en (ith the title of
&/resident of the rgentine Nation&)
@ELA
Executive role
The appointments and dismissals of members of the ;erman cabinet is appro"ed by )resident
:ichard "on Wei7sScker (right), on the ad"ice of 2hancellor Helmut *ohl (left) in 1!!1.
6ra7ilian cabinet meeting chaired by Former )resident 4ui7 %nTcio 4ula da +il"a on C April
CLLD.
%n the ma1ority of states, (hether republics or monarchies, e9ecuti"e authority is "ested, at
least notionally, in the head of state. %n presidential systems the head of state is the actual, de
facto chief e9ecuti"e officer. >nder parliamentary systems the e9ecuti"e authority is e9ercised
by the head of state, but in practice is done so on the ad"ice of the cabinet of ministers. This
produces such terms as KHer 8a1estyJs ;o"ernmentK and KHis '9cellencyJs ;o"ernment.K
'9amples of parliamentary systems in (hich the head of state is notional chief e9ecuti"e
include Australia, Austria, 2anada, /enmark, ;ermany, %ndia, %taly, -or(ay, +pain and the
>nited *ingdom.
Exam!le ) *!arliamentary monarchy+, According to +ection 1C of the 2onstitution
of /enmark 1!HE#
Sub;ect to the limitations laid do(n in this +onstitution ct the "ing shall have the
supreme authorit' in all the affairs of the .ealm2 and he shall exercise such supreme
authorit' through the <inisters)
@E1A
Exam!le - *!arliamentary absentee monarchy+, >nder 2hapter %%, +ection I1 of
the 2ommon(ealth of Australia 2onstitution Act 1!LL#
%he executive po(er of the +ommon(ealth is vested in the =ueen and is exercisable
b' the 4overnor-4eneral as the =ueen*s representative2 and extends to the execution
and maintenance of this +onstitution2 and of the la(s of the +ommon(ealth)
@ECA
Exam!le . *!arliamentary re!ublic+, According to Article CI (C) of the 1!DH
2onstitution of ;reece#
%he executive po(er shall be exercised b' the /resident of the .epublic and the
4overnment)
@EEA
Exam!le / *!arliamentary re!ublic+, According to Article HE (1) of the 2onstitution
of %ndia#
%he executive po(er of the union shall be vested in the /resident and shall be
exercised b' him either directl' or indirectl' through the officers subordinate to him in
accordance to the +onstitution)
@EGA
Exam!le 0 *semi!residential re!ublic+, >nder 2hapter G, Article L, +ection E of
the 2onstitution of :ussia#
%he /resident of the .ussian Federation shall2 in accordance (ith the +onstitution of
the .ussian Federation and federal la(s2 determine the basic ob;ectives of the
internal and foreign polic' of the State)
@C!A
Exam!le 1 *!residential re!ublic+, Title %&, 2hapter %%, +ection %, Article DI of the
2onstitution of 6ra7il#
%he ,xecutive /o(er is exercised b' the /resident of the .epublic2 assisted b' the
<inisters of State)
@EHA
Exam!le 2 *!residential re!ublic+, Article C, +ection 1 of the >nited +tates
2onstitution states#
%he executive /o(er shall be vested in a /resident of the -nited States of merica)
@EIA
The fe( e9ceptions (here the head of state is not e"en the nominal chief e9ecuti"e . and
(here supreme e9ecuti"e authority is according to the constitution e9plicitly "ested in a
cabinet . include the 27ech :epublic, %reland, %srael, =apan and +(eden.
@1LA@1CA
6!!ointment of senior officials
Then 0ueen 6eatri9 of the -etherlands (ith the :utte cabinet in ,ctober CL1L.
4ieutenant ;eneral Ar"ydas )ocius, 4ithunanian Army is in"ested as 2hief of /efense by
)resident /alia ;rybauskaite in CLL!.
The head of state usually appoints most or all the key officials in the go"ernment, including
the head of go"ernment and other cabinet ministers, key 1udicial figuresF and all ma1or office
holders in the ci"il ser"ice, foreign ser"ice and commissioned officers in the military. %n many
parliamentary systems, the head of go"ernment is appointed (ith the consent (in practice
often decisi"e) of the legislature, and other figures are appointed on the head of go"ernmentJs
ad"ice.
%n practice, these decisions are often a formality. The last time a 6ritish monarch unilaterally
selected the )rime 8inister (as in 1!IE, (hen 0ueen 'li7abeth %% appointed Alec /ouglas.
Home on the ad"ice of outgoing )rime 8inister Harold 8acmillan. %n 2anada, a similar
situation took place in 1!CH (herein ;o"ernor ;eneral 4ord 6yng of &imy appointed Arthur
8eighen after William 4yon 8acken7ie *ing refused to resign the premiership (kno(n as the
*ing.6yng Affair). %n 1!DH, ;o"ernor.;eneral of Australia +ir =ohn *err appointed 8alcolm
Fraser as caretaker )rime 8inister after ha"ing dismissed his predecessor ;ough Whitlam.
%n presidential systems, such as that of the >nited +tates, appointments are nominated by the
)residentJs sole discretion, but this nomination is often sub1ect to confirmation by the
legislatureF and specifically in the >+, the +enate has to appro"e senior e9ecuti"e branch and
1udicial appointments by a simple ma1ority "ote.
@EIA
The head of state may also dismiss office.holders. There are many "ariants on ho( this can be
done. For e9ample, members of the %rish 2abinet are dismissed by the )resident on the ad"ice
of the TaoiseachF in other instances, the head of state may be able to dismiss an office holder
unilaterallyF other heads of state, or their representati"es, ha"e the theoretical po(er to
dismiss any office.holder, (hile it is e9ceptionally rarely used.
@1GA
%n France, (hile the
)resident cannot force the )rime 8inister to tender the resignation of the ;o"ernment, he can,
in practice, reBuest it if the )rime 8inister is from his o(n ma1ority.
@EDA
%n presidential
systems, the president often has the po(er to fire ministers at his sole discretion. %n the >nited
+tates, the un(ritten con"ention calls for the heads of the e9ecuti"e departments to resign on
their o(n initiati"e (hen called to do so.
Exam!le ) *!arliamentary monarchy+, Article !I of the 2onstitution of 6elgium#
%he "ing appoints and dismisses his ministers)
%he Federal 4overnment offers its resignation to the "ing if the 1ouse of
.epresentatives2 b' an absolute ma;orit' of its members2 adopts a motion of no
confidence proposing a successor to the prime minister for appointment b' the "ing
or proposes a successor to the prime minister for appointment b' the "ing (ithin
three da's of the re;ection of a motion of confidence) %he "ing appoints the proposed
successor as prime minister2 (ho ta!es office (hen the ne( Federal 4overnment is
s(orn in)
@EA
Exam!le - *!arliamentary nonexecutive re!ublic+, Article 1E.1.1 of the
2onstitution of %reland#
%he /resident shall2 on the nomination of >?il @ireann2 appoint the %aoiseach)
@1GA
Exam!le . *semi!residential re!ublic+, 2hapter G, +ection C of the 2onstitution of
the :epublic of *orea states#
%he /rime <inister is appointed b' the /resident (ith the consent of the National
ssembl')
@CDA
Exam!le / *!residential re!ublic+, Article G of the 2onstitution of 6ra7il#
%he /resident of the .epublic shall have the exclusive po(er to$
% . appoint and dismiss the 8inisters of +tate#
3%%% . ...appoint the commanders of -a"y, Army and Air Force, to promote general
officers and to appoint them to the offices held e9clusi"ely by themF
3%& . appoint, after appro"al by the +enate, the =ustices of the +upreme Federal 2ourt
and those of the superior courts, the ;o"ernors of the territories, the Attorney.;eneral
of the :epublic, the )resident and the /irectors of the 2entral 6ank and other ci"il
ser"ants, (hen established by la(F
3& . appoint, (ith due regard for the pro"isions of article DE, the =ustices of the
Federal 2ourt of AccountsF
3&% . appoint 1udges in the e"ents established by this 2onstitution and the Ad"ocate.
;eneral of the >nionF
3&%% . appoint members of the 2ouncil of the :epublic, in accordance (ith article !,
&%%
33& . fill and abolish federal go"ernment positions, as set forth by la()
ABCD
+ome countries ha"e alternati"e pro"isions for senior appointments# %n +(eden, under the
%nstrument of ;o"ernment of 1!DG, the +peaker of the :iksdag has the role of formally
appointing the )rime 8inister, follo(ing a "ote in the :iksdag, and the )rime 8inister in turn
appoints and dismisses cabinet ministers at hisMher sole discretion.
@1CA
7i!lomatic role
Tekiso Hati, Ambassador of the *ingdom of 4esotho, presenting his credentials to :ussian
)resident &ladimir )utin.
/aniel 6. +hapiro, >.+. Ambassador to %srael, presents his credentials to )resident of %srael
+himon )eres on E August CL11.
A 1!!C 4etter of 2redence, (ritten in French, for the 27echoslo"akian Ambassador to
4ithuania, signed by the )resident of 27echoslo"akia and addressed to his 4ithuanian
counterpart.
The head of state accredits (i.e. formally "alidates) his or her countryJs ambassadors (or rarer
eBui"alent diplomatic mission chiefs, such as high commissioner or papal nuncio) through
sending formal a 4etter of 2redence to other heads of state and, con"ersely, recei"es the
letters of their foreign counterparts. Without that accreditation, the chief of the diplomatic
mission cannot take up their role and recei"e the highest diplomatic status. The role of a head
of state in this regard, is codified in the &ienna 2on"ention on /iplomatic :elations from
1!I1, (hich (as of CL1C) 1D so"ereign states has ratified.
@A@E!A
Ho(e"er, there are pro"isions in the &ienna 2on"ention that a diplomatic agent of lesser rank,
such as a 2harg? dJaffaires, is accredited to the minister of foreign affairs (or eBui"alent).
@A
The head of state is often designated the high contracting party in international treaties on
behalf of the stateF signs them either personally or has them signed in hisMher name by
ministers (go"ernment members or diplomats)F subseBuent ratification, (hen necessary, may
rest (ith the legislature.
@GLA@G1A@GCA
Exam!le ) *!arliamentary monarchy+, Article of the 2onstitution of the
)rincipality of 4iechtenstein states#
1) %he .eigning /rince shall represent the State in all its relations (ith foreign
countries2 (ithout pre;udice to the re6uisite participation of the responsible
4overnment)
2) %reaties b' (hich territor' of the State (ould be ceded2 State propert' alienated2
sovereign rights or prerogatives of the State affected2 a ne( burden imposed on the
/rincipalit' or its citi:ens2 or an obligation assumed that (ould limit the rights of the
citi:ens of 9iechtenstein shall re6uire the assent of /arliament to attain legal force)
@1HA
Exam!le - *!arliamentary re!ublic+, Article H! (1) of the 6asic 4a( of the Federal
:epublic of ;ermany states#
%he Federal /resident shall represent the Federation in its international relations) 1e
shall conclude treaties (ith foreign states on behalf of the Federation) 1e shall
accredit and receive envo's).
@GEA
Exam!le . *semi!residential re!ublic+, Title %%, Article 1G of the French
2onstitution of 1!H states#
%he /resident of the .epublic shall accredit ambassadors and envo's extraordinar' to
foreign po(ersE foreign ambassadors and envo's extraordinar' shall be accredited to
him)
@EDA
Exam!le / *semi!residential re!ublic+, 2hapter G, Article I, +ection G of the
2onstitution of :ussia states#
%he /resident of the .ussian Federation$
a) shall direct the foreign polic' of the .ussian FederationE
b) shall hold negotiations and sign international treaties of the .ussian FederationE
c) shall sign instruments of ratificationE
d) shall receive letters of credence and letters of recall of diplomatic representatives
accredited to his (her) office)
@C!A
Exam!le 0 *single !arty re!ublic+, +ection C, Article 1 of the 2onstitution of the
)eopleJs :epublic of 2hina states#
%he /resident of the /eople*s .epublic of +hina receives foreign diplomatic
representatives on behalf of the /eople*s .epublic of +hina and2 in pursuance of
decisions of the Standing +ommittee of the National /eople*s +ongress2 appoints and
recalls plenipotentiar' representatives abroad2 and ratifies and abrogates treaties and
important agreements concluded (ith foreign states)
@GGA
%mages of the signature blocks (ith seals of the CL11 2roatia '> Accession Treaty

6elgium, 6ulgaria, 27ech :epublic and /enmark

;ermany, 'stonia, %reland and ;reece

+pain, France, 2roatia and %taly

2yprus, 4at"ia, 4ithuania and 4u9embourg

Hungary, 8alta, the -etherlands and Austria

)oland, )ortugal, :omania and +lo"enia

+lo"akia, Finland, +(eden and the >nited *ingdom

%n 2anada, these head of state po(ers belong to the 8onarch as part of the :oyal )rerogati"e,
@GHA@GIA@GDA@GA
but the ;o"ernor ;eneral has been permitted to e9ercise them since 1!GD and has
done so since the 1!DLs.
@GA@G!A
Military role
8ain article# 2ommander in 2hief
2ristina FernTnde7 de *irchner is, as the )resident of Argentina, also the 2ommander in
2hief of the Argentine Armed Forces.
@ELA
Albert %%, *ing of the 6elgians inspecting troops on 6elgiumJs national day in CL11.
-icolas +arko7y, )resident of France and ;eneral =ean.4ouis ;eorgelin, 2hief of the /efence
+taff, re"ie(ing troops during the CLL 6astille /ay military parade on the 2hamps.Ulys?es
in )aris.
Former )resident 4ula, (ith his (ife 8arisa 4et5cia, re"ie(s troops during %ndependence /ay
military parade in 6ras5lia, 6ra7il.
A head of state is often, by "irtue of holding the highest e9ecuti"e po(ers, e9plicitly
designated as the commander.in.chief of that nationJs armed forces, holding the highest office
in all military chains of command.
%n a constitutional monarchy or non.e9ecuti"e presidency, the head of state may de 1ure hold
ultimate authority o"er the armed forces but (ill only normally, as per either (ritten la( or
un(ritten con"ention, e9ercise their authority on the ad"ice of their responsible ministers#
meaning that the de facto ultimate decision making on military maneu"ers is made else(here.
The head of state (ill, regardless of actual authority, perform ceremonial duties related to the
countryJs armed forces, and (ill sometimes appear in military uniform for these purposesF
particularly in monarchies (here also the monarchJs consort and other members of a royal
family may also appear in military garb. This is generally the only time a head of state of a
stable, democratic country (ill appear dressed in such a manner, as statesmen and public are
eager to assert the primacy of (ci"ilian, elected) politics o"er the armed forces.
%n military dictatorships, or go"ernments (hich ha"e arisen from coups dJ?tat, the position of
commander.in.chief is ob"ious, as all authority in such a go"ernment deri"es from the
application of military forceF occasionally a po(er "acuum created by (ar is filled by a head
of state stepping beyond his or her normal constitutional role, as *ing Albert % of 6elgium did
during World War %. %n these and in re"olutionary regimes, the head of state, and often
e9ecuti"e ministers (hose offices are legally ci"ilian, (ill freBuently appear in military
uniform.
Exam!le ) *!arliamentary monarchy+, Article %%%, +ection 1H of the 2onstitution
Act, 1ID, a part of the 2onstitution of 2anada, states#
%he +ommand-in-+hief of the 9and and Naval <ilitia2 and of all Naval and <ilitar'
Forces2 of and in +anada2 is hereb' declared to continue to be vested in the =ueen)
@HLA
Exam!le - *!arliamentary monarchy+, Article CH of the 2onstitution of -or(ay
states#
%he "ing is +ommander-in-+hief of the land and naval forces of the .ealm) %hese
forces ma' not be increased or reduced (ithout the consent of the Storting) %he' ma'
not be transferred to the service of foreign po(ers2 nor ma' the militar' forces of an'
foreign po(er2 except auxiliar' forces assisting against hostile attac!2 be brought into
the .ealm (ithout the consent of the Storting)
%he territorial arm' and the other troops (hich cannot be classed as troops of the line
must never2 (ithout the consent of the Storting2 be emplo'ed outside the borders of the
.ealm)
@H1A
Exam!le . *!arliamentary re!ublic+, 2hapter %%, Article D, Gth section of the
2onstitution of %taly states#
%he /resident is the commander-in-chief of the armed forces2 shall preside over the
Supreme +ouncil of >efense established b' la(2 and shall ma!e declarations of (ar
as have been agreed b' /arliament of 5tal' (Senato))
Exam!le / *semi!residential re!ublic+, Title %%, Article 1H of the French
2onstitution of 1!H states#
%he /resident of the .epublic shall be +ommander-in-+hief of the rmed Forces) 1e
shall preside over the higher national defence councils and committees)
@EDA
Exam!le 0 *semi!residential re!ublic+, According to 2hapter G, Article D, +ection
1 of the 2onstitution of :ussia#
%he /resident of the .ussian Federation shall be the Supreme +ommander-in-+hief of
the rmed Forces of the .ussian Federation)
@C!A
Exam!le 1 *!residential re!ublic+, Article %%, +ection C of the >nited +tates
2onstitution states#
%he /resident shall be +ommander in +hief of the rm' and Nav' of the -nited
States2 and of the <ilitia of the several States2 (hen called into the actual Service of
the -nited States)
@EIA
Exam!le 2 *executive monarchy+, Article IH of the 2onstitution of 0atar pro"ides
that#
%he ,mir is the +ommander-in-+hief of the armed forces) 1e shall supervise the same
(ith the assistance of >efence +ouncil under his direct authorit') %he said +ouncil
shall be constituted b' an ,miri .esolution2 (hich (ill also determine the functions
thereof)
@HCA
+ome countries (ith a parliamentary system designate officials other than the head of state
(ith command.in.chief po(ers.
%n ;ermany, the 6asic 4a( of the Federal :epublic "ests this authority in the 8inister
of /efence in normal peace.time (article IHa), and that command authority is
transferred to the Federal 2hancellor (hen a +tate of /efence is in"oked (article
11Hb)# something (hich has ne"er happened so far.
@GEA
%n %srael, the applicable basic la( states that the ultimate authority o"er the %srael
/efense Forces rests (ith the ;o"ernment of %srael as a collecti"e body. The authority
of the ;o"ernment is e9ercised by the 8inister of /efense on behalf of the
;o"ernment, and subordinate to the 8inister is the 2hief of ;eneral +taff (ho holds
the highest le"el of command (ithin the military.
@HEA
Legislative roles
0ueen 'li7abeth %% arri"es at the )alace of Westminster for the +tate ,pening of )arliament.
)resident ,bama signing the 4illy 4edbetter Fair )ay Act of CLL! into la(F to his right is the
ne( la(Js namesake, 4illy 4edbetter.
27ar -icholas %% opening the First /uma, established under the :ussian 2onstitution of 1!LI.
%t is usual that the head of state, particularly in parliamentary systems as part of the symbolic
role, is the one (ho opens the annual sessions of the legislature, e.g. the annual +tate ,pening
of )arliament (ith the +peech from the Throne in 6ritain. '"en in presidential systems the
head of state often formally reports to the legislature on the present national status, e.g. the
+tate of the >nion address in the >nited +tates of America.
8ost countries reBuire that all bills passed by the house or houses of the legislature be signed
into la( by the head of state. %n some states, such as the >nited *ingdom, 6elgium and
%reland, the head of state is, in fact, formally considered a tier of the legislature. Ho(e"er, in
most parliamentary systems, the head of state cannot refuse to sign a bill, and, in granting a
bill their assent, indicate that it (as passed in accordance (ith the correct procedures. The
signing of a bill into la( is formally kno(n as promulgation. +ome monarchical states call
this procedure .o'al ssent.
Exam!le ) *nonexecutive !arliamentary monarchy+, 2hapter 1, Article G of the
+(edish .i!sdag ct pro"ides that#
%he formal opening of a .i!sdag session ta!es place at a special meeting of the
+hamber held no later than the third da' of the session) t this meeting2 the 1ead of
State declares the session open at the invitation of the Spea!er) 5f the 1ead of State is
unable to attend2 the Spea!er declares the session open)
@HGA
Exam!le - *!arliamentary monarchy+, Article ! of the 2onstitution of the
)rincipality of 4iechtenstein pro"ides that#
,ver' la( shall re6uire the sanction of the .eigning /rince to attain legal force)
@1HA
Exam!le . *!arliamentary re!ublic+, +ection 11.a.1. of the 6asic 4a(s of %srael
states#
%he /resident of the State shall sign ever' 9a(2 other than a 9a( relating to its
po(ers)
@HHA
Exam!le / *semi!residential re!ublic+, According to 2hapter G, Article G of the
2onstitution of the :ussian Federation#
%he /resident of the .ussian Federation$
a) shall announce elections to the State >uma in accordance (ith the +onstitution of
the .ussian Federation and federal la(E
c) shall announce referendums in accordance (ith the procedure established b'
federal constitutional la(E
d) shall submit draft la(s to the State >umaE
e) shall sign and promulgate federal la(sE
f) shall address the Federal ssembl' (ith annual messages on the situation in the
countr' and on the basic ob;ectives of the internal and foreign polic' of the State)
@C!A
Exam!le 0 *!residential re!ublic+, Article 1, +ection D of the >nited +tates
2onstitution states#
,ver' 0ill (hich shall have passed the 1ouse of .epresentatives and the Senate2 shall2
before it become a 9a(2 be presented to the /resident of the -nited StatesE 5f he
approves he shall sign it2 but if not he shall return it2 (ith his Fb;ections to that 1ouse
in (hich it shall have originated)))
@EIA
Exam!le 1 *!residential re!ublic+, Article G of the 6ra7ilian 2onstitution pro"ides
that#
%he /resident of the .epublic shall have the exclusive po(er to$
555 G start the legislative procedure2 in the manner and in the cases set forth in this
+onstitutionE
5H - sanction2 promulgate and order the publication of la(s2 as (ell as to issue
decrees and regulations for the true enforcement thereofE
H - veto bills2 (holl' or in partE
I5 - upon the opening of the legislative session2 send a government message and plan
to the National +ongress2 describing the state of the nation and re6uesting the actions
he deems necessar'E
II555 - submit to the National +ongress the pluriannual plan2 the bill of budgetar'
directives and the budget proposals set forth in this +onstitutionE
II5H - render2 each 'ear2 accounts to the National +ongress concerning the previous
fiscal 'ear2 (ithin sixt' da's of the opening of the legislative session.
@EHA
Exam!le 2 *ruling monarchy+, Article 1LI of the 2onstitution of 0atar states#
1) n' draft la( passed b' the +ouncil shall be referred to the ,mir for ratification)
2) 5f the ,mir2 declines to approve the draft la(2 he shall return it a long (ith the
reasons for such declination to the +ouncil (ithin a period of three months from the
date of referral)
B) 5n the event that a draft la( is returned to the +ouncil (ithin the period specified in
the preceding paragraph and the +ouncil passes the same once more (ith a t(o-thirds
ma;orit' of all its <embers2 the ,mir shall ratif' and promulgate it) %he ,mir ma' in
compelling circumstances order the suspension of this la( for the period that he
deems necessar' to serve the higher interests of the countr') 5f2 ho(ever2 the draft la(
is not passed b' a t(o-thirds ma;orit'2 it shall not be reconsidered (ithin the same
term of session)
@HCA
%n some parliamentary systems, the head of state retains certain po(ers in relation to bills to
be e9ercised at his or her discretion. They may ha"e authority to "eto a bill until the houses of
the legislature ha"e reconsidered it, and appro"ed it a second timeF reser"e a bill to be signed
later, or suspend it indefinitely (generally in states (ith royal prerogati"eF this po(er is rarely
used)F refer a bill to the courts to test its constitutionalityF refer a bill to the people in a
referendum.
%f he or she is also chief e9ecuti"e, he or she can thus politically control the necessary
e9ecuti"e measures (ithout (hich a proclaimed la( can remain dead letter, sometimes for
years or e"en fore"er.
Summoning and dissolving the legislature
The )resident of %reland can dissol"e the /Til Uireann (lo(er house of the ,ireachtas) if the
go"ernment has lost ma1ority support in it.
A head of state is often empo(ered to summon and dissol"e the countryJs legislature. %n most
parliamentary systems, this is often done on the ad"ice of the head of go"ernment. %n some
parliamentary systems, and in some presidential systems, ho(e"er, the head of state may do
so on their o(n initiati"e. +ome states ha"e fi9ed term legislatures, (ith no option of bringing
for(ard elections (e.g. Article %%, +ection E, of the >.+. 2onstitution
@EIA
). %n other systems there
are usually fi9ed terms, but the head of state retains authority to dissol"e the legislature in
certain circumstances. Where a head of go"ernment has lost support in the legislature, some
heads of state may refuse a dissolution, (here one is reBuested, thereby forcing the head of
go"ernmentJs resignation.
Exam!le ) *!arliamentary nonexecutive re!ublic+, Article 1E.C.C. of the
2onstitution of %reland states#
%he /resident ma' in absolute discretion refuse to dissolve >?il @ireann on the advice
of a %aoiseach (ho has ceased to retain the support of a ma;orit' in >?il @ireann)
@1GA
Exam!le - *semi!residential re!ublic+, Title %%, Article 1C, first sentence of the
French 2onstitution of 1!H states#
%he /resident of the .epublic ma'2 after consulting the /rime <inister and the
/residents of the 1ouses of /arliament2 declare the National ssembl' dissolved)
@EDA
Exam!le . *semi!residential re!ublic+, 2hapter G, article G of the 2onstitution of
the :ussian Federation pro"ides#
%he /resident of the .ussian Federation$
b) shall dissolve the State >uma in the cases and in accordance (ith the procedure
provided for b' the +onstitution of the .ussian FederationE
@C!A
Other !rerogatives
Granting nobility& 8nighthood and various titles and other honors
The ,rder of +t. ,la" is the highest honor the -or(egian monarch may besto(.
Exam!le ) *!arliamentary monarchy+, Article 11E of the 2onstitution of 6elgium
states#
%he "ing ma' confer titles of nobilit'2 (ithout ever having the po(er to attach
privileges to them)
@EA
Exam!le - *!arliamentary monarchy+, Article CE of the 2onstitution of -or(ay
states#
%he "ing ma' besto( orders upon (homever he pleases as a re(ard for distinguished
services2 and such orders must be publicl' announced2 but no ran! or title other than
that attached to an' office) %he order exempts no one from the common duties and
burdens of citi:ens2 nor does it carr' (ith it an' preferential admission to senior
official posts in the State) Senior officials honorabl' discharged from office retain the
title and ran! of their office) %his does not appl'2 ho(ever2 to <embers of the +ouncil
of State or the State Secretaries)
No personal2 or mixed2 hereditar' privileges ma' henceforth be granted to an'one)
@H1A
Exam!le . *!arliamentary re!ublic+, Title %%, Article D, th section of the
2onstitution of %taly states#
%he /resident shall confer the honorar' distinctions of the .epublic)
@CGA
9mmunity
+ee also# +o"ereign immunity and %mmunity from prosecution (international la()
Exam!le ) *!arliamentary nonexecutive monarchy+, 2hapter H, Article of the
+(edish %nstrument of ;o"ernment of 1!DG states#
%he "ing or =ueen (ho is 1ead of State cannot be prosecuted for his or her actions)
Nor can a .egent be prosecuted for his or her actions as 1ead of State)
@1CA
Exam!le - *!arliamentary monarchy+, Article H of the 2onstitution of -or(ay
states#
%he "ing7s person is sacredE he cannot be censured or accused) %he responsibilit'
rests (ith his +ouncil)
@H1A
Exam!le . *!arliamentary re!ublic+, 2hapter E, Article IH of the 2onstitution of the
27ech :epublic states#
(1) /resident of the .epublic ma' not be detained2 sub;ected to criminal prosecution
or prosecuted for offense or other administrative delict)
(2) /resident of the .epublic ma' be prosecuted for high treason at the +onstitutional
+ourt based on the Senate*s suit) %he punishment ma' be the loss of his presidential
office and of his eligibilit' to regain it)
(B) +riminal prosecution for criminal offenses committed b' the /resident of the
.epublic (hile executing his office shall be ruled out forever)
@HIA
Exam!le / *semi!residential re!ublic+, Title %%, 2hapter %, Article 1EL of the
2onstitution of )ortugal states#
1) %he /resident of the .epublic ans(ers before the Supreme +ourt of Justice for
crimes committed in the exercise of his functions)
2) /roceedings ma' onl' be initiated b' the ssembl' of the .epublic2 upon a motion
subscribed b' one fifth and a decision passed b' a t(o-thirds ma;orit' of all the
<embers of the ssembl' of the .epublic in full exercise of their office)
B) +onviction implies removal from office and dis6ualification from re-election)
K) For crimes that are not committed in the exercise of his functions2 the /resident of
the .epublic ans(ers before the common courts2 once his term of office has ended)
@CIA
Exam!le 0 *executive monarchy+, Article IG of the 2onstitution of 0atar#
%he ,mir is the head of State) 1is person shall be inviolable and he must be respected
b' all)
@HCA
$eserve Po"ers
+ee also# reser"e po(er
Exam!le ) *semi!residential re!ublic+, Title %%, Article 1I of the French
2onstitution of 1!H states#
Lhere the institutions of the .epublic2 the independence of the Nation2 the integrit' of
its territor' or the fulfilment of its international commitments are under serious and
immediate threat2 and (here the proper functioning of the constitutional public
authorities is interrupted2 the /resident of the .epublic shall ta!e measures re6uired
b' these circumstances2 after formall' consulting the /rime <inister2 the /residents of
the 1ouses of /arliament and the +onstitutional +ouncil)
1e shall address the Nation and inform it of such measures)
%he measures shall be designed to provide the constitutional public authorities as
s(iftl' as possible2 (ith the means to carr' out their duties) %he +onstitutional
+ouncil shall be consulted (ith regard to such measures)
/arliament shall sit as of right)
%he National ssembl' shall not be dissolved during the exercise of such emergenc'
po(ers)
fter thirt' da's of the exercise of such emergenc' po(ers2 the matter ma' be referred
to the +onstitutional +ouncil b' the /resident of the National ssembl'2 the /resident
of the Senate2 sixt' <embers of the National ssembl' or sixt' Senators2 so as to
decide if the conditions laid do(n in paragraph one still appl') %he +ouncil shall
ma!e its decision publicl' as soon as possible) 5t shall2 as of right2 carr' out such an
examination and shall ma!e its decision in the same manner after sixt' da's of the
exercise of emergenc' po(ers or at an' moment thereafter)
@EDA
Exam!le - *executive monarchy+, Articles I! < DL of the 2onstitution of 0atar#
6rticle 14
%he ,mir ma'2 be a decree2 declare <artial 9a(s in the countr' in the event of
exceptional cases specified b' the la(E and in such cases2 he ma' ta!e all urgent
necessar' measures to counter an' threat that undermine the safet' of the State2 the
integrit' of its territories or the securit' of its people and interests or obstruct the
organs of the State from performing their duties) 1o(ever2 the decree must specif' the
nature of such exceptional cases for (hich the martial la(s have been declared and
clarif' the measures ta!en to address this situation) l-Shoura +ouncil shall be
notified of this decree (ithin the fifteen da's follo(ing its issueE and in the event that
the +ouncil is not in session for an' reason (hatsoever2 the +ouncil shall be notified
of the decree at its first convening) <artial la(s shall be declared for a limited period
and the same shall not be extended unless approved b' l-Shoura +ouncil)
6rticle 25
%he ,mir ma'2 in the event of exceptional cases that re6uire measures of utmost
urgenc' (hich necessitate the issue of special la(s and in case that l-Shoura
+ouncil is not in session2 issue pertinent decrees that have the po(er of la() Such
decree-la(s shall be submitted to l-Shoura +ouncil at its first meetingE and the
+ouncil ma' (ithin a maximum period of fort' da's from the date of submission and
(ith a t(o-thirds ma;orit' of its <embers re;ect an' of these decree-la(s or re6uest
amendment thereof to be effected (ithin a specified period of timeE such decree-la(s
shall cease to have the po(er of la( from the date of their re;ection b' the +ouncil or
(here the period for effecting the amendments have expired)
@HCA
$ight of !ardon
+ee also# )ardon
Exam!le ) *!arliamentary monarchy+, +ection CG of the 2onstitution of /enmark
states#
%he "ing can grant pardons and amnesties) 1e ma' onl' pardon <inisters convicted
b' the +ourt of 5mpeachment (ith the consent of /arliament)
@E1A
Exam!le - *!arliamentary re!ublic+, According to 2hapter &, Article IL(C) of the
6asic 4a( of the Federal :epublic of ;ermany#
1e A%he /residentD shall exercise the po(er to pardon individual offenders on behalf
of the Federation)
@GEA
Exam!le . *semi!residential re!ublic+, Title %%, Article 1D of the French
2onstitution of 1!H states#
%he /resident of the .epublic is vested (ith the po(er to grant individual pardons)
@EDA
Exam!le / *!residential re!ublic+, Article %%, +ection C of the 2onstitution of the
>nited +tates pro"ides that#
)))and he A%he /residentD shall have /o(er to grant .eprieves and /ardons for
Fffences against the -nited States2 except in +ases of 5mpeachment)
@EIA
Exam!le 0 *!residential !arliamentary re!ublic+, )art 3%, Article L of the
2onstitution of -auru#
%he /resident ma'-
(a) grant a pardon, either free or sub1ect to la(ful conditions, to a person con"icted of
an offenceF
(b) grant to a person a respite, either indefinite or for a specified period, of the
e9ecution of a punishment imposed on that person for an offenceF
(c) substitute a less se"ere form of punishment for any punishment imposed on a
person for an offenceF or
(d) remit the (hole or a part of a punishment imposed on a person for an offence or of
a penalty or forfeiture on account of an offence.
A1MD
Selection and various ty!es and styles of heads of state
The frontispiece of Thomas HobbesJ 9eviathan, depicting the +o"ereign as a massi"e body
(ielding a s(ord and cro7ier and composed of many indi"idual people.
&arious heads of state use a multitude of different styles and titles, often (ith many "ariations
in content under di"erse constitutions, e"en in a gi"en state. %n numerous cases, t(o or more
of the follo(ing peculiar types apply, not counting the primary duo monarchy.republic.
Although many constitutions (single or multiple documents), particularly from the 1!th
century and earlier make no e9plicit mention of a head of state in the generic sense of se"eral
contemporary international treaties, the officeholders corresponding to this position are
recogni7ed as such by other countries.
@1A@A
%n a monarchy, the monarch is generally understood to be the head of state.
@HDA
-iccolV
8achia"elli used /rince (%talian# /rincipe) as a generic term for the ruler, similar to
contemporary usage of head of state, in his classical treatise %he /rince, originally published
in 1HEC# in fact that particular literary genre it belongs to is kno(n as 8irrors for princes.
Thomas Hobbes in his 9eviathan (1IH1) used the term Sovereign. %n 'urope the role of a
monarchs has gradually transitioned from that of a so"ereign rulerNin the sense of /i"ine
:ight of *ings as articulated by =ean 6odin, Absolutism and the K4Jetat cJest moiKNto that of
a constitutional monarchF parallel (ith the conceptual e"olution of so"ereignty from merely
the personal rule of a single person, to Westphalian so"ereignty ()eace of Westphalia ending
both the Thirty $earsJ War < 'ighty $earsJ War) and popular so"ereignty as in consent of the
go"ernedF as sho(n in the ;lorious :e"olution of 1I in 'ngland < +cotland, the French
:e"olution in 1D!, and the ;erman :e"olution of 1!1P1!1!. The monarchies (ho sur"i"ed
through this era (ere the ones (ho (ere (illing to sub1ect themsel"es to constitutional
limitations. Titles commonly used by monarchs are *ingM0ueen or 'mperorM'mpress, but
also many otherF e.g. ;rand /uke, )rince, 'mir and +ultan.
%n a republic, the head of state no(adays usually bears the title of )resident, and usually their
permanent constitutions pro"ide for election, but many ha"e or had other titles and e"en
specific constitutional positions and some ha"e used simply Khead of stateK as their only
formal title.
There are also se"eral methods of head of state succession in the e"ent of the remo"al,
disability or death of an incumbent head of state.
Shared and substitute heads of state
9nterim
Whene"er a head of state is not a"ailable for any reason, constitutional pro"isions may allo(
the role to fall temporarily to an assigned person or collecti"e body. %n a republic, this is .
depending on pro"isions outlined by the constitution or impro"ised . a "ice.president, the
chief of go"ernment, the legislature or its presiding officer. %n a monarchy, this is usually a
regent or collegial regency (council). For e9ample, in the >nited +tates the &ice.)resident
acts (hen the )resident is incapacitated, and in the >nited *ingdom the 0ueenJs po(ers may
be delegated to 2ounselors of +tate (hen she is abroad or una"ailable.
$e!resentation
T(o go"ernors.general from different eras and different realms#
The 4ord T(eedsmuir (left) (as ;o"ernor ;eneral of 2anada from 1!EH to 1!GLF the uniform
(orn (as the customary ceremonial dress uniform for go"ernors general
+ir )aulias 8atane (right) (as ;o"ernor.;eneral of )apua -e( ;uinea from CLLG to CL1L
%n some nations, such as Andorra and -e( Realand, there is no resident head of state, and a
local representati"e is appointed. %n the 2ommon(ealth realms, other than the >nited
*ingdom, a go"ernor.general is appointed by the so"ereign, on the ad"ice of the rele"ant
prime minister, as a representati"e and to e9ercise almost all the royal prerogati"e according
to established constitutional authority, e"en (hen the so"ereign is present in the country
concerned (though this does not necessarily mean an abdication of the so"ereignJs po(ers and
pri"ileges as prescribed by the local constitution
@HA@H!A
). At the >nited -ations, go"ernors.
general are accorded the status of head of state.
@1A
There is an ongoing debate in Australia and,
to a lesser e9tent, in 2anada as to (hich officeholderNthe monarch, the go"ernor(.)general,
or bothNcan be considered the head of state.
@ILA
%n the case of Andorra, t(o co.princes act as
the principalityJs heads of stateF one is also simultaneously the )resident of France, residing in
France, and the other is the 6ishop of >rgell, residing in +pain. 'ach co.prince is represented
in Andorra by a delegate, though these persons hold no formal title.
As a colony or other dependent state or territory lacks the authority to "est in a true head of
state of its o(n, it either has no comparable office, simply recei"ing those roles e9ercised by
the paramount po(ers (in person or, most of the time, through an appointed representati"e,
often styled go"ernor or lieutenant.go"ernor, but also "arious other titles, on the 2ook %slands
e"en simply *ingM0ueenJs :epresentati"e) or has one, such as a formerly so"ereign dynasty,
but under a form of metropolitan guardianship, such as protection, "assal or tributary status.
Extraordinary arrangements
%n e9ceptional situations, such as (ar, occupation, re"olution or a coup dJ?tat, constitutional
institutions, including the symbolically crucial head of state, may be reduced to a figurehead
or be suspended in fa"or of an emergency office (such as the original :oman /ictator) or
eliminated by a ne( Kpro"isionaryK regime, such as a collecti"e of the 1unta type, or remo"ed
by an occupying force, such as a military go"ernor (an early e9ample being the +partan
Harmost).
@citation neededA
$eligious heads of state
Francis, the CIIth )ope.
+ince antiBuity, "arious dynasties or indi"idual rulers ha"e claimed the right to rule by di"ine
authority, such as the 8andate of Hea"en and the di"ine right of kings. +ome monarchs e"en
claimed di"ine ancestry, such as 'gyptian pharaohs and +apa %ncas, (ho claimed descent
from their respecti"e sun gods and often sought to maintain this bloodline by practicing
incestuous marriage. %n Ancient :ome, during the )rincipate, the title divus (Jdi"ineJ) (as
conferred (notably posthumously) on the emperor, a symbolic, legitimating element in
establishing a de facto dynasty.
Christianity
%n :oman 2atholicism, the )ope (as once +o"ereign )ontiff and head of state, first, of the
politically important )apal +tates. After %talian unification, the )ope remains head of state of
&atican 2ity. %n the 2hurch of 'ngland, the reigning monarch holds the title /efender of the
Faith and acts as +upreme ;o"ernor of the 2hurch of 'ngland, although this is purely
symbolic role.
9slam
Abdulmecid %% is the 1HLth and last 2aliph of %slam from ,ttoman dynasty
/uring the early period of %slam, caliphs (ere spiritual and temporal absolute successors of
the )rophet 8ohammed. &arious political 8uslim leaders since ha"e styled themsel"es
+aliph and ser"ed as dynastic heads of state, sometimes in addition to another title, such as
the ,ttoman +ultan. Historically, some theocratic %slamic states kno(n as imamates ha"e
been led by imams as head of state, such as in (hat is no( ,man, $emen, and +audi Arabia.
%n the modern %slamic :epublic of %ran the rahbar (+upreme 4eader, at present Ali
*hamenei) ser"es as head of state. The Aga *hans, a uniBue dynasty of temporalMreligious
leadership, leading an offshoot of +hia %slam in 2entral and +outh Asia, once ranking among
6ritish %ndiaJs princely states, continue to the present day.
Hinduism
%n Hinduism, certain dynasties adopted a title e9pressing their positions as Kser"antK of a
patron deity of the state, but in the sense of a "iceroy under an absentee god.king, ruling Kin
the name ofK the patron god(ess), such as )atmanabha /asa (ser"ant of &ishnu) in the case of
the 8ahara1a of Tra"ancore.
%uddhism
+ome /alai 4amas (ere both political and spiritual leaders (Kgod.kingK) of Tibet in %mperial
2hina.
,uter 8ongolia, the former homeland of the imperial dynasty of ;enghis *han, (as another
lamaist theocracy from 1HH, using "arious styles, such as tulku. The establishment of the
2ommunist 8ongolian )eopleJs :epublic replaced this regime in 1!CG.
City states and cro"ned re!ublics
The polis in ;reek AntiBuity and the eBui"alent city states in the feudal era and later,
(many in %taly, the Holy :oman 'mpire, the 8oorish taifa in %beria, essentially tribal.
type but urbani7ed regions throughout the (orld in the 8aya ci"ili7ation, etc.) offer a
(ide spectrum of styles, either monarchic (mostly identical to homonyms in larger
states) or republican, see 2hief magistrate.
/oges (ere elected by their %talian aristocratic republics from a patrician nobility, but
KreignedK as so"ereign dukes.
The parado9ical term cro(ned republic refers to "arious state arrangements that
combine KrepublicanK and KmonarchicK characteristics.
The -etherlands historically had officials called stadholders and stadholders.general,
titles meaning KlieutenantK or Kgo"ernorK, originally for the Habsburg monarchs.
Multi!le or collective heads of state
The CL1G +(iss Federal 2ouncil, the se"en.member collecti"e Head of +tate of the +(iss
2onfederation (the Federal 2hancellor is also depicted, at the right)
A collecti"e head of state can e9ist in republics (internal comple9ity)# e.g. nominal
trium"iratesF the /irectoireF the se"en.member +(iss Federal 2ouncil, (here each member
acts in turn as ceremonial chief of state)F 6osnia and Her7ego"ina (three member presidium,
from three different nations)F +an 8arino (t(o K2aptains.regentK), (hich maintains the
tradition of %talian medie"al republics, (here there al(ays (as an e"en number of consuls.
%n condominiums, so"ereignty is shared bet(een t(o e9ternal po(ers# e.g. Andorra (president
of France and bishop of >rgell, +pain, co.princes), and the former Anglo.French -e(
Hebrides (each nationJs head of state (as represented by a high commissioner).
%n the :oman :epublic there (ere t(o heads of state, styled 2onsul, both of (hom alternated
months of authority during their year in office, similarly there (as an e"en number of
supreme magistrates in the %talic republics of Ancient Age. %n the Athenian :epublic there
(ere nine supreme magistrates, styled archons. %n 2arthage there (ere t(o supreme
magistrates, styled kings or suffetes (1udges). %n ancient +parta there (ere t(o hereditary
kings, belonging to t(o different dynasties.
+uch arrangements are not to be confused (ith supranational entities (hich are not states and
are not defined by a common monarchy but may (or not) ha"e a symbolic, essentially
protocollary, titled highest office, e.g. Head of the 2ommon(ealth (held by the 6ritish cro(n,
but not legally reser"ed for it) or JHead of the Arab >nionJ (1G February . 1G =uly 1!H, held
by the Hashemite *ing of %raB, during its short.li"ed Federation (ith =ordan, its Hashemite
sister.realm).
:ni;ue cases and titles
Though KpresidentK and "arious monarchic titles are most commonly used for heads of state,
in some nationalistic regimes (usually republics), the leader adopts, formally or de facto, a
uniBue style simply meaning KleaderK in the national language, such as -a7i ;ermanyJs single
party chief and head of state and go"ernment, Adolf Hitler FQhrer (see that article for
eBui"alents).
%n 1!H!, (hen former 6ritish cro(n colony +ingapore gained self.go"ernment, it adopted the
8alay style Nang di-/ertuan Negara (literally means Khead of stateK in 8alay) for its
go"ernor (the actual head of state remained the 6ritish monarch). The second and last
incumbent of the office, $usof bin %shak, kept the style at the E1 August 1!IE unilateral
declaration of independence and after the 1I +eptember 1!IE accession to 8alaysia as a state
(so no( as a constituti"e part of the federation, a non.so"ereign le"el). After e9pulsion from
8alaysia on ! August 1!IH, +ingapore became a so"ereign 2ommon(ealth republic and
installed $usof bin %shak as its first )resident.
%n 1!H! after the resignation of &ice )resident of %ndonesia 8ohammad Hatta, )resident
+ukarno abolished the position and title of &ice.)resident, assuming the positions of )rime
8inister and Head of 2abinet. He also proclaimed himself president for life (%ndonesian#
/residen Seumur 1idup /anglima %ertinggiF K/anglimaK meaning Kcommander or martial
figureheadK, K%ertinggiK meaning KhighestKF roughly translated to 'nglish as K+upreme
2ommander of the :e"olutionK). He (as praised as K/adu!a Nang <uliaK, a 8alay honorific
originally gi"en to kingsF +ukarno a(arded himself titles in that fashion due to his noble
ancestry.
)icture from CL1L, celebrating the end of =apanese occupation of *orea in 1!GH, featuring
-orth *oreaJs founding father the late *im %l.sung, ,ternal /resident of the .epublic, (right)
and his son the then.leader *im =ong.il (left).
There are also a fe( nations in (hich the e9act title and definition of the office of head of
state ha"e been "ague. /uring the 2ultural :e"olution, follo(ing the do(nfall of 4iu +haoBi,
(ho (as 2hairman of the )eopleJs :epublic of 2hina, no successor (as named, so the duties
of the head of state (ere transferred collecti"ely to the +tanding 2ommittee of the -ational
)eopleJs 2ongress. This situation (as later changed# the Head of +tate of the ):2 is no( the
)resident of the )eopleJs :epublic of 2hina.
%n -orth *orea, *im %l.sung (as named Keternal presidentK follo(ing his death and the
presidency (as abolished. As a result, the duties of the head of state are constitutionally
delegated to the +upreme )eopleJs Assembly (hose chairman is KHead of +tate for foreign
affairsK and performs some of the roles of a Head of +tate, such as accrediting foreign
ambassadors. Ho(e"er, the symbolic role of a Head of +tate is generally performed by *im
=ong.un, (ho as the leader of the party and military, is the most po(erful person in -orth
*orea.
There is debate as to (hether +amoa isM(as an electi"e monarchy or an aristocratic republic,
gi"en the comparati"e ambiguity of the title F le o o le <alo and the nature of the head of
stateJs office.
%n some states the office of head of state is not e9pressed in a specific title reflecting that role,
but constitutionally a(arded to a post of another formal nature. Thus in 8arch 1!D! 2olonel
8uammar ;addafi, (ho kept absolute po(er (until his o"erthro( in CL11 referred to as
K;uide of the :e"olutionK), after ten years as combined Head of +tate and Head of
go"ernment of the 4ibyan Jamahiri'a (Kstate of the massesK), styled 2hairman of the
:e"olutionary 2ommand 2ouncil, formally transferred both Bualities to the ;eneral
secretaries of the ;eneral )eopleJs 2ongress (comparable to a +peaker) respecti"ely to a
)rime 8inister, in political reality both (ere his creatures.
+ometimes a head of state assumes office as a state becomes legal and political reality, before
a formal title for the highest office is determinedF thus in the since 1 =anuary 1!IL
independent republic 2ameroon (+ameroun, a former French colony), the first )resident,
Ahmadou 6abatoura Ahid1o, (as at first not styled prsident but JmerelyJ kno(n as +hef
d*tat (literal French for J2hief of +tateJ) until H 8ay 1!ILF in >ganda, military coup leader
since CH =anuary 1!D1 %di Amin (as formally styled militar' head of State till C1 February
1!D1, only from then on regular (but unconstitutional, not elected) )resident.
%n certain cases a special style is needed to accommodate imperfect statehood, e.g. the title
+ardar.i.:iyasat (as used in *ashmir after its accession to %ndia, and )4,.leader $asser
Arafat (as styled the first K)resident of the )alestinian -ational AuthorityK in 1!!G.
Legitimacy
The position of head of state can be established in different (ays, and (ith different sources
of legitimacy.
%y fiction or fiat
)o(er can come from force, but formal legitimacy is often established, e"en if only by
fictitious claims of continuity (e.g., a forged claim of descent from a pre"ious dynasty). There
ha"e been cases of so"ereignty granted by deliberate act, e"en (hen accompanied by la(s of
succession (as may be the case in a dynastic split).
@clarification neededA
+uch grants of so"ereignty are
usually forced, as is common (ith self.determination granted after nationalist re"olts. This
occurred (ith the last Attalid king of Hellenistic )ergamon, (ho by testament left his realm to
:ome to a"oid a disastrous conBuest.
%y divine a!!ointment
>nder a theocracy, percei"ed di"ine status translated into earthly authority under di"ine la(
This can take the form of supreme di"ine authority abo"e the stateJs, granting a tool for
political influence to a priesthood. %n this (ay, the Amun priesthood re"ersed the reforms of
)haraoh Akhenaten after his death. The di"ision of theocratic po(er can be disputed, as
happened bet(een the )ope and Holy :oman 'mperor in the %n"estiture conflict (hen the
temporal po(er sought to control key clergy nominations in order to guarantee popular
support, and thereby his o(n legitamcy, by incorporating the formal ceremony of unction
during coronation.
%y social contract
The notion of a social contract holds that the nationNeither the (hole people or the electorate
Ngi"es a mandate, through acclamation or election.
%y constitution
%ndi"idual heads of state may acBuire their position by "irtue of a constitution.
%y hereditary succession
Four generations of /anish kings in 1!LE# *ing 2hristian %3 (left), 2hristian (3) (back),
Frederick (&%%%) (right), and Frederick (%3) (front).
The position of a monarch is usually hereditary, but in constitutional monarchies, there are
usually restrictions on the incumbentJs e9ercise of po(ers and prohibitions on the possibility
of choosing a successor by other means than by birth. %n a hereditary monarchy, the position
of monarch is inherited according to a statutory or customary order of succession, usually
(ithin one royal family tracing its origin through a historical dynasty or bloodline. This
usually means that the heir to the throne is kno(n (ell in ad"ance of becoming monarch to
ensure a smooth succession. Ho(e"er, many cases of uncertain succession in 'uropean
history ha"e often led to (ars of succession.
)rimogeniture, in (hich the eldest child of the monarch is first in line to become monarch, is
the most common system in hereditary monarchy. The order of succession is usually affected
by rules on gender. Historically Kagnatic primogenitureK or Kpatrilineal primogenitureK (as
fa"oured, that is inheritance according to seniority of birth among the sons of a monarch or
head of family, (ith sons and their male issue inheriting before brothers and their issue, and
male.line males inheriting before females of the male line.
@I1A
This is the same as semi.+alic
primogeniture. 2omplete e9clusion of females from dynastic succession is commonly referred
to as application of the +alic la( (see %erra salica).
6efore primogeniture (as enshrined in 'uropean la( and tradition, kings (ould often secure
the succession by ha"ing their successor (usually their eldest son) cro(ned during their o(n
lifetime, so for a time there (ould be t(o kings in coregency P a senior king and a 1unior
king. '9amples include Henry the $oung *ing of 'ngland and the early /irect 2apetians in
France.
+ometimes, ho(e"er, primogeniture can operate through the female line. %n some systems a
female may rule as monarch only (hen the male line dating back to a common ancestor is
e9hausted. %n 1!L, +(eden, by re(riting its 11L Act of +uccession, became the first
'uropean monarchy to declare eBual (full cognatic) primogeniture, meaning that the eldest
child of the monarch, (hether female or male, ascends to the throne.
@ICA
,ther 'uropean
monarchies (such as the -etherlands in 1!E, -or(ay in 1!!L, 6elgium in 1!!1) ha"e since
follo(ed suit. +imilar reforms (ere proposed in CL11 for the >nited *ingdom and the other
2ommon(ealth realms, but ha"e yet to pass into la(, pending appro"al by all of the affected
nations. +ometimes religion is affectedF under the Act of +ettlement 1DL1 all :oman
2atholics and all persons (ho ha"e married :oman 2atholics are ineligible to be the 6ritish
monarch and are skipped in the order of succession.
%n some monarchies there may be liberty for the incumbent, or some body con"ening after his
or her demise, to choose from eligible members of the ruling house, often limited to legitimate
descendants of the dynastyJs founder. :ules of succession may be further limited by state
religion, residency, eBual marriage or e"en permission from the legislature.
,ther hereditary systems of succession included tanistry, (hich is semi.electi"e and gi"es
(eight to merit and Agnatic seniority. %n some monarchies, such as +audi Arabia, succession
to the throne usually first passes to the monarchJs ne9t eldest brother, and only after that to the
monarchJs children (agnatic seniority).
%y election
'lection usually is the constitutional (ay to choose the head of state of a republic, and some
monarchies, either directly through popular election, indirectly by members of the legislature
or of a special college of electors (such as the 'lectoral 2ollege in the >nited +tates), or as an
e9clusi"e prerogati"e. '9clusi"e prerogati"e allo(s the heads of states of constituent
monarchies of a federation to choose the head of state for the federation among themsel"es, as
in the >nited Arab 'mirates and 8alaysia. The )ope, head of state of &atican 2ity, is chosen
by pre"iously appointed cardinals under L years of age from among themsel"es in a papal
concla"e.
%y a!!ointment
A head of state can be empo(ered to designate his successor, such as 4ord )rotector of the
2ommon(ealth ,li"er 2rom(ell, (ho (as succeeded by his son :ichard.
%y force or revolution
A head of state may sei7e po(er by force or re"olution. This is not the same as the use of
force to maintain po(er, as is practiced by authoritarian or totalitarian rulers. /ictators often
use democratic titles, though some proclaim themsel"es monarchs. '9amples of the latter
include 'mperor -apoleon %%% of France and *ing Rog of Albania. %n +pain, general
Francisco Franco adopted the formal title Jefe del ,stado, or 2hief of +tate, and established
himself as regent for a "acant monarchy. >gandaJs %di Amin (as one of se"eral (ho named
themsel"es )resident for 4ife.
%y foreign im!osition
A foreign po(er can establishing a branch of their o(n dynasty, or one friendly to their
interests. This (as the outcome of the :usso.+(edish War from 1DG1 to 1DGE (here the
:ussian 'mpress made the imposition of her relati"e Adolf Frederick as the heir to the
+(edish Throne, to succeed Frederick % (ho lacked legitimate issue, as a peace condition.
Loss
Apart from "iolent o"erthro(, a head of stateJs position can be lost in se"eral (ays, including
death, another by e9piration of the constitutional term of office, abdication, or resignation. %n
some cases, an abdication cannot occur unilaterally, but comes into effect only (hen appro"ed
by an act of parliament, as in the case of 6ritish *ing 'd(ard &%%%. The post can also be
abolished by constitutional changeF in such cases, an incumbent may be allo(ed to finish his
or her term. ,f course, a head of state position (ill cease to e9ist if the state itself does.
Heads of state generally en1oy (idest in"iolability, although some states allo( impeachment,
or a similar constitutional procedure by (hich the highest legislati"e or 1udicial authorities are
empo(ered to re"oke the head of stateJs mandate on e9ceptional grounds. This may be a
common crime, a political sin, or an act by (hich he or she "iolates such pro"isions as an
established religion mandatory for the monarch. 6y similar procedure, an original mandate
may be declared in"alid.
+erious "iolations of certain fundamental treaty obligations is sometimes considered a "alid
reason for the rele"ant international community to depose a head of state, as the >nited
-ations +ecurity 2ouncil or certain alliances may do.
<ormer heads of state
)uyi, the last emperor of 2hina, abdicated from the throne in 1!1C, and (as briefly restored in
1!1D, but (as allo(ed to keep his titles and palace until 1!CG. He (orked as a gardener in his
later life as an ordinary 2hinese citi7en in 2ommunist 2hina.
A monarch may retain his style and certain prerogati"es after abdication, as did *ing 4eopold
%%% of 6elgium, (ho left the throne to his son after (inning a referendum (hich allo(ed him
to retain a full royal household depri"ed him of a constitutional or representati"e role.
-apoleon transformed the %talian principality of 'lba, (here he (as imprisoned, into a
miniature "ersion of his First 'mpire, (ith most trappings of a so"ereign monarchy, until his
+ent Jours escape and resei7ure of po(er in France con"inced his opponents, recon"ening the
&ienna 2ongress in 11H, to re"oke his gratuitous pri"ileges and send him to die in e9ile on
barren +aint Helena.
6y tradition, deposed monarchs (ho ha"e not freely abdicated continue to use their
monarchical titles as a courtesy for the rest of their li"es. Hence, e"en after 2onstantine %%
ceased to be "ing of the 1ellenes, it is still common to refer to the deposed king and his
family as if they (ere still on the throne, as many 'uropean royal courts and households do in
guest lists at royal (eddings, as in +(eden in CL1L, 6ritain in CL11 and 4u9embourg in CL1C.
@IEA@IGA@IHA
The :epublic of ;reece oppose the right of their deposed monarch and former royal
family members to be referred to by their former titles or bearing a surname indicating royal
status, and has enacted legislation (hich hinder acBuisition of ;reek citi7enship unless those
terms are met. The former king brought this issue, along (ith property o(nership issues,
before the 'uropean 2ourt of Human :ights for alleged "iolations of the 'uropean
2on"ention on Human :ights, but lost (ith respect to the name issue.
@IIA@IDA
Ho(e"er, some other states ha"e no problem (ith deposed monarchs being referred to by
their former title, and e"en allo( them to tra"el internationally on the stateJs diplomatic
passport.
Former )residents of the >nited +tates, (hile holding no political po(ers per se, sometimes
continue to e9ert influence in national and (orld affairs.
%n the %talian constitution pro"ides that after the period sent the )resident of the :epublic
takes the titiolo )resident 'meritus of the %talian :epublic is also a senator for life, and en1oys
immunity, flight status and official residences certain pri"ileges.
See also
C1.gun salute
Aide.de.camp
Air transports of heads of state and go"ernment
6odyguard
2ult of personality
Honors music
4eadership
8irrors for princes
-ational day of mourning
,ath of allegiance
,ath of office
,fficial residence
,fficial state car
)o(er behind the throne
+acred king
+tate funeral
+trongman (politics)
Lists,
4ist of state leaders by year
4ist of current heads of state and go"ernment
4ist of heads of state by diplomatic precedence
4ist of longest reigning current monarchs
:ecords of heads of state
Lorld 9eaders
Notes
1. 8eant primarily in the strict protocol sense (i.e. order of precedence, seating
arrangements, etc.)F not necessarily in terms of actual po(er or influence.
C. '"en in such systems, one or t(o of the members discharges the
representational responsibilities a single.person head of state (ould carry out, as can
obser"ed in the >- protocol list.
$eferences
1. H'A/+ ,F +TAT', H'A/+ ,F ;,&':-8'-T, 8%-%+T':+ F,:
F,:'%;- AFFA%:+, )rotocol and 4iaison +er"ice, >nited -ations (CL1C.1L.1!).
:etrie"ed on CL1C.11.L1.
C. &ienna 2on"ention on the 4a( of Treaties 1!I!, %nternational 4a(
2ommission, >nited -ations. :etrie"ed on CL1C.1L.1H.
E. 2on"ention on the )re"ention and )unishment of 2rimes against
%nternationally )rotected )ersons, including /iplomatic Agents 1!DE, %nternational
4a( 2ommission, >nited -ations. :etrie"ed on CL1C.1L.CE.
G. ;ermany in The World Factbook, 2entral %ntelligence Agency. :etrie"ed on
CL1C.1L.CE.
H. >nited *ingdom in The World Factbook, 2entral %ntelligence Agency.
:etrie"ed on CL1C.1L.CE.
I. 6ra7il in The World Factbook, 2entral %ntelligence Agency. :etrie"ed on
CL1C.1L.CE.
D. >nited +tates in The World Factbook, 2entral %ntelligence Agency. :etrie"ed
on CL1C.1L.CE.
. &ienna 2on"ention on /iplomatic :elations 1!I1, %nternational 4a(
2ommission, >nited -ations. :etrie"ed on CL1C.1L.1H.
!. The citation in French is taken from 2harles de ;aulle, 8?moires de guerre,
tome 1, )lon, 1!HG
1L. The 2onstitution of =apan, ,ffice of the )rime 8inister. :etrie"ed on CL1C.11.
LC.
11. =apan in The World Factbook, 2entral %ntelligence Agency. :etrie"ed on CL1C.
11.11.
1C. The %nstrument of ;o"ernment, :iksdag of +(eden. :etrie"ed on CL1C.11.LC.
1E. /uties of the 8onarch, :oyal 2ourt of +(eden. :etrie"ed on CL1C.11.L1.
1G. 2onstitution of %reland, ,ffice of the Attorney ;eneral (/ecember CL1E).
:etrie"ed CL1G.L.LE.
1H. 2onstitution of the )rincipality of 4iechtenstein (4: 1L1) (CLL!). :etrie"ed on
CL1G.L.LE.
1I. 2onstitution of the :epublic of +outh Africa, 1!!I, /epartment of =ustice and
2onstitutional /e"elopment (CLL!). :etrie"ed on CL1G.L.LE.
1D. 2onstitution of 6ots(ana, 'mbassy of the :epublic of 6ots(ana in
Washington /2. :etrie"ed on CL1C.11.11.
1. TH' 2,-+T%T>T%,- ,F -A>:>, )arliament of -auru. :etrie"ed on CL1C.
11.11.
1!. KThe 2ro(n in 2anadaK ()/F). /epartment of 2anadian Heritage. :etrie"ed
CL1G.L.LE1.
CL. The 0ueenJs role in 2anada, :oyal Household. :etrie"ed on CL1C.11.LC.
C1. ,lympic 2harter# in force as of =uly CL11, %nternational ,lympic 2ommittee
(=uly CL11). :etrie"ed on CL1C.11.1C.
CC. +)A-%+H 2,-+T%T>T%,-, +enate of +pain. :etrie"ed on CL1C.11.LC.
CE. 2onstitution Act 1!I, -e( Realand )arliamentary 2ounsel ,ffice. :etrie"ed
on CL1E.L.C.
CG. 2onstitution of the %talian :epublic, +enate of the :epublic. :etrie"ed on
CL1C.11.LC.
CH. 2onstitution of %raB. :etrie"ed CL1G.L.LE.
CI. 2,-+T%T>T%,- ,F TH' ),:T>;>'+' :')>64%2# +'&'-TH
:'&%+%,- (CLLH), )ortuguese 2onstitutional 2ourt. :etrie"ed on CL1C.11.LC.
CD. TH' 2,-+T%T>T%,- ,F TH' :')>64%2 ,F *,:'A, 2onstitutional
2ourt of *orea. :etrie"ed on CL1C.11.LC.
C. The 2onstitution of the :epublic of 4ithuania, +eimas. :etrie"ed on CL1C.11.
LC
C!. 2onstitution of the :ussian Federation, ;o"ernment of the :ussian Federation.
:etrie"ed on CL1C.11.LC.
EL. 2,-+T%T>T%,- ,F TH' A:;'-T%-' -AT%,-, Argentine +enate.
:etrie"ed on CL1C.11.1I.
E1. 8y 2onstitutional Act (ith e9planations, !th edition, The 2ommunications
+ection, /anish )arliament (August CL1C). :etrie"ed on CL1C.11.11.
EC. The 2onstitution as in force on 1 =une CLLE together (ith proclamation
declaring the establishment of the 2ommon(ealth, letters patent relating to the ,ffice
of ;o"ernor.;eneral, +tatute of Westminster Adoption Act 1!GC, Australia Act 1!I.,
2om4a(, ;o"ernment of Australia (CLLE) %+6- L IGC DCH D. :etrie"ed on CL1C.
11.11.
EE. The 2onstitution, )ublications /epartment, Hellenic )arliament (CLL) %+6-
!IL HIL LDE L. :etrie"ed on CL1C.11.11.
EG. 2onstitution of %ndia, )art &, 8inistry of 4a( and =ustice. :etrie"ed on CL1C.
11.11.
EH. 2onstitution of the Federati"e :epublic of 6ra7il# Erd 'dition, 2hamber of
/eputies (CL1L) %+6- !D.H.DEI.HDED.1. :etrie"ed on CL1C.11.1E.
EI. 2onstitution of the >nited +tates, -ational Archi"es and :ecords
Administration. :etrie"ed on CL1C.11.11.
ED. 2onstitution of ,ctober G, 1!H, The French -ational Assembly. :etrie"ed on
CL1C.11.11.
E. TH' 6'4;%A- 2,-+T%T>T%,-, 4egal /epartment, 6elgian House of
:epresentati"es (August CL1C). :etrie"ed on CL1C.11.11.
E!. K&ienna 2on"ention on /iplomatic :elationsK. -nited Nations %reat'
+ollection. >nited -ations. :etrie"ed CL1C.11.1I.
GL. The preambles of treaties constituting the 'uropean >nion is a note(orthy case
in point.
G1. Treaty of 4isbon (,= 2 ELI, 1D.1C.CLLD), ,fficial =ournal of the 'uropean
>nion through '>:.4e9. :etrie"ed on CL1C.11.L1.
GC. T:'AT$ ,- '>:,)'A- >-%,- (!CM2 1!1ML1) aka 8aastricht Treaty,
,fficial =ournal of the 'uropean >nion through '>:.4e9. :etrie"ed on CL1C.11.11.
GE. 6asic 4a( for the Federal :epublic of ;ermany, 6undestag ()rint "ersion. As
at# ,ctober CL1L). :etrie"ed on CL1C.11.11.
GG. 2onstitution of 2hina, 2hinese ;o"ernmentJs ,fficial Web portal. :etrie"ed
CL1C.11.LC.
GH. Alston, )hilip (1!!H). %reat'-ma!ing and ustralia$ globali:ation versus
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GI. 6ayefsky, Anne F. (1!!E), K%nternational Human :ights 4a( in 2anadian
2ourtsK, in *aplan, WilliamF 8c:ae, /onald 8alcolmF 2ohen, 8a9(ell, 9a(2 polic'
and international ;ustice$ essa's in honour of <ax(ell +ohen, 8ontreal# 8c;ill.
0ueenJs )ress, p. 11C, %+6- !D.L.DDEH.111G.!, retrie"ed 1I =anuary CL11
GD. Flemming, 6rian (1!IH). K2anadian )ractice in %nternational 4a(K. %he
+anadian Nearboo! of 5nternational 9a( (&ancou"er# >ni"ersity of 6ritish 2olumbia
)ress) 999# EED. :etrie"ed 1I =anuary CL11.
G. ;eorge &% (1 ,ctober 1!GD), 9etters /atent +onstituting the Fffice of
4overnor 4eneral of +anada, %, ,tta(a# *ingJs )rinter for 2anada, retrie"ed C! 8ay
CLL!
G!. ,ffice of the ;o"ernor ;eneral of 2anada. KThe ;o"ernor ;eneral . the
e"olution of 2anadaJs oldest public institutionK. 0ueenJs )rinter for 2anada. :etrie"ed
1I =anuary CL11.
HL. 2onstitution Act, 1ID
H1. The 2onstitution, as laid do(n on 1D 8ay 11G by the 2onstituent Assembly
at 'ids"oll and subseBuently amended., %nformation +er"ice, )arliament of -or(ay.
:etrie"ed on CL1C.11.11.
HC. 2onstitution of the +tate of 0atar, 8inistry of Foreign Affairs. :etrie"ed on
CL1C.11.1D.
HE. 6asic 4a( of %srael# The 8ilitary, *nesset. :etrie"ed on CL11.11.11.
HG. The :iksdag Act, :iksdag of +(eden. :etrie"ed on CL1C.11.1I.
HH. 6asic 4a( of %srael# The )resident of the +tate, *nesset. :etrie"ed on CL1C.
11.11.
HI. 2onstitution of the 27ech :epublic, )rague 2astle Administration. :etrie"ed
on CL1C.11.11.
HD. :obertson, /a"id (CLLC). A /ictionary of 8odern )olitics# Third 'dition.
4ondon# 'uropa )ublications. p. CC1. %+6- 1.HDGE.L!E.3
H. Heard, Andre( (1!!L). K2anadian %ndependenceK. &ancou"er# +imon Fraser
>ni"ersity. :etrie"ed CH August CL1L.
H!. 'li7abeth %% (1 =anuary 1!D), +onstitution ct 1PMQ, Wellington# 0ueenJs
)rinter, p. E(1), retrie"ed 1 =anuary CL1E
IL. /use"ic, Tom (1C February CL1L), K0ueen takes on 6ryce in right royal title
fightK, %he ustralian, retrie"ed CC =anuary CL11
I1. 8urphy, 8ichael /ean. KA *inship ;lossary# +ymbols, Terms, and 2onceptsK.
:etrie"ed CLLI.1L.LH.
IC. +(edish Act of +uccession ('nglish Translation as of CL1C), The :iksdag.
:etrie"ed on CL1E.L.C.
IE. ;uests at the (edding ceremony# Wedding bet(een 2ro(n )rincess &ictoria
and 8r /aniel Westling on +aturday 1! =une CL1L, E.EL p.m., at +tockholm 2athedral,
:oyal 2ourt of +(eden. :etrie"ed on CL1C.11.1C.
IG. +elected ;uest 4ist for the Wedding +er"ice at Westminster Abbey, The :oyal
Household (CL11). :etrie"ed on CL1C.11.1C.
IH. +elected guest list for the (edding ser"ice at 2ath?drale -otre./ame de
4u9embourg on ,ctober CL, CL1C at 11#LL a.m., ;o"ernment of 4u9embourg.
:etrie"ed on CL1C.11.1C.
II. TH' F,:8': *%-; 2,-+TA-T%-,+ ,F ;:''2' A-/ 8'86':+
,F H%+ FA8%4$ ". ;:''2', (CHDL1M!G W /'2%+%,- W 2,88%++%,- ()lenary) W
C1MLGM1!!) 'uropean 2ommission of Human :ights. :etrie"ed on CL1C.11.1C.
ID. 2A+' ,F TH' F,:8': *%-; ,F ;:''2' A-/ ,TH':+ ". ;:''2',
(CHDL1M!G W =udgment (8erits) W 2ourt (;rand 2hamber) W CEM11MCLLL), 'uropean
2ourt of Human :ights. :etrie"ed on CL1C.11.1C.
%ibliogra!hy
Westermann, 4roRer tlas :ur Leltgeschichte (in ;erman)
External lin8s
4ook up head of state in Wiktionary, the free dictionary.
Wikimedia 2ommons has media related to Heads of state.
4ist of 2urrent Heads of +tate
)auly.Wisso(a in ;erman, on AntiBuity
:ulers.org 4ist of rulers throughout time and places
World+tatesmen History and incumbents of states and minor polities (orld(ide
:oyalArk Buite elaborate on many non.'uropean monarchies
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