Design of Parts for Turning

The following are general guidelines for design of turned parts:

1. Where possible, turned parts should be designed so that a tail stock is not
required. This is done by designing the part to be stubby rather than long
with a high aspect ratio. The figure below shows the difference.

2. Chuck-claped cylindrical surfaces should not contain parting lines so that
flash does not introduce errors.
!. "or cast parts with surfaces to be faced, cast-in relief allows for tool
clearance, as shown below.

#. $n cast parts that are subsequently turned down, burrs can be a%oided by
a%oiding surfaces perpendicular to the turned-down surface, as shown below.
&. 'e as specific as possible when referring to reo%al of burrs. 'lanket
specifications such as (break all corners( are not recoended since
reo%ing all burrs is e)pensi%e. $nly certain burrs are gross enough and
coproise safety and functionality enough to warrant reo%al.

*. +eyways should be able to be illed with the endill tra%ersing the part
a)ially. ,adii at the ends of the keyway are those of the endill.

-. .%oid turning in the areas of weldents, parting lines, and flash. This will
tend to e)tend cutter life.

/. 0inii1e the nuber of set ups required. 0illing should be grouped into sets
of parallel planes.

2. 3esign for the largest diaeter cutters possible. 4arger cutters are less prone
to breakage and require lower speeds when copared to saller cutters.
4arger cutters also can accoodate carbide cutting inserts.

15. Carbide cutting surfaces require fewer tool changes and ha%e higher cutting
perforance.

11. 'lending of radii into e)isting surfaces should be a%oided, e%en with a ball end
ill. Cosetic-quality blending is e)pensi%e to achie%e.

12. 6f a surface is to be faced, it preferably should be angled in order to pro%ide
tool clearance.

1!. 7harp inside corners need to confor to the cutter radius that is used in that
%icinity. 6f possible, inside corner radii should be left to the discretion of the
fabricator.

1#. "or the cutter perpendicular to the turning a)is, rules of thub for angles on
the part are shown below:


1&. "or the cutter at fifty-fi%e degrees to the turning a)is, rules of thub for
angles on the part are shown below:

Boring
1. 'oring is ore e)pensi%e than drilling, so drilling should be used if possible.

2. 3eep holes with aspect ratios greater than !:1 should be a%oided since
accuracy and cutting tie will suffer.

!. 8se through holes instead of blind holes where possible.

#. .s with all achining operations, the part ust be as rigid as possible while
being achined. With boring, this applies to the boring bar itself as well as to
the part.

&. .s shown below, relief for the bottos of blind holes should be pro%ided.

Engine Lathe Tail Stock
The tail stock of an engine lathe is used to pro%ide a fi)ture at the end of the part
opposite fro the chuck. The tail stock can be used to support a long, thin part so
that ore radial cutting force can be applied and higher rotational speeds can be
attained without a (whipping( instability effect. 'elow is illustrated another use for
the tail stock. 3rill bits can be fi)tured in the tail stock to cut a)ial holes in a turned
part. These central holes are ore accurate than a drill press or ill could pro%ide
since the lathe is dedicated to operations in which an a)ially-syetric part is
rotated about its central a)is. The fi)turing is ore accurate since all fi)turing is
based upon surfaces of re%olution about the central a)is, and the achining is ore
rigidly supported for the sae reason.


Boring
'oring can be accoplished on a ill or e%en a drill press, but is ost accurate on a
lathe. The boring tool is fi)tured in the tail stock. .gain, since all fi)turing is relati%e
to the central spindle a)is, boring on a lathe is ore accurate than ost other boring
ethods, an e)ception being 9ig boring on a dedicated 9ig boring achine. The
length of the boring bar is of critical iportance because of its tendency to bend. The
figure below illustrates a boring tool, which is double-ended so that it is less prone to
the cantile%er (di%ing board( effect.
"or design guidelines for bored holes in parts, please check the design for boring
section.

Introduction
,apid :rototyping ;,:< can be defined as a group of techniques used to quickly
fabricate a scale odel of a part or assebly using three-diensional coputer
aided design ;C.3< data. What is coonly considered to be the first ,: technique,
7tereolithography, was de%eloped by !3 7ystes of =alencia, C., 87.. The copany
was founded in 12/*, and since then, a nuber of different ,: techniques ha%e
becoe a%ailable.
,apid :rototyping has also been referred to as solid free-for anufacturing,
coputer autoated anufacturing, and layered anufacturing. ,: has ob%ious use
as a %ehicle for %isuali1ation. 6n addition, ,: odels can be used for testing, such as
when an airfoil shape is put into a wind tunnel. ,: odels can be used to create
ale odels for tooling, such as silicone rubber olds and in%estent casts. 6n
soe cases, the ,: part can be the final part, but typically the ,: aterial is not
strong or accurate enough. When the ,: aterial is suitable, highly con%oluted
shapes ;including parts nested within parts< can be produced because of the nature
of ,:.
There is a ultitude of e)periental ,: ethodologies either in de%elopent or used
by sall groups of indi%iduals. This section will focus on ,: techniques that are
currently coercially a%ailable, including 7tereolithography ;74.<, 7electi%e 4aser
7intering ;747
>
<, 4ainated $b9ect 0anufacturing ;4$0?<, "used 3eposition
0odeling ;"30<, 7olid @round Curing ;7@C<, and 6nk Aet printing techniques.
Why Rapid Prototyping?
The reasons of ,apid :rototyping are
B To increase effecti%e counication.
B To decrease de%elopent tie.
B To decrease costly istakes.
B To inii1e sustaining engineering changes.
B To e)tend product lifetie by adding necessary features and eliinating
redundant features early in the design.
,apid :rototyping decreases de%elopent tie by allowing corrections to a product
to be ade early in the process. 'y gi%ing engineering, anufacturing, arketing,
and purchasing a look at the product early in the design process, istakes can be
corrected and changes can be ade while they are still ine)pensi%e. The trends in
anufacturing industries continue to ephasi1e the following:
B 6ncreasing nuber of %ariants of products.
B 6ncreasing product cople)ity.
B 3ecreasing product lifetie before obsolescence.
B 3ecreasing deli%ery tie.
,apid :rototyping ipro%es product de%elopent by enabling better counication
in a concurrent engineering en%ironent.
Methodology of Rapid Prototyping
The basic ethodology for all current rapid prototyping techniques can be
suari1ed as follows:
1. . C.3 odel is constructed, then con%erted to 7T4 forat. The resolution can
be set to inii1e stair stepping.
2. The ,: achine processes the .7T4 file by creating sliced layers of the odel.
!. The first layer of the physical odel is created. The odel is then lowered by
the thickness of the ne)t layer, and the process is repeated until copletion of
the odel.
#. The odel and any supports are reo%ed. The surface of the odel is then
finished and cleaned.
ighlights of Selecti!e Laser Sintering
B :atented in 12/2.
B Considerably stronger than 74.C soeties structurally functional parts are
possible.
B 4aser bea selecti%ely fuses powder aterials: nylon, elastoer, and soon
etalC
B .d%antage o%er 74.: =ariety of aterials and ability to appro)iate coon
engineering plastic aterials.
B Do illing step so accuracy in 1 can suffer.
B :rocess is siple: There are no illing or asking steps required.
B 4i%ing hinges are possible with the theroplastic-like aterials.
B :owdery, porous surface unless sealant is used. 7ealant also strengthens part.
B 8ncured aterial is easily reo%ed after a build by brushing or blowing it off.
Selecti!e Laser Sintering
7electi%e 4aser 7intering ;747
>
, registered tradeark by 3T0
?
of .ustin, Te)as,
87.< is a process that was patented in 12/2 by Carl 3eckard, a 8ni%ersity of Te)as
graduate student. 6ts chief ad%antages o%er 7tereolithography ;74.< re%ol%e around
aterial properties. 0any %arying aterials are possible and these aterials can
appro)iate the properties of theroplastics such as polycarbonate, nylon, or glass-
filled nylon.
.s the figure below shows, an 747
>
achine consists of two powder aga1ines on
either side of the work area. The le%eling roller o%es powder o%er fro one
aga1ine, crossing o%er the work area to the other aga1ine. The laser then traces
out the layer. The work platfor o%es down by the thickness of one layer and the
roller then o%es in the opposite direction. The process repeats until the part is
coplete.
SL" !s# SLS$ " Su%%ari&ed 'o%parison
Material Properties: The 74. ;stereolithography< process is liited to
photosensiti%e resins which are typically brittle. The 747
>
process can utili1e polyer
powders that, when sintered, appro)iate theroplastics quite well.
Surface (inish: The surface of an 747
>
part is powdery, like the base aterial
whose particles are fused together without coplete elting. The soother surface
of an 74. part typically wins o%er 747
>
when an appearance odel is desired. 6n
addition, if the teperature of uncured 747
>
powder gets too high, e)cess fused
aterial can collect on the part surface. This can be difficult to control since there
are so any %ariables in the 747
>
process. 6n general, 74. is a better process where
fine, accurate detail is required. Eowe%er, a %arnish-like coating can be applied to
747
>
parts to seal and strengthen the.
Di%ensional "ccuracy: 74. is ore accurate iediately after copletion of the
odel, but 747
>
is less prone to residual stresses that are caused by long-ter
curing and en%ironental stresses. 'oth 747
>
and 74. suffer fro inaccuracy in the
1-direction ;neither has a illing step<, but 747
>
is less predictable because of the
%ariety of aterials and process paraeters. The teperature dependence of the
747
>
process can soeties result in e)cess aterial fusing to the surface of the
odel, and the thicker layers and %ariation of the process can result in ore 1
inaccuracy. 74. parts suffer fro the (trapped %olue( proble in which cups in the
structure that hold fluid cause inaccuracies. 747
>
parts do not ha%e this proble.
Support Structures: 74. parts typically need support structures during the build.
747
>
parts, because of the supporting powder, soeties do not need any support,
but this depends upon part configuration. 0arks left after reo%al of support
structures for parts cause diensional inaccuracies and cosetic bleishes.
Machining Properties: 6n general, 74. aterials are brittle and difficult to
achine. 747
>
theroplastic-like aterials are easily achined.
Si&e: 747
>
and 74. parts can be ade the sae si1e, but if sectioning of a part is
required, 747
>
parts are easier to bond.
In!est%ent 'asting: The in%estent casting industry has been conser%ati%e about
o%ing to ,: ale odels, so 747
>
odels ade fro traditional wa)es, etc. are
preferred. !3 7ystes has a process ;dubbed (FuickCast?(< which allows 74.
odels to be ore suitable for in%estent casting. 7ince 74. resins do not elt but
burn to for ash, FuickCast? odifies the build process so that the interior of the
odel is hollow with a supporting latticework. When the ceraic is fired, the
FuickCast? odel collapses and any ash is inial because of the sall total
quantity of aterial.
ighlights of Stereolithography
B The first ,apid :rototyping technique and still the ost widely used.
B 6ne)pensi%e copared to other techniques.
B 8ses a light-sensiti%e liquid polyer.
B ,equires post-curing since laser is not of high enough power to copletely
cure.
B 4ong-ter curing can lead to warping.
B :arts are quite brittle and ha%e a tacky surface.
B Do illing step so accuracy in 1 can suffer.
B 7upport structures are typically required.
B :rocess is siple: There are no illing or asking steps required.
B 8ncured aterial can be to)ic. =entilation is a ust.
Introduction to Stereolithography
7tereolithography ;74.<, the first ,apid :rototyping process, was de%eloped by !3
7ystes of =alencia, California, 87., founded in 12/*. . %at of photosensiti%e resin
contains a %ertically-o%ing platfor. The part under construction is supported by
the platfor that o%es downward by a layer thickness ;typically about 5.1 G
5.55# inches< for each layer. . laser bea traces out the shape of each layer and
hardens the photosensitive resin.
The 7tereolithography ;74.< 7yste o%erall arrangeent:
Stereolithography Process
The sequence of steps for producing an 7tereolithography ;74.< layer is shown in the
following figures:
8ncured resin is reo%ed and the odel is post-cured to fully cure the resin.
'ecause of the layered process, the odel has a surface coposed of stair steps.
7anding can reo%e the stair steps for a cosetic finish. 0odel build orientation is
iportant for stair stepping and build tie. 6n general, orienting the long a)is of the
odel %ertically takes longer but has inial stair steps. $rienting the long a)is
hori1ontally shortens build tie but agnifies the stair steps. "or aesthetic purposes,
the odel can be pried and painted.
3uring fabrication, if e)treities of the part becoe too weak, it ay be necessary
to use supports to prop up the odel. The supports can be generated by the
progra that creates the slices, and the supports are only used for fabrication. The
following three figures show why supports are necessary:
ighlights of Solid )round 'uring
B 4arge parts, &55 H &55 H !&5 ;25 H 25 H 1# in<, can be fabricated quickly.
B Eigh speed allows production-like fabrication of any parts or large parts.
B 0asks are created wG laser printing-like process, then full layer e)posed at
once.
B Do post-cure required.
B 0illing step ensures flatness for subsequent layer
B Wa) supports odel: no e)tra supports needed.
B Creates a lot of waste.
B Dot as pre%alent as 74. and 747, but gaining ground because of the high
throughput and large parts.
Solid )round 'uring$ "n Introduction
7olid @round Curing, also known as the 7olider :rocess, is a process that was
in%ented and de%eloped by Cubital 6nc. of 6srael. The o%erall process is illustrated in
the figure abo%e and the steps are illustrated below. The 7@C process uses
photosensiti%e resin hardened in layers as with the 7tereolithography ;74.< process.
Eowe%er, in contrast to 74., the 7@C process is considered a high-throughput
production process. The high throughput is achie%ed by hardening each layer of
photosensiti%e resin at once. 0any parts can be created at once because of the large
work space and the fact that a illing step aintains %ertical accuracy. The ulti-
part capability also allows quite large single parts ;e.g. &55 H &55 H !&5 G 25 H
25 H 1# in< to be fabricated. Wa) replaces liquid resin in non-part areas with each
layer so that odel support is ensured.
Solid )round 'uring Process
The steps in the process are as follows.
"irst, a C.3 odel of the part is created and it is sliced into layers using CubitalIs
3ata "ront Jnd
>
;3"J
>
< software. .t the beginning of a layer creation step, the flat
work surface is sprayed with photosensiti%e resin, as shown below:
"or each layer, a photoask is produced using CubitalIs proprietary ionographic
printing technique, as illustrated below:
De)t, the photoask is positioned o%er the work surface and a powerful 8= lap
hardens the e)posed photosensiti%e resin:
.fter the layer is cured, all uncured resin is %acuued for recycling, lea%ing the
hardened areas intact. The cured layer is passed beneath a strong linear 8= lap to
fully cure it and to solidify any renant particles, as illustrated below:
6n the fifth step, wa) replaces the ca%ities left by %acuuing the liquid resin. The
wa) is hardened by cooling to pro%ide continuous, solid support for the odel as it is
fabricated. J)tra supports are not needed.
6n the final step before the ne)t layer, the wa)Gresin surface is illed flat to an
accurate, reliable finish for the ne)t layer:
$nce all layers are copleted, the wa) is reo%ed, and any finishing operations such
as sanding, etc. can be perfored. Do post-cure is necessary.
ighlights of (used Deposition Modeling
B 7tandard engineering theroplastics, such as .'7, can be used to produce
structurally functional odels.
B Two build aterials can be used, and latticework interiors are an option.
B :arts up to *55 H *55 H &55 ;2# H 2# H 25 inches< can be produced.
B "ilaent of heated theroplastic polyer is squee1ed out like toothpaste fro
a tube.
B Theroplastic is cooled rapidly since the platfor is aintained at a lower
teperature.
B 0illing step not included and layer deposition is soeties non-unifor so
(plane( can becoe skewed.
B Dot as pre%alent as 74. and 747
>
, but gaining ground because of the desirable
aterial properties.
(used Deposition Modeling
7tratasys of Jden :rairie, 0D akes "used 3eposition 0odeling ;"30< achines. The
"30 process was de%eloped by 7cott Crup in 12//. The fundaental process
in%ol%es heating a filaent of theroplastic polyer and squee1ing it out like
toothpaste fro a tube to for the ,: layers. The achines range fro fast concept
odelers to slower, high-precision achines. The aterials include polyester, .'7,
elastoers, and in%estent casting wa). The o%erall arrangeent is illustrated
below:
Rapid Tooling$ "n Introduction
The ter Rapid Tooling ;,T< is typically used to describe a process which either uses
a ,apid :rototyping ;,:< odel as a pattern to create a old quickly or uses the
,apid :rototyping process directly to fabricate a tool for a liited %olue of
prototypes. ,T is distinguished fro con%entional tooling in that:
a< Tooling tie is uch shorter than for a con%entional tool. Typically, tie to first
articles is below one-fifth that of con%entional tooling.
b< Tooling cost is uch less than for a con%entional tool. Cost can be below fi%e
percent of con%entional tooling cost.
c< Tool life is considerably less than for a con%entional tool.
d< Tolerances are wider than for a con%entional tool.

We do not intend to coprehensi%ely co%er all types of ,T in this narrati%e. 6n
addition to 7ilicone ,ubber 0olding ;7,0<, we present Coposite 0olding and 3irect
.60 ;.CJ7 6n9ection 0olding<. The field of ,T is e)panding rapidly and inforation
on any of the new ethodologies is still changing.
ighlights of La%inated *+,ect Manufacturing
B 4ayers of glue-backed paper for the odel.
B 4ow cost: ,aw aterial is readily a%ailable.
B 4arge parts: 'ecause there is no cheical reaction in%ol%ed, parts can be ade
quite large.
B .ccuracy in 1 is less than that for 74. and 747
>
. Do illing step.
B $utside of odel, cross-hatching reo%es aterial
B 0odels should be sealed in order to prohibit oisture.
B 'efore sealing, odels ha%e a wood-like te)ture.
B Dot as pre%alent as 74. and 747
>
.
La%inated *+,ect Manufacturing
The figure below shows the general arrangeent of a 4ainated $b9ect
0anufacturing ;4$0?, registered tradeark by Eelisys of Torrance, California, 87.<
cell:
0aterial is usually a paper sheet lainated with adhesi%e on one side, but plastic and
etal lainates are appearing.
1. 4ayer fabrication starts with sheet being adhered to substrate with the heated
roller.
2. The laser then traces out the outline of the layer.
!. Don-part areas are cross-hatched to facilitate reo%al of waste aterial.
#. $nce the laser cutting is coplete, the platfor o%es down and out of the
way so that fresh sheet aterial can be rolled into position.
&. $nce new aterial is in position, the platfor o%es back up to one layer
below its pre%ious position.
*. The process can now be repeated.
The e)cess aterial supports o%erhangs and other weak areas of the part during
fabrication. The cross-hatching facilitates reo%al of the e)cess aterial. $nce
copleted, the part has a wood-like te)ture coposed of the paper layers. 0oisture
can be absorbed by the paper, which tends to e)pand and coproise the
diensional stability. Therefore, ost odels are sealed with a paint or lacquer to
block oisture ingress.
The 4$0
?
de%eloper continues to ipro%e the process with sheets of stronger
aterials such as plastic and etal. Dow a%ailable are sheets of powder etal
;bound with adhesi%e< that can produce a (green( part. The part is then heat treated
to sinter the aterial to its final state.
Boring Bar Milling (i-ture
'elow is illustrated the boring head for fi)turing a boring bar tool on a ill. 'oring a
hole using a ill is usually not as accurate as it is on a lathe, which is dedicated to
achining solids of re%olution.

(ly 'utter (i-ture
'elow is illustrated the fi)turing for a fly cutter. "ly cutters are used to rapidly ill a
surface flat. 0etal stock often has fly cut arks after being illed to shape.


Slitting Sa. (i-ture
"or illing deep, narrow groo%es, a slitting saw is better than an endill. . slitting
saw with an angle head is illustrated below. .n endill would be dangerously long
and thin for this application.


Standard 'ollet (i-ture
'elow is illustrated the configuration of a standard endill fi)tured in a knee-type
illing achine using a collet.

ori&ontal 'ollet (i-ture
. collet can also be fi)tured hori1ontally as shown below. This configuration allows
flats to be cut at specified angles on a cylindrical part.