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Chapter 2
AXIAL LOADING

2.1 INTRODUCTION
2.2 PRELIMINARY DISCUSSION
2.3 MATERIAL BEHAVIOURS
2.4 AXIAL DEFORMATIONS
2.5 STATIC INDETERMINACY
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2.1 Introduction
There are many engineering structures of
interest that are composed of members having
one-dimensional stress distribution over much
of their volumes, e.g. the planar truss
structures. In the analysis of truss structures,
the truss is treated as rigid body, i.e. structural
member that does not undergo deformation.
Real structural members, however, do deform
when subjected to external loads.
Determination of both the stresses as well as
deflections in such systems under the action of
given loadings for a given geometry of the
members is called analysis. There is also the
possibility that we may wish to choose the
cross-sectional areas of the members in order
for them to withstand expected loads safely
and economically. This is what we call design
and consists of a series of analyses leading in a
convergent manner to the optimal system.
In this chapter, we are going to capitalize what
we have learnt in Chapter 1 normal stress
and add an additional ingredient normal
strain, to complement and complete our
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analysis ability of one-dimensional structural
member.


2.2 Preliminary discussion
In the study of mechanics of solid, there are
three major components:
1. Force and stress relationship;
2. Strain and displacement relationship;
3. Stress and strain relationship or the
constitutive hypothesis.
These three items need to be distinguished and
each of them can be separately relevant, if not
directly.
In HES1125, you have covered item 1, in
which you learnt about statics and the
conditions for equilibrium. You were exposed
to the analysis and design of simple
connection using the various force and stress
relationships. The problems that you have
been solving up to now are termed statically
determinate system. By statically determinate
system, we mean that the system possesses a
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determinate solution provided that item 1 is
satisfied.

When item 1 along is insufficient to obtain a
solution for a given system, we say the system
is statically indeterminate. Under this
situation, item 2 and 3 need to come in. Let us
put item 1-3 in mathematical form that you can
recognize
1. Force and stress relationship:

0
lim
A
F
A

(2.1)

2. Strain and displacement relationship

0
lim
x
u
x

(2.2)

3. Stress and strain relationship
( ) = (2.3)

You are familiar with (2.1) already. Let us see
what we can say about (2.2) and (2.3).

Eq. (2.2) states that strain is defined as
displacement per unit length of material.
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One of the common form of strain
definition we use frequently is the
engineering strain:


o
o o
l l l
l l

= = (2.4)

Apart from (2.4) we can also define the so
called true strain:

ln
o
L
L
o
dl L
l L
= =

(2.5)

Eq. (2.3) hypothesized that stress is a
unique function of strain. One of the most
familiar form of (2.3) is the Hookes linear
elastic relationship

E = (2.6)

Eq. (2.6) is not unique. We can also have
non-linear elastic relationship, for example


n
o
E = + (2.7)
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2.3 Material Behaviors
Equation (2.6) and (2.7) are called constitutive
equations or material models. Material model
is used to describe the relationship between
stress and strain. This stress-strain relationship
is determined via tensile test experiment as
shown in Fig. 2.1

There are many types of material models:
linear and nonlinear elastic, elastoplastic,
viscoelastic, viscoplastic, thermoplastic etc.
These models are used to describe different
material behaviors.



Fig. 2.1

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There are many types of materials in used in
engineering. Steel, brass, iron, copper and
various types of alloys are conventional
materials used in industries. Composite and
reinforced-polymer etc are non-conventional
type of expensive materials used in high-tech
industries, e.g. aerospace.

Among all these, two types of material
behavior are common ductile and brittle
materials. Materials exhibiting little or no
plastic deformation up to fracture, such as cast
iron and glass, are called brittle materials.
Materials exhibiting substantial plastic
deformation up to the point of fracture, such as
low-carbon steel, are called ductile materials.
There is a wide range of behavior between the
brittle and ductile designation.
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Fig. 2.3 Ductile material



Fig. 2.4 Brittle material




Fig. 2.2 Ductile Fig. 2.3 Brittle
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Below the elastic limit, Hookes law usually
applies.

Fig. 2.5

When stress exceeds the elastic limit, plastic
deformation takes place. Plastic deformation is
characterized by permanent irreversible
straining of the material.


Fig. 2.6

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When the stress is repeatedly cycled in time,
we find that the stress required for rupture is
reduced. This important phenomenon is called
fatigue failure. This is a highly specialized
subject fracture mechanics and damage
theory.













Fig. 2.7
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2.4 Axial deformation

Fig. 2.8

From Hookes law
,
P
E
E AE

= = = (2.8)

From definition of strain


L

= (2.9)

Equating and solving for displacement,

PL
AE
= (2.10)

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Eq. (2.10) can be generalized as


1
n
i i
i
i i
PL
AE

=
=

(2.11)

Notice that in this case, the bars are aligned in
parallel. If the bars are aligned in series, the
force will be constant.














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Example: Determine the deformation of the
steel rod shown under the given loads given
that
6
29(10 )psi, 1.07'', 0.618'' E D d = = =



Solution:
Using the method of section, divide the rod
into three sections:


Obtaining force for each section
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3 3 3
1 1 1
60(10 )lb, 15(10 )lb, 30(10 )lb P P P = = =

Evaluate the total deflection

3
75.9(10 ) ''
i i
i i
PL
AE

= =

2.5 Static indeterminacy
Structure for which internal forces and
reactions cannot be determined from statics
alone are said to be statically indeterminate. A
structure will be statically indeterminate
whenever it is held by more supports than are
required to maintain equilibrium.
In order to solve indeterminate problems,
redundant reactions are replaced with
unknown loads, which along with the other
loads must produce compatible deformations.
Deformations due to actual loads and
redundant reactions are then determined
separately and added or superposed:

0
L R
= + = (2.12)
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Fig. 2.9
















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Example: Determine the reactions at A and B
for the steel bar and loading shown in Fig. 2.9,
assuming a close fit at both supports before the
loads are applied.

Solution:
Step 1: Remove the constraint
Solve for the displacement at
B due to the loads with the
constraint released.
3
1 2 3
3
4
0, 600(10 ) ,
900(10 )
P P P N
P N
= = =
=

9
1.125 10
i i
L
i i
PL
AE E

= =

.
Step 2: Solve for the constraint
Solve for the displacement at
B due to the redundant
constraint.
1 2 B
P P R = =
3
1.95 10
i i B
R
i i
PL R
AE E

= =

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Step 3: Compatibility of strain
Require that the displacements
due to the loads and due to the
redundant reaction be
compatible
9 3
1.125 10 1.95 10
= 0
577
L R
B
B
R
E E
R kN
= +

=
=


Find the reaction at A due to the loads and the
reaction at B





0 300 600 577
323kN
y A
A
F R
R
= = +
=