The Transmission of Astrology

into Abbasid Islam (750-1258 CE)

Maria J. Mateus
November 27, 2005
Much discussion often arises as to the origins of astrology most of it centered on
hether hat e !no of the disci"line, as it is "racticed today, as birthed in #reece, here
horosco"y as defined, or in Meso"otamia, here man first began to trac! the movements of the
stars in order to inter"ret their language. $oever, the astrological tradition has been long%lived
and ell "roliferated& it may then "erha"s, be as accurate to argue that hat has come don to us
as astrology is as much as multicultural "roduct as it is of either #ree! or 'abylonian genesis. (n
its lengthy and diverse history, there have been several significant astrological "oints of
transmission crossroads. )ne of the most significant cosmo"olitan intersections trans"ired in the
Near *ast after the (slamic con+uests of the ,assanian *m"ire in the 7
th
century. -rabic astrology
as it develo"ed during the (slamic -bbasid .ynasty /750%02512, flourished as a high science
hich synthesi3ed intellectual influences from (ndian, #ree!, and 4ersian scholars, ith some
cultural influences also streaming in from the Jeish and ,abian traditions. 5he folloing essay
e6amines these different streams as they ere re"resented by the -rabic authors and translators
active at the -bbasid courts. 7hile ( have organi3ed this survey by assigning astrologers to the
stream that best re"resents the language of the ma8ority of sources hich they consulted, the
ma8ority of the -bbasid astrologers clearly relied on sources from all of these traditions.
The ahla!i "assanian "tream
-ll of the astrology of 4ersian origin hich has been recovered can be traced to the
second great 4ersian *m"ire "eriod that of the ,assanid dynasty /229%:922. 5he ,assanians
under -rdashir (, overthre the 4arthians and established an em"ire that rivaled in si3e that of
the -cheamenids seven centuries earlier. -t the time of ,ha"ur ( /290%2722, the *m"ire stretched
from -rmenia and (beria /#eorgia2 in the North, to the Ma3un region of -rabia in the ,outh, to
the (ndus ;alley in the *ast, and to the 5igris and al%<adisiya in the 7est.
0
=nder ,ha"ur>s reign,
scholarshi" flourished and a massive translation "ro8ect of *astern and 7estern scholarly or!s
into 4ahlavi /middle 4ersian language2 as underta!en.
,ince no e6tant astrological manuscri"ts in 4ahlavi have been recovered, most of the
cor"us of 4ersian astrology as transmitted directly and indirectly to the (slamic courts of the 1
th

century via to, often culturally intersecting, geogra"hical streams?one from the (ndian tradition
in the *ast, and one from the civili3ations built u"on the Near *astern con+uests, "articularly
#reece and 'abylon. )f the non%astrological sources in 4ahlavi containing astrological
references, the most s"ecific is a "assage in the Bundahishn /the @
th
century Aoroastrian
scri"ture2, hich ma!es reference to a horosco"e of the orld. 5his horosco"e is ta!en to be an
ada"tation of a chart found in the Yavanajataka a manuscri"t of $ellenistic astrology but
containing (ndian ada"tations and "robably ritten by a #ree! residing in (ndia.
2
5he 4ersian
horosco"e in the Bundahishn attests to #ree! and (ndian influences, but also contains hat
4ingree asserts to be a ,assanian innovation. )f #ree! influence is the conce"t of a Thema
Mundi a chart for the creation of the orld hile the "ractice of including both of the Bunar
Nodes in the same categorical considerations as the other seven "lanets is ty"ical of (ndian
"ractice. 'ut it is the fact that both of the Nodes are also given e6altation signs /,agittarius and
#emini2 that 4ingree considers to be a ,assanian innovation.
C

1
$ar"er Dollins -tlas of 7orld $istory. ".71%7@.
2
4ingree, .avid. From Astral Omens to Astrology, From Babylon to Bikaner. 0@@7. ".C@.
3
4ingree, .avid. From Astral Omens to Astrology, From Babylon to Bikaner. 0@@7. ".90.
7hile the -rabic translations of 4ahlavi astrology reflect a mi6ture of influences
Elargely ,assanian and #ree! in origin, ith (ndian material entering in through its intermingled
ith the #ree! and (ranian elements in ,assanian astrologyF most of the astrologers in the
-bbasid courts of the 1
th
and @
th
centuries ere (ranians.
9
5he folloing authors translated
4ahlavi originals or 4ersian ada"tations of foreign or!s into -rabic at the -bbasid courts, and
ere either of 4ersian origin or lived in ,assanian (ran?
5

#e$ba%ht or al-#a&ba%ht /:7@%7772? Neba!ht as a 4ersian ho became an astrologer at
the court of the 0
st
-bbasid Dali"h? al%Mansur /the ;ictorious2. (t is said that he arrived at the
court as a Aoroastrian, but soon converted to (slam. $e rote seven or!s but only fragments
have come don to us. (t is documented by al%'iruni, that he as chosen to head a grou" of
astrologers in charge of electing
:
a chart for the founding of 'aghdad in 7:2 D*. $is son and
grandsons succeeded him as -bbasid court astrologers.
'&sa ibn #a$ba%ht /c.190%c.@902? Musa ibn Naba!ht as a :
th
generation removed
descendant of Naba!ht the 4ersian /see above2. $e as the author of an e6tensive treatise on
astrological history in the vein taught by -lbumasar entitled Al-Kitab al-Kamil of hich a
modern ,"anish translation, or!s"o#os ist!ri"os as made. $is sources ould have been
both -rabic and 4ahlavi.
"a(id ibn )h&rasan%h&rrah /"robably riting c. 797%7592? ,aGid is the author of Kitab al-
ma$alid %The Book o& 'ativities(, Ethe oldest surviving genuine -rabic translation of a 4ahlavi
astrological or! that e "ossessF.
7
5he or! is attributed to the sage Aaradusht but ,a>id
asserts that he did not translate his version from the original Aaradusht manuscri"t, but rather
from a version in neer 4ersian ritten by Mahan!ard in about :C7. 4ingree thin!s the original
or! as ritten by a #ree! astrologer !non as G-elius the 7ise> ho ould have lived in
$arran around the C
rd
century, here he may indeed have been a teacher to Aaradusht. 5he or!
contains methods of genethlialogy found in both .orotheus of ,idon>s and ;ettius ;alens #ree!
treatises, but also -rabic transliterations of 4ahlavi technical terms "ossibly re"resenting
,assanian develo"ments in natal astrology.
*mar ibn al-+arr&%han al-Tabari /riting c. 1002? -l%Harru!han, also !non as )mar of
5iberius as a translator of 4ersian descent of the -rabic translation from 4ahlavi of .oretheus
of ,idon>s 5 boo!s on genethlialogy and catarchic astrology. 7hile Masha Gallah also translated
.orotheus> or!s in the 770s, of hich e +uite e6tensive fragments, =mar>s version, although
contaminated, is thought to be more com"lete.
1
5he contaminations consist of charts that
"ostdate .orotheus> life, references to $ermes, ;alens and <itrinus al%,adali, and the ty"ical
,assanian inclusions of (ndian conce"ts. $e is also !non to have "ara"hrased into -rabic a
4ahlavi version of 4tolemy>s Tetrabiblos in 102. $is natal astrological or! Book on 'ativities,
as translated into Batin by John of ,eville.

4
4ingree, .avid. From Astral Omens to Astrology, From Babylon to Bikaner. 0@@7. ".90
5
Dom"iled from $olden "". @@%02@& 4ingree>s four essays as s"ecifically cited& and 5ester "". 05:%075.
6
Iefers to the astrological techni+ue of selecting the most "ro"itious time and location for underta!ing any
enter"rise. *lections are !non in the $ellenistic tradition as "atar"hi" astrology.
7
4ingree. From Astral Omens to Astrology, From Babylon to Bikaner. 0@@7. ".99.
8
4ingree. From Astral Omens to Astrology, From Babylon to Bikaner. 0@@7. ".9:.
'asha, allah ibn Athari /c.790%c.1052? Masha> allah or Messahalla, as he is sometimes referred
to in the est /a "hrase meaning Ghat has #od done>2, as a 4ersian Je living in 'asra ho
became one of the leading astrologers of the late 1
th
century. -ccording to medieval sources, his
$ebre name as Menasseh.
@
Masha> allah as among those ho "artici"ated in the selection
of the chart for the founding of 'aghdad, even though he as still young at the time. $e as
familiar ith 4ersian and (ndian astrology and used astronomical tables com"iled by a 4ersian in
the :
th
century but based u"on earlier (ndian versions.
00
$is bibliogra"hy is e6tensive and
consists of more than to do3en or!s, some of his on authorshi", some of 4ahlavi translations
of earlier #ree! or!s. (n the 770>s, Masha>allah translated .orotheus> five volume
genethlialogical treatise, )entateu"h into the -rabic Book o& 'ativities /Kitab al-ma$alid2 and
then in his later years used it as the basis for his on genethlialogical or!? Kitab al-ma$alid
al-kabir. 7hile his natal treatise is fundamentally #ree! in character, Maha> allah transformed
.orotheus> fifth boo! on #ree! catarchic astrology into a or! on interrogations after the style
introduced via (ndian astrology.
00
Masha> allah also seems to have translated ;ettius ;alens>
Anthology, hich a""eared in 4ahlavi under the title Bi*idaj %+hoi"e( based u"on a :
th
century
version by a 4ersian commentator named 'u3ur8mihr.
,ome of the or!s attributed originally to Masha>allah are? The ,evolutions o& the Years o&
'ativities, a or! on ,olar Ieturns, The ,evolutions o& the Years o& the -orld, an astrological
history based u"on -ries (ngresses, +onjun"tions, .etter on /"li#ses, ,e"e#tion o& the )lanets or
0nterrogations, a or! on horary techni+ues, and The +onstru"tion o& the 1se o& the Astrolabe.
02

"ahl ibn -ishr /@
th
century2? ,ahl as also !non as Aael or Aahel, and as a Je from
Jhurasan, ho also relied on 4ahlavi sources. $e as considered a master in horary astrology
and as often cited by later Medieval astrologers ho ere in "ossession of his five or!s in
Batin.
.a(far in '&hammad Ab& 'a(shar al--al%hi /c.717%11:2? -lbumasar, as he became !non to
the Batin 7est, as born near 'al!h in Jhurasan /"resent day -fghanistan2. 'al!h had been an
out"ost of $ellenistic culture and became during the ,assanian "eriod, Ea center for the mingling
of (ndians, Dhinese, ,cythians, and #reco%,yrians ith (raniansF.
0C
$olden says -lbumasar is
Ethe most im"osingF of all the -rabic riters on astrology.
09
$e began studying astrology at the
age of 97, after having studied hadith /the teachings of Muhammad2, because of an intellectual
disagreement he had ith Dali"h al%Madhi>s renoned court "hiloso"her, -l%Jindi. $e Erote
hat became the canonical te6tboo!s on all branches of -rabic astrology.F
05

-bu MaGshar as a member of the third generation of E4ahlavi%oriented intellectual eliteF but
he himself relied entirely on translations for his !noledge of ,assanian science.
$e mingled his already com"le6 cultural inheritance ith various intellectual
9
$and. Masha2allah, On ,e"e#tion. ".ii.
10
$olden. ".007.
11
4ingree. From Astral Omens to Astrology, From Babylon to Bikaner. 0@@7. ".97.
12
$olden. ". 005.
13
4ingree. 3i"tionary o& 4"ienti&i" Biogra#hy. ". C2.
14
$olden. ". 000.
15
4ingree. From Astral Omens to Astrology, From Babylon to Bikaner. 0@@7. ".::.
trends current in 'aghdad in his time, and became a leading e6"onent of the
theory that all national systems of thought are ultimately derived from a single
revelation /thus, in a sense, "aralleling in intellectual history the Neo"latonic
doctrine of emanation, hich he acce"ted "hiloso"hically in its $arranian
guise2.
0:

5hus, -bu MaGshar contributed to the 4ahlavi stream in so far as he gre u" amongst and
"romoted the cor"us of or! begun by his 4ahlavi%s"ea!ing colleagues and "redecessors. -t the
same time, his original or!s dre u"on such a culturally diverse array of sources that he should
actually be classified amongst the !ey figures in the transmission of #ree!, (ndian, (ranian, and
,yriac astrological, mathematical, cosmological, and "hiloso"hical thoughts. -mong his sources,
e find?
the 4ahlavi #reco%(ndo%(ranian tradition in astrology, astronomy, and theurgy as
"reserved in 'u3ur8mihr, -ndarghar, Aaradusht, the 5ij al-4hah, .orotheus, and
;alens& u"on a ,ans!rit #reco%(ndian tradition in astrology and astronomy from
;arahamihira, Jana!a, the ,indhind, the Ai8 al%-r!and, and -ryaghata& u"on the
#ree! tradition in "hiloso"hy, astrology, and astrology through -ristotle, 4tolemy,
and 5heon& u"on ,yriac Neo"latoni3ing "hiloso"hy of the astral influences and
theurgy from al%Jindi and the boo!s of the $arranians& and u"on the earlier, less
com"lete attem"ts at such vast syntheses among 4ersian scholars riting in
-rabicK
07
/ther )no$n Translations of ahla!i /riginals
5here are a number of -rabic translations hich have survived in manuscri"ts that claim to be of
4ahlavi originals. -ccording to 4ingree, some of the translations are of genuine 4ahlavi sources,
hile others are either more recent forgeries or of dubious origin. ( ill only list here those
hich have been attributed to a transcriber or translator and for hich enough substantiated
information remains.
01
-ll of them a""ear in a manuscri"t !non as the 4aris -rabe 2917, hich
as co"ied in *gy"t in 09@2.
Book +on"erning the 6udgments o& the +onjun"tions /Kitab &iahkam al-7iranat 2? 5his or! is
"ur"orted to have been transcribed by Jamasb the 7ise in 0010 from an original unidentified
manuscri"t that as brought to the court of the Dali"h al%(man al%Nasir sometime beteen 0010
and 0225. 5he or! contains the an astrological orld history based u"on the 20%year cyclic
con8unctions of Ju"iter and ,aturn and their millennial recurrence in the sign of -ries. 5he
history begins at about 2100 'D /thought to be hen Aaradusht lived2 and continues to 2C00 D*.
)ne curiosity about the or! is that it ma!es reference to the "lanetary deities as having many
hands, in the same vein as the (ndian devatas.
The Book o& +onjun"tions /Kitab al-7iranat(? 5he or! is attributed to Aaradusht the 7ise, but
also lists an Gauthor> by the name of Lahya ibn Muhammad al%$alabi.
0@
Judging from internal
16
4ingree, 3i"tionary o& 4"ienti&i" Biogra#hy. ". C2.
17
4ingree, 3i"tionary o& 4"ienti&i" Biogra#hy. ". CC.
18
Hor the com"lete list see 4ingree. From Astral Omens to Astrology, From Babylon to Bikaner. 0@@7. "". 9C%95.
19
4ingree calls this the Gauthor> hich ( can only assume from his -rabic name that he is also the translator. (t is
common in ancient civili3ations for the authorshi" of te6ts to be attributed to religious or ise sages or to
mythological figures thought to be imbued ith divine !noledge. )ften, but not alays, the te6t also names the
astrological references, the or! ould have been transcribed c.0050. (t too consists of an
astrological history cataloguing every Ju"iterM,aturn con8unction occurring ith the ,un in -ries
from a "eriod of 0095%0:29.
The 0ree% "tream
Theo1hil&s of Edessa /c.:@5%7152? 5heo"hilus originated in the city of *dessa, hich became a
ma8or Dhristian center in the C
rd
century, and hich as located near $arran, a strategically
"laced city on the Nineveh trade route and ma8or center for the cultivation of #ree! astrology,
astronomy, and Neo"latonism. $e served in the court of the Dali"h al%Madhi /775%7152.
-lthough a Dhristian, 5heo"hilus sa no contradiction beteen its doctrines and astrology,
hich he ma!es clear in his Dhristian defense of astrology in the "reface to Astrologi"al /&&e"ts.
5heo"hilus> native tongue as ,yriac but he as clearly also fluent in #ree! and translated
several te6ts from #ree! into ,yirac, including the to boo!s of $omer on the fall of 5roy,
-ristotle>s 4o#histi"i elen"hi, #alen>s 3e methodo medendi. $is #ree! sources included
4tolemy>s Almagest, his andy Tables and Astrologi"al /&&e"ts, .orotheus> 0
st
century "oem,
;alens> Anthologies, Ihetorius the *gy"tian>s 7
th
century com"endium, and $e"haistion of
5hebes> 5
th
century or! entitled A#otelesmati"s.
20

$is on three original e6tant or!s are all in #ree!? 02 .abors +on"erning Military 0nitiatives, a
or! on military astrology hich shares many resemblances to ;arahimira>s ,ans!rit
Brhadyatra, such as an indication that Ethe invader is indicated by the -scendant, hile the
besieged is shon by the .escendantF.22 A#otelesmati"s, his on introductory te6tboo! ith the
same title as $e"haistion>s. (t too contains some elements of (ndian origin such as a 3odiacal
to"othesia, similar to that found in the Yavanajataka. C2 On 8arious 0nitiatives, a or! on
interrogational astrology hich shos influences from .orotheus and $e"haistion and 4ingree
also suggests of (ndian horary "reserved through ,yriac materials.
20

(t also a""ears that 5heo"hilus may have s"o!en 4ahlavi because his or! on astrological
history attests to the influence of 4ersian theory and techni+ues, and also because his or! on
military astrology above, ould have been available to him in 4ahlavi.
22

.a(far in '&hammad Ab& 'a(shar al--al%hi Nalso see above in the 4ahlavi ,assanian
,treamO -mong -bu MaGshar>s most ell%!non #ree!%influenced or!s are his 9reat
0ntrodu"tion to Astrology hich as reritten in a shortened version in The Abbreviation o& the
0ntrodu"tion. 5his larger or! attem"ts to establish the tenets of astrology on the basis of
-ristotelian "rinci"les and "hysics.
2C

transcriber or redactor, ho may either be the divinely ins"ired author, or be co"ying an earlier or! said to have
been authored by the sage. (n this case, (>m assuming the original 4ahlavi authorshi" is being attributed directly to
the sage Aaradusht but redacted into -rabic by al%$alabi.
20
4ingree. EHrom -le6andria to 'aghdad to 'y3antium. 5he 5ransmission of -strologyF. ". 09.
21
4ingree. E5he (ndian and 4seudo%(ndian 4assages in #ree! and Batin -stronomical and -strological 5e6tsF.
8iator. ". 091 and EHrom -le6andria to 'aghdad to 'y3antium. 5he 5ransmission of -strologyF. "". 0:%07.
22
4ingree. EHrom -le6andria to 'aghdad to 'y3antium. 5he 5ransmission of -strologyF. "". 0:%07.
23
-bu Ma>shar. The Abbreviation o& the 0ntrodu"tion to Astrology. 'urnett, Lamamoto, and Lano trans. ". ii.
'asha, allah ibn Athari Nalso see above in the 4ahlavi ,assanian and belo in the ,ans!rit
(ndian streamsO -long ith his translations from 4ahlavi, it a""ears that Masha> allah received a
#ree! com"endium by Ihetorius of *gy"t from 5heo"hilus of *dessa at the court of al%
Mansur.
29
)f the three #ree! authors hich he relied heavily u"on /.orotheus, ;alens and
Ihetorius2, the latter is the only source ritten in its original language, but Ehe as also
ac+uainted ith some #ree! material /"erha"s through -rabic versions of ,yriac te6tsF.
25

-s one of the 0
st
generation astrologers at the -bbasid courts, according to $and, Masha> allah is
grou"ed together ith )mar of 5iberias, -bu -li -l%Jhayyat and ,ael as re"resenting Ea stage in
-rabic era astrology in hich #ree! astrology "rovided almost the only basis for astrological
"racticeF.
2:
(n contrast to hat is found in 4ingree, $and asserts that elements of the 4ersian
stream ere introduced into the -bbasid courts subse+uent to the introduction of the #ree!
influences, "articularly because they surface Ein a fully elaborated form in the ritings of -bu
Mashar, an ethnic 4ersian ho ould no doubt have had access to the "re%(slamic 4ersian
astrological traditionF.
27
7hile it is true that the astrology found in the above mentioned authors
is characteristically more $ellenistic than some of -bu Mashar>s or!, this may be e6"lained
rather by -bu Mashar>s eagerness to synthesi3e -ristotelian "hiloso"hy and "hysics ith his
astrology and "ossibly incor"orating many of 4tolemy>s -ristotelian astrological de"artures than
because of any delayed introduction of ,assanian sources. 4ingree clearly indicates that he as
or!ing ith -rabic translations of 4ahlavi sources hich "resumably ould have been made
by the ethnically 4ersian scholars of the late 1
th
century.
The "ans%rit Indian "tream
Theo1hil&s of Edessa Nsee his entry in the #ree! stream above for (ndian influences a""arent
into his #ree! or!s.O
'asha, allah ibn Athari Nsee also above in both #ree! and 4ahlavi streamsO (n #ree! fragments
ritten by Masha> allha, he describes the (ndian theory of the navamsas and also describes methods for
finding these lords in his Kitab al-ma$alid al-kabir. 5here are also references to the (ndian theory
of "lanetary chords and to the E*ra of the HloodF and its divergence from the (ndian Jaliyuga in
the Batin translations of 3e elementis et orbibus "oelestibus /On the elements and "elestial
orbits( and in citations by al%Ii8al of his -rabic or!.
21

Indian Astrologers at al-'ans&r,s 2o&rt3
24
(n either 770 or 77C, an embassy of astrological and
astronomical scholars from the city of ,ind in the (ndus ;alley, is re"orted by (bn al%-dami in
his 'a*m al-:i7d to have come to the court of al%Mansur. -mong these scholars, one brought
ith him a te6t /"robably entitled Mahasidhanta2, a version of hich as later rendered into
24
4ingree. EDlassical and 'y3antine -strology in ,assanian 4ersiaF 3umbarton Oaks )a#ers. "". 2C:%2C7.
25
4ingree, 3i"tionary o& 4"ienti&i" Biogra#hy. ". 0:0.
26
)mar of 5iberias. Three Books on 'ativities. Iobert $and translation. ".ii.
27
)mar of 5iberias. Three Books on 'ativities. Iobert $and translation. ".iii.
28
4ingree. E5he (ndian and 4seudo%(ndian 4assages in #ree! and Batin -stronomical and -strological 5e6tsF.
8iator. "". 09@%050.
29
4ingree, E5he (ndian and 4seudo%(ndian 4assages in #ree! and Batin -stronomical and -strological 5e6tsF.
8iator. "". 050%052& in From Astral Omens to Astrology, From Babylon to Bikaner. 0@@7. "".50%:2. and $olden "".
00C%009.
-rabic by al%Ha3ari under the title 5ij al-4indhind al-kabir and by al%Jhari3mi in his on 5ij
al-4indhind /10C%1CC2. EAi8 al%,indhindF literally means the tables by the $indu from ,ind /al-
"indhind2, and the lac! of a name to identify this (ndian scholar has generated some confusion
among -rabic chroniclers. (n the 02
th
century, -braham ibn *3ra identified this unnamed (ndian
astronomer as )an%ah al-5indi /Jan!ah the $indu2. -bu MaGshar also e6"ounded on Jan!ah
as one of his C manifestations of $ermes the founders of science in his astrological history
Book o& Thousands.
C0
(t is on the basis of this or! that several legends involving an (nidan
named Jan!ah ere generated and ta!en as historical fact. Nevertheless, 4ingree recogni3es that
there ere "robably to astrologers named Jana!a /the (ndian version of the name2 from
7estern (ndia, one ho rote in ,ans!rit and one ho came to the -bbasid court.
C0
5he great
-rabic bibliogra"her, (bn al%Nadim lists several or!s by the second Jan!ah in his famous
Fihrist. -mong Jan!ah>s or!s are also listed or!s by other (ndian scholars?
)an%ah6 the Indian? Book o& the 4e"ret o& 'ativities; Book o& the 'amudar
+on"erning %the .engths o&( .ives; Book o& +onjun"tions.
<=

.&dar the Indian3 'ativities
"an7ahil the Indian3 4e"rets o& the >uestions
#a8 (#aha8) the Indian3 'ativities
CC

4ingree re8ects the idea that the legendary Jan!ah listed in al%Nadim>s bibliogra"hy is the same
$indu of the al-5ij al-4indhind
<?
since he says it as based u"on the ,ans!rit Mahasidhanta
hich Ebelonged to the 'rahma"a!sa of (ndian astronomyF.
C5
)f the -rabic s"ea!ing Jan!ah he
says? Eeverything that e can discover concerning the doctrines "ro"ounded by Jana!a the
(ndian lin!s him intellectually to ,asanian (ran, and not to (ndiaK=nfortunately, e do not !no
hether he learned this astrology hile he as in (ndiaKor hether he "ic!ed it u" in (ra+ from
his colleagues at the -bbasid court.
C:
30
-bu MaGshar. The Book o& Thousands.
31
4ingree. From Astral Omens to Astrology, From Babylon to Bikaner. "".59%55.
32
4ingree. From Astral Omens to Astrology, From Babylon to Bikaner. ".55
33
5he "revious C authors are listed by $olden. ". 00C%009.
34
From Astral Omens to Astrology, From Babylon to Bikaner. ".52.
35
E5he (ndian and 4seudo%(ndian 4assages in #ree! and Batin -stronomical and -strological 5e6tsF. 8iator. ". 050
36
From Astral Omens to Astrology, From Babylon to Bikaner. ".55.
9or%s Cons&lted
-rmstrong, Jaren. 0slam& - ,hort $istory. - Modern Bibrary Dhronicles 'oo!. Ne Lor!. 2000.
'urnett, Dharles, Jei8i Lamamoto, and Michio Lano editors and translators. E-bu Ma Gshar. 5he
-bbreviation of the (ntroduction to -strologyF. 0slami" )hiloso#hy Theology and 4"ien"e.
8olume @8. $. .aiber and .. 4ingree editors. *. J. 'rill. Ne Lor!. 0@@9.
Dam"ion, Nicholas. The 9reat Year. -r!ana. Bondon. 0@@9.
PPPPPPP E5he Donce"t of .estiny in (slamic -strology and its (m"act on Medieval *uro"ean
5houghtF. .nic!cam"ion.comMncMhistoryMarticlesMislamic.htm
#rant, *dard. The Foundations o& Modern 4"ien"e in the Middle Ages. Dambridge =niversity
4ress. Ne Lor!. 0@@1.
#urney, #ene. E5he .ynasties of (ran /4ersia2F Kingdoms o& Asia the Middle /ast and A&ri"a.
Dron 4ublishers, (nc. Ne Lor!. 0@1:.

$olden, James $erschel. A istory o& oros"o#i" Astrology. -merican Hederation of
-strologers. 5em"e, -A. 0@@:.
Jennedy, *.,. and .avid. 4ingree. The Astrologi"al istory o& Masha2 allah. $arvard =niversity
4ress. Dambrisge, M-. 0@70.

Jusuba, 5a!anori and .avid 4ingree. E-rabic -stronomy in ,ans!rit. -l%'ir8andi on 5adh!ira ((,
Dha"ter 00 and its ,ans!rit 5ranslation. 0slami" )hiloso#hy Theology and 4"ien"e. 8olume
@.800. $. .aiber and .. 4ingree editors. *. J. 'rill. Ne Lor!. 2002.
)mar of 5iberias. Three Books on 'ativities. Iobert $and trans. 4ro8ect $indsight. Batin 5rac!.
;ol. Q(;.
4ingree, .avid. From Astral Omens to Astrology; From Babylon to Bikaner. (nstituto (taliano 4er
B>-frica e B>)riente. Ioma.0@@7.
PPPPPPP The Thousands o& Abu Mashar. 5he 7arburg (nstitute =niversity of Bondon. Bondon.
0@:1.
PPPPPPP EHrom -le6andria to 'aghdad to 'y3antium. 5he 5ransmission of -strologyF.
0nternational 6ournal o& the +lassi"al Tradition. 8ol. A, 'o. B, 4ummer =CCB.
PPPPPPP E5he ,abians of $arran and the Dlassical 5raditionF. 0nternational 6ournal o& the
+lassi"al Tradition. 8ol. D, 'o. B, 4ummer =CC=.
PPPPPPP E-strologyF. The 'e$ /n"y"lo#edia Britani"a. 8ol. =E. 05
th
edition.
PPPPPPP E-bu MaGsharF. 3i"tionary o& 4"ienti&i" Biogra#hy. ed. Dharles #illes"ie. ;ol. ((.
Dharles ,cribner>s ,ons. Ne Lor!. 0@79.

PPPPPPP EMasha> allahF. 3i"tionary o& 4"ienti&i" Biogra#hy. ed. Dharles #illes"ie. ;ol. (Q.
Dharles ,cribner>s ,ons. Ne Lor!. 0@79.
PPPPPPP E5he (ndian and 4seudo%(ndian 4assages in #ree! and Batin -stronomical and
-strological 5e6tsF. 8iator, Medieval and ,enaissan"e 4tudies. 8ol. F. =niversity of
Dalifornia 4ress. 'er!eley. 0@7:.

5ester, Jim. A istory o& -estern Astrology. 5he 'oydell 4ress. Iochester, N.L. 0@17.
Lamamoto, Jei8i and Dharles 'urnett editors and translators. -bu Ma Gshar. E)n $istorical
-strologyF. ;olumes )ne and 5o. 0slami" )hiloso#hy Theology and 4"ien"e. 8olume @@@@08.
$. .aiber and .. 4ingree editors. *. J. 'rill. Ne Lor!. 2000.