Klaudia Gibov

Translation Procedures in the Non-literary and Literary Text

Compared
(based on an analysis of an EU institutional-legal text and novel
excerpt The Shack by William P. Young)









2





















Klaudia Gibov 2012
Rezensenten: Doc. PhDr. Marin Andrik, PhD.
PaedDr. Magdalna Rzusov, PhD.
Herstellung und Verlag:
Books on Demand GmbH, Norderstedt

ISBN 9783848201754
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Table of Contents

List of Tables and Charts ............................................................................................................... 5
List of Abbreviations and Symbols ................................................................................................ 6
Introduction .................................................................................................................................. 7
!elimitation of the "esearch #roblem Area ............................................................................ $
. Indicatin% a &iche ............................................................................................................. $
.2 An 'utline of "esearch (ethodolo%y .............................................................................. 3
.2. Aims ) 'b*ectives ...................................................................................................... 3
.2.2 "esearch +uestions ................................................................................................... ,
.3 "esearch (aterial !escri-tion ......................................................................................... ,
2 &on.literary ) Literary Te/t and Translation "evie0ed .......................................................... 6
2. To0ards !efinin% Te/t1 2eneral #reliminaries ................................................................. 7
2.2 &on.literary Te/t and Translation ..................................................................................... 3
2.3 Literary Te/t and Translation ............................................................................................ 2
2., Com-arin% &on.literary and Literary Te/t ........................................................................ 2,
3 An Analysis of Translation #rocedures in the &on.Literary and Literary Te/t Cor-us ............ 27
3. Lead.in1 2ettin% to 2ri-s 0ith the Terminolo%ical Cul.de.sac .......................................... 27
3.2 Selected Translation #rocedures (odels ......................................................................... 3$
3.2. 4ean.#aul 5inay ) 4ean !arbelnet ............................................................................. 3$
3.2.2 #eter &e0mar6 .......................................................................................................... 33
3.2.3 (ichael Schreiber ...................................................................................................... 3,
3.3 +uantitative Cor-us Te/t Analysis .................................................................................... 36
3.3. Trans-osition ............................................................................................................. 36
3.3.2 (odulation ................................................................................................................ ,,
3.3.3 7/-ansion and "eduction .......................................................................................... 5$
3.3., #ermutation ............................................................................................................... 53
3.3.5 Cal8ue ........................................................................................................................ 62
3.3.6 9orro0in% .................................................................................................................. 66
3.3.7 Translation #rocedures 'ccurrin% in the Literary Te/t 'nly ..................................... 6:
3.3.7. "ecastin% sentences............................................................................................ 6:
3.3.7.2 &aturali;ation ..................................................................................................... 7$
3.3.7.3 Ada-tation .......................................................................................................... 72
,

3.3.7., #ara-hrase .......................................................................................................... 73
3.3.3 Summary and Com-arison of "esults ........................................................................ 75
Conclusion .................................................................................................................................. 73
9iblio%ra-hy and "eferences ...................................................................................................... 32



















5

List of Tables and Charts

Table 1 5inay ) !arbelnets model of translation -rocedures .................................................. 3
Table 2 &e0mar6s model of translation -rocedures ................................................................ 33
Table 3 Schreibers model of translation -rocedures ................................................................ 35
Table 4 An 'vervie0 of 0ord.class trans-ositions in the non.literary te/t ............................... 33
Table 5 An 'vervie0 of 0ord.class trans-ositions in the literary te/t ...................................... 33
Table 6 An 'vervie0 of sentence.member trans-ositions in the non.literary te/t .................. ,
Table 7 An 'vervie0 of sentence.member trans-ositions in the literary te/t .......................... ,2
Table 8 An 'vervie0 of modulations of e/-ressions in the literary te/t ................................... ,3
Table 9 7/-ansion variation and its fre8uency distribution in the non.literary te/t ................. 53
Table 10 7/-ansion variation and its fre8uency distribution in the literary te/t ....................... 5,
Table 11 #ermutations in the non.literary te/t .......................................................................... 6$
Table 12 #ermutations in the literary te/t ................................................................................. 62
Table 13 "ecastin% sentences in the literary te/t....................................................................... 7$
Table 14 Ada-tations <cultural ) functional e8uivalents= in the literary te/t ........................... 73
Table 15 #ara-hrases in the literary te/t ................................................................................... 7,
Chart 1 >re8uency distribution of e/amined translation -rocedures across the non.literary )
literary te/t ................................................................................................................................. 76









6

List of Abbreviations and Symbols

Adj Adjective
Adv Adverbial
Att N Non-congruent Attribute
Compl Complement
EN English version of the analysed (non-)literary text
N Noun
Obj Object
SK Slovak version of the analysed (non-)literary text
SL Source language
ST Source text
TL Target language
TT Target text
V Verb/ verbal form
~ Corresponds to









7

Introduction

What, if anything, is distinctive about non-literary and literary text and their
translation? Few would doubt their intuitive sense that there is a palpable difference
between e.g. a legal text and a work of fiction, which could be referred to as very
unlike or dissimilar ends of the range, respectively even by a lay person.
The present thesis object of interest lies in exploring translation procedures in
two typologically different text genres by means of a comparative analysis. The thesis
aims at juxtaposing translation procedures in the non-literary and literary text corpus
and in turn finds out their pertinent text genre characteristics. For this purpose, an EU
institutional-legal text Council Directive 2004/114/EC and a Christian novel excerpt
The Shack by a Canadian author William P. Young have been utilized. The reason why
these two case texts have been chosen is because the relationship of ostentatious
contrast obtaining between them is more or less evident and as such suitable for
investigating translation procedures in two, already at first glance, quite dissimilar text
types.
The focal point of the publication revolves around the concept of translation
procedure, i.e. a tool of textual analysis originating under comparing the source and
target text affecting sentences and smaller units of language (Newmark, 1988: 81).
According to Molina and Hurtado Albir (2002: 509), translation procedures (or
techniques) are used functionally and dynamically in terms of the genre of the text
(Council Directive and novel in our case), type of translation (specialized and literary),
mode of translation (written translation, consecutive interpreting), purpose of the
translation and the characteristics of the translation audience and method chosen
(interpretative-communicative, etc.).
However surprising this might seem, publications on translation procedures
have never been high on the agenda of translation studies (with the term per se being
slippery enough, cf. section 3.1 of this publication) and little more than sporadic articles
have been published right up to the present, with the exception of those by e.g. Salkie,
2001; Molina and Hurtado Albir, 2002; Klaudy and Kroly, 2005; Pym, 2005;
Kamenick, 2007; Ordudari, 2007 and more recently Zakhir (2008), Garnier (2009) and
Gibov (2011). Therefore, the existing state of affairs might be seen as a source of the
major motivation for the presented research comprising a comparative dimension. Since
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it would take at least one thesis worth of pages to give even the briefest survey of the
above-said scholars credits in terms of their mostly individual translation procedure
treatment, no such thing will be carried out in the present thesis.
Instead, the thesis will lean on translation procedures models by Vinay and
Darbelnet (1958/1995), Newmark (1981, 1988) and Schreiber (1993, 1998) as crucial
theoretical underpinnings to a large extent. The thesis simultaneously aims to put the
applicability of the authors own synthesizing translation procedures construct to the
examined literary text to the test. In addition, it stresses the need to enhance the
proposed construct by some further translation procedures so as to comply with the
multifaceted nature of the literary text, being a far cry from the non-literary text.
In the analysis, an array of research questions (cf. 1.2.2 for detail), rather than a
stated hypothesis, will be taken into consideration and answered. The questions that the
present-day translation-oriented publications and articles dealing with the outlined
problem area somehow seem to avoid asking are as follows: Do different textual
genres lead to the employment of different translation procedures? What profound
differences, if any, can be found between translation procedures across the non-literary
and literary text? Therefore, the present work will be an attempt at explaining what
these differences might actually be, and precisely in this lies its main contribution.
Notably, none of the secondary sources, however scarce in their number, has dealt with
a comparative aspect of translation procedures. For this reason, I seriously believe that
this publication will expatiate upon translation procedures from a novel perspective.
Moreover, the publication attempts to represent a contribution towards the
systematization of translation procedures, yielding more successful solutions for
translation problems.
As to the text corpus make-up, in case of the selected non-literary text, it is vital
to note that EU translation beyond a shadow of a doubt stands for one of the most
dynamic areas of non-literary translation in progress. The institutional-legal text has
been chosen as an illustratory sample of non-literary text not only because of its relative
importance from the point of view of its content but also due to being viewed as a rich
repository of both theoretical and practice-oriented translatological problems.
Moreover, current Pan-Europeanization process and lingering globalization tendencies
have significantly contributed to increasing the need of institutional-legal translation
which is unstoppably becoming the language of Europe, a creator of a modern
European legal way of expression within national, political and cultural communities.
:

Indeed, translation of EU legislation represents a singular type of translation within
legal translation in general and within the translation of legislation in particular.
On the other hand, the selection of the literary illustratory text sample sourced
from a fiction best-seller The Shack by William P. Young was influenced by the
criterion of gaining a diametrically opposite text genre to the one mentioned above, yet
producing a meaningful comparative dimension, with the text stemming from a broadly
similar time period. Generally-speaking, by means of literary translation pinnacles of
the language can be achieved as the translation as such has the capacity to dynamize
our own literature and its potential of expression. Literary text in its translation may
reflect an understanding of the world which might be unfamiliar for a target text
recipient. Therefore, the literary translator must more often than not act as an
intermediary between two different ways of seeing the world, which must be expressed
by an adequate signalling words value in the target text. Unlike non-literary
translation, and EU institutional-legal translation specifically, literary translation comes
into existence as a subjectively transshaped reflection of the objective reality
communicating its content via an artistic image bearing primarily an aesthetic value.
The publication is organised into three major chapters, the first of which (i.e.
Chapter 1) should be viewed as partly introductory. It outlines the contemporary state
of knowledge in the given research area, basic research aims as well as overall thesis
methodology including a whole gamut of research questions. Chapter 2, being
essentially theoretical in nature, focuses on reviewing the principal features of non-
literary and literary text as such and their translation including their mutual contrasting,
preparing fertile ground for the ensuing corpus analysis. Chapter 3, blending the
theoretical and empirical, moves on to the actual quantitative analysis of translation
procedures across the non-literary and literary text, searching for their commonalities as
well as differences. As a rule, a few exemplifying instances of the respective translation
procedure are quoted to illustrate the points raised throughout the whole chapter. The
chapter in question is also rounded off by a summary and comparison of the results
gained. The concluding section of the present publication will finally point out the most
crucial findings of the whole work and make some suggestions as to further avenues of
research.

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1 Delimitation of the Research Problem Area
1.1 Indicating a iche

While the topic of translation procedures seems of considerable relevance
within translation studies nowadays, there are actually very few textbooks or academic
publications available dealing with this problem area. Whereas the topic at hand invites
a good number of scholars to touch upon it rather tangentially in terms of one-off
articles, we believe that this translatological problem area deserves a more focused
treatment so as to make up for this shortfall. Therefore, the current state of affairs in the
translation studies oriented literature motivated the presented research with the hope of
filling a gap in the need for a complex analysis of translation procedures, enhanced to
their comparing in two dissimilar text types, in particular.
Indeed, one of the ground-breaking and highly influential monographs homing
in on translation procedures entitled Stylistique compare du franais et de langlais
was written by Paris-born Canadians Jean-Paul Vinay and Jean Darbelnet as early as
1958. Paradoxically enough, despite soon becoming a pre-eminent work in the ambit
of comparative stylistics and grammar, the English-speaking world did not witness its
publication until 1995. Out of all English translation studies scholars, Peter Newmark
seems to have been the only one who concerned himself with translation procedures to
some extent. However, his take on translation procedures was rather succinct in the
form of his 1981 model (see Newmark, 1981: 30-32). Perhaps this sketchy character of
his original translation procedures proposal made him come up with an up-dated
version thereof in his seminal 1988 publication A Textbook of Translation, where he
devotes a whole chapter to translation procedures. In the context of continental-written
publications attending to translation procedures based on the structural comparing of
the English, German and French language pairs, a distinguishing monograph was
written by Michael Schreiber in 1993. What all the above-mentioned translation
theorists have in common, though, is that they attempted to call into attention the
usefulness of the employment of translation procedures during the interlingual transfer
from one language into another in order to increase effectivity of solutions for
translation problems when overcoming conceptual and/or structural asymmetries
between languages in the same communicative situations.


Interestingly enough, over the past decade, a good many articles touching upon
partial translation procedures have been published in a variety of translation journals,
testifying to the topicality and all-importance of this problem area. Among them to
mention are articles penned by Salkie (2001) offering a new look at modulation,
Klaudy and Kroly (2005) delving into implicitation in translation, Sewell (2001) and
Garnier (2009) analysing calques in comparable corpora. Recently, a number of
researchers have also started to pay heed to explicitation, putting its up-until-now
commonly accepted interpretation as a translation universal to the test (see Englund-
Dimitrova, 2003; Pym, 2005; Kamenick, 2007; Baumgarten, Meyer and zcetin, 2008
and Becher, 2010).
At a complex level, a critical review of translation procedures has been offered
by Molina and Hurtado Albir (2002) in their seminal article, where, unlike the majority
of extant approaches, they call for a dynamic and functional approach to translation
procedures (or techniques) because in their view most studies of translation techniques
do not seem to fit in with the dynamic nature of translation equivalence. According to
them, if the dynamic dimension of translation is to be preserved, a translation technique
can only be judged meaningfully when it is evaluated within a particular context,
supporting the functional and dynamic nature of translation (Molina and Hurtado Albir,
2002: 508-509). Similarly, moving from treatises on separate translation procedures to
a broad-brush picture of them, recent overview articles by Ordudari (2007) and Zakhir
(2008), drawing on primarily Vinay and Darbelnets and Newmarks earlier theoretical
underpinnings, serve this end.
In Slovakia, any readings on translation procedures in their entirety have been
almost completely absent so far, being restricted to less than a dozen articles, ranging
from somewhat oldish essays by Bare (1974) and Dokulil (1982), significantly
influenced by transformational grammar and structuralist traditions, up to Hjikovs
short article (2005) on translation procedures in legal documents intermingled with an
excursion into legal terminology, too. In this respect, the most comprehensive treatment
of translation procedures endemic to legal texts has been provided by Gibov (2010) in
her monograph. However, to this day, to the best of my knowledge no publication is
currently available which would deal with a comparison of translation procedures in the
non-literary and literary text, examining if different textual genres produce different
translation procedures on the part of the translator.
2

Irrespective of this, the present publication by its focus endeavours to be
responsive to the current trends in the research of legal and literary texts. Notably, well
up to the present the research in the genre of legal texts has been first and foremost
terminologically-oriented. Of supreme importance was so that legal terms embedded in
the source legal systems were expressed by equivalent legal terms in the target legal
systems, achieving the same degree of semantic correspondence and an identical legal
effect (see arcevic, 2000; krlantov 2005; arcevic, 2006). However, after the so-
called communicative pragmatic turn in the approach towards language system a
sociological and ethnographic dimension of legal research has come to the forefront of
interest (see Koskinen, 2008). Despite these novel tendencies, though, in recent years
linguistic approaches to legal translations have bounced back with renewed vigour (see
arcevic, 2006; Cao, 2007), thus doing justice to the overall take of the present
publication.
As for the main developments in the study of literary texts, these have reflected
the current strands in the evolution of literary theory. Functionalist approaches to
tackling the study of literary translation began to be mooted in the 1970s and 1980s out
of growing dissatisfaction with decontextualised approaches, so typical of structuralists.
However, the explicitly functionalist skopos theory in the sense that it views translation
as a goal directed action (Nord, 1997), needed to suit different kinds of interests and
expectations of target readers, has had only limited impact on the study of literary
translation [...] chiefly because audience expectations are notoriously hard to define in
literature (Hermans, 2007: 87). Next, post-structuralist ways of studying literary texts,
with their two main critical currents of the 1990s, post-colonial and gender theory,
analysing translation both as an instrument of domination control as well as a means of
the identity construction, raise doubts about the very possibility of literary translation
by emphasizing the instability of meaning and the materiality of language (ibid.: 89).
Last but far from least, although the application of linguistic frameworks to the analysis
of literary texts had its heyday primarily in the 1960s and 1970s, under the impulse of
transformational grammar and structuralism, this line of enquiry seems to be enjoying
resurgence of interest, similarly to the trends discernible in the study of non-literary
texts, as implied above. More recently, two lines of linguistic enquiry, i.e. corpus
studies and critical linguistics, building on insights from pragmatics and discourse
analysis, have been making vital inroads into the study of literary translation, too (ibid.:
85).
3

1.! An "utline of Research #ethodology
1.!.1 Aims $ "b%ectives

The aim of the research is to compare translation procedures in two
typologically dissimilar text types and subsequently find out their pertinent text genre
characteristics. To this end, an EU institutional-legal text and an excerpt taken from the
novel The Shack by William P. Young have been used.
As far as methodological considerations underlying this publication are
concerned, before a corpus text analysis can take place, a theoretical framework, which
would provide a point of departure for ensuing analyses, needs to be established. As
this research contains a comparative dimension, before anything can be juxtaposed,
there must be a somewhat clear picture of what non-literary and literary texts in most
general terms are, what their essential typological specificities are and what bearing on
translation they have. Similarly, in order to carry out a relevant corpus text analysis,
translation procedures have to be investigated in terms of their essence, function, and
impact on translation.
Therefore, the present thesis will be essentially theoretical-empirical. By means
of the study of the secondary sources relevant pieces of knowledge necessary for the
approach to non-literary and literary texts will be be inferred and consequently applied
to the corpus text analysis zeroing in on comparing translation procedures. Granted, in
order to perform a comparative analysis of translation procedures, the delimitation of
crucial terms such as transposition, modulation, expansion, reduction, permutation,
calque and borrowing has to take place first. Moreover, the gamut of the above-said
translation procedures will have to be expanded in case of the literary text so as to
comply with its considerably wider range of lexico-structural language resources and
metaphorical character. Vinay and Darbelnets (1958/1995), Newmarks (1981, 1988)
and Schreibers (1993, 1998) models of translation procedures will serve as crucial
theoretical frameworks in the present work. The applicability of the synthesizing
translation procedures model consisting of procedures such as those outlined above will
be at the same time tested for the selected literary text.
Even if the models of translation procedures by Vinay and Darbelnet, Newmark
and Schreiber will be taken as a point of departure, this does not mean, of course, that
,

other translation studies scholars interpretations of the investigated procedures will be
strictly incompatible. Quite on the contrary, other elucidations of the examined
phenomena will be put under scrutiny whenever it will be deemed necessary, useful or
perhaps just thought-provoking to do so due to being sometimes at odds with some
commonplace accounts. By combining approaches of text linguistics to characteristics
of non-literary and literary texts, contrastive textual analysis and analytical-deductive
methods enhanced by a comparative dimension, the identification facet of research will
take turns with the interpretation line throughout the whole thesis layout.

1.!.! Research &uestions

Instead of a classic hypothesis, the following set of research questions, will be
taken into account and answered in the process of the unfolding analysis: Will oblique
translation procedures in the literary text surpass direct procedures? Will the non-
literary text exhibit a foreignizing veneer? Will modulation be extremely frequent in the
literary text translation? Which translation procedures will be distinctively
characteristic for the literary text? These questions, however, blending both theoretical
and empirical qualities, are very closely entwined and thus they ought to be researched
synchronically. The key research questions, though, are the following: Do different
textual genres lead to the employment of different translation procedures? What
striking differences between examined translation procedures across the selected non-
literary and literary text can be spotted?

1.' Research #aterial Descri(tion

The thesis corpus is made up of an English EU institutional-legal document
entitled Council Directive 2004/114/EC of 13 december [sic!] 2004 on the conditions
of admission of third-country nationals for the purposes of studies, pupil exchange,
unremunerated training or voluntary service and a novel excerpt The Shack penned by
William P. Young including their Slovak translations. The whole text corpus comprises
a total of 16 179 words that will be subjected to a contrastive analysis. Both texts were
5

selected from diametrically opposite textual genres quite deliberately so as to gain
a meaningful comparative dimension promising intriguing research results. An
important research inclusion criterion, however, was a roughly comparable time period
of a texts production so that no significant shifts in language development left their
mark on the examined textual genres. Further, the novel excerpts word count was
tantamount to that of the legal text in order to warrant relevant research outcomes.
The EU institutional-legal document (for conveniences sake hereinafter
referred to as non-literary text), falls under secondary legislation of the EU. More
specifically, it is sourced from the thematic repertoire of education and training. The
analysed text was retrieved from EUR-Lex databases website (http://eur-
lex.europa.eu/en/index/html) containing all EU legal documents published in the
Official Journal of the European Union simultaneously in all, up to this date, twenty-
three official languages. The selected non-literary text is approached as a paradigm text
typifying legal language commonly used in EU institutions. What is of paramount
importance, though, is that the non-literary text under discussion is a representative of a
so-called euro-text. That is to say that such a text is marked by an officially prescribed
style, which is manifested in a very high degree of language similarity (from text to
text) so that it is possible to speak about its matrix form (see Gibov, 2010: 103) or
homogenous discourse (Schffner, 2001: 172).
On the other hand, the fiction sample The Shack (hereinafter abbreviated as
literary text) is a novel with palpable religious undercurrents written by a Canadian
author William P. Young and published in 2007. The Shack has become a publishing
phenomenon in the United States and it was the top-selling fiction on the New York
Times best sellers list from June 2008 to early 2010. Despite the success and wide
appreciation by readership, the blockbuster novel has stirred criticism for its apparently
edgy theological slant
1
. On the other hand, as much as magnified it might seem, the
novels reviewer Eugene Peterson uplifted the legacy of this work of fiction looking at
deep moral issues and questioning ones approach to faith and forgiveness by the
following statement: This book has the potential to do for our generation what John
Bunyans Pilgrims Progress did for his (Young, 2007: book blurb). All in all, further
particularities of non-literary and literary text as such will be examined in greater detail
in Chapters 2.2 and 2.3 of this publication, respectively.

See http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Shack.

6

! on)literary $ Literary Te*t and Translation Revie+ed

Non-literary translation is the art of failure.
(Mike Shields)

Literary translation bridges the delicate emotional connections between cultures and
languages and furthers the understanding of human beings across national borders. In
the act of literary translation the soul of another culture becomes transparent, and the
translator recreates the refined sensibilities of foreign countries and their people
through the linguistic, musical, rhythmic, and visual possibilities of the new language.

(Professor Rainer Schulte, Co-Founder of American
Literary Translators Association)

The purpose of this chapter is to present and contrast non-literary and literary
text as two distinct genre/text types in the sense of the specific classes of texts
characteristic of a given scientific community or professional group and distinguished
from each other by certain features of vocabulary, form and style, which are wholly
function-specific and conventional in nature (Alcaraz and Hughes, 2002: 101). In
addition, the chapter also aims at juxtaposing the two text types from the point of view
of their translation specificities.
Admittedly, the theory of text types, which seeks to classify texts according to
their functions and features duly places non-literary and literary texts in a class of their
own. The fact, however, that most text typologies do not seem to agree on what to
contrast literary texts with technical, pragmatic, non-fictitious or even ordinary
implies that what distinguishes literary from other texts may not be entirely obvious.
Commonsensically speaking, if there is no tacit agreement on what makes the realm of
non-literature and literature singular, it may be equally uneasy to decide on what
grounds non-literary and literary translation, respectively, should be awarded their own
niche (see Hermans, 2007: 77). In this light, the opinion that the difference between the
language of the non-literary and literary text is tangibly easier to feel than pinpoint has
been voiced by many (Vilikovsk, 1982; Hermans, 2007; Snchez, 2009). Therefore,
the present chapter will try to give a true picture of this issue, first and foremost from
7

the angle of text linguistics, paving the way for the ensuing comparative
translatological analysis in Chapter 3.

!.1 To+ards Defining Te*t, -eneral Preliminaries

Text may be taken for a specific language medium which enables the formation
of cognitive ideas with the aim of imparting information and forming/interpreting a
coherent sequence of utterances. It is supposed to be endowed with referential
continuity and logical reasoning. For this reason, to create, understand and translate a
text means to form a specific cross connection between its semantic contents.
Within the ambit of text linguistics, text was initially viewed as an organised
unit larger than a sentence which consists of a sequence of formally (i.e. morpho-
syntactically) and semantically linked utterances unified thematically as well. This
means that a text was understood as a network made of intertwined syntactic wholes:
individual sentences and paragraphs. This, by a long way, oversimplified formal
conception of a text was substantially altered after the so-called communicative-
pragmatic turn in linguistic studies at the outset of the 1990s when a text started to be
conceived of as text-in-function, text-in-situation, as a socio-communicative
functional unit (Schmidt qtd. in Gpferich, 2006: 61). Hand in hand with this, one of
the central issues became the elaboration of the notion of textuality: which properties
does a text have to possess in order to be called a text? In this regard, de Beaugrande
and Dressler (2002: 10) interpret text as a communicative occurrence which must
meet certain standards/criteria of textuality, these being: cohesion, coherence,
intentionality, acceptability, informativity, situationality and intertextuality. If any of
these standards is not considered to have been satisfied, the text will not be
communicative and in turn, non-communicative texts are treated as non-texts.
Gpferich offers the following definition of text in her article in the seminal
German publication Handbuch Translation by Snell-Hornby:

A text is a thematic and/or functionally oriented, coherent linguistic or linguistically
figurative whole which has been formed with a certain intention, a communicative
intention and which fulfils a recognizable communicative function of the first or second
degree and represents a functionally complete unit in terms of content (for the
communicative function of the first or second degree); (Gpferich, 2006: 62; translation
by author).
3

As it follows from the recent definition of text given above, the modern perception of
text takes it beyond a mere list of sentences and emphasizes the communicative act-in-
situation providing the framework in which the text has its place. Nowadays, the
linguistic and semiotic fashioning of text seems determined by its communicative
function and the requirements for the above-said thematic orientation, intentionality, a
recognizable communicative function, coherence and completion, seem common for
the majority of text definitions available (cf. de Beaugrande and Dressler, 2002;
Doloughan, 2009).

!.! on)literary Te*t and Translation

The label non-literary text, as broad as it may seem, covers a wide range of
texts from administrative, legal and other official documents, via economic and
business texts, scientific, technical up to publicist texts. If the style of non-literary texts
were to be analyzed, one of their quintessential features would in all probability be
represented by notionality, being the consequence of their thematic structuring since
pragmatic content requires precision and unambiguously stated terms. In accord with
this, the semantics of non-literary texts words is confined to systemic coherence and
all the other irrelevant associations are pushed to the background.
As far as the language of non-literary texts is concerned, there is a striking
tendency towards stereotypical structures and language clichs in general. Precisely
these means of expressions make the non-literary style more or less formalized. The
direct relationship between language on the one hand and extra-linguistic reality on the
other seems crucial in the non-literary style. Accordingly, non-literary translation in its
essence stands for a stylistic operation which is based not on the transfer of aesthetic
but pragmatic information (Popovi, 1977: 192, translation by author). Despite
insurmountable differences between non-literary and literary texts, a common point
where literary and non-literary style meet is a stylistic field of iconicity since the
translator of a non-literary, specialized, pragmatic or non-fictitious text,
whatever its name, cannot be completely resistant to the figurative way of expression
(ibid.: 193).
Even if the customary perception of translation might be in the minds of many
linked up with translating literature, at present belles-lettres is believed to occupy not
more than 5% of the total of translated works. The remaining 95% of translations on the
:

present-day market are made up by texts originating in other fields bearing the common
umbrella term non-literary translation (Newmark, 2004: 8). This figure suggests that the
non-literary translation in the 21
st
century is of supreme importance.
The non-literary text chosen for the purposes of the present publication
represents an institutional-legal text, stemming from the secondary EU legislation.
Within the context of legal texts, the analysed specialized text is unique in a sense that
it blends traits of both international legal documents and domestic law (Kjaer, 2007:
40) for many texts sourced from secondary EU legislation are directly applicable in the
individual Member States of the EU.
Furthermore, seen from the point of view of text linguistics, the non-literary text
under scrutiny belongs according to Schffner and Adab (1997: 325) to a very
distinctive text type, so-called hybrid text. These texts, being the upshot of cultures and
languages in contact, are a feature of contemporary intercultural communication
marked by an increasing level of internationalization. They result from a translation
process and exhibit features that somehow seem out of place, strange or unusual
for the receiving, i.e. target culture. Hybrid texts allow the introduction into a target
culture of hitherto unknown and/or socially unacceptable/unaccepted concepts through
a medium which, by its non-conformity to social/stylistic conventions and norms,
proclaims the otherness of its origin (ibid.: 328). Hence, hybrid texts are endowed with
features that are somehow contradictory to the norms of the target language and culture.
Seen from a different angle, within the framework of Reiss translation-oriented
text typology, borrowing Bhlers three-way categorization of the functions of
language, the non-literary text under focus can be positioned as informative and
operative text type. Notably, the non-literary text is based on the plain communication
of facts and information; and simultaneously it appeals to the receiver (i.e. citizens of
the Member States in the EU) to act in a certain way (Reiss, 1981/2000: 163).
Moreover, despite the fact that the institutional habitat epitomizes a proverbial
melting pot of motley cultures of the Member States, communication in this ambience
should be thought of as essentially acultural, or at least marked by the reduction of the
cultural embedding (van Els qtd. in Biel, 2006: 4) since it is not possible to determine
the source and target culture unequivocally. In addition to this, affinities with any
existing target language conventions are to be explicitly avoided so as to differentiate
between the EU level and national practices (Koskinen, 2001: 294). Even if the
comparison of non-literary and literary text will be postponed until section 2.4 of this
2$

publication (see below), it is noteworthy to mention at this point that literary texts, in
contrast to specialized texts, certainly stand for a very cultural medium of expression
where the achievement of the proximity of (socio)cultural norms between the SL and
TL is of supreme importance.
From a translatological point of view, the non-literary text corresponds to
Newmarks semantic translation which is marked by a great respect for the original
tending to be more complex, more awkward and more detailed (1981: 39). The
translator perpetrating semantic translation is heedful of the syntactic structures and
stylistic peculiarities of the ST, transferring not only meaning but also the form of the
original. The semantic translation, as elucidated by Newmark, could also be likened to
Nords documentary translation which serves as a document of a source culture
communication between the author and the ST receiver (2005: 80), allowing the TT
receiver access to the ideas of the ST but making them aware that they read a
translation.
More narrowly, legal translation is often treated as a specific category in its own
right within non-literary translation and is described as the ultimate linguistic
challenge, combining the inventiveness of literary translation with the terminological
precision of the technical translation (Harvey, 2002: 177). Nonetheless, the primary
purpose of institutional-legal translation is to recreate the SL content in the TL in such a
manner so as to achieve the identical meaning, intent and legal effect. As arcevic
aptly explains:

Since the success of an authenticated translation is measured by its interpretation and
application in practice, it follows that perfect communication occurs when all parallel
texts of a legal instrument are interpreted and applied by the courts in accordance with
the uniform intent of the single instrument (arcevic, 2000: 5).

Thus, it can be said that the ultimate goal of legal translation is to produce parallel texts
that will be interpreted and applied uniformly by the courts. In present-day multilingual
society legal translation plays a key role as a communication mediator in international
law. As noted by Sandrini (2006: 117), as globalization trends intensify, the role of
national legal systems as the all-important factor in legal translation is being diminished
by transnational legal frameworks. Since legal texts result in legal effects their
translation ought to be as accurate as possible so as to not cause any inconvenience.
2

!.' Literary Te*t and Translation

Although it must be admitted that not much attention has been paid to the issue
of the definition of literature over the past two decades or so, what has attracted
interest, as Culler contends, is that literature is seen as a historical and ideological
category with its social and political functioning (Culler, 1997: 36). Nowadays,
definitions of literature tend to be functional and contingent rather than formal or
ontological, as illustrated by Eagleton (2008: 9) who argues in his influential textbook
Literary Theory that literature is best defined as a highly valued kind of writing. On
the other hand, Culler adopts in his Literary Theory: A Very Short Introduction a two-
pronged approach: the designation literature serves as institutional label, denoting a
speech act or textual event that elicits certain kinds of attention (ibid.: 27). However,
for historical reasons attention of the literary kind has been focused on texts displaying
certain features, notably such things as foregrounding of language, the
interdependence of different levels of linguistic organisation, the separation from the
practical context of utterance, and the perception of texts as both aesthetic objects and
intertextual or self-reflexive construct (Hermans, 2007: 79). This specificity of
literature is also confirmed by Toury (1980) who depicts it by means of the presence
of a secondary, literary code superimposed on a stratum of unmarked language (qtd. in
ibid.: 78)
In order to grasp the specifics of literary translation, it is deemed reasonable to
look at the properties of a literary text first. These are pre-determined by the realm of
literature, which has an innate capacity to appeal to ones feelings and unfetter ones
imagination. Bearing this in mind, it might seem appropriate to pose a question why
most people usually enjoy literary texts much more than their non-literary counterparts.
It would not be an overstatement to suggest that literary texts guarantee entertainment
on the basis of their artistic quality, provide the recipient with the authors experience
or world-view which may motivate them to think, act and re-evaluate their attitudes.
Clearly, the most important feature of a literary work of art is that it is a bearer
of an aesthetic function. Literary text comes into existence as a subjectively
transformed reflection of the objective reality in tune with the aesthetic-emotional
intent of the author: he/she endeavours to convey his/her ideas, thoughts and emotions,
which is enabled by his/her orientation towards experience. From the point of view of
the language resources choice, an immense lexical variability coupled with the
22

uniqueness of expression comes to the fore here. Another crucial feature of literary text
is connected with the release of the polysemy of words for an adequate understanding
of the text is achieved only through a careful mapping of its entire denotative and
connotative dimension (Hermans, 2007: 82). Besides, it is claimed that the principal
feature of literary text rests on its focus on the message, not on content (Landers, 2001:
7; Burkhanov, 2003: 139; Hermans, 2007: 78-79; Snchez 2009: 123).
Consequently, literary translation must be approached as a kind of
aesthetically-oriented mediated bilingual communication, which aims at producing a
target text intended to communicate its own form, correspondent with the source text,
and accordant with contemporary literary and translational norms of the receptor
culture (Burkhanov, 2003: 139). In the ambit of literary translation, the translator
delves in the aesthetic pleasures of working with great pieces of literature, of recreating
in a TL a work that would otherwise remain beyond reach or effectively encrypted.
One of the exasperatingly difficult things about literary translation in general is
the translators ability to capture and render the style of the original composition.
Notably, in literary translation how one says something may be as significant,
sometimes even more significant, than what one says. In technical translation, for
instance, style is not a consideration as long as the informational content makes its way
unaltered from SL to TL. Landers illustrates this issue by using a vivid freight-train
analogy:

In technical translation the order of the cars is inconsequential if all cargo arrives intact.
In literary translation, however, the order of the cars which is to say the style can
make the difference between a lively, highly readable translation and stilted, rigid,
artificial rendering that strips the original of its artistic and aesthetic essence, even its
very soul (Landers, 2001: 7).


Ideally, the translator should take pains to have no style at all and endeavour to
disappear into and become indistinguishable from the style of the author he/she
translates now terse, now rambling, sometimes abstruse but always as faithful to the
original as circumstances permit (ibid.: 90). However, all literary translators have their
individual styles, i.e. characteristic modes of expressions, which they more or less
consciously or unconsciously display.
More specifically, literary translation traditionally splits into translation of
poetry, translation of prose (fiction) and translation of drama, reflecting three major
23

strands of literary texts. While in the translation of poetry, achievement of the same
emotional effect on the TT recipient is intended, in drama the relationship between text
and performance, or readability and performability comes under focus (see Hrehovk,
2006: 53-55).
Translating prose is of special interest to us since the literary text under
investigation represents a sample of fiction. Compared to other genres of literary
translation, poetry in particular, far fewer works have been devoted to the specific
problems of translating literary prose. One explanation for this could be the higher
status that poetry usually holds, but this is more probably due to the proliferated
erroneous assumption that a novel is usually supposed to have a simpler structure than a
poem and is therefore more straightforward to translate (Bassnett, 2002: 114). Since
two prose texts differ not only in languages entering the process of translation but also
in terms of cultures and social conventions, fiction translation must be thought of as
not only interlingual transfer but also cross-cultural and cross-social transference.
Unlike other literary genres, fiction translation is not endowed with an insignificant
social influence because translated novels or short stories (being the most common
genres of prose fiction) may be read by millions of voracious readers and sometimes
successful novels may adapted into movies. All in all, the yardstick by which quality of
fiction translation is measured is the correspondence in meaning, similarity in style
(both authorial and text style) and function (Hrehovk, 2006: 54).
Turning our attention to the selected literary text subject to analysis, it should
be said that the novel pertains to expressive text type within the framework of Reiss
text typology because the author foregrounds the aesthetic dimension of language
(Reiss, 1981/2000: 63). Drawing on a well-known Barthes-inspired dichotomy
employed for literary texts classification, the analyzed novel belongs to so-called
readerly texts. These texts have a fairly smooth narrative structure and commonplace
language, with narratives and characters presented to the reader by the text allowing
him to be a consumer of the meanings, as opposed to writerly texts, challenging the
reading process in some way and making the reader work much harder to produce
meanings from a range of possibilities (see Thornborrow and Wareing, 1998: 148-149
for more detail).
From a translatological angle, the literary text corresponds to Nords
instrumental translation, which

2,

serves as an independent message-transmitting instrument in a new communicative
action in the target culture, and is intended to fulfil its communicative purpose without
the receiver being aware of reading or hearing a text which, in a different form, was
used before in a different communicative action (Nord, 2005: 81).


In order to flesh out the explanation above, it should be added that TT receivers read
the TT as if it were a ST written in their own language. What is more, Nords
instrumental translation can be put on a par with Newmarks communicative
translation whose essence rests on producing on its readers an effect as close as
possible to that obtained on the readers of the original, being smoother, simpler,
clearer, more direct and tending to undertranslate (Newmark, 1981: 39). Last but not
least, literary texts may brim with culture-specific terms, in contrast to non-literary
texts, which supports the idea that literary translation champions rendering as an
instrument of cultural transmission and negotiation.

!.. Com(aring on)literary and Literary Te*t

Having paid due attention to non-literary and literary text separately, this
subchapter can now home in on juxtaposing the two text types. The substantial
difference between the two is that whereas non-literary text is concerned with
information, facts and reality, literary text comprises the world of the mind, i.e. ideas
and feelings and is grounded on imagination.
While non-literary texts are primarily about objects from the extra-linguistic
reality, literary texts usually revolve around fictitious characters, being ontologically
and structurally independent from the real world. Even though literary texts attempt to
represent reality, they only imitate it at their best, which makes them mimetic in nature.
This pre-determines some semantic specifics of these two text types under discussion:
while non-literary texts are based on precision, reason and can be characterized by
more or less logical argumentative progression, literary texts as the product of authors
imagination offer a breeding ground for vagueness of meaning, ambiguity and multiple
interpretations. Besides, non-literary texts are written to be skimmed or scanned, while
literary texts are produced to be assimilated slowly or repeatedly and widely
appreciated by readership. Non-literary texts, on the one hand, are expected to fulfil a
certain pragmatic function while literary texts, on the other, are not intended for any
specific purpose; they can convey a range of intentions (to inspire, offer advice or even
25

shock), although they can gain their more specific and possibly individual pragmatic
function during the reading process.
Concerning linguistic properties of the investigated textual genres, the language
of literary texts is susceptible to getting old quicker because the texts stylistic layer is
burdened more in comparison to non-literary text. By contrast, what is getting old in
non-literary text is actual text information only (Popovi, 1977: 192). Further, in terms
of lexical specificities, vocabulary of non-literary texts is based on a high degree of
notionality, standardized language schemata and clichs with no register blending
permitted. On the contrary, the lexical facet of literary texts cannot be squeezed into
any sort of universal patterning, depending on author and his/her lexical richness it
varies from text to text. An important difference in lexis between the two textual genres
also lies in the use of poetic language, so endemic to literary texts, abounding in
metaphors, similes, personifications and other poetic devices which in a way make the
language of literature truly specialized, too. However, in marked contrast to non-
literary texts, no specialized subject matter knowledge is usually required for a literary
texts comprehension (granted, unless one reads e.g. John Grishams novels which are
set in a lawyers environment where the rudimentary knowledge of law for translator
would not come amiss).
Moving onwards, contrasting non-literary and literary texts from a translational
point of view, some radical dissimilarities can be observed, too. Firstly, rendering non-
literary text demands frequently complete faithfulness to the ST and utmost precision in
terminology, not admitting a very creative participation for the translator. Especially the
translation of institutional-legal text, constituting a partial subject of interest of this
publication, is heavily controlled and governed by norms. On the other hand, translation
of literary text is freer and more creative for it is supposed to offer an undistorted
interpretation of the fictitious metaculture, serving as a gateway to the fictitious world
and its culture. Thus, if literary translation is considered an art, then non-literary
translation may be considered a science (Hrehovk, 2006: 56). Secondly, in non-
literary texts the authors personality is hidden to say the very least, if not invisible,
whereas in literary texts writers personality is fully exposed given the communication
of his/her world-views, attitudes, and convictions. Thirdly, the interpretation aspect in
the non-literary text fulfils only an auxiliary function in stark contrast to literary
translation (see Popovi, 1977: 192). Consequently, the non-literary translator is
26

required to be an expert in the field in which he/she translates in order to be able to
perform an adequate intrasemiotic translation.
Last but far from least, the always sound Peter Newmark in his article cogently
sums up the difference between non-literary and literary translation as follows:

Literary and non-literary translation are two different professions, though one person
may sometimes practise them both. They are complementary to each other and are
noble, each seeking in the source text a valuable but different truth, the first allegorical
and aesthetic, the second factual and traditionally functional. They sometimes each
have different cultural backgrounds, occasionally referred to as the two cultures,
which are detrimentally opposed to each other (Newmark, 2004: 11).


Taking a critical approach, he then goes on to assert that while literary [translation] is
viewed as traditional, old-fashioned, academic, ivory-tower, out of touch, the non-
literary is philistine, market-led, coal in the bath [and] uncivilized(ibid.).
One way or another, having contrasted the two textual genres from the point of
view of their properties, language content and translation, seen matter-of-factly the
differences between them are more than obvious. However, comparing two very
dissimilar textual genres is likely to yield yet intriguing outcomes in the following
comparative analysis of their translation procedures.








27

' An Analysis of Translation Procedures in the on)
Literary and Literary Te*t Cor(us

The present chapter aims to investigate translation procedures as occurring in a
comparable non-literary and literary text corpus consisting of a selected EU
institutional-legal document and an excerpt from William P. Youngs best-selling novel
The Shack against a background of the English-Slovak language pair. The chapter sets
as its goal to classify, compare and subsequently find out the characteristics of
translation procedures as employed in the textual genres under study.
First, existing terminological and conceptual confusions concerning translation
procedures will be reviewed. Second, the selected translation procedures models by the
Vinay and Darbelnet (1958/1995), Newmark (1981, 1988) and Schreiber (1993, 1998)
will be presented, thus preparing the ground for the ensuing corpus text analysis.

'.1 Lead)in, -etting to -ri(s +ith the Terminological Cul)de)sac

Before delving into the problem area of translation procedures it might seem
fitting to elucidate what actually translation as such is. In general, seen purely from a
teleological angle, translation is an act of expressing a meaning which is communicated
in the source language (SL) into the target language (TL) as according to the meaning
contained in the source language. Accordingly, Newmark (1981: 7) defines translation
as a craft consisting in the attempt to replace a written message and/or statement in
one language by the same message and/or statement in another language. In a similar
vein, Catford (1965: 20) argues that translation lies in the replacement of textual
material in one language (SL) by equivalent textual material in another language (TL).
In addition, Nida (qtd. in: Zakhir, 2008: 3) states that translation consists in
reproducing in the receptor language the natural equivalent of the source language
message, first in terms of meaning and second in terms of style.
When analysing translations of any sort, be it literary or non-literary texts, there
are certain categories that allow us to examine how the target text (TT) functions in
relation to the source text (ST). These categories are widely known as translation
procedures or translation techniques. It should be highlighted at this stage, though,
that considerable terminological disagreement looms large among translation studies
23

scholars regarding the proper label to be used in this connection (cf. Molina and
Hurtado Albir, 2002: 498-499; Ordudari, 2007: 2; Gibov, 2010: 116 ff). For this
thesis sake, however, the author holds on to the former terminological designation.
2

Let us now shed some light on translation procedures from a conceptual point of
view and let us try to draw a sharp line of demarcation between translation procedures
and other closely related translatological notions (translation methods and translation
strategies, in particular) with which they are more often than not unjustly confused.
3

Translation procedures may be understood as a tool of textual analysis that represents a
process of searching for notable semantic and formal relations arising between the
original and the target text. Besides, translation procedures commonly originate under
textual comparing the original and its pertinent translation and in the long run they have
a bearing on a texts microstylistics, i.e. they influence lower levels of a texts structure,
notably its sentences and parts thereof. In light of the above, since translation
procedures enable us to analyse and classify how translation equivalence works, the
following quintessential characteristics can be ascribed to them (cf. Molina and
Hurtado Albir, 2002: 509):
they affect the result of translation
they are classified by comparison with the original

2
As it follows from Molina and Hurtado Albirs seminal article (2002), they consider translation
procedure to be largely synonymous with translation technique. However, there are translation studies
scholars who have voiced an opinion that such distinction is not very precise and call for a more rigorous
treatment of the problem under scrutiny. Nowadays, there is a tendency to use the term translation
procedure as a general category referring to particular steps undertaken by the translator while the term
translation technique seems to be singled out to name an act of selecting target-language units, i.e. an
actual operation or manipulation with linguistic material (Hrehovk, 2006: 44). All in all, one of the
greatest credits of Molina and Hurtado Albirs article rests in their ubiquitous drawing attention to
terminological-conceptual discrepancies between translation method, translation procedure (or technique)
and translation strategy.
3
This translation procedure-related designation confusion goes as far back as Vinay and Darbelnets
Comparative Stylistics of French and English (1958/1995), the first comparative study of its kind in
translation studies ever, wherein they introduced the perplexity by dividing the translation procedures
following the traditional dichotomy between literal and free translation. As they worked with isolated
language units they did not distinguish between categories that affect the whole text and categories that
refer to small units. Furthermore, the subtitle of their pioneering book, A Methodology for Translation,
stirred up even more uncertainties. In our view, a distinction should be made between translation method,
that is part of the process, a global choice that affects the whole translation, and translation techniques
that describe the outcome and affect smaller sections of the translation. Moreover, another downside of
Vinay and Darbelnets proposed translation procedures model was a fine line between language and text
problems. Their work was based on comparative linguistics and all the examples used to illustrate their
procedures were decontextualized. In addition, since they gave a single translation for each linguistic
item, the result was pairs of fixed equivalences. This led to a confusion between comparative linguistic
phenomena and phenomena related to translating texts. Therefore, translation techniques as put forward
by the French Comparative School of Stylistics are confined to the classification of differences between
language systems, not to textual solutions needed for translation (cf. Molina and Hurtado Albir, 2002:
506-507 for more detail).
2:

they affect micro-units of texts
they are by nature discursive and contextual
they are functional.
When opting for appropriate translation procedures, the translator should not
refrain from keeping their eye on the translation method he/she had chosen initially.
Indeed, translation procedures are contingent upon the choice of translation method,
which is a global choice of a translator on a large scale. For instance, if the aim of a
translator is to produce an exoticising translation which should respect all the
particularities of a source culture, they are to opt for a foreignizing translation method
and in tune with this the translation procedure of borrowing should rightly be expected
to be the most frequent. For this reason, one may unanimously agree with Newmark
(1988: 81) that while translation methods relate to whole texts, translation procedures
are used for sentences and the smaller units of language.
However, translation procedures and translation methods are not to be muddled
with translation strategies which refer to the procedures that translators themselves
activate when dealing with translation problems: when they unscramble semantic
relations among words, when they distinguish between core and less important ideas or
when they reformulate some information. All in all, translation strategies form a firm
part of a translators competence and they open up ways for finding an appropriate
translation solution on the basis of a suitable translation procedure chosen. Thus,
translation strategies and translation procedures occupy different places in problem
solving. While the former are part of the process, the latter affect rather the result.
(loosely based on Molina and Hurtado Albir, 2002: 508). Moreover, Krings (qtd. in:
Ordudari, 2007: 2) looks upon translation strategies as translators potentially
conscious plans for solving concrete translation problems in the framework of a
concrete translation task. As it is stated in the given definition, the notion of
consciousness appears to be of paramount importance for telling strategies apart from
all the other above-discussed translation-related categories, so commonly jumbled.



3$

'.! Selected Translation Procedures #odels
'.!.1 /ean)Paul 0inay $ /ean Darbelnet

Vinay and Darbelnet, pre-eminent representatives of the French Comparative
School of Stylistics, were among the first to have identified direct and oblique
translation procedures in their seminal monograph (1958/1995). It should not pass
unnoticed that their now-traditional distinction harks back to a well-known literal vs.
free translation dichotomy (see Table 1).
The authors draw on the idea that in some translation tasks it may be possible to
transpose the source language message element into the target language, because it is
based on either parallel categories (structural parallelism) or on parallel concepts,
which are the upshot of metalinguistic parallelisms. This is the case of so-called direct
translation procedures which occur when there is an exact structural, lexical or even
morphological equivalence between the languages. Thus, these are based on a
minimum source structure modification.
However, the harsh reality is that translators must many a time grapple with
certain gaps, or lacunae, to put it in Vinay and Darbelnets term, in the target language
(TL) which must be filled by corresponding elements in such a manner so that there is
an impression that the resulting texts message is the same. Due to structural or
metalinguistic dissimilarities between the languages entering the translation process the
translator must face situations where certain SL stylistic effects cannot be transposed in
the TL without upsetting its syntactic order or even lexis. From the above-mentioned it
follows that translators many a time need to have recourse to more complex, i.e.
oblique translation procedures. If translation were always only the instance of the
application of direct translation procedures, it would not require any special stylistic
skills on the part of the translator. In addition, translation would miss out on a certain
intellectual challenge for it would be relegated to an unambiguous transfer from the SL
into the TL (based on Venuti, 2000: 84 and Vinay & Darbelnet, 1958/1995: 31-34).
Oblique translation procedures are employed when a literal translation is unacceptable,
when structural or conceptual asymmetries arising between the SL and TL are
incommensurable. This pertains, in Vinay and Darbelnets view, to cases when the
message, when translated literary (ibid.: 34-35)

3

gives another meaning, or
has no meaning, or
is structurally impossible, or
does not have a corresponding expression within the metalinguistic
experience of the TL, or
has a corresponding expression, but not within the same register.

Table 1 below gives a classification of translation procedures as propounded by Vinay
and Darbelnet (see 1958/1995: 31-34 for more detail)
4
.

Table 1 Vinay & Darbelnets model of translation procedures






When assessing Vinay and Darbelnets model in its entirety one can hardly
overlook two fundamental translation methods that are mirrored in it, notably
exotization and naturalization. While the former is grounded on an undisturbed
approach towards the TT and retains elements of the source language (culture)
environment, the latter rests on the substitution principle underscoring the TTs
potential and its culture. Since in the institutional habitat it is first and foremost the
source text and its structure which make for crucial factors having a bearing on the
translation method choice on the basis of which the EU translator approaches the
translation process, an overall exoticizing approach to the studied non-literary text may

4
A detailed explanation of the adduced translation procedures one by one will be postponed until the
later sections of this thesis (cf. 3.3.1 onwards). It should be clarified at this stage, though, that some
Vinay and Darbelnets procedures, especially those of equivalence and adaptation are expected to be
conspicuously absent from the non-literary text under investigation due to its legal nature as these are
much more typical for a metaphorical and fictitious literary text. By way of definition, equivalence
within Vinay and Darbelnets conception is used to refer to cases where languages describe the same
situation by different stylistic or structural means (qtd. in: Munday, 2001: 58), which pertains to
translating idioms and proverbs, in particular. As it is evident from this quotation, Vinay and Darbelnets
understanding of equivalence is not be confused with its general perception in translation studies where it
refers to a relationship between ST and TT which enables us to call the final product translation. On the
other hand, adaptation involves changing the cultural reference when a situation in the source culture
does not exist in the target culture(ibid.).

Direct translation
procedures
Borrowing
Calque
Literal Translation

Oblique translation
procedures
Transposition
Modulation
Equivalence
daptation
32

rightfully be expected, as opposed to the naturalizing approach which should occur to a
considerably lesser extent. However, these assumptions for the selected EU non-literary
text are contrary to those concerning the literary text under scrutiny where a
naturalizing approach to translation is expected to be prevalent. In other words, the use
of oblique translation procedures in the literary text is presupposed to surpass the direct
translation procedures.
Furthermore, when appraising the outstanding merits of the French School of
Comparative Stylistics one should not leave unmentioned that Vinay and Darbelnet
were among the first to categorize the translation process in terms of small linguistic
changes occurring in translation of ST into TT,(qtd. in: Munday, 2001: 55) which later
started to be dubbed as shifts
5
. A further crucial parameter taken into consideration
by them was that of servitude and option. While the former is inexorably bound up with
mandatory transpositions and modulations due to dissimilarities between the two
language codes, the latter refers to non-obligatory changes in TL due to the translators
own style and personal preferences.
Notwithstanding the above-said merits of the distinguishing personalities of the
French Comparative School of Stylistics their work cannot escape certain points of
criticism with the lapse of time, though. These being first and foremost, hazy
boundaries between their suggested taxonomy categories, confining of their language
unit analysis down to lower discourse levels and differences between language systems
as such, not to text solutions as wholes. For this reason, in order to map out translation
procedures in the studied literary and non-literary texts with all their abundance of
lexico-stylistic language resources it was vital to enhance my theoretical framework by
other models, as outlined below.




5
Indeed, the term shift originated in Catfords highly influential work A Linguistic Theory of
Translation where he views translation shifts as departures from formal correspondence in the process
of going from SL into TL(1965: 73). Of supreme importance for translation theory were Catfords level
and category shifts, encompassing structural, class, unit (rank) and intra-system shifts (see Catford, 1965:
73-82 for more detail). However, Catford was dealing with shifts at the linguistic level only. It was not
until Popovi (1975), however unexpected this might seem, that the notion of shift has been enhanced by
another culture-oriented and interpretation facets.
33

'.!.! Peter e+mar1
Another relevant translation procedures model underpinning the corpus text
analysis of this dissertation was elaborated by a British translation studies scholar Peter
Newmark at Cambridge at the outset of the 1980s on the basis of comparing English
and German translations. In his book Approaches to Translation (1981: 30-31),
Newmark presents us with miscellaneous translation procedures, which are cogently
summarised in Table 2.
Table ! !ewmar"s model of translation procedures

Procedure
Alternative
Terminological Label
Example/Explanatory Note
Transcription
#Loanword#$doption$
Transfer$Transference$
Emprunt
dtente; coup d tat
Literal translation %ne&to&one translation la maison ~ the house
Calque
T'roug'&translation$
#Loan translation#
People(s Chamber ~ Volkskammer
Le)ical synonymy ein Greis ~ a very aged man
Componential analysis
Comparison of a *L word wit' a TL word w'ic' 'as
a similar meaning by means of common and different
semantic components +semes,
Transposition according to my friend ~ mein Freund meinte
Modulation ebensgefahr ~ danger de mort
Compensation
Loss of meaning or sound effect or metap'or in one
part of sentence is compensated in anot'er part
Cultural equivalence baccalaurat ~ !"level
Translation label
n appro)imate equivalent- sometimes proposed as
a collocation in inverted commas- w'ic' may later be
accepted. promotion sociale ~ social advancement
Definition Descriptive noun&p'rase or ad/ectival clause
0arap'rase
n amplification or free rendering of t'e meaning of a
sentence
E)pansion belebend ~ life"giving
Contraction 1eduction science anatomi#ue ~ anatomy
1ecasting sentences
*plitting of *L comple) sentences into two or more TL
sentences
1earrangement$
2mprovement

1emoving mista"es- misprints- idiolect or clumsy
writing in defect te)ts
Translation couplet
Transcription of a term followed by its translation.
Gemeinde $German unit of local government,

It should be pointed out that the translation procedures model given in Table 2
was partially enhanced in Newmarks follow-up publication A Textbook of Translation
(1988: 81-93) where he basically added some extra terminological labels for selected
translation procedures (reduction/contraction or transcription/transference/loanword,
in particular) or he pinpointed their meaning with greater accuracy. Among the newly
emerged translation procedures within his suggested up-dated taxonomy there was e.g.
naturalisation in the field of literary translation, referring to a procedure succeeding
3,

transference and adapting the SL word first to the normal pronunciation and then to the
normal morphology (word-forms) of the TL (ibid.: 82), which can be exemplified for
instance by words such as Performanz, attraktiv when taken over from English into
German. On the other hand, recognised translation made for a brand-new procedure in
the ambit of non-literary translation, which referred, in the authors own words, to the
official or generally accepted translation of any institutional term (ibid.: 89), e.g.
Rechtsstaat ~ constitutional state.
In the same way as with Vinay and Darbelnets model, certain Newmarks
procedures had to be ruled out from the corpus analysis of the studied non-literary text,
such as lexical synonymy, componential analysis, compensation, paraphrase,
rearrangements/improvements or translation couplets. Some of these, however, could
be particularly useful for the analysed literary text.

'.!.' #ichael Schreiber

In order to round off the theoretical framework underlying the corpus analysis of
the present thesis, Schreibers model of translation procedures has been chosen as the
third, more or less subsidiary, back-up system. The model was first presented in
Schreibers monograph bersetzung und Bearbeitung (1993) and was published later in
its abridged version in Handbuch Translation (1998: 151-154) by a Vienna-based
English scholar Mary Snell-Hornby.
When putting his translation procedures system together, Schreiber admittedly
drew on earlier models available, those by Vinay and Darbelnet and Malblanc, in
particular. In his own words, the author himself views translation procedures as
solution variants for translation problems (Schreiber, 1998: 153, translation by
author). Since the individual procedures definitions relate to selected areas only,
translations or smaller text parts can be best described only by means of a combination
of various procedures. Compared to the previously quoted models of Vinay and
Darbelnet and Newmark, Schreibers model shows transparent structuring which was
greatly missed with the other two authors since Schreiber plainly splits his procedures
into lexical, grammatical and semantic (see Table 3 below).


35

Table ' *c'reibers model of translation procedures

Procedure Note/Explanation


Le*ical

Le)ical borrowing Ta"ing&over of a le)ical unit
Le)ical substitution
*ubstitution of a *L le)ical unit by a TL
le)ical unit +trivial case,
C'ange of a le)ical unit structure C'ange in t'e realm of word&formation



-rammatical



3ord&for&word translation
wit' word&count- word&class and word
position retained
0ermutation 1e&location of sentence constituents
E)pansion 2ncrease in word&count
1eduction Decrease in word&count
2ntracategorial c'ange
C'ange of grammatical function wit'in
a word
Transposition C'ange of word&class
Transformation C'ange of syntactic construction

Semantic



*emantic borrowing
Verbali4ation of t'e same content
features- e5g5 wit' turns of p'rases or
idioms
Modulation C'ange of t'e point of view
E)plication 2ncrease in t'e degree of e)plication
2mplication Decrease in t'e degree of e)plication
Mutation
C'ange of t'e denotative content for
ot'er invariant(s sa"e under t'e r'yme
constraint in translating poetry

Judging by the information in Table 3 one can easily draw the conclusion that
certain translation procedures such as e.g. lexical substitution, intracategorial change or
mutation will have to be excluded from my analyses due to obvious non-applicability of
the said procedures to the scrutinized texts arising from their genre characteristics.
Overall, by mutually comparing the translation procedures models as put forward
by Vinay and Darbelnet, Newmark and Schreiber respectively, it has been ascertained
that all the presented models partially overlap as well as differ with respect to the
terminology used. The terminological labels for the pertinent translation procedures and
their corresponding definitions as occurring in Vinay and Darbelnets and Newmarks
systems tend to be pithier than those in Schreibers model. Sometimes, on the other
hand, quite the contrary is true about some translation procedures in Schreibers system
compared to the previous two models. Precisely these subtle differences in terminology
as well as in the overall scope of the individual procedures, among other things, will be
touched upon in the thesis next chapter.

36

'.' &uantitative Cor(us Te*t Analysis
'.'.1 Trans(osition
Beyond a shadow of a doubt, the comparison of originals with translations reveals
that more often than not two languages make use of grammatically dissimilar means
when conveying the same message. This may be attributed to insurmountable
structural-typological differences, or lacunae, in Vinay and Darbelnets words,
between the language codes.
Transposition, or shift, as Catford calls it, will be used in this dissertation in the
sense as it is commonly interpreted within translation studies; as an intentional and
often unavoidable grammatical change that occurs in translation from SL into TL (cf.
Bare, 1977: 110; Dokulil, 1982: 260; Newmark, 1988: 85; Venuti, 2000: 88; Zakhir,
2008: 2). In a narrow sense, transposition will be apprehended as replacement of one
word-class or syntactic category with another without altering the semantics of the
message, thus keeping the (non-)literary texts information invariant. First, our
principal translation studies scholars definitions of transpositions will be presented and
compared. Next, a quantitative corpus text analysis zeroing in on formal and functional
transpositions with an ensuing discussion of results gained will follow.
Newmark, in agreement with Schreiber and Vinay and Darbelnet, looks at
transposition as a change of the grammatical category in TL in comparison with that in
SL. In addition, he emphasizes that transposition may be used when literal translation
is grammatically possible but may not be in accord with natural usage in the TL
(Newmark, 1988: 86). Newmarks main contribution lies in the observation that shifts
illustrate frequent tension between grammar and stress (ibid.: 88). Nevertheless, from
the point of view of the present study his last remark seems particularly enticing:

Transposition is the only translation procedure concerned with grammar, and most
translators make transpositions intuitively. However, it is likely that comparative
linguistics research, and analysis of text corpuses and their translations, will uncover a
further number of serviceable transpositions for us (ibid.).


Furthermore, transpositions have been brought to notice by Schreiber, too. He
defines them in a very straightforward way as a change of word-class in translation
(Schreiber, 1993: 223). He argues that transpositions may be mandatory, when they are
caused by grammar or optional, when they are triggered off by stylistic needs.
37

Schreiber seems fully aware of the omnipresence of transpositions in translations for he
admits that they are fairly often employed in partnership with other translation
procedures.
When dealing with transposition within Vinay and Darbelnets model, it should
be mentioned that their clarification of the term under discussion seems to be the most
comprehensive. In their view, transposition encompasses not only change of parts of
speech but also syntactic transformations. Apart from these, a special understanding of
transposition relates to chass-crois, i.e. change of positions, which, however,
corresponds more with permutation, as propounded by Schreiber (cf. 3.3.4). In the same
way as Schreiber, the authors from the French Comparative School of Stylistics, split
transpositions into obligatory and optional. All in all, Vinay and Darbelnets approach
to transpositions is oriented more towards practical translating without analyzing the
circumstances and motivations of the shift. Precisely this was the criticism levelled at
their translation procedures by Delisle who argued that their procedures did not
describe the process through which equivalents appear but only the upshots thereof
(Klgr, 1996: 18). What is more, since Vinay and Darbelnets time attention has shifted
due to new developments in linguistics from microprocedures to text as a whole as a
unit of translation (see Neubert and Shreve, 1992).
Generally-speaking, transpositions commonly split into word-class and sentence-
member transpositions depending on whether word-classes or sentence-member
categories are liable to alter in translation into TL. In this connection, the Czech scholar
Klgr (1996: 129) speaks of formal and functional transpositions, respectively. Since
word-class (or formal) transpositions, as already their name betrays, are grounded on
the change of word-classes between SL and TL, they would most likely correspond to
class shifts and unit (rank) shifts within Catfords classification of category shifts.
6

Tables 4 and 5 below give an overview of the most common word-class
transposition types present in the studied non-literary and literary text that have been
revealed by means of a contrastive corpus text analysis.




6
Catfords class shifts comprise shifts from one part of speech to another. On the other hand, unit (or
rank) shifts take place where the translation equivalent in the TL is at a different rank to the SL. Rank
here refers to the hierarchical linguistic units of sentence, clause, group, word and morpheme (Munday,
2001: 61).
33

Table . n %verview of word&class transpositions in t'e non&literary te)t

EN S !" Type Abbr# $
T'e aut'ority of a Member *tate wit'
res(onsibility for t'e entry and
residence of students
%rg6n 7lens"8'o 9t6tu 2od(ovedn3 4a
vstup a pobyt 9tudentov
! d/ :a; <=5><
Member *tates may require t'e period of
validity of t'e travel document to cover
at least t'e duration of t'e planned stay5
?lens"8 9t6ty m@Au poAadovaB- aby bol
cestovnC do"lad (latn3 aspoD po7as
trvania predpo"ladan8'o pobytu5
! V
:b; <=5><
laws- regulations- and administrative
provisions necessary to com(ly wit' t'is
Directive
46"ony- in8 pr6vne predpisy a spr6vne
opatrenia potrebn8 na dosiahnutie
s4ladu s touto smernicou
V !
:c; >E5F<
3'ere necessary- t'e Member *tates
s'all grant students and$or employers
prior aut'ori4ation5
V prGpade (otreby udelia 7lens"8
9t6ty 9tudentom a$alebo
4amestnancom predbeAn8 povolenie5
d/ !
:d; <5>H
T'e Member *tates may wit'draw or
refuse to renew a residence permit
issued on t'e basis of t'is Directive w'en
it 'as been issued fraudulently.
?lens"8 9t6ty m@Au odobraB povolenie
alebo odmietnuB predIAiB povolenie na
pobyt vydan8 na 46"lade te/to
smernice- a" bolo 4Gs"an8 (odvodom.
dv ! :e; <5>H
Migration J555K does not de(end on t'e
labour mar"et situation5
Migr6cia J555K nie /e 25visl5 na situ6cii
na tr'u pr6ce5
V d/

<5>H


Table 6 n %verview of word&class transpositions in t'e literary te)t

EN S S% Type Abbr# $
T'e icy rain pellets stung 'is c'ee"s and
'ands as 'e carefully wor"ed 'is way up
and down t'e slig't undulations of t'e
driveway5
Bro"y Ladov8'o daAMa sa mu lepili na
tv6r a ru"y- "eM opatrne "r67al 'ore
a dole po mierne 2vlnene% ceste5
! d/
:a; <=5NE
bout t'at time and almost for two years
our 'anging out stopped- as if by some
unspo"en mutual agreement5
V tom 7ase sme sa ta"mer na dva ro"y-
a"oby sme sa na tom be4 re7G dohodli-
prestali spolo7ne potulovaB5
! V
:b; <O5E=
*ome'ow eac' person feels li"e t'e
master of 'is or 'er own world- simply
because t'ose little droplets of water
free4e as t'ey hit t'e ground5
PaAdC a"osi nadobudne (ocit7 Ae /e
p6nom vlastn8'o sveta- a to len preto-
Ae "vap@7"y vody pri do(ade na 4em
4amQ4a/R5
V !
:c; EE5EE
2 confess to you t'at 2 desperately want
everyt'ing Mac" 'as told me to be true.
0ri4n6vam- Ae 4Rfalo c'cem- aby
v9et"o- 7o Mac" povedal- bola (ravda.
d/ ! :d; <F5FH
T'e world went momentarily blac1- or
so it seemed5
*vet na c'vGLu s8ernel- alebo sa to
aspoD 4dalo5
d/ V

N5FS
Tis fat'er was a closet drin"er5 Ue'o otec (ota%om1y popG/al5
! dv

E5N<
Te decided to leave t'e dri44ly
bloodstained mess rig't w'ere 'e doffed
it in t'e entryway and retreated
(ainfully to t'e bat'room to e)amine 'is
wounds5
1o4'odol sa nec'aB premo7enC a
4a"rvavenC neporiado" tam- "de 'o 4o
seba 4'odil- pri vstupnCc' dver6c'- a
ubolen3 v"ro7il do "RpeLne- aby
pres"Rmal svo/e rany5
dv d/

N5FS
s you#ll see- t'ese are not easy t'ings to
tal" about5
"o uvidGte- sR to veci- o "torCc' sa
ne'ovorG 9ah1o.
d/ dv

>5=F
*ome companies lose moneyVmeaning
t'ere are t'ose w'o find no /oy w'en
everyt'ing s'uts down tem(orarily5
WatiaL 7o si nie"tor8 spolo7nosti
4arobia 7osi navy9e- in8 prGdu o
penia4e X 7o 4namen6- Ae sR a/ ta"G-
"torCm nerobG radosB- "eM musia na
8as 4avrieB5
dv ! :e; <5>N
Mac" bundled up and 'eaded outdoors to
struggle t'e 'undred or so yards down
t'e long driveway to t'e mailbo)5
Mac" sa 4ababu9il- vy9iel 4 dvier a
nam5havo "r67al asi sto metrov po
dl'e/ prG/a4dove/ ceste " po9tove/
sc'r6n"e5
V dv

<5>N


3:

Judging by the information in Tables 4 and 5, respectively, one may conclude that
both text genres exhibit common formal transposition types, notably N Adj, NV,
V N, Adj N and Adv N, which have been tagged in the Tables by {a} - {e},
accordingly. In both texts, the word-class transposition of a verbal SL element into a
nominal TL element is numerous. While in the non-literary text, the V N word-class
transposition accounts for 73.21% of all identified transpositions, in the literary text it
reaches the value of 33.33%. Similarly, in both texts, a considerable number of V N
occurrences is made up by gerunds, e. g. Fellowships may be taken into account in
assessing the availability of sufficient resources ~ Pri posudzovan dostupnosti
dostatonch zdrojov by sa mohli bra do vahy tipendi (non-literary text); Raising a
family kept her from pursuing dreams of becoming a doctor ~ Starostlivos o rodinu jej
zabrnila uskutoni sen sta sa lekrkou (literary text). These gerundial forms (with a
total of 19.51% of all V N transpositions in the non-literary text and that of 21.05%
in the literary text) have been classified as essentially verbal forms
7
in their nature,
hence fulfilling the transpositions prerequisite for the change of the grammatical
category in the TL in comparison with the SL.
On the whole, the comparison of the results gained in Tables 4 and 5 reveals that
the examined literary text shows a considerably greater typological variation of word-
class transpositions. This ostentatiously richer variety of formal transpositions might be
ascribed to the more manifold nature of the literary texts lexico-stylistic language
resources in comparison to the non-literary text. With respect to the literary text,
interestingly enough, there are more frequent reverse-order transpositions (N
Adj/Adj N; NV/ VN; N Adv/Adv N; Adv Adj/AdjAdv), which goes,

7
It goes without saying that gerund as a specific non-finite form ranks among archetypical features of
English syntax and as a grammatical category is quite uncommon to the Slovak language system. Several
authors (Dukov, 1994; Quirk, 1999; Biber, 2000) approach gerund as a form which displays a number
of verbal as well as nominal features, which makes it from both a morphological as well as syntactic
point of view truly special. Nominal features of gerund are evident in the fact that it can occur in all
syntactic functions of a noun phrase: it can be determined by a possessive pronoun or common or
adnominal case. On the other hand, distinction between the active and passive voice, temporal
differentiation (simultaneousness or anteriority of verbal action, or its ability to fulfil the principal
syntactic function of verb, that said to express the verbal component of the predicate (object, adverb,
complement) reveal a whole lot about its verbal characteristics (see Petrlkov, 2007: 78). Thus, it seems
apparent that due to this unique character of the English gerund one cannot determine hard-and-fast rules
which would make it a solely nominal or verbal form. Since the excerpted gerunds in the present corpus
show mostly object complementation (e.g. the purpose of granting further rights), they have been
classified as primarily verbal forms for this thesis sake despite their boundary status between nominal
and verbal form.

,$

however, hand in hand with the above-mentioned abundance of the lexico-stylistic
means employed.
In this connection, it is vital to underscore that the N Adj word-class
transposition has been carefully kept apart from what has been dubbed in this
publication as N Adj constituent transposition. While the former has been mostly
envisaged as part of a noun phrase which is, as a rule, embedded into another,
structurally more complex or superordinate phrase, the latter rests on recategorization
of noun
8
as part of noun phrase only into adjective in TL (e.g. immigration policy ~
prisahovaleck politika; sales meetings ~ obchodn stretnutia).
In quantitative terms, constituent transposition, with a total of 94 occurrences is
much more preponderant in the non-literary text, compared to 8 occurrences in the
literary text. This almost twelve times higher incidence of constituent transpositions in
the non-literary text, however, is bound up with its much lower type-token ratio
(reaching the value of 25.53%), due to a template-like nature of the lexical repository
of the institutional-legal document. In terms of transpositions of other word-classes,
though, the frequency of their occurrence in the non-literary text (56x) is almost
tantamount to that in the literary text (57x). On the whole, there are a total of 150 word-
class transpositions in the non-literary text as opposed to 65 word-class transposition in
the literary text. Even if in case of the latter, the overall number of formal
transpositions may seem a little bit distorted due to the non-literary texts lower type-
token ratio, one can argue that word-class transposition in general, regardless of the text
genre in which it occurs, represents a powerful translation procedure serving as a proof
of considerable structural dissimilarities between the English and Slovak languages.
Moving onwards, another identified group of transpositions in the text corpus is
that of sentence-member transpositions. On a terminological note, it is noteworthy that
it is not uncommon to refer to it as functional transposition (Klgr, 1996: 129), too,
since it affects the syntactic function of the TL element as against that of the SL
element. As regards Catfords classification of shifts, structural shifts concur with it.

8
To avoid misunderstanding, it should be pointed out that what has been labelled as constituent
transposition in this thesis represents a modification amalgamation of two nouns taking the structural
form of N + N (noun + noun). Even though the pre-modification of a noun by another noun in English
commonly contributes to its adjectival nature (e.g. language training), the first noun in structures like
this has been treated in this dissertation, from a purely morphological angle, as a noun which causes in
the TL a shift into another word class, thus fulfilling an essential condition for transposition to take place.
The same interpretation of the first constituent in modification amalgamation of two nouns (in both
compounds and free word groups) is advocated by Dukov (1994: 27-28) and Biber (2000: 588-591).

,

The shift in the syntactic function of the SL element, however, is not accompanied by
the lexical content alteration which remains intact. This view has also been supported
by Alcaraz and Hughes (2002: 181) when they argue that both SL and TL constituents
may be fairly said to possess the same semantic weight or equivalent semic density.
When juxtaposing formal and functional transpositions, it should be pointed out that
precisely this intactness of the semantic content is what they share in common.
In both analysed texts, the sentence-member transposition between subject and
object can be encountered very frequently (see Tables 6 and 7): Access to economic
activities for the first year of residence may be restricted by the host Member State ~
Hostitesk lensk tt me obmedzi prstup k zrobkovej innosti poas prvho roku
pobytu (non-literary text); Arms flailing wildly in the hopes of mainting the potential
for balance, Mack found himself careening directly toward the only tree of any
substantial size bordering the driveway ~ Mack divo mval rukami v ndeji, e mu to
akosi umon nadobudn rovnovhu, no zistil, e mieri k jedinmu mohutnejiemu
stromu pri prjazdovej ceste (literary text). The overview of identified functional
transpositions in the examined texts is given in Tables 6 and 7.

Table : n %verview of sentence&member transpositions in t'e non&literary te)t








EN S S% Type $
Third country nationals w'o fall into
t'e categories of unremunerated
trainees and volunteers J555K are not
covered by t'is Directive5
a ;t5tnych (r<slu;n<1ov trete% 1ra%iny7
"torG spada/R do "ategYrie neplatenCc'
st6Aistov a dobrovoLnG"ov J555K sa t6to
smernica nev4Ba'u/e5
*ub/ %b/
FN5SZ
Member *tates may require students to
report- in advance or ot'erwise- to an
aut'ority designated by the #ember
State concerned.
?lens"8 9t6ty m@Au vyAadovaB- aby
9tudenti na'l6sili org6nu- "torC ur7G
dot1nut3 8lens13 ;t5t7 vopred alebo
inCm sp@sobom5
%b/ *ub/
EN5HO
[ellows'ips may be ta"en into account
in assessing the availability of
sufficient resources.
0ri posud4ovanG dostu(nosti
dostato8n3ch 2dro%ov by sa mo'li braB
do Rva'y 9tipendi65
%b/ tt !
EE5EE
The notification s'all specify t'e
possible redress procedures available5
0 o2n5men< sa uvedR dostupn8 moAnosti
pres"Rmania ro4'odnutia5
*ub/ dv
of 0lace
F5NS
3'en t'e Member *tates adopt these
measures- t'ey s'all contain a
reference to t'is Directive5
?lens"8 9t6ty uvedR priamo v (ri%at3ch
o(atreniach od"a4 na tRto smernicu5
%b/ dv
of 0lace
F5NS
,2

Table = n %verview of sentence&member transpositions in t'e literary te)t

EN S S% Type $
Cold was creeping quic"ly t'roug' 'is
coat and sweater and #ac1 "new t'e
ice rain t'at was bot' melting and
free4ing beneat' 'im would soon
become a ma/or discomfort5
0od "ab6t a sveter #ac1ovi rCc'lo
preni"al c'lad- a on vedel- Ae LadovC d6AM-
"torC sa pod nGm ro4t6pa i mr4ne 46roveD-
7os"oro m@Ae sp@sobiB veL"C probl8m5
*ub/ %b/
E=5=
1aising a family "ept 'er from
pursuing dreams of becoming a
doctor5
*tarostlivosB o rodinu /e/ 4abr6nila
us"uto7niB sen staB sa le"6r"ou5
%b/ tt !
<N5=
Te is J555K slig'tly over+eight7 balding-
s'ort w'ite guy
Ue to J555K c'lapG" s miernou nadv5hou7
ple9ive/Rci niA9G beloc'
Compl tt !
N5=
2n all t'e time 2 'ave "nown 'im 'e
'as been a rather gentle and 1ind
soul5
0o celC 7as- 7o 'o po4n6m- m6 ve9mi
%emn4 a l5s1av4 du;u. Compl %b/ <=5=
Mac" is not comfortable wit' 'is
writing s"illsVsomet'ing t'at 'e
"nows 2 am (assionate about5
!ie /e si istC pri pGsomnom vy/adrovanG X
a vie- Ae /a sa tCmto veciam venu/em
v5;nivo r6d5
Compl dv of
Manner
<=5=
#arch unleas'ed a torrent of rainfall
after an abnormally dry winter5
0 marci sa po nenorm6lne suc'e/ 4ime
ro4pRtali prud"8 daAde5
*ub/ dv of
Time
N5=
\Tey- Mac"- is t'at you] 1ecogni4ed
your voice5^
_To ste vy- Mac"] *po4nala som v6s (o
hlase5^
%b/ dv of
Manner
N5=
>is face loses emotion li"e tide going
out5
? %eho tv5re sa vytratia emYcie a"o pri
odlive5
*ub/ dv of
0lace
<=5=
3it' roug' ice and s'arp gravel
gouging 'is hands and 1nees- Mac"
'alf crawled and 'alf slid until 'e
eventually made it to a level part of
t'e driveway5
Do dlan< a 1olien sa mu vrCvali Lad a
ostr8 "amien"y5 Mac" spola lie4ol a spola
sa "I4al- "Cm sa napo"on nedostal na
spodnR RroveD prG/a4dove/ cesty5
%b/ dv of
0lace
N5=
Te would 'ave to wait until !an made
it 'ome before he +ould get any
real medical attention.
a s1uto8n4 2dravotn<c1u
starostlivos@ bude musieB po7"aB- "Cm
sa nevr6ti !an5
dv %b/ N5=

When interpreting the results of the sentence-member transposition analysis, one
can draw from the frequency distribution provided by the tables above that
transpositions between Subj and Obj make for major shifts in both analysed texts. The
occurrence of the most frequent Obj Subj transpositions with a total of 35.89% in
the non-literary text, is however, entirely absent from the literary text genre. This can
be interpreted by a striking genre incidence of the passive in the EU institutional-legal
text where it represents a quintessential stylistic feature of legalese (see Crystal and
Davy 1986; Alcaraz and Hughes 2002; Caliendo, Di Martino and Venuti 2005), in stark
contrast to the literary text. Moreover, in both texts the Obj Att N transposition
assumes a fairly prominent placement. Both results in Tables 6 and 7 put this functional
transposition type second in terms of the frequency of occurrence. In addition to these,
minor functional transpositions such as those between Subj Adv of Place and Obj
Adv of Place stand for the common intersection points between the two texts. On the
whole, similarly to the word-class transposition analysis carried out, in case of the
sentence-member transposition analysis, too, it has been found out that the literary text
exhibits a much greater variation (compare Tables 6 and 7), which can be attributed yet
,3

again to the more manifold lexico-stylistic language resources used, having a bearing
on the texts level of functional units.
An intriguing finding within the performed corpus analysis is that word-class
and sentence-member transposition cannot be separated too strictly from each other for
the change of a word-class fairly often leads to a concomitant change of the syntactic
function of the TL constituent, as amply demonstrated by the following examples:
Fellowships may be taken into account in assessing the availability of sufficient
resources ~ Pri posudzovan dostatonch zdrojov by sa mohli bra do vahy tipendi
(non-literary text) or He swallowed a couple over-the-counter painkillers to dull the
throbbing and limped toward the front entry ~ Zobral z police dve tabletky na utenie
pulzujcej bolesti, prehltol ich a odkrval k prednm dverm (literary text). As the
excerpted corpus examples intimate, in both texts the formal V N transposition is
commonly accompanied by the functional Obj Att N transposition when comparing
originals against their pertinent translations, resulting in what could be labelled as
transposition merger.
On balance, quantitatively-speaking there are 39 sentence-member
transpositions that have been identified in the non-literary text, as opposed to 20
sentence-member transpositions in the literary text. Thus, the ratio of the occurrence of
sentence-member transpositions is almost 1.95 times higher in the analyzed non-literary
text, which suggests that sentence-member transposition turned out to be more
recurrent in the said text genre.
In short, based on the carried out corpus text analysis it can be strongly argued
that by transpositions in general terms are meant interlingual shifts in the grammatical
structure, status or function of TL units. When using transpositions, SL and TL
syntagmatic or syntactic structures possess the identical meaning, however, they do not
match in terms of their formal or functional facet. Given the significant linguistic-
structural differences between the English and Slovak language codes, transpositions of
the discussed twofold nature are quite plentiful in the corpus since they offer translators
possibilities that help them eliminate the problem of untranslatability. In case of the
word-class transposition, V N transposition is prevalent in both texts, followed by the
N V and Adj N types as regards the literary text. The sentence-member
transpositions between Subj and Obj followed by those between Obj and Att N were
preponderant in both texts. On the whole, the studied literary text exhibits a much wider
typological variety of the examined transpositions compared to the non-literary text.
,,

Besides, translators mostly make use of transpositions intuitively when seeking ways to
transfer the ST into the TT. A whole array of factors of objective as well as subjective
nature seems to influence the employment of transposition, ranging from irrefutable
structural differences between the two languages entering the translation process up to
subjective preferences of translator.

'.'.! #odulation

This oblique translation procedure entails a variation of the form of the
message, obtained by a change in the point of view (Venuti, 2000: 89). This suggests
that this semantic-pragmatic procedure rests on a shift of cognitive categories between
two languages for it alters the category of thought, the focus, the point of view and the
whole conceptualization of a described phenomenon (Hardin and Picot qtd. in Zakhir,
2008: 3). This shift deems to be justified in cases when a literal or even transposed
translation results in a grammatically correct utterance but is still, however, considered
somewhat unsuitable, unidiomatic or awkward in the TL (Vinay and Darbelnet,
1958/1995: 36).
Of all translation procedures, modulation appears to be the most thoroughgoing:
whereas transposition puts the translators, first and foremost, grammatical abilities to
the test, modulation is said to be a real touchstone for a competent translator. The cause
for this is to be sought in the very nature of modulation. While transposition affects
grammatical function of TL units only, modulation, on the other hand, involves
alteration of semantic categories or the processes by which thoughts are conveyed. For
illustration consider the following examples from the text corpus: legal challenge ~
opravn prostriedok, third-party insurance policy ~ poistenie zodpovednosti za kodu
spsoben pri vkone innosti, possible redress procedures ~ monosti preskmania
rozhodnutia (non-literary text)? the late arrival ~ najmlad prrastok v rodine, One can
almost hear a unified sigh rise from the nearby city ~ lovek takmer pouje jednotn
vdych stpajci z nealekho mesta (literary text).
Vinay and Darbelnet (ibid.) see modulation as a change in point of view that
allows us to express the same phenomenon in two languages in a different way. In all
probability, they themselves were truly aware of the rather sweeping nature of their
proposed definition for they dealt with it in several places of their monograph,
,5

attempting to illustrate the procedure in question by vivid examples. Overall, they
postulated 11 types thereof (ibid.: 89-90), grounded on the following substitutions: (a)
abstract and concrete; (b) cause and effect; (c) means and result; (d) the part for the
whole; (e) the whole for a part; (f) reversal of the point of view; (g) intervals and limits
(or duration and date; distance and destination); (h) sense modulation; (i) form, aspect,
usage; (j) geographical modulation; (k) change of comparison or symbol.
Moreover, as with transpositions, they distinguished between obligatory (or
fixed) and optional (or free) modulations. As to the former, they are caused by an
objectively dissimilar structure and usage of two languages. As regards the latter, cases
of free modulation stand for single instances not yet fixed and sanctioned by usage, so
that the procedure must be performed anew each time. As soon as a recipient when
reading a translation where a free modulation has been used instantly feels the
naturalness of expression, free modulation tends to a unique solution, which is
necessary rather than optional. It is therefore evident that between fixed and free
modulation there is but a difference of a degree and as soon as a free modulation is
employed often enough, or is felt to offer the only solution, it may become fixed (ibid.:
37). In this connection it is noteworthy that the Czech scholar Bare (1974: 8) reached a
similar conclusion in his article where he equally splits modulations into mandatory and
free.
As far as Newmarks and Schreibers apprehension of modulation is concerned,
they both draw on the French School of Comparative Stylistics terminology. In the
same manner as Vinay and Darbelnet, Newmark (1988: 88) understands by modulation
a variation through a change of viewpoint, of perspective and very often of category of
thought. Surprisingly enough, even if he finds Vinay and Darbelnets categorisation of
modulation somewhat unconvincing, he does admit that their abundant examples are
always thought-provoking. Therefore, Newmark treats individual modulation types in
compliance with Vinay and Darbelnet and splits them into the change of the abstract for
concrete, cause for effect, pars pro toto, totum pro parte, reversal of terms or active for
passive and so forth. Overall, Newmark sheds a critical light on some Vinay and
Darbelnets modulations. In his view, the negated contrary should be superseded by
positive for double negative (or double negative for positive). Similarly, part for the
whole seems equally misleading and prefers to call it familiar alternatives instead.
,6

Finally, Schreibers interpretation (1993: 226, translation by author) of
modulation ranks it among semantic procedures as a change of perspective by means
of verbalization of other content features without altering sense. In addition to this,
Schreiber remarks that the sense is only expressed by other symbols in two languages.
At the same time, when using modulation in some cases the denotative equivalence can
only be achieved when assuming the same knowledge of the referential content with SL
and TL recipients.
In order to paint yet a richer picture of possible interpretations of modulation, it
is vital to take into account some more recent theories. In this respect, a radically
different view of modulation in comparison with the previously quoted approaches has
been put forward by relevance theory, as expounded by Sperber and Wilson in 1995
and applied to translation by Gutt. The relevance theory suggests that when one reads a
text he/she constructs a mental representation in the aftermath of the interpretative
process. Accordingly, a translators goal is to produce a text in the TL which, in the
right context, will enable the reader to construct a mental representation that resembles
the one constructed by the reader of the ST (Salkie, 2001: 439). Given the assumptions
above, modulation may be construed as a relation between two texts that yield the same
mental representation but via a different process of interpretation (ibid.).
Besides, another novel perspective on modulation is courtesy of van Hoof who
elucidates it as a type of transposition at the global level, applying to categories of
thought, not to grammatical categories (qtd. in ibid.: 434). Granted, the mention of the
application of modulation to categories of thought is nothing trail-blazing, however,
the inter-link with transposition makes it stimulating. Van Hoofs approach
immediately foregrounds the crux of the matter in analysing modulation, that said, an
inter-lingual juxtaposition of various conceptual categories being applied to the same
situation:

Whereas with transposition the translators primary concern is the grammatical
resources available in the TT, with modulation the principal consideration is the events
or states of affairs that the words refer to. In the case of transposition, the guiding
question is how would the target language naturally express it?; with modulation the
question is how would a speaker of the target language naturally conceive of it?
(Salkie, 2001: 437).



,7

As it follows from the lines above, a translator who deals with modulation is obliged to
take into account an extra dimension which transposition does not entail: not the words
only but what they refer to, too.
Moving onwards, after bringing out some crucial insights into the term
modulation, looking at the range of selected scholars interpretations, it seems proper to
pay heed to the actual text corpus analysis of modulation now. The in-depth corpus
analysis has uncovered that modulation may be encountered both in lexis as well as in
syntactic structures in both analysed texts. Modulation of the former sort has been
labelled as the so-called modulation of expression while modulation of the latter type
has been given the designation pure modulation, in tune with Newmark (1988: 89).
Turning our attention to the modulation of expression first, it is essential to
underscore that in the non-literary text 37.5% of modulations of this sort are
terminology-oriented, which can be exemplified by the following: academic record ~
priebeh tdia na vysokej kole or possible redress procedures ~ monosti preskmania
rozhodnutia. Besides, another group of the revealed modulations of expressions with
34.38% pertains to language schemata (also known as language clichs or templates).
These serve to demonstrate that modulation as a translation procedure is not confined to
specialized terms only, but operates at higher discourse levels such as parts of
sentences, too, as evinced by e.g. This Directive shall be will without prejudice to more
favourable provisions ~ Tto smernica sa nedotka vhodnejch ustanoven or Subject
to Article 3, a third-country national [...], shall .... ~ Pokia lnok 3 neustanov inak,
prslunk tretej krajiny [...] mus ... . Apart from the terminology-oriented modulations
and modulations of language schemata, the last ascertained group within modulations
of expressions with an almost equal frequency distribution (28.13%) compared to the
previous two are modulations which all congruently convey a dissimilar temporal point
of view, or a change in the point of view of interval/limit, to put it in Vinay and
Darbelnets terms. For instance, the interlingual juxtaposition such as a third-country
national [...] shall not be below the minimum age nor above the maxim age set by the
Member State concerned ~ ttny prslunk tretej krajiny [...] mus dosiahnu
minimlny vek a nesmie prekroi maximlny vek, ako je stanoven dotknutm
lenskm ttom evinces that both languages, English and Slovak face the same
situation, however, with a certain divergence in the usage of formal means as far as the
expression of a temporal perspective is concerned.
,3

For the sake of comparison, within the literary text, there are no modulations of
language schemata present due to their common incidence in the EU institutional-legal
text only. However, terminologically-oriented modulations occur in the examined text,
too, even if to a much lesser extent, e.g. Overtaken by the conviction of the moment,
Mack confessed in tears that he hadnt done anything ~ V tej psobivej chvli sa Mack
so slzami v oiach priznal, e neurobil ni or You sense he has strong convictions ~
Ctite jeho vyhranen nzory. Unlike the non-literary text, the remaining modulations
of expressions are dispersed among multifarious typological groups, ranging from
interval and limit, reversal of the point of view via negation of the opposite up to
abstract for concrete and change of comparison. Pertinent examples for the above-
said categories in the examined literary text are summarised in Table 8.

Table A n %verview of modulations of e)pressions in t'e literary te)t

EN S %odulation Type
\*orry- 2 was busy for a second t'ere5^
_0rep67te- bol som na chv<9u
4anepr64dnenC5 `
interval and limit
\2diot-^ 'e grunted- t'in"ing about Tony
t'e mailmana an overly friendly 2talian
wit' a big 'eart but little tact5
_2diot-^ 4a9omral- mysliac na po9t6ra
Tony'o- pre'nane priateLs"8'o
Taliana s veL"Cm srdcom- no
nedostat1om ta1tu5
reversal of t'e point of view
Mac" would li"e you to "now t'at if you
'appen upon t'is story and 'ate it- 'e
says- `*orry5`
Mac" by c'cel- aby ste vedeli- Ae a" si
pre7Gtate tento prGbe' a nebude sa
v5m (58i@- od"a4u/e. --0rep67te5`
negation of t'e opposite
Te 'it 'ard- bac" of t'e 'ead first- and
s"idded to a 'eap at t'e base of t'e
s'immering tree5
Tvrdo dopadol- na/prv 4adnou 7asBou
'lavy- a s"I4ol sa na 'rom6d"u (ri
1oreBoch ligotav8'o stromu5
abstract for concrete
T'en t'ere is t'e late arrival- Melissa & or
Missy- as we were fond of calling 'er5
0otom /e tu na%mlad;< (r<rasto17
Melissa & alebo Missy- a"o sme /u radi
volali5
c'ange of comparison
But instead- 'e spent t'e better part of
t'e morning telecommuting into 'is
downtown des"top5
!amiesto to'o v9a" vC8;iu 8as@
(red(oludnia str6vil pracovnCmi
telefon6tmi pre svo/u v meste s<dliacu
firmu5
interval and limit plus
terminology&oriented +notional,
modulation

As it can be seen from Table 8, some excerpted corpus text examples amply
demonstrate that literary modulation partially overlaps with some literary figures of
speech such as metaphor or litotes. What these have in common with some examples
from the table above is the change of abstract for concrete and negation of the opposite.
The crucial difference, however, between the rhetorical devices adduced and literary
modulations in general is that with the former the change in point of view may take
place within one language, too, while with the latter the change in point of view, as a
rule, happens between two languages.
,:

As mentioned earlier, apart from the analysed modulations of expressions, the
other distinctive modulations in the corpus are made up by the so-called pure
modulations. In stark contrast to modulations of expressions, pure modulations are
syntax-oriented and they subsume the cases which lead to the formation of the SL
sentence equivalent in the TL by means of the change of perspective based on the
substitution of the passive voice for the active. While some translation scholars
unanimously view this translation procedure as a specific kind of modulation (Vinay
and Darbelnet, 1958/1995: 252; Newmark, 1988: 89; krlantov, 2005: 50), every now
and again there appear voices which approach the procedure under discussion as a mere
transposition (see Alcaraz and Hughes, 2002: 182).
For illustration, consider the following corpus examples: The methods of making
such reference shall be laid down by the Member States ~ Podrobnosti o odkaze
upravia lensk tty (non-literary text); Routine choices become adventures and are
often experienced with a sense of heightened clarity ~ Rutinn rozhodnutia sa menia na
dobrodrustv a asto ich prevame s pocitom zvenej jasnosti (literary text). It is a
well-established fact that English is much more given to use of the passive voice than
many other European languages including Slovak. As long as the translator desires to
achieve naturalness of expression in the TL, transposition from one mode into another
comes as a handy, if not necessary, ploy. Moreover, a consequential finding resulting
from the corpus analyses is that pure modulation, as Newmark dubs it, is closely
intertwined with sentence-member transposition because the change of the point of
view goes hand in hand with the shift in the sentence-member categories.
Furthermore, in quantitative terms, modulations of expressions in the non-
literary text (32 occurrences in total) turned out to be more abundant than in the literary
text (21 occurrences). This finding runs counter to Alcaraz and Hughes hypothesis
that modulation, though extremely frequent in literary translation, will be much less so
in the non-literary text (see 2002: 185 for more). On the other hand, however
coincidental it may seem, the frequency distribution of pure modulations is the same in
both texts (13 occurrences per each text). This suggests that when translating from
whatever English text, it is crucial to eschew passive constructions, so endemic to the
analysed SL, which would sound cumbersome in the TL.
To sum up, even if modulation in comparison to other translation procedures in
the corpus is definitely not the leading procedure, its overall importance cannot be
underestimated. In both texts it has been regarded as a semantic-pragmatic procedure
5$

resting on a change in the point of view that enables us to convey the same
phenomenon in two languages in a different way. Modulation has been encountered in
the analysed texts both at the lexical (modulation of expression) as well as syntactic
level (pure modulation). As to the former, in case of the literary text it has shown a
greater typological scale ranging from interval and limit, reversal of the point of
view via negation of the opposite up to abstract for concrete and change of
comparison. Overall, the use of modulation in the corpus has been influenced by the
differences resulting from varying views of the extra-linguistic realities, cultures and
language structure between English and Slovak.

'.'.' D*(ansion and Reduction

Putting modulation-oriented matters to rest, it now seems fitting to continue in
mapping out of translation procedures by paying heed to complementary techniques
such as expansion and reduction. Similarly to the procedures outlined above, their place
and scope within the selected translatological systems (enhanced by other scholars
insights as well) and pertinent terminological intricacies will be presented and
juxtaposed before their actual contrastive corpus analysis.
Out of the chosen underlying theoretical frameworks, Schreiber (1993: 221;
1998: 152) is the only author who zeroes in on grammatical expansion as a translation
procedure resting on the increase in word/sentence member count in TL. While Vinay
and Darbelnet themselves do not adduce any procedure that would be explicitly
labelled as expansion within their basic proposed model, Newmark touches upon it only
very tangentially (cf. 1988: 90). It seems that the term with a much wider currency
within translation studies with a largely synonymous referential content over the past
two decades is that of explicitation. In this respect, it is noteworthy that the concept of
explicitation was first introduced by Vinay and Darbelnet (however surprising that
might seem despite its conspicuous absence within their basic model) in whose
glossary of translation techniques explicitation is presented as the process of
introducing information into the TL which is present only implicitly in the SL, but
which can be derived from the context or the situation (Klaudy qtd. in: Baker, 2001:
81; Vinay and Darbelnet, 1958/1995: 342). As such, the process at hand could concern
any kind of textual material whatsoever, be it a literary or non-literary text.
5

Similarly, Shuttleworth and Cowie (1997: 55) see explicitation as the
phenomenon which frequently leads to TT stating ST information in a more explicit
form than the original. This implies that the translator may include additional
explanatory phrases, spell out implicatures and add connectives so as to help the flow
of text and increase its readability. Moreover, one of the newer definitions of
explicitation says that it is a technique of resolving ambiguity, improving and
increasing cohesiveness of the [source text] and also of adding linguistic and
extralinguistic information (Ppai qtd. in Becher, 2010: 6).
One way or another, explicitation (and implicitation) strategies are customarily
discussed with addition (and omission) strategies. What makes the situation even more
knotty at a terminological level is that some scholars (e.g. Nida, 1964) regard addition
as the more generic and explicitation as the more specific concept, while others
(Sguinot, 1988; Schjoldager, 1995) interpret explicitation as the broader concept
which encompasses the more specific concept of addition (Klaudy qtd. in Baker 2001:
81). However, in marked contrast to the approaches above stands Englund-Dimitrova
(2003), who handles the terms addition - explicitation and omission - implicitation
synonymously along with Alcaraz and Hughes (2002: 183-185), taking the same stance
in case of the former.
Since emerging as one of the first potential translation universals
9
towards the
end of the 1980s, explicitation has continued to haunt translation studies as an elusive
and yet almost omnipresent concept (Kamenick, 2007: 118). In a seminal paper by
Blum-Kulka in 1986, the so-called explicitation hypothesis was proposed, which posits
that translations are generally more explicit than their respective source texts,
10
i.e.

9
It should be noted that there have recently appeared translation studies scholars who, contrary to Blum-
Kulka and Baker and other researchers, deny the alleged status of explicitation as a universal feature of
translation. House (2004: 193), for instance, advances a competing hypothesis that differences in
linguistic-stylistic conventions between SL and TL texts account for translational explicitation rather
than a universal tendency of translators to explicate. Recently, Becher (2010:1) has voiced in his thought-
provoking article the opinion that he has become convinced throughout his research-in-progress that the
explicitation hypothesis is problematic and should not be investigated anymore, since it is unmotivated,
unparsimonious and vaguely formulated. He acknowledges that all the authors delving into explicitation
so far have not taken sufficient care in operationalizing the phenomenon of translation-inherent
explicitation and/or in singling it out from related phenomena. Indeed, the concept of explicitation has
always been surrounded by much conceptual vagueness, much depending on the kinds of things one
accepts as explicitation, as admitted by Pym already (2005:2).
10
For a full wording of the explicitation hypothesis and its ensuing discussion see Pym (2005: 2-3) and
Klaudy (qtd. in: Baker, 2001: 82). See also Chestermans Memes of Translation (1997), who views
explicitation as translation law for translators are always bound to produce translations which will be
more explicit than their originals (Laudani, 2007: 260).

52

explicitation is a universal strategy inherent in the process of language mediation
(Blum-Kulka, 1986: 21). According to the stated explicitation hypothesis, it is the
translation process itself, rather than any specific differences between particular
languages, which carries the major part of the responsibility for explicitation. That said,
explicitation results from translation situation itself rather than interlingual contact.
Thus, it seems that explicitation takes place not only when something is
expressed in the TT, which was not in the ST, but also in cases where something which
was indicated or understood through presupposition in the ST is overtly expressed in
TT, or an element in ST is given greater importance in the translation through lexical
choice or emphasis. Bearing this in mind, some scholars appear to have been so keen on
pushing the uttermost bounds of explicitation in such a manner that they interpret it,
covering a wide range of possibilities at many language levels, as follows:

Explicitation takes place, for example, when a SL [source-language] unit of a more
general meaning is replaced by a TL [target-language] unit of a more special meaning;
the complex meaning of a SL word is distributed over several words in the TL; new
meaningful elements appear in the TL text; one sentence in the SL is divided into two
or several sentences in the TL; or, when SL phrases are extended or elevated into
clauses in the TL, etc. (Klaudy and Kroly qtd. in Pym, 2005: 3).


In the non-literary text, several typological variations of expansions, which are
cogently summarised in Table 9, have been revealed by the corpus analysis. Many a
time the identified expansions have been used because of the translators need to
introduce precise semantic details into the TT, either for clarification or because of the
constraints of the TL: while some of these expansions seem to be linked with cohesion
markers knitting the TT together, others show an addition of lexical units in the TL due
to explaining a potential information deficit on the part of the translator. Aside from
these, other expansions are clearly a consequence of the legal context (e.g. explicitation
of typically legal abbreviations) or are connected with an addition of a recurrent
specialized term. In case of the legal abbreviation expansion, an intriguing phenomenon
occurred in the analysed non-literary text in Article 2 paragraph (g) thereof where its
Slovak language version contained a marked explication of the legal information
missing from the English text whatsoever (cf. Table 9). A possible explanation for this
is that an EU translator might have consulted either another language version of the
document containing this bit of information (which is a common practice in the EU
53

setting), or they may have searched for it on their own due to the need of achieving
some sort of legal precision.

Table E E)pansion variation and its frequency distribution in t'e non&literary te)t

Expansion variation EN S $
"o&esive explicitness
T'e appro)imation of t'e Member
*tatesb national legislation on
conditions of entry and residence
pro)im6cia vnRtro9t6tnyc'
pr6vnyc' predpisov 7lens"Cc'
9t6tov t31a%4cich sa vstupu a
pobytu
<O5SZ
Lexical unit addition
discrimination on t'e basis of
colour J555K- religion or belief
dis"rimin6cia 4aloAen6 na farbe
(leti J555K- n6boAens"om vy2nan<
alebo viere
N<5>O
'ecurrent speciali(ed term
addition
for t'e purposes of studies- pupil
e)c'ange- unremunerated
training
na R7ely 9tRdia- vCmen Aia"ov-
neplaten8'o odbornFho
v4del6vania
<F5N
Legal abbreviation expansion
in accordance wit'
rticle <+F,+a, of 1egulation +EC,
!o <=E=$F==F
v sRlade s 7l6n"om < ods5 F (<sm5
a, nariadenia 1ady +E*,
<=E=$F==F- 1tor3m sa stanovu%e
%ednotn3 form5t (ovolen< na
(obyt (re ;t5tnych (r<slu;n<1ov
tret<ch ;t5tov
<S5=>

By contrast, cohesive explicitness occurs in the literary text, too, with 18.46% of
occurrences almost tantamount to those in the non-literary text. However, by way of
comparison, cohesive explicitness in the literary text is far and away more poetically-
coloured (e.g. He purposely thought about the shack as little as possible and even when
he did his thoughts were neither kind nor good ~ Zmerne uvaoval o chatri o
najmenej, a ak si ju pripomenul, jeho mylienky neboli lskav ani dobr) or is
connected with making pronominal/deictic reference more explicit in TL (e.g. When he
does speak you wonder if he isnt some sort of alien who sees the landscape of human
ideas and experiences differently than everybody else ~ Ke prehovor, lovek uvauje,
i Mack nie je mimozemanom, ktor vnma krajinu udskch mylienok a sksenost
inak ako ktokovek in).
Furthermore, the expansion variation dubbed as lexical unit addition turns out
to be evidently preponderant in the literary text with 81.54%. In comparison to the non-
literary text, these expansions, however, seem to be more influenced by the preceding
context in some cases and they are in no way imposed on the TT by virtue of
terminology (e.g. minimum monthly resources ~ suma minimlnych mesanch
zdrojov). Compare the following: Mack has been married to Nan for just more than
thirty-three mostly happy years. [... ]For some reason, beyond understanding, she
seems to love him now more than ever, even though I get the sense that he hurt her
something fierce in the early years ~ Mack preil v manelstve s Nan u viac ako
5,

tridsatri zva astnch rokov. [....]Z akhosi nepochopitenho dvodu sa zd, e
ho teraz bi viac ako kedykovek predtm, i ke mm pocit, e jej v prvch rokoch
manelstva kruto ublil.
Besides, in strong contrast to the non-literary text, lexical expansions based on
unscrambling the implicitness of on-first-acquaintance-hard-to-resolve quotational
compounds in the ST have also been singled out in the literary text (in this case coupled
with recasting of sentences, too), e.g. From the few stories Mack has told me, I know
his daddy was not a fall-asleep-happy kind of alcoholic but a vicious mean beat-your-
wife-and-then-ask-God-for-forgiveness drunk ~ Poda niekokch prhod, ktor mi
Mack porozprval, viem, e jeho otec nepatril k pohodovm alkoholikom, ktor rchlo
zaspia. Bol to zl darebk, o bil manelku a potom prosil Boha o odpustenie. The
presence of quotational compounds is related to the nature of the literary text which
permits far and away a greater degree of lexical creativity on the part of its author
which should be subsequently reflected in its translation. On the whole, the expansion
variation in the literary text is smaller compared to the non-literary text due to the
marked absence of recurrent specialized term addition and legal abbreviation
expansion.
For the sake of consolidation of the results gained as far as the expansion
frequency distribution in the examined literary text is concerned, see Table 10 below
for exemplifying instances.

Table 1G E)pansion variation and its frequency distribution in t'e literary te)t

Expansion variation EN S $
"o&esive explicitness
By gingerly probing around t'e
soggy gas' 'e succeeded in
pic"ing out t'e biggest pieces of
debris- until it 'urt too muc' to
continue5
%patrne o'mat6val "rvavR ranu a
podarilo sa mu 2 ne% vytia'nuB
na/vc79ie "amien"y a ne7istotu- no
napo"on to bolelo priveLmi na to-
aby v tom po"ra7oval5
<H5ZS
Lexical unit addition
3'ile Mac" 'as struggled in a
world wit' many s'ades of gray-
'ers is mostly blac" and w'ite5
WatiaL 7o Mac" 46pasG vo svete s
mno'Cmi odtieDmi sive/- /e/
farbami sR vc79inou 7ierna a
biela5
H<5NZ

Overall, in quantitative terms, 65 expansions were counted in the literary text as
opposed to 56 expansions in the non-literary text, which means that expansion as such,
triggered off by stylistic norms of the TL and communicative conventions, has been
utilized in both texts to a similar degree. Therefore, expansion appears to be an inherent
55

translation universal regardless of the text type in which it occurs, contrary to what was
suggested by Baumgarten, Meyer and zcetin (2008: 198f) recently.
In short, it seems that in neither text the application of expansion led to
creating any undesired redundancy in the TT in the sense of any unnecessary repetition
of something that is already there, or overinterpreting the ST. Moreover, the choice of
expansion seems to have been influenced by a whole range of factors: the translators
view of the appropriate relationship between the proto- and metatext, their notions of
what is a good text in the TL, the admissible degree of freedom in translation and last
but far from least, the intrinsic translation process. In this regard, it has been put
forward that the frequency of expansion/explicitation (or whatever we call it) is related
to the degree of the translators experience. The theories advanced have, however, been
contradictory. While Lev (1965) assumes that explicitation is a hallmark of
translators style with limited experience, Blum Kulka (1986) gives evidence of
explicitation from professional translators as well (Englund-Dimitrova 2003: 22),
which offers a breeding ground for further research, falling outside this thesis remit,
though.
Turning our attention to reduction now, being the very antithesis or rather
stepbrother of expansion, it would not be an overstatement to argue that the body of
secondary literature on expansion/explicitation far exceeds that on
reduction/implicitation. This marginal status of reduction can be traced back as far as
the beginnings of translation studies when Nida introduces in his 1964 book the section
on subtractions as one of techniques of adjustment to the TT as follows: Though, in
translating, subtractions are neither so numerous nor varied as additions, they are
nevertheless highly important in the process of adjustment (qtd. in: Klaudy and
Kroly, 2005: 14). Moreover, the research of the relationship between explicitation and
implicitation belongs to the study of translation universals, i.e. the universal
characteristics of translated texts independent of language pairs and directions of
translation (ibid.).
Schreiber interprets reduction as a grammatical procedure resting on reduction
in the number of elements from the SL text, which is in striking contrast with
expansion. Newmark, similarly to Schreiber, works with reduction, too, but he also
mentions an alternative terminological designation for the procedure at hand, i.e.
contraction. It should be noted, too, that reduction is seen more or less synonymous
with implicitation, drawing on Englund-Dimitrova (2003). In this respect, in the
56

glossary of terms of their publication, Vinay ad Darbelnet (1958/1995: 344) define
implicitation as a stylistic translation technique which consists of making what is
explicit in the SL implicit in the TL, relying on the context or the situation for
conveying the meaning. Klaudy and Kroly still take the meaning of implicitation
further and subsequently enhance its reference frame. According to them, implicitation
occurs, for instance,

when a SL unit of a more specific meaning is replaced by a TL unit of a more general
meaning; translators draw together the meaning of several words, and thus SL
units consisting of two or more words are replaced by a TL unit consisting of one
word; meaningful lexical elements of the SL text are dropped [emphasis added];
two or more sentences in the SL are conjoined into one sentence in the TL; or, when SL
clauses are reduced to phrases in the TL, etc. (Klaudy and Kroly, qtd. in: Pym, 2005:
3).


From the definition given above, it follows that out of standard lexico-grammatical
transfer operations, implicitation may encompass lexical generalization, lexical
contraction and omission, grammatical downgrading of translation units or grammatical
omission.
Out of these, lexical contractions (e.g. to carry out specialisation studies in the
field of medicine ~ tudova pecializciu v medicnskom odbore) and especially
grammatical omissions occurred in the analysed non-literary text. As to the latter,
usually ing and ed non-finite verbal forms have been reduced in the TL, e.g. the
rules concerning the procedures for admitting third-country nationals ~ pravidl o
postupoch prijmania ttnych prslunkov tretch krajn; the limits imposed on access
to economic activities ~ obmedzenia prstupu k zrobkovej innosti. These above-said
reductions result from essentially incommensurable grammatical structures of English
and Slovak, respectively, where in case of the former there is a tendency to insert a
collocation-induced non-finite verbal element in the SL which is naturally implicitated
in the TL. However, all reductions in the non-literary text abide by the principle of
relevance, that is, the translator made sure so that no crucial information is dropped in
translation (see Zakhir, 2008: 3). Seen from a quantitative angle, reductions with 17
counts unequivocally make for only a minor translation procedure in the analysed text.
This flagrantly low occurrence of the said translation procedure speaks volumes about
the nature of translation work in the institutional habitat: the translator, tightly bound
by the original and varied institutional rules connected with preserving language policy
57

of the EU, cannot take the liberty of taking away information from the ST (which could
lead to legal sanctioning in the worst case of scenario) and in this vein underinterpret
the text.
By way of juxtaposition, as far as the studied literary text is concerned, lexical
omissions outweigh grammatical ones, so abundant in the non-literary text, e.g. It was a
glorious world and for a brief moment its blazing splendor almost lifted, even if only
for a few seconds, the Great Sadness from Macks shoulders. ~ Bol to ndhern svet a
na krtku chvu jeho iariv krsa takmer zdvihla z Mackovch pliec Vek smtok. In
some cases, in strong contrast to the non-literary text, the literary reductions are much
more palpable, especially in the case of slang expression reduction, e.g. Dont you be
goin and tryin to kid a kidder ~ Nevtipkujte. Interestingly enough, the issue of the
loss and gain, which is often interpreted as something that is lost from the SL
context and may be replaced in the TL context (see Bassnett, 2002: 38), comes to
expression in this text type, too. Compare the following: When he does speak you
wonder if he isnt some sort of alien who sees the landscape of human ideas and
experiences differently than everybody else ~ Ke prehovor, lovek uvauje, i Mack
nie je mimozemanom, ktor vnma krajinu udskch mylienok a sksenost inak ako
ktokovek in. As it can be seen, the TL sentence has been explicated by means of
specifying the literary characters proper name instead of using the pronominal
reference in the ST. Thus, this gain has been counterbalanced by the loss of the lexical
element some sort of in its pre-modifier function, which is otherwise a very common
practice in literary translation as such.
Even if the translator of the literary text on balance respected the principle of
(semantic) relevance, too, unlike the non-literary text, there were some instances, where
the omission of the lexical information in the TL could be interpreted as a negative
semantic shift resulting in non-adhering to the principle of translation equivalence,
ultimately leading to the stylistic impoverishment of the TT. Compare the following:
Rain was now freezing on impact with the frigid ground outside the house; enough
reason for Mack to snuggle up with a book and a hot cider and wrap up in the warmth
of a crackling fire ~ D pri dotyku so studenou pdou okolo domu mrzol, o by
mohol by pre Macka dostaton dvod, aby sa s knihou [sic!] stlil do blzkosti kozuba
a zahalil sa do tepla, vychdzajceho z praskotajceho ohnka, where the omission of
the noun phrase a horcim mutom in the TL goes to the detriment of the
information conveyed. Similarly, one could slightly object to the translation of the
53

sentence Although he communicates well enough verbally, Mack is not comfortable
with his writing skills something that he knows I am passionate about. So he asked if I
would ghostwrite this story as Hoci Mack stne dobre komunikuje, nie je si ist pri
psomnom vyjadrovan a vie, e ja sa tmto veciam venujem vnivo rd. A tak ma
poiadal, aby som [sic!] napsal tento prbeh. In my view, the translation of the lexeme
to ghostwrite has not been done justice enough by the Slovak translator; employing
cohesive explicitness in the form of the personal pronoun za ho in the TT would
have been much welcome.
Last but not least, quantitatively-speaking, reductions in the examined literary
texts with 51 counts occurred three times more compared to the non-literary text, which
testifies to a prominent place of this translation procedure within the literary discourse.

'.'.. Permutation

When comparing English and Slovak (non-)literary texts, apparent positional
divergences of lexico-syntactic TL elements from their original positions in the ST
cannot be passed unnoticed. This interlingual phenomenon has been treated as
permutation within our model. In light of the above said observation it becomes
evident that this translation procedure is bound up with differences in a linear sentence
organisation when comparing source texts and their pertinent translations.
Turning our attention to Schreiber, by whom our apprehension of the translation
procedure under study has been inspired to a considerable extent, it ought to be
highlighted that by permutation, originating in its special sense in generative-
transformational grammar first, he understands a change of the sentence constituent
order (1993: 220, translation by author), that said, an alteration of the organisation of
lexical/syntactic units, or words/sentence stretches. As far as Schreibers treatment of
permutations is concerned, he splits them somewhat customarily, as expected in
translation studies, into obligatory and optional. Whereas the former are very often
brought about by linguistic distances [...] between two codes, as expressed by Nidas
words (qtd. in ibid.: 227), the latter rest mostly on stylistic inversions of sentence
segments whose primary role is to resume the natural succession of thematic structure
in TL.
As to the other underlying theoretical frameworks of this dissertation, it should
be made clear that while in Newmarks translation procedures model there is no
5:

(similar) translation procedure corresponding to Schreibers interpretation of
permutation (cf. Table 2), Vinay and Darbelnet subsume Schreibers permutation under
their transpositions when describing a procedure fulfilling a comparable function. As
noted earlier in 3.3.1, transposition is understood with the French School of
Comparative Stylistics representatives in a much wider sense; their special chass-
crois, i.e. change of positions largely overlaps with the above-said Schreibers
designation. Furthermore, in the context of literary translation, this Vinay and
Darbelnets fairly specific grasp of transposition is curiously reminiscent of Popovis
inversion (1975: 123), who views it as a position alteration of means of expressions in
translating.
As to the corpus text analysis performed, interlingual comparing of the non-
literary and literary text has revealed apparent differences in a linear sentence
organisation arising between the ST and TT. Depending on the extent of positional
divergences between the SL and TL, it is possible to speak about minimum, median or
maximum permutation, respectively. Our examined word-order inversions between
the SL and TL have been inspired by Kendalls correlation coefficient , varying
between <-1, +1> wherein the value -1 stands for the very opposite word-order and that
of +1 for the absolutely identical one (cf. Krupa 1980: 135 and
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Kendalls_tau). However, to put the record straight, the
original Kendalls interpretation has been somewhat re-fashioned for the purposes of
this publication. Our minimum permutations have been marked with the value +1 to
stand for relatively minor differences in the linear sentence organization when
comparing the ST and TT. In case of maximum permutations, on the other hand,
Kendalls concept of oppositeness of word-order has been treated as a signal for
sizeable word-order differences, i.e. the replacement of sentence stretches from the
middle section of a paragraph to the initial position thereof and so forth.
As regards the non-literary text under scrutiny, the most frequent permutation
with 77.5% is the so-called minimum permutation which is grounded on the minimum
relocation of a string of words or phrase within a sentence under interlingual comparing
the ST and TT. Similarly to other permutations in the corpus, it is applied by the
translator so as to achieve a greater degree of naturalness in the TL. This, by a long
way, most recurrent sort of permutation in the studied non-literary text testifies to the
EU translators efforts to keep the same ordering of sentence constituents in the Slovak
translation as in its English original in order to achieve a parallel conceptualization of
6$

the English text in its Slovak version. However, this approach taken by EU translators
is in no way coincidental as they are bound by numerous restrictions imposed on them
in the form of institutional guidelines, especially in the Joint Practical Guide of the
European Parliament, the Council and the Commission (see Chapter 4 thereof, in
particular
11
), which makes their translation in the TL strictly respect the SLs structure
and its sentence segmentation. Apart from legal interpretation-related and purely
practical reasons for such an approach on the part of translators, there are also EU-
policy-related reasons according to which all EU citizens in the Member States
regardless of their origin should be given the same information in any EU official
language, equally presented in the same manner in terms of linguistic means.

Table 11 0ermutations in t'e non&literary te)t

EN S
Permutation
Type
)*
interval
$
0eriodically- and for t'e first time by <F
Uanuary F=<=- t'e Commission s'all
report to t'e European 0arliament and
t'e Council on t'e application of t'is
Directive in t'e Member *tates and
propose amendments if appropriate5
0ravidelne a po prvC"r6t na/nes"@r
do <F5 /anu6ra F=<= predlo%&
Pomisia EurYps"emu parlamentu a
1ade spr6vu o uplatDovanG te/to
smernice v 7lens"Cc' 9t6toc' a v
pr&pade potreby navr'ne 4meny a
doplnenia5
minimum de<f >>5N
[ellows'ips may be ta"en into account
in assessing t'e availability of sufficient
resources5
Pri posud'ovan& dostupnosti
dostato7nCc' 4dro/ov by sa
mo'li braB do Rva'y 9tipendi65
median d&<- e<f >5N
n agreement on t'e establis'ment of a
fast&trac" admission procedure
allowing residence permits or visas to
be issued in t'e name of t'e t'ird&
country national concerned may be
concluded between t'e aut'ority of a
Member *tate wit' responsibility for
t'e entry and residence of students or
sc'ool pupils w'o are t'ird country
nationals and an establis'ment of
'ig'er education or an organisation
operating pupil e)c'ange sc'emes
w'ic' 'as been recognised for t'is
purpose by t'e Member *tate
concerned in accordance wit' its
national legislation or administrative
practice
%rg6n 7lens"8'o 9t6tu 4odpovednC
4a vstup a pobyt 9tudentov alebo
Aia"ov- "torG sR 9t6tnymi
prGslu9nG"mi tretGc' "ra/Gn- a
'ariadenie vy((ieho v'del)vania
alebo organi')cia* ktor) vedie
v+menn+ program %iakov a ktor)
bola na tento ,-el u'nan)
dotknut+m -lensk+m (t)tom v
s,lade s .eho vn,tro(t)tnymi
pr)vnymi predpismi alebo spr)vnou
pra/ou- m@Au u4avrieB do'odu o
4rCc'lenom postupe pre vyd6vanie
povolenG na pobyt alebo vG4 pre
dot"nut8'o 9t6tne'o prGslu9nG"a
trete/ "ra/iny
ma)imum d&<f <N5=

As results from Table 11 indicate, there are also such permutations that are
grounded on such relocations of lexical units/syntactic phrases that are connected with
functional syntax and many a time they are accompanied with sentence-member
transposition. In comparison to the minimum permutation, the extent of lexico-syntactic
element relocation in the TL is somewhat greater in terms of the change of the overall

11
Consult http://eur-lex.europa.eu/en/techleg/pdf/en.pdf for more detail.

6

sentence perspective, thus this permutation has been dubbed as median permutation.
Even if it generally holds true that the sequence of events and motifs in translation
should not be changed, translators must take into account the fact that a linear
organisation of the TL sentence has to comply with certain rules and the need for
naturalness of the TL.
In order to round off the triad of the identified permutations in the non-literary
text, the maximum permutation has to be to be added. As already its given name
suggests, and as elucidated earlier, it refers to such relocations of TL elements whose
word-order is a far cry from that in the SL. In the analysed non-literary text, maximum
permutation accounts for 15% of all permutations, which makes it the second most
frequent permutation type. Maximum permutation, however, is strikingly absent from
the dissected literary-text, as results given in Table 12 show.
Within the literary text, only minimum and median permutations have been
revealed. In marked contrast to the non-literary text, though, these are sometimes
intermingled within one sentence, e.g. He crept back into the house and slipped a note
under his mamas pillow while his father lay snoring off another binge ~ Potom sa
vkradol sp do domu, a zatia o otec s chrpanm vyspval aliu opicu, vsunul pod
mamin vank odkaz. In addition, permutations in the literary text may be employed in
liaison with other translation procedures, compare the following: He swallowed a
couple over-the-counter painkillers to dull the throbbing and limped toward the front
entry ~ Zobral z police dve tabletky na utenie pulzujcej bolesti, prehltol ich a
odkrval k prednm dverm where the median transposition is accompanied by word-
class transposition as well as expansion or Overtaken by the conviction of the moment,
Mack confessed in tears that he hadnt done anything to help his mama as he
witnessed, on more than one occasion, his drunken dad beat her unconscious. ~ V tejto
psobivej chvli sa Mack so slzami v oiach priznal, e neurobil ni, aby pomohol
mame, ke pri viacerch prleitostiach videl, ako ju jeho opit otec zbil do bezvedomia
where besides minimum permutation also lexical modulation as well as expansion and
transposition can be found.





62

Table 1! 0ermutations in t'e literary te)t


In short and sum, in terms of frequency distribution in the corpus it can be said
that even if maximum permutations are markedly absent from the literary text, results
in Table 12 put minimum permutation quite extraordinarily first, making up 65.88% of
all permutations, similarly to the non-literary text. Overall, even if the permutation
distribution shows a somewhat wider variation in the non-literary text, the occurrence
of permutations in the literary text outnumbers those in the non-literary text almost 2.1
times by 85 to 40. This might be interpreted in light of the fact that translating literary
texts demands due to their motley nature of lexico-stylistic resources employed a
considerably more frequent application of the translation procedure at hand in order to
guarantee a natural and smooth TL text flow.

'.'.6 CalHue

The translation procedure of calquing ranks among direct translation
procedures, in compliance with the theory put forward by Stylistique Compare (cf.
3.2.1). In contrast with oblique translation procedures, applied predominantly in cases
of significant structural, conceptual and/or stylistic differences between the SL and TL
when dealing with equivalence asymmetries, direct translation procedures are based on
a relatively minimum ST structure modification.
Adherents of the French Comparative School of Stylistics J. P. Vinay and J.
Darbelnet were among the first scholars to put calque on the map of translation
techniques. Within their proposed model, calque is conceived of as a particular kind of
emprunt (i.e. borrowing): when translating a given expression a syntactic emprunt is
used and literal rendering of its individual parts is taking place. Vinay and Darbelnet
(1958/1995: 32) distinguish, on the one hand, between a lexical calque (Compliments of
EN S
Permutation
Type
)*interval $
Te(s become one of t'ose rare
people w'o are totally at 'ome
in t'eir own s"in5 nd 2 feel at
'ome around 'im li"e 2 do wit'
nobody else5
*tal sa /ednCm 4 tCc'
v46cnyc' LudG- 7o s, vo svo.e.
ko%i do"onale v po'ode5 / /a
sa pri 0om cGtim v po'ode
a"o pri ni"om inom5
minimum de<f SN5HH
Little barbs of sarcasm
occasionally spill t'roug' t'e
crac"s in 'is reserve li"e piercing
darts dipped in poison from a
well deep inside5
Ce4 pras"liny /e'o
u4avretosti ob7as preni"nR
drobn ostne sarka'mu a"o
bodav8 9Gpy nasia"nut8
/edom 4o studne 'lbo"o
vnRtri5
median d&<- e<f EZ5<F
63

the Season! ~ Compliments de la saison!), respecting the syntactic structure of the TL,
whilst introducing a new mode of expression, and on the other hand, a structural calque
(science-fiction ~ science-fiction) which introduces a new construction into the
language. What might come as a surprise within Vinay and Darbelnets account of
calque, though, is their conspicuous exhortation aimed at translators not to bend TL
patterns in order to mimic SL models but rather coin new words instead and in this way
avoid painful calques. To go as far as encouraging the translator to neologise, when the
whole idea was historically repulsive to the French, shows how unsusceptible to calque
Vinay and Darbelnet were. Only recent studies on calques (Sewell, 2001; Garnier,
2009) tend to be more positive-minded and underscore the neologising power of the
calque mechanism as a way of both conveying new concepts to new target audiences
and of enriching the vocabulary of the receptor language (Sewell, 2001: 608).
A different view of the essence of calquing is offered by the German translation
studies scholar Schreiber. He himself does not use the term calque, though. Among
his varied lexical procedures the so-called change of the lexical unit structure
(Lexikalischer Strukturwechsel) is drawing near the essence of calque. Schreiber
describes it as a change in word-formation, conditioned by a different structure of
respective languages, or stylistic requirements (1998: 152). Calque as a translation
procedure thus overlaps, at least partially, with the change of the lexical unit structure,
the latter having a broader meaning.
Nor does Newmark call for the designation label calque in an explicit way. In
his own words, he prefers to use a more transparent term, that of through-
translation, which is, according to the author, possibly the closest translation of an SL
term into the TL while respecting its syntactic functions at the same time (Newmark,
1981: 76). The author further stresses the importance of using this procedure when
rendering the names of international organisations, often consisting of universal
words with a fairly transparent structure, e.g. European Parliament ~ Eurpsky
parlament, European Economic and Social Committee ~ Eurpsky hospodrsky
a socilny vbor, EC ~ ES etc.
In addition, Newmark uses for such official and generally accepted renderings
of institutional terms such as those adduced above a specific designation, notably that
of recognised translation (ibid.: 76; 1988: 89). In order to shed some more light on
recognised translation, it should be underscored that it may be taken for an already
resolved issue, while calque as such may still be in its infancy of usage because terms
6,

that are being taken over as neologisms are more often than not haphazardly calqued
and only with the lapse of time their established designation, i.e. recognised translation
starts to be employed. As indicated in the examples above, it would make no sense
anymore to muse on potential translation variants of the said expressions; any other
translations proposed would lead to an incorrect translation. In the analysed non-literary
text recognised translation occurrences make up cca. 7.51% out of all calques identified
as opposed to the literary text where such a procedure was absent due to non-legal
nature of the text.
Furthermore, another translation procedure employed by Newmark, notably
translation label partially overlaps with calque, too. Translation label serves as a
provisional translation, usually of a new institutional term, which should be made in
inverted commas, which can later be discreetly withdrawn (Newmark, 1988: 90).
However, no translation labels have been revealed by the corpus text analysis
performed.
Having dealt with calques and related translatological terms in the crucial
frameworks underlying this publication, it seems appropriate to pose a question at this
point as to what calque actually is. It has to be admitted that translation theory tends to,
more often than not, obscure this problem at hand rather than provide an unequivocal
answer to it. It therefore seems of paramount importance to clarify which TL units in
the corpus are taken for translation calques, which criteria were applied when
identifying them and in this manner arrive at an operational calque definition in the text
corpus. In the corpus calques are perceived as literal translations of names from the SL
into the TL, as literal borrowings of transparent designations from the SL which have
their respective literal equivalents in the TL. This means that apart from the already
mentioned names of international organisations and institutional terms comprising
semantically transparent universal words in the non-literary text, the following are
also taken for calques:
literal rendering of common collocations (voluntary service ~ dobrovon
sluba, Member States ~ lensk tty, transluscent mantles ~ priehadn
plte, final destination ~ konen destincia);
translation of word-formation syntagmas (bilateral or multilateral
agreements ~ dvojstrann alebo viacstrann dohody, crystalline rain ~
65

kritov d) or phrases (Community exchange programme ~ vmenn
program Spoloenstva, icy rain pellets ~ broky adovho daa).

Corpus examples such as those above signpost that calque is a word/phrase that
morphematically and semantically mimicks a foreign word/phrase in the TL. Thus, a
certain imitation of the SL form, or mimesis is strived for on the part of the translator.
In fact, this is the core of difference between calque and borrowing, since the latter rests
on tranfering the whole word (see 3.3.6 for more detail). On the basis of the textual
analysis performed, a conclusion has been reached that in both analysed texts either
semantic (preparatory course ~ prpravn kurz, home office ~ domca kancelria) or
word-formation calques have been found (subparagraph of Article ~ pododsek lnku,
long-lost friend ~ dvno straten priate). Calquing represents a unique manner of
taking over lexical units for it is not syntagmas or phrases that are being taken over but
rather their motivation, either of semantic or word-formation nature, which forms the
basis of the calque distinction adduced above. In sum, semantic calques prevail in both
analysed texts almost in absolute majority (97.65% in the non-literary vs. 95.35% in the
literary text).
In the non-literary text, calques make up the most frequent translation procedure
with a total of 213 occurrences. This clearly confirms that current EU document
translation tendencies are heading towards a distinct usage of the direct translation
procedure of calquing. In the EU-setting it is the elements of the ST that make for the
determining factors which influence the translators strategy selection on the basis of
which they approach the process of translation. In this respect, EU documents embody
an independent supra-national textual unit. Therefore, it is not the translators task to
adapt these documents to national legislation texts, but keep them in the unchanged
form, striving for the most faithful expressions appearing in the ST. By comparison,
calques in the literary text with a total of 43 counts occur almost 4.95 times less, which
suggests that their place in the analysed text is not outstanding because literary text
translation is not a mere interlingual text reproduction (Kjaer, 2007: 48) but, to a
great extent, a translators wholly new text composition.



66

'.'.: Iorro+ing

Undoubtedly, lexis is a part of language which is liable to swift changes in
multifarious areas under the influence of the dynamic development of society. Notably,
lexis of each and every language must be sensitively responsive to new ideas, concepts,
objects and inventions of the extra-linguistic reality, which all contribute to its ever
altering dynamic nature. This can be observed especially on the lexical facet of the
analysed non-literary text in whose vocabulary it is apparent that no official language of
the EU develops in isolation from the extra-linguistic reality, but quite on the contrary,
it is being moulded and shaped by other languages and cultures in contact. This
explains why a great many words in the analysed non-literary text, with international
words,
12
in particular, are common for more languages, serving as an instrument and
reflection of a common (legal) culture.
Turning our attention to the translatological models in comparison, the
adherents of Stylistique Compare Vinay and Darbelnet label the procedure of taking
over an expression from SL into TL as emprunt. Assigning it to direct translation
procedures, they regard it as the simplest of all translation procedures which is used to
overcome a lacuna, usually a metalinguistic one (e.g. a new technical process or an
unknown concept). Occasionally, borrowing is used in order to induce a stylistic effect,
to introduce the flavour of the SL culture into translation by means of foreign terms (a
little bottle that contained about an ounce of Ma Griffe ~ fatika asi s uncou Ma
Griffe). While there are some well-established, older borrowings that are no longer
regarded as such since they have become a part of the respective TL lexicon (in English
words as menu, dj vu, enfant terrible are no longer considered as borrowings),
in any language there are some novel borrowings, too, which are much more enticing
from a translators point of view (Venuti, 2000: 85).

12
An international word (or internationalism) is a loanword, predominantly of Latin or Greek extraction,
that occurs in several languages with the same or at least similar meaning and etymology. These words
exist in several different languages as a result of simultaneous or successive borrowings from the
ultimate source. Pronunciation and orthography are similar so that the word is understandable between
the different languages. It is debated how many languages are required so that a word is taken for an
internationalism, even if some authors (see Mistrk qtd. in: Schwarzov, 2003: 131) mention the
neccessity of international words occurring in at least three languages. It should be pointed out that the
term internationalism is rather uncommon in English linguistics, although English has contributed a
considerable number of words to world languages, e.g. the sport terms such as: football, baseball,
cricket, and golf (see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Internationalism_linguistics).


67

As far as Schreibers model of translation procedures is concerned, he works
with the term lexical borrowing (Lexikalische Entlehnung) when he describes an SL
word which is transferred directly to a TL. Schreiber (1993: 215 ff) takes the view that
it remains debatable if lexical borrowing is a translation procedure at all because no
significant structural change is taking place in TL, only orthography of a transferred
word is adapted at its best. On the other hand, no other translation procedure seems
fitting for describing the phenomenon when a translator opts for borrowing an SL
expression for introducing a veneer of local colour.
Moreover, Newmark employs the terms transference and transcription,
respectively instead of borrowing. He emphasizes the need of having recourse to
transference when translating

names of all living [] and most dead people; geographical and topographical names
[]; names of periodicals and newspapers; titles of as yet untranslated literary works,
plays, films; names of private companies and institutions; names of public or
nationalized institutions, unless they have recognized translations; street names,
addresses, etc. (Newmark, 1988: 82).

At the same time, the English translation studies scholar speaks of the need to translate
the-to-be-imported names of SL objects, inventions, devices and processes into the TL
creatively, preferably authoritatively, if they are neologisms, even though brand
names have to be transferred (ibid.: 81). It should be pointed out that when taking over
foreign expressions, a term may be taken over either in its original wording (Acquis), or
with an adaptation of a denomination to the norms of the TT both on phonetic and
morphological levels (subsidiarity ~ subsidiarita; baseball card ~ bejzbalov karta).
Drawing on Newmarks terminology, the former should be called transference (i.e.
direct borrowings from an SL) and the latter transcription (i.e. naturalized borrowings
conforming to the rules of grammar and pronunciation of the TL). The argument in
favour of using transference is that it conveys respect for the SL countrys culture. On
the downside, though, is that the translators job is to translate, to explain (ibid.: 82).
It is further noteworthy that when taking over a word from SL into TL, with
borrowing the transfer of both its formal as well as semantic facet is taking place at the
same time. Precisely in this borrowing differs from calquing where only the semantic
63

facet of a given word is transferred for the translator imitates in his translation the
structure or manner of expression of the ST (Zakhir, 2008: 2).
Bearing the temporal dimension in mind, there are borrowings which still sound
fairly novel or exoticising for the Slovak recipients ear (e.g. subsidiarity in the non-
literary text, which refers to one of the governing principles of the EU) as opposed to
those ones which have been domesticated in the TL environment and slowly but surely
with the lapse of time have become fully-fledged member of the TL inventory, losing
their veneer of novelty (e.g. approximation ~ aproximcia, mobility ~ mobilita,
baseball card ~ bejzbalov karta).
In the non-literary text domesticated borrowings were clearly prevalent, the vast
majority of them being international words functioning as what has been labelled by the
Czech legal expert Tomek (1998: 120) as so-called xenoterms, i.e. lexical
borrowings of legal terms. The use of international words in this text type under
scrutiny pursues a certain pragmatic aim, notably to facilitate specialized
communication and make it more effective. Besides, international words in the non-
literary text are endowed with the much needed dose of precision and definiteness of
meaning. Regardless of this, all the non-literary borrowings could be dubbed
transcriptions, leaning on Newmarks terminology, as clarified above.
By contrast, in the literary text, surprisingly enough, only two transcriptions
have been identified, both of them conforming in a naturalized manner to the phonetic
and grammatical rules of the TT; compare the following excerpt:

He then unearthed from next to the outhouse the small tin box housing all his earthly
treasures: one photograph of the family with everybody squinting as they looked into
the sun (his daddy standing off to one side), a 1950 Luke Easter rookie baseball card, a
little bottle that contained about an ounce of Ma Griffe (the only perfume his mama
had ever worn) ... (Pg. 8) ~


Odniesol do prstreku pri dome mal plechov katuku, do ktorej dal vetky svoje
svetsk poklady: rodinn fotografiu, na ktorej vetci klili, pretoe pozerali do slnka
(otec stl bokom), zberatesk bejzbalov kartu s fotkou Lukea Eastera z roku 1950,
fatiku s asi uncou Ma Griffe (jedinho parfumu, ktor jeho mama pouvala) ....
(Pg. 8).


Here, the translators decision to borrow the English unit for measuring liquids
introduces an element of local colour into the TL which is simultaneously coupled to a
transference of the perfumes name. Yet, the conversion of the said English unit of
6:

measurement into its approximate Slovak equivalent of millilitres would have been
certainly more welcome for the Slovak recipient because it would enable them to
imagine its volume much easier. In the realized Slovak translation, though, the extent of
the English unit of measurement remains somewhat vague in the TL recipients
consciousness. By comparison, the almost 5.6 times higher ratio of borrowing
occurrence in the non-literary text could be explained by the tendencies manifesting
themselves in the EU institutions which are geared towards harmonizing certain EU
legal terms so that in each official language of the EU, with Slovak being one of them,
their respective borrowings are likely to appear.

'.'.= Translation Procedures "ccurring in the Literary Te*t "nly

The following thesis section will give an overview of distinctive translation
procedures which are endemic to the literary text only. They comprise recasting of
sentences, naturalization, adaptation and paraphrase. Each and every procedure will
now be dissected in detail and supported with pertinent textual examples.

+#+#,#- 'ecasting sentences

Recasting sentences can be looked upon as a grammatical translation
procedure functioning at a syntactic level, based on altering sentence structure during
translation process in such a manner so that SL complex sentences are recast as TL co-
ordinate (or compound) sentences or SL complex sentences are rendered as two or
more TL sentences (cf. Newmark, 1981: 30).
It is inevitable to note that the translation procedure at hand is touched upon
only very tangentially across translation studies-oriented literature. Except for
Newmark (ibid.), who devotes to it no more than a succinct explanation in his work
Approaches to Translation, the translation procedure does not merit Vinay and
Darbelnets attention, either. Terminologically-speaking, recasting sentences may be
compared with Schreibers transformation (see Table 3) and on a broader level, with
Klaudy and Krolys explicitation (see 3.3.3).



7$

Table 1' 1ecasting sentences in t'e literary te)t

As it can be inferred from Table 13, recasting sentences works as an example of
converting English compound-complex sentences into two independent sentences in
Slovak; via copulative conjunction and in the first pair of sentences and via semi-colon
in the second pair of sentences. This splitting of sentences into two in the TL is of
paramount importance with respect to upholding the dynamics of the language. The
reverse case of recasting sentences, i.e. combining two independent SL sentences into
one TL sentence has not been revealed by the literary text analysis. Overall, 10
occurrences of recasting sentences have been identified. The total absence of recasting
sentences in the scrutinized non-literary text can be attributed to official prescriptions
imposed on EU translators, anchored in the Joint Practical Guide of the European
Parliament, the Council and the Commission (especially Chapter 4 thereof), which
preclude them from splitting sentences for the sake of easier intelligibility due to legal
and purely practical reasons (see Gibov, 2010: 70).

+#+#,#. Naturali(ation

According to Newmark (1988: 82), naturalization as a translation procedure
succeeds borrowing (or transference) and adapts the SL word to the normal
pronunciation, then to the normal morphology (word-forms) of the TL. Thus,
naturalization rests on adapting an SL word to the grammatical rules of the TL, e.g. a
1950 Luke Easter rookie baseball card ~ zberatesk karta s fotkou Lukea Eastera z
roku 1950; Mack [..] moved out to Oregon where he met and married Nannette A.
Samuelson ~ [...] Mack sa presahoval do Oregonu, kde spoznal Nannette A.
Samuelsonov a oenil sa s ou. Here, the English proper names must be adapted to
Slovak morphological conventions; in case of the former the inflectional endings in the
EN

S EN/S Pg#
2 suppose t'at since most of our 'urts come
t'roug' relations'ips so will our 'ealing-
and 2 "now t'at grace rarely ma"es sense
for t'ose loo"ing in from t'e outside5
0redpo"lad6m- Ae "eMAe vc79ina na9e/
bolesti pramenG 4o v4Ba'ov- pramenG 4 nic' a/
na9e u4dravovanie5 Viem a/- Ae odpustenie
4vy7a/ne len BaA"o c'6pu tG- 7o naD po4era/R
4von"a5
<<$<=
2 will tell you 'onestly t'at being a part of
t'is story 'as affected me deep inside- in
places 2 'ad never been before and didn(t
even "now e)istedJ 2 confess to you t'at 2
desperately want everyt'ing Mac" 'as told
me to be true5
gprimne v6m poviem- Ae to- Ae som sR7asBou
to'to prGbe'u- ma 'lbo"o vnRtorne
ovplyvnilo v tom- 7o som ni"dy predtCm
nepocGtil a ani som netu9il- Ae to e)istu/e5
0ri4n6vam- Ae 4Rfalo c'cem- aby v9et"o- 7o
mi Mac" povedal- bola pravda5
<F$<<
7

TL serve as a proof of Slovak being a synthetic language (as opposed to the analytical
nature of English) while in case of the latter the ov suffix reflects the common Slovak
norm of marking female surnames. Intriguingly enough, naturalization of proper names
overlaps with transliteration, which is in tune with Hervey and Higgins one of the
possible strategies for translating personal names, when the [SL] name is shifted to
conform to the phonic and graphic rules of the TL
13
(qtd. in Pour, 2009: 9), thus
creating absolute equivalence.
Moreover, the use of naturalization on the part of translator testifies to the idea
that translation puts into contact two different cultures. This is why the translator has to
decide to what extent he allows the TL reader to be confronted with features of a
foreign environment whose meaning and stylistic value must be quite clear in the target
environment. Drawing on Lotmans theory, this tension between different cultures can
be expressed by the basic opposition between we and them (Vilikovsk, 1982:
131). In other words, the features that the target reader readily identifies as their own,
bound up with the domestic culture and ambience, are apprehended as an expression of
the cultural we, while the foreign features connected with the original culture are
customarily identified with the notion them. An illuminating example of this can be
found in the literary text under focus: Mack bundled up and headed outdoors to
struggle the hundred or so yards down the long driveway to the mailbox ~ Mack sa
zababuil, vyiel z dvier a namhavo kral asi sto metrov po dlhej prjazdovej ceste k
potovej schrnke. Here, if the English unit of measurement were transferred directly
into the Slovak language, it would maximize the foreignness of the ST and emphasize
the English colour, however its communicative message in the TL would certainly be
hampered, imposing greater demands on the TL recipients imagination. For this
reason, the rendering of such culture-specific words such units of measurement is
fairly frequently resolved by means of naturalization in Slovak.
In summary, naturalization represents only a minor translation procedure with a
total of three counts, which could have been caused by the nature of the literary text
under focus which was not so heavily culture-loaded.

13
Apart from transliteration, the other common strategies for rendering personal names are exoticism
and cultural transplantation. In case of the former, the name should remain unchanged from the SL into
the TL. As for the latter, the SL name is replaced by the TL name that has the same cultural connotation
as the original one (see Pour, 2009: 9 for more). Within the Slovak tradition of translation studies, these
phenomena are discussed within so-called exotization vs. naturalization strategies (see Vilikovsk, 1982:
130 ff), while in the context of Anglo-American translation culture, the terms foreignization vs.
domestication, as propounded by Venuti, are preferred (see Mizani, 2010: 7).
72

+#+#,#+ Adaptation

With adaptation, the extreme limit of translation may be achieved. According
to Vinay and Darbelnet (1958/1995: 39) adaptation ranks as an oblique translation
procedure which is used in those cases where the type of situation referred to by the
SL message is unknown in the TL culture. In such cases translators have to create a
new situation that can be regarded as being equivalent. Adaptation can therefore be
looked upon as a special kind of equivalence between ST and TT, a situational
equivalence, which is natural for the receiver (ibid.).
In adaptation, the translator strives to alter the content and form of the ST in a
way which conforms to the rules of language and culture in the TL community. In
general, this procedure is employed as an effective way to attend to culturally-bound
words/expressions, metaphors and images in translation (Zakhir, 2008: 4). Thus, when
comparing Vinay and Darbelnets and Zakhirs definitions, it becomes apparent that
bridging a cultural gap between two languages is a central issue in adaptation.
Newmark (1988: 91) holds the same opinion, drawing on Vinay and
Darbelnet, that adaptation is based on the use of a recognized equivalent between two
situations, this [being] a matter of cultural equivalence. What is more, he regards
adaptation (along with equivalence used in translation of idioms, phrases, clichs and
proverbs) as a procedure which is not very usable (ibid.) Instead, Newmark proposes
to have recourse to cultural equivalent within his model, i.e. an approximate
translation where a SL cultural word is translated by a TL cultural word; thus Abitur
(Matura) as the German/Austrian) A level. In order to give a complete survey of
possibilities of dealing with culturally-loaded lexis, another common procedure applied
to cultural words entails the use of a culture-free word, sometimes with a new specific
term, which neutralizes or generalizes the SL word, e.g. baccalaurat ~ French
secondary school leaving exam. This procedure, based on deculturalising an SL
cultural word, is referred to by Newmark as functional equivalent. Last but not least,
the triad of possibilities is rounded off by the so-called descriptive equivalent, which
is used to describe an SL expression, sometimes to the detriment of its function, e.g.
machete ~ Latin American broad, heavy instrument (Newmark, 1988: 82-84).
As results of the literary text analysis in Table 14 show, the excerpted
adaptations evince mostly functional and cultural equivalents, to put it in Newmarks
terms, except for one case of Herman Melvilles book title, which is supportive of
73

Vinay and Darbelnets observation (1958/1995: 39 and Venuti, 2000: 91) that
adaptation also occurs with translation thereof. The adaptations below imply the
translators awareness of the cultural differences of the ST, which result in a new
cultural transplantation in the TT, and an effort to restrain the SL ethonocentricity of
translation.

Table 1. daptations +cultural & functional equivalents, in t'e literary te)t

EN S EN/S Pg#
*ince t'en 'e and 2 'ave been- as t'e "ids
say t'ese days- 'angin( out- s'aring a
coffeeV or for me a chai tea- e)tra 'ot wit'
soy5
%dvtedy sa- a"o dnes vravia dec"6- spolu
potI"ame- popG/ame "6vu Xalebo- po"iaL ide o
mDa- mimoriadne 1orenist3 8a% so sK%ou.
>$>
hou probably wouldn(t notice 'im in a
crowd or feel uncomfortable sitting ne)t to
'im w'ile 'e snoo4es on t'e #AL Mmetro)
transitN.
0ravdepodobne by ste si 'o nev9imli v dave-
ani by ste sa necGtili neprG/emne- a" by
driemal vedLa v6s na sedadle v autobuse.
<=$O
Tyler- a recent college grad7 is off at sc'ool
wor"ing on a master#s degree5
Tyler- "torC ned6vno absolvoval vy;;iu
odborn4 ;1olu7 tera4 9tudu/e na univer4ite5
<<$<=
ilancing at 'imself in t'e mirror- 'e t'oug't
'e loo"ed a little li"e some roug' sailor out
of #oby Dic1.
0o4rel na seba v 4r"adle a pomyslel si- Ae
vy4er6 a"o ne/a"C drsnC n6mornG" 2 Iiele%
ve9ryby.
<O$<S

Interpreting the gained results in broader terms, it must be acknowledged that each
language community is endowed with its own culturally specific features. As Vermeer
contends, language is part of a culture (qtd. in: Mizani, 2010: 3), which implies that
language and culture may be seen as closely entwined and intermingled, and both
aspects must be carefully considered for translation. As early as 1964 Nida concluded
that differences between cultures may cause even more severe complications for the
translator than linguistic differences. Notably, a truly competent translator ought to be
heedful of the complexities connected with bridging the gap between different cultures.
Therefore, cultural presuppositions about the reality of the SL community should form
a firm part of translators competence, as called for by Vermeer (1989), Hermans
(1999), Hervey and Higgins (2002) and ke Ping (2004); (ibid., 8-10).

+#+#,#/ Parap&rase

In common usage as a term for loose rewording, expressing something in ones
own words, paraphrase (sometimes known as periphrasis) is best known in translation
theory from John Drydens 1680 preface to his translation of Ovids Epistles. Therein,
he introduced the concepts of metaphrase and imitation as well as a means betwixt
7,

them, paraphrase. For him, metaphrase as word-for-word translation and imitation
were too extremes which ought to be avoided and paraphrase as the mode of
translation avoiding these dangers combined their virtues of fidelity to the original
(metaphrase) and TL fluency (imitation). Moreover, paraphrase in accord with Dryden
typified translation with latitude, where the author was kept in view by the translator,
so as never to be lost, but his words were not so strictly followed as his sense; and that
too was admitted to be amplified, but not altered (qtd. in: Baker, 2001: 166).
However ancient this closer presentation of paraphrase may seem, the crucial
ideas of artistic latitude, amplification and freer rendering of the meaning of the
sentence still constitute its core. Moreover, they significantly influenced Newmark
(1981: 31; 1988: 90) in his apprehension of paraphrase, who thinks of it in agreement
as an amplification or explanation of the meaning of a segment of the text. He also
speaks of paraphrase as the translators last resort in anonymous texts which are poorly
written, or have important implications and omissions.
A noteworthy treatment of paraphrase, however rare across translation studies
generally, is provided by Baker (1992: 38-40). She considers paraphrase a useful
strategy used by professional translators for dealing with non-equivalence between two
languages. If the concept expressed by the SL item is not lexicalised in the TL, the
paraphrase strategy based on modifying or unpacking the meaning of the source item
may be employed. Its main advantage is that it is instrumental in achieving a high level
of precision in specifying propositional meaning of some semantically complex SL
words, in particular. The demerit of using paraphrase, though, is that it might be
cumbersome and awkward for it might involve filling a one-item lexical slot with a
lengthier explanation comprising several items.
The theoretical explanatory statements depicting the essence of paraphrase
given above can now be backed up by some textual examples cogently summarized in
Table 15.
Table 16 0arap'rases in t'e literary te)t

EN S EN/S Pg#
T'e t'ing is- 'e usually ma"es
uncomfortable sense in a world w'ere most
fol"s would rat'er /ust 'ear w'at t'ey are
used to 'earing- w'ic' is often not muc' of
anyt'ing5
2de o to- Ae 4vy7a/ne navod4u/e
neprG/emnC pocit vo svete- "de by
vc79ina LudG rad9e/ po7ula to- na 7o sR
4vy"nutG- a vC8;inou s4 to
be2v32namnF malichernosti.
O$O
Te says t'at 'e 'ad a way of pointing out
people(s faults and 'umiliating t'em w'ile
maintaining 'is own sense of false power
and control5 !ot too endearing5
TovorG- Ae pou"a4oval na c'yby inCc'
a poniAoval ic'- 4atiaL 7o si udrAoval
falo9nC pocit vlastne/ moci a preva'y5
eve9mi (r<%emn5 (ovahov5 8rta.
O$O
75

Tis eyes lig't up and 'e gets t'is smile t'at
curls at t'e corners of 'is lips J555K and 'e
becomes ageless and 'ardly able to contain
'imself5
%7i sa mu ro4Aiaria7 14ti1y 4st sa
2dvihn4 do 4smevu J555K- celC omladne
a a1oby (resahoval samFho seba.
<=$O
Two roads diverged in t'e middle of my life-
2 'eard a wise man say 2 too" t'e road less
traveled by5
Dve cesty delili sa v strede m@/'o Aitia-
a poslRc'ol som mudrcove slov6- nech
vyd5m sa tou mene% (re;lia(anou5
<E$<<
T'e trees in t'e neig'bor(s field 'ad all
donned translucent mantles and eac' now
stood unique but unified in t'eir
presentation5
*tromy v susedovom sade mali
prie'Ladn8 pl69te- "aAdC 4 nic' bol
/edine7nC- no (ritom vytv5rali
%ednotn3 do%em5
<S$<Z

As can be seen, all illustrative examples clearly manifest what is in unison claimed by
the above-said scholars that the meaning of some sentence segments is by paraphrase
rendered rather freely, which is very frequently the case in literary translation. Notably,
paraphrase rests on a creative re-composition of the SL message which re-codes its
communicative value in an artistic and unrestrained fashion, where the limits of
interpretation are to be sensitively handled. On the whole, with a total of 50
occurrences paraphrase takes up a fairly prominent place among literary translation
procedures.

'.'.A Summary and Com(arison of Results

What is notable to underscore after the empirical contrastive text analysis is that
translation procedures can be considered a universal feature of any text under
interlingual comparing given the linguistic and cultural dissimilarities between ST and
TT.
Based on the overall results gained it can be argued that the ratio of oblique
translation (234 counts) and direct translation procedures (230 counts) in the non-
literary text is almost tantamount to each other. By contrast, in the literary text oblique
translation procedures with a total of 124 occurrences by far outweigh the employment
of direct procedures (46 counts). This can be interpreted in light of the far more
imaginative nature of the literary text and its pertinent lexico-stylistic multifacedness
which requires intellectually a more stimulating transfer of SL features into the TT
when overcoming structural-conceptual and cultural asymmetries or lacunas. Thus,
my initial assumption regarding the preponderance of oblique translation procedures in
the literary text has been corroborated (cf. 3.2.1). As to the non-literary text, the
somewhat surprisingly identical frequency distribution of oblique and direct procedures
challenges on balance its expectedly foreignizing character, which remains
unsurpassed only in terms of the flagrant calque prevalence, as indicated in Chart 1.
76

The high degree of incidence of calques in the non-literary text can be explained by the
EU language policy and its institutional guidelines which prompt EU translators to
adhere to ST slavishly and consequently induce them to imitate its language structures.
Needless to say, in this connection, the ratio of borrowings in the non-literary text is
also almost 5.6 times higher than that in the literary text.


Chart 1 [requency distribution of e)amined translation procedures across
t'e non&literary & literary te)t

As can be inferred from the frequency distribution of translation procedures in
Chart 1, in the non-literary text apart from calques, a prominent place is given to the
procedures of transposition, expansion, modulation and permutation. Similarly, in the
literary text permutation, transposition and expansion (followed by reduction and
paraphrase) take up a significant place, too.
Both examined texts evince an abundant occurrence of transpositions, which can
be interpreted as evidence of a significant linguistic-structural distance between the
English and Slovak codes regardless of the text type, even if in the case of the literary
text they manifest a much greater typological scale. The roughly similar values of
expansions in both texts can be ascribed to a considerable degree to an intrinsic nature
of translation process per se and the tendency of explicitation as a translation universal.
The results in Chart 1 put permutation (along with word-class and sentence-member
transposition) first as regards the literary text. The use of permutation in this text type
5$
3:
32
3
,$
56
7
23
7
65
2$ 2
35
65
5
,3
3
$
5
3
5$
$
5$
$$
5$
2$$
25$
non.literary
literary
77

outnumbers that in the non-literary text by almost 2.1 times. These divergences of
lexico-syntactic literary TL elements from their original SL positions, even if
typologically less multifarious, are very often taking place so as to keep and/or uphold a
smooth and natural text flow in the TL. Compared to the non-literary text, their
occurrence was much more expected, even though it should be accentuated that
permutations could not be absent from the non-literary text, either, because their non-
applicability would transform the text under investigation into a purely robot-like
machine translation lacking any coherence.
Interestingly enough, a significant difference between the two analysed texts lies
in their treatment of reduction. In the non-literary text reduction constitutes a
background procedure, which is in compliance with the strictness of the EU language
work compelling the translator to render TTs without omitting the SL inventory items,
as well as overall function of institutional-legal texts. Therefore, a complete absence of
recasting sentences in the non-literary text does not come as a surprise, either. In the
literary text, however, reduction quite extraordinarily comes as the fourth most frequent
translation procedure. Furthermore, another point of difference between the two texts
concerns the use of modulation. Even though modulation at the syntactic level (so-
called pure modulation) occurs in both texts to the same degree, modulation in the
lexicon is more plentiful (however typologically less varied) in the non-literary text,
which runs counter to expectations about the nature of literary modulation in general
and Alcaraz and Hughes hypothesis (2002: 185), in particular.
Last but far from least, the literary text disposes of translation procedures such
as recasting sentences, adaptation, naturalization and paraphrase, reflecting a whole
gamut of phenomena that are absent from the non-literary text. Of these, the frequent
use of paraphrase testifies to the incommensurably freer translational character of the
literary text in comparison with its non-literary counterpart. The relatively low
incidence of adaptation, naturalization (of foreign units of measurement, especially)
and borrowing implies that the literary text under focus is not heavily culturally-loaded
and the translator did not need to minimize foreignness of the ST very frequently for
the recipients sake. The amazing absence of equivalence, an unfortunately named
translation procedure accounting for the same situation rendered by two texts using
completely different stylistic and structural means (Vinay and Darbelnet, 1958/1995:
38), referring to phrases, idioms and proverbs signposts the lack of these maverick
language units in the analysed literary text sample.
73

Conclusion

Already the very title of this dissertation, i.e. Translation Procedures in the
Non-literary and Literary Text Compared betrays much of its content. Crucial to this
thesis were two typologically unlike texts, namely an EU institutional-legal text
Council Directive 2004/114/EC and a 2007 novel excerpt The Shack penned by a
Canadian writer William P. Young, greatly shaping its research trajectory to come.
As indicated above, the two dissimilar texts both from the point of view of
content and form (including their two Slovak translation counterparts) constitute the
subject of the presented research, each of them conveying its communicative intention.
In line with Schffner and Adab (1997), the analysed non-literary text is a
representative of hybrid text as well as an informative-operative text type, drawing on
Reiss framework, fulfilling an essentially pragmatic function. Further, the non-literary
text has been identified with Newmarks semantic (or Nords documentary) translation
since these translation types are fully in compliance with the function and place of
Acquis communautaire documents within specialized communication. Conversely, the
literary text comes under the heading of expressive text type according to Reiss as well
as readerly text, employing Barthes notional apparatus. Furthermore, the rendering of
the literary text can be put on a par with Newmarks communicative translation (or
Nords instrumental translation) serving, first and foremost, an aesthetically-oriented
mediated communication.
In order to accomplish the goals of the presented comparative translatological
research, the methods of contrastive textual analysis, analytical-deductive and corpus
analysis methods have been employed. From the empirical analysis it follows that
different textual genres, exemplified by the selected non-literary and literary text,
respectively, do not call for the use of completely different translation procedures.
Notably, the employment of transposition, modulation, expansion, reduction,
permutation, calque and borrowing is likewise traceable in the literary text. This fact
supports that my synthetizing translation procedures construct, drawing upon and
building on Vinay and Darbelnets (1958/1995), Newmarks (1981, 1988) and
Schreibers (1993, 1998) theoretical underpinnings has a sound applicability in case of
the examined literary text, too, even if further translation procedures have been
identified and explored therein, too. This finding testifies to a somewhat universal
7:

nature of the applied construct. Moreover, by selection of semantically and formally
different text types a new vista for the application of the drawn up model has been
opened, thereby disclosing much of its potential.
Although my own research has amply demonstrated the use of more or less the
same translation procedures, some striking differences attributable to the pertinent text
genre characteristics have been at the same time revealed by the quantitative corpus
analysis. Both transposition (word-class and sentence-member) and modulation
(especially modulation of expression) exhibit a considerably wider typological variation
in the literary text in comparison with the analysed non-literary text. This could be
interpreted in the light of the more heterogeneous nature of the literary text in terms of
its lexico-stylistic diversity of expression. Expansion takes up a prominent place in
both texts, which testifies to its status of translation universal regardless of text type in
which it occurs. In case of the literary text, however, it is confined to cohesive
explicitness and lexical unit addition only. The treatment of reduction forms a crucial
point of contrast between the two texts; while in the literary text it ranks as the fourth
most frequently used translation procedure, in the non-literary text it comes across only
as a minor procedure. This can be justified by the overall function of EU institutional-
legal texts and the nature of EU language work precluding translators from whatsoever
omission of ST inventory items. Permutation in the literary text, approximately two
times more frequent in comparison to the non-literary text, evinces only minimum and
median type. Calques and borrowings in the non-literary text by far and away
outbalance those in the literary text, which is supportive of the idea that the translation
of the literary text is not based on the use of direct translation procedures.
Despite these discernible differences between the examined texts, whose deeper
study was one of the important research goals, it should be underscored that
transposition, expansion and permutation play a significant role in both texts in terms of
their frequency distribution. However, a salient point of difference is made by the
frequent use of calques in the case of the non-literary illustratory text and by reduction
and paraphrase as far as the literary text sample is concerned.
Having answered the key research questions, the thesis also dealt with a set of
minor questions that have been resolved in the process of the analysis. From the
quantitative text corpus analysis reported here, it follows that oblique translation
procedures in the literary text outweigh direct procedures by almost 2.7 times. This
corroborates that literary translation is not a straightforward text transfer from SL into
3$

TL, demanding more complex stylistic translation procedures due to structural,
metalinguistic or cultural differences. Further, the non-literary text under investigation
does not evince, quite surprisingly, a purely foreignizing veneer since the ratio of
oblique translation procedures (234 counts) and direction translation procedures (230
counts) is almost tantamount to each other, thus challenging ones expectations. The
foreignizing feel of the non-literary text is manifested unequivocally only in a
flagrantly high degree of calque incidence in the text at hand, but not in a holistic texts
perspective. Furthermore, the literary illustratory text sample does not show a plethora
of (lexical) modulation, which runs counter to what was hypothesised by Alcaraz and
Hughes (2002). Besides, the results of the analysis have evinced that the translation
procedures of recasting sentences, adaptation, naturalization and paraphrase turned out
to be distinctly endemic to the literary text. Of these, the most frequently employed
paraphrase ranks as a free translation procedure, speaking volumes about the essence of
the literary text translation. By contrast, the low occurrence of adaptation and
naturalization (especially in terms of English units of measurement) signals that the
studied literary text does not brim with a great many culture-specific terms as a result of
which the translator did not need to make up foreignness of the source text to the target
text recipient. It should be borne in mind, however, that these findings concerning the
above-said procedures can be substantially altered in the case of a more culture-loaded
literary text.
By way of summing up, it ought to be reiterated that the conducted research has
not been planted exclusively into the theoretical plane of the systemic contrastive
description but it has tried to signpost the use of the findings gained for translation
practice. Understanding the mechanics which govern the use of translation procedures
connected with non-literary and literary text may help translators come up with more
successful solutions for translation problems, yielding quality results in the long run.
Granted, apart from the knowledge of translation procedures a translator has to possess
intellectual potential, cognitive flexibility, and a dose of talent as well as experience.
The present work by no means attempts to canonize translation procedures as a manual
for a methodology for translation but rather it represents a contribution towards
systematization of translation theory, especially with regard to translation procedures,
to which we still owe a lot, it seems.
Overall, in the present publication the selected non-literary and literary text
have been studied from the point of view of text linguistics and translatology, their
3

properties have been reviewed and mutually contrasted. Subsequently, the two
illustratory text samples have been explored with the aim of comparing the examined
translation procedures. The finding of supreme importance is that the employed
translation procedures construct (drawing on Vinay and Darbelnets, Newmarks and
last but not least Schreibers models) is perfectly applicable to the literary text as well,
even if some extra translation procedures have to be utilized in addition so as to give an
adequate picture of its translatological problems.
As for suggestions as to further research, it seems appealing to undertake
another quantitatively-oriented research in the foreseeable future, drawing on a much
larger sample of empirical text material. In this connection it should be noted, though,
that this was not quite possible in the presented case study due to the limited scope of
the primary sources used. Moreover, it would certainly be enticing to map out
translation procedures in miscellaneous prose literary texts and prove in this way the
universal applicability of my proposed enhanced construct of translation procedures.
Last but far from least, I am fully aware of the fact that not every partial area of the
research conducted is by any means exhaustive. Despite this realization, I humbly
believe that at least some of my research outcomes could be used as a point of
departure for another up-dated treatment of translation procedures in the future and be
instrumental in filling the gap in the need for a translatological analysis of typologically
different texts steered in this direction.








32

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