Physics (from the Greek, (phsis), "nature" and (phusik), "knowledge of

nature") is the science concerned with the discovery and understanding of the fundamental
laws which govern matter, energy, space and time. That is, physics deals with the
elementary constituents of the Universe and their interactions, as well as the analysis of
systems which are best understood in terms of these fundamental principles. Physics is a
study of the inorganic, physical world, as opposed to the organic world of biology,
physiology, etc. Physics overlaps with chemistry concerning the electro-chemical
interactions of substances

Read more: physics - Introduction, Connected Studies, Branches of physics, Classical,
quantum and modern physics, Theoretical and experimental physics
http://encyclopedia.stateuniversity.com/pages/17383/physics.html#ixzz0e0nLpo0h


BRANCHES OF PHYSICS

La Fsica para su estudio, se divide en dos grandes grupos Fsica Clsica y Fsica Moderna. La
primera estudia todos aqullos fenmenos en los cuales la velocidad es muy pequea comparada
con la velocidad de propagacin de la luz; la segunda se encarga de todos aquellos fenmenos
producidos a la velocidad de la luz o con valores cercanos a ella.

CLSICA: MECNICA, TERMOLOGA, ONDAS, PTICA, ELECTROMAGNETISMO
MODERNA: ATMICA, NUCLEAR

la mecnica clsica describe el movimiento macroscpico:
se divide en: mecnica newtoniana ( mecnica vectorial) usa clculo diferencial e integral, y
mecnica analtica (usa clculo de variaciones).

el electromagnetismo describe los fenmenos electromagnticos como la luz
se divide en: electrosttica, el estudio de las interacciones entre cargas en reposo, y la
electrodinmica, el estudio de las interacciones entre cargas en movimiento y la radiacin

la relatividad formulada por Einstein describe el espacio-tiempo y la interaccin gravitatoria
se divide en: la relatividad especial y la relatividad general.

la termodinmica describe los fenmenos moleculares y de intercambio de calor

mecnica estadstica, nace de la termodinmica, estudia los procesos de transferencia de calor,
pero desde un punto de vista molecular

la mecnica cuntica describe el comportamiento del mundo atmico.
De acuerdo a la teora cuntica, la energa se emite y se absorbe en cantidades discretas y
minsculas (en paquetes denominados cuantos)


Clasificacin de la fsica con respecto a teoras:

Mecnica Clsica
Mecnica cuntica
Teora cuntica de campos
Teora de la relatividad
Relatividad especial
Relatividad general
Mecnica Estadstica
Termodinmica
Mecnica de medios continuos
Mecnica de slidos, Elasticidad, Plasticidad
Mecnica de fluidos.
Electromagnetismo
Electricidad
Magnetismo
Electrnica
Astrofsica (rama de la astronoma)


Acoustics, Astronomy, Atomic Physics, Cryogenics, Electromagnetism , Elementary Particle Physics
, Fluid Dynamics Geophysics
Mathematical Physics Mechanics, Nuclear Physics Optics, Plasma Physics , Quantum Physics , Solid
State Physics , Statistical Mechanics , Thermodynamics

Astrophysics
Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe, including the
physical properties (luminosity, density, temperature and chemical composition) of astronomical
objects such as stars, galaxies, and the interstellar medium, as well as their interactions.
Atomic and molecular physics
The study of the structure and characteristics of atoms and molecules.
Biophysics
The science of the application of the laws of physics to life processes.
Condensed-matter (solid-state) physics
The study of the physical properties of solids, such as electrical, dielectric, elastic, and thermal
properties, and their understanding in terms of fundamental physical laws.
Cosmology
The study of the universe as a whole, of the contents, structure, and evolution of the universe
from the beginning of time to the future.
Geophysics
the study of the physical characteristics and properties of the earth; including geodesy,
seismology, meteorology, oceanography, atmospheric electricity, terrestrial magnetism, and tidal
phenomena.
Mechanics
the branch of physics concerned with the motion of bodies in a frame of reference.
Statistical Mechanics
The discipline that attempts to relate the properties of macroscopic systems to their atomic and
molecular constituents.
Theoretical physics
Theoretical physics attempts to understand the world by making a model of reality, used for
rationalizing, explaining, and predicting physical phenomena through a physical theory.
Thermodynamics
The study of the effects of changes in temperature, pressure, and volume on physical systems at
the macroscopic scale by analyzing the collective motion of their particles using statistics.



En los comienzos el desarrollo de las ciencias, nuestros sentidos eran la fuente de
informacin que se empleaba en la observacin de los fenmenos que se producen en la
naturaleza. Por ello el estudio de la ciencia se desarroll subdividindola en diversas ramas,
cada una de las cuales agruparon fenmenos relacionados con el sentido por el cual se
perciban. As surgieron:
2.1 La mecnica: rama de la fsica que estudia los fenmenos relacionados con el
movimiento de los cuerpos. De manera que cuando estudiamos el movimiento de cada de
un cuerpo, el movimiento de los planetas, el choque de dos automviles estamos, etc.
estamos hablando de fenmenos mecnicos.
2.2 El calor: (o termodinmica) como su nombre lo indica esta rama de la fsica estudia los
fenmenos trmicos. La variacin de temperatura de un cuerpo, la fusin de un elemento, la
dilatacin de un cuerpo caliente, etc. Son fenmenos que se estudian en esta rama.
2.3 La acstica: en esta parte estudiamos las propiedades de las ondas que se propagan en
un medio material, por ejemplo las ondas formadas en una cuerda o en la superficie del
agua, aqu adems se estudian los fenmenos audibles o sonoros, porque el sonido no es
mas que un tipo de onda que se propaga en los medios materiales.
2.4 La ptica: es la parte de la fsica que estudia los fenmenos visibles relacionados con la
luz. La formacin de nuestra imagen en un espejo, la observacin de un objeto distante
atreves de un lente, la descomposicin de la luz blanca en una gama de colores atreves de
un prisma, etc. Son todos fenmenos pticos
2.5 La electricidad: en esta rama de la fsica se incluyen todos los fenmenos elctricos y
magnticos. De modo que se estudian aqu las atracciones y repulsiones entre cuerpos
electrizados, el funcionamiento de los diversos electrodomsticos, las propiedades del
imn, la produccin de un relmpago en una tempestad, etc.
2.6 La fsica moderna: Esta parte abarca el desarrollo que alcanzo la fsica durante el siglo
XX, incluyendo el estudio de la estructura del tomo, del fenmeno de la radioactividad, de
la teora de la relatividad de Einstein, etc.
RAMAS DE LA FSICA

Para su estudio, la fsica se puede dividir en tres grandes etapas: la Fsica clsica, la Fsica moderna
y la Fsica contempornea. La primera se encarga del estudio de aquellos fenmenos que ocurren
a una velocidad relativamente pequea, comparada con la velocidad de la luz en el vaco, y cuyas
escalas espaciales son muy superiores al tamao de tomos y molculas. La segunda se encarga de
los fenmenos que se producen a la velocidad de la luz, o valores cercanos a ella, o cuyas escalas
espaciales son del orden del tamao del tomo o inferiores; fue desarrollada en los inicios del siglo
XX. La tercera se encarga del estudio de los fenmenos no-lineales, de la complejidad de la
naturaleza, de los procesos fuera del equilibrio termodinmico y de los fenmenos que ocurren a
escalas mesoscpicas y nanoscpicas. Esta rea de la fsica se comenz a desarrollar hacia finales
del siglo XX y principios del siglo XXI.

Dentro del campo de estudio de la Fsica clsica se encuentran:

Mecnica: mecnica clsica | mecnica de medios continuos | mecnica de fluidos
Termodinmica y mecnica estadstica
Mecnica ondulatoria: acstica | ptica
Electromagnetismo: Electricidad | Magnetismo | Electrnica
Relatividad (Electrodinmica): teora especial de la relatividad | teora general de la relatividad |
Gravitacin
Dentro del campo de estudio de la Fsica moderna se encuentran:

Mecnica cuntica: tomo | Ncleo | Fsica qumica | Fsica del estado slido
Fsica de partculas
Dentro del campo de estudio de la Fsica contempornea se encuentran:

Termodinmica fuera del equilibrio: Mecnica estadstica |Percolacin
Dinmica no-lineal: Turbulencia | Teora del Caos | Fractales
Sistemas complejos: Sociofsica | Econofsica | Criticalidad autorganizada | Redes complejas
Fsica mesoscpica: Puntos cunticos
Nano-Fsica: Pinzas pticas



Classification by Subdiscipline
Some of the primary physics subdisciplines are
Acoustics
Astrophysics
Atmospheric and space physics
Atomic and molecular physics
Biophysics
Condensed matter physics
Cryogenics
Electrodynamics
Fluid mechanics and aerodynamics
General Relativity and Other Gravity Theory
Geophysics
Medical physics
Nuclear physics
Optics and quantum optics
Particle physics (aka High Energy Physics)
Plasma physics
Quantum field theory
Thermodynamics and Statistical mechanics
The Big 6
Physics Disciplines
Acoustics (Sound and Hearing)
Electricity & Magnetism
Mechanics
Nuclear & Modern Physics
(Quantum, Nuclear, Astro,
Relativity & Condensed Matter)
Optics (Light and Vision)
Thermodynamics.
What is Modern Physics?
Modern Physics refers to Physics knowledge obtained in the first
half of the century.
Often is used to represent the subjects of Quantum Mechanics and
Relativity.


Classification by Energy and Matter
As physics is the study of energy and matter, a more systematic, but less traditional way of
overviewing physics is to examine the various categories of energy and matter:
Mechanical Energy (Motion of Objects)
Electrical Energy
Magnetic Energy
Thermal Energy (a.k.a. Heat Energy)
Electromagnetic Energy (e.g. Light Energy)
Acoustic Energy (a.k.a. Sound Energy)
Chemical Energy
Nuclear Energy
Solid Matter
Liquid Matter
Gaseous Matter
Plasma Matter (A gas of charged particles)
Macroscopic Matter
Molecular Matter
Atomic Matter
Electronic and Nuclear Matter
Quarks (Quarkal Matter? lol!)
Classification by Forces
There are four major forces in the universe (from weakest to strongest):
Gravitational Force
Electromagnetic Force (include electric, magnetic, and electromagnetic forces)
Weak Nuclear Force
Strong Nuclear Force
The Gravitational Force is the tendency of masses to move toward each other. Weight
results from the product of the force of gravity and the mass of an object. Exactly why two
masses separated in space have a gravitational attraction to one another remains largely
unknown, despite much research and various theories.
The Electromagnetic Force is a force that attracts two objects of opposite charge (or
opposite magnetic poles) and repels two objects of like charge (or like magnetic poles).
The Weak Nuclear Force or weak interaction is one of the four fundamental forces of
nature. It is most commonly seen in beta decay and the associated radioactivity. The
predicate weak derives from the fact that the field strength is some 109 times less than that
of the strong nuclear force. The term nuclear indicates that it is a short-range force, limited
to distances smaller than an atomic nucleus.
The Strong Nuclear Force is the strongest of the four fundamental forces, with the shortest
range of all. It holds the quarks together within protons and neutrons, and holds the protons
and neutrons together to form atoms.

Astrophysics
Astrophysics is the branch of astronomy that deals with the physics of the universe,
including the physical properties (luminosity, density, temperature and chemical
composition) of astronomical objects such as stars, galaxies, and the interstellar
medium, as well as their interactions.
Atomic and molecular physics
The study of the structure and characteristics of atoms and molecules.
Biophysics
The science of the application of the laws of physics to life processes.
Condensed-matter (solid-state) physics
The study of the physical properties of solids, such as electrical, dielectric, elastic,
and thermal properties, and their understanding in terms of fundamental physical
laws.
Cosmology
The study of the universe as a whole, of the contents, structure, and evolution of the
universe from the beginning of time to the future.
Geophysics
the study of the physical characteristics and properties of the earth; including
geodesy, seismology, meteorology, oceanography, atmospheric electricity,
terrestrial magnetism, and tidal phenomena.
Mechanics
the branch of physics concerned with the motion of bodies in a frame of reference.
Statistical Mechanics
The discipline that attempts to relate the properties of macroscopic systems to their
atomic and molecular constituents.
Theoretical physics
Theoretical physics attempts to understand the world by making a model of reality,
used for rationalizing, explaining, and predicting physical phenomena through a
physical theory.
Thermodynamics
The study of the effects of changes in temperature, pressure, and volume on
physical systems at the macroscopic scale by analyzing the collective motion of
their particles using statistics.
Different people will divide up physics into different numbers of 'branches', and
give those branches different names.

From a fundamental viewpoint, there are really only three 'branches' of physics:

1) Classical: Newtonian Mechanics and Maxwell's Electrodynamics--deals with
phenomena pertaining to macroscopic bodies moving very slowly with respect to the speed
of light

2) Relativity: Special and General--deals with phenomena pertaining to bodies moving
fast enough for relativistic effects to be important

3) Quantum Mechanics--deals with phenomena pertaining to bodies small enough for their
wave aspect to be important.






The study of matter and forces, at the most basic level. Physics as a discernible discipline
began during the Renaissance, with Copernicus' model of planetary motion and Galileo's
mechanics. Astronomy and mechanics continued to dominate the field, with the work of
Newton, Kepler, and others; Newton and Leibniz developed calculus, which Newton used
to express his theorems of mechanics. Galileo, Newton, and Kepler all studied optics.
Huygens was the first to envisage light as a wave, an idea strongly disputed by Newton.
Galileo built one of the earliest telescopes, and the compound microscope was (probably)
invented c.1590 by Zacharias Janssen. Thermodynamics dates from the work of Carnot,
Joule, and others in the 19th-c. About this time, steam power was becoming important:
Watt introduced his improved steam engine in 1769, and Stephenson's Rocket, a steam-
powered railway engine, dates from 1829. Franklin was the first to clarify the idea of
electric charge; the electric battery was invented by Volta. The foundation of modern
electromagnetism was laid by Ampre and Faraday, and electric motors and dynamos were
invented at this time.
Portions of the summary below have been contributed by Wikipedia.
Newton's mechanics dominated physics for two centuries, and was in part
responsible for a mechanistic philosophy that attempted to explain all phenomena
in terms of mechanics. The physicists' view of the world has changed dramatically
due to two major developments in the early part of the 20th-c. The first was
Einstein's theory of special relativity, which grew in part from Maxwell's work in
electromagnetism in the second half of the 19th-c. From the special theory,
Einstein went on to his general theory of relativity, a theory of gravity, which was
possible only because of mathematical developments by Riemann in the study of
geometry. The second was the development of quantum theory and atomic theory
by Schrdinger, Bohr, and many others. This was made possible by work in
thermodynamics, electromagnetism, and the new radiations. It has led to modern
solid state physics, as well as atomic, nuclear and particle physics. From these have
developed electronics and hence computers, lasers, nuclear power, and much more.
Physics (from the Greek, (phsis), "nature" and (phusik),
"knowledge of nature") is the science concerned with the discovery and
understanding of the fundamental laws which govern matter, energy, space and
time. That is, physics deals with the elementary constituents of the Universe and
their interactions, as well as the analysis of systems which are best understood in
terms of these fundamental principles. Physics is a study of the inorganic, physical
world, as opposed to the organic world of biology, physiology, etc. Physics overlaps
with chemistry concerning the electro-chemical interactions of substances.
Introduction
Physics attempts to describe the natural world by the application of scientific
methods, including modelling by theoreticians. Formerly, physics included the
study of natural philosophy, its counterpart which had been called "physics"
(earlier physike) from classical times up to the separation of physics from
philosophy as a positive science in the 19th century, as the study of the changing
world by philosophy. the divisibility of the atom) can involve natural philosophy in
physics (the science) and vice versa.
Connected Studies
Many other sciences and fields of thought are related to physics.
Discoveries in physics find connections throughout the other natural sciences as
they regard the basic constituents of the Universe. Some of the phenomena studied
in physics, such as the phenomenon of conservation of energy, are common to all
material systems. These are often referred to as laws of physics. Physics is often
said to be the "fundamental science", because each of the other sciences (biology,
chemistry, geology, physiology, archaeology, anthropology, etc.) deals with
particular types of material systems that obey the laws of physics. The structure,
reactivity, and properties of a chemical compound are determined by the properties
of the underlying molecules, which can be described by areas of physics such as
quantum mechanics (called in this case quantum chemistry), thermodynamics, and
electromagnetism. (Refer to Branches of physics)
Physics relies on mathematics, especially algebra and calculus, which provides the
logical framework in which physical laws can be precisely formulated and their
predictions quantified. Physical definitions, models and theories are invariably
expressed using mathematical relations. There is a large area of research
intermediate between physics and mathematics, known as mathematical physics.
Physics is also closely related to engineering and technology. Further, physicists, or
practitioners of physics, invent and design processes and devices, such as the
transistor, whether in basic or applied research.
Beyond the known Universe, the field of theoretical physics also deals with
hypothetical issues, such as parallel universes, a multiverse, or whether the
universe could have expanded as predominantly antimatter rather than matter.
Branches of physics
Physicists study a wide range of physical phenomena, from quarks to black holes,
from individual atoms to the many-body systems of superconductors.
Central theories
While physics deals with a wide variety of systems, there are certain theories that
are used by all physicists. For instance, the theory of classical mechanics accurately
describes the motion of objects, provided they are much larger than atoms and
moving at much less than the speed of light. for instance, a remarkable aspect of
classical mechanics known as chaos was discovered in the 20th century, three
centuries after the original formulation of classical mechanics by Isaac Newton
(16421727).
Classical mechanics is a model of the physics of forces acting upon bodies.
Electromagnetism, or electromagnetic theory, is the physics of the electromagnetic field: a
field, encompassing all of space, which exerts a force on those particles that possess the
property of electric charge, and is in turn affected by the presence and motion of such
particles. Thermodynamics is the branch of physics that deals with the action of heat and
the conversions from one to another of various forms of energy. Statistical mechanics, a
related theory, is the branch of physics that analyzes macroscopic systems by applying
statistical principles to their microscopic constituents and, thus, can be used to calculate
the thermodynamic properties of bulk materials from the spectroscopic data of individual
molecules. Quantum mechanics is the branch of mathematical physics treating atomic and
subatomic systems and their interaction with radiation in terms of observable quantities.
Quantum theory typically permits only probable or statistical calculation of the observed
features of subatomic particles, understood in terms of wave functions. The theory of
relativity, or relativity theory, is: A physical theory which is based on two postulates (1)
that the speed of light in a vacuum is constant and independent of the source or observer
and (2) that it is impossible to determine ones absolute velocity in any inertial systems and
which leads to the deduction of the equivalence of mass and energy and of change in mass,
dimension, and time with increased velocity called also special relativity, special theory
of relativity; An extension of the theory to include gravitation and related acceleration
phenomena called also general relativity, general theory of relativity.

Theory Major subtopics Concepts
Classical
mechanics
Newton's laws of motion,
Lagrangian mechanics,
Hamiltonian mechanics,
Kinematics, Statics,
Dynamics, Chaos theory,
Acoustics, Fluid
dynamics, Continuum
mechanics
Density, Dimension, Gravity, Space, Time,
Motion, Length, Position, Velocity,
Acceleration, Mass, Momentum, Force,
Energy, Angular momentum, Torque,
Conservation law, Harmonic oscillator,
Wave, Work, Power
Electromagnetism
Electrostatics,
Electrodynamics,
Electricity, Magnetism,
Maxwell's equations,
Optics
Capacitance, Electric charge, Current,
Electrical conductivity, Electric field,
Electric permittivity, Electric potential,
Electrical resistance, Electromagnetic field,
Electromagnetic induction,
Electromagnetic radiation, Gaussian
surface, Magnetic field, Magnetic flux,
Magnetic monopole, Magnetic permeability
Thermodynamics
and Statistical
mechanics
Heat engine, Kinetic
theory
Boltzmann's constant, Conjugate variables,
Enthalpy, Entropy, Equation of state,
Equipartition theorem, Free energy, Heat,
Ideal gas law, Internal energy, Laws of
thermodynamics, Irreversible process,
Ising model, Mechanical action, Partition
function, Pressure, Reversible process,
Spontaneous process, State function,
Statistical ensemble, Temperature,
Thermodynamic equilibrium,
Thermodynamic potential,
Thermodynamic processes,
Thermodynamic state, Thermodynamic
system, Viscosity, Volume, Work
Quantum
mechanics
Path integral formulation,
Scattering theory,
Schrdinger equation,
Quantum field theory,
Quantum statistical
mechanics
Adiabatic approximation, Blackbody
radiation, Correspondence principle, Free
particle, Hamiltonian, Hilbert space,
Identical particles, Matrix Mechanics,
Planck's constant, Observer effect,
Operators, Quanta, Quantization, Quantum
entanglement, Quantum harmonic
oscillator, Quantum number, Quantum
tunneling, Schrdinger's cat, Dirac
equation, Spin, Wavefunction, Wave
mechanics, Wave-particle duality, Zero-
point energy, Pauli Exclusion Principle,
Heisenberg Uncertainty Principle
Theory of relativity
Special relativity, General
relativity, Einstein field
equations
Covariance, Einstein manifold, Equivalence
principle, Four-momentum, Four-vector,
General principle of relativity, Geodesic
motion, Gravity, Gravitoelectromagnetism,
Inertial frame of reference, Invariance,
Length contraction, Lorentzian manifold,
Lorentz transformation, Mass-energy
equivalence, Metric, Minkowski diagram,
Minkowski space, Principle of Relativity,
Proper length, Proper time, Reference
frame, Rest energy, Rest mass, Relativity of
simultaneity, Spacetime, Special principle
of relativity, Speed of light, Stress-energy
tensor, Time dilation, Twin paradox, World
line
Major fields of physics
Contemporary research in physics is divided into several distinct fields that study
different aspects of the material world.
Condensed matter physics, by most estimates the largest single field of physics, is
concerned with how the properties of bulk matter, such as the ordinary solids and liquids
we encounter in everyday life, arise from the properties and mutual interactions of the
constituent atoms. A magnet levitating above a high-temperature superconductor (with
boiling liquid nitrogen underneath), demonstrating the Meissner effect, is a phenomenon
of importance to the field of condensed matter physics. The field of atomic, molecular, and
optical physics deals with the behavior of individual atoms and molecules, and in
particular the ways in which they absorb and emit light. The field of particle physics, also
known as "high-energy physics", is concerned with the properties of submicroscopic
particles much smaller than atoms, including the elementary particles from which all other
units of matter are constructed. Finally, the field of astrophysics applies the laws of physics
to explain celestial phenomena, ranging from the Sun and the other objects in the solar
system to the Universe as a whole.
Since the 20th century, the individual fields of physics have become increasingly
specialized, and nowadays it is not uncommon for physicists to work in a single
field for their entire careers. "Universalists" like Albert Einstein (18791955) and
Lev Landau (19081968), who were comfortable working in multiple fields of
physics, are now very rare.
Many fields and subfields of physics are listed in the table below.
Field Subfields Major theories Concepts
Astrophysics
Cosmology,
Gravitation physics,
High-energy
astrophysics,
Planetary
astrophysics, Plasma
physics, Space
physics, Stellar
astrophysics
Big Bang, Lambda-CDM
model, Cosmic inflation,
General relativity, Law of
universal gravitation
Black hole, Cosmic
background radiation,
Cosmic string, Cosmos,
Dark energy, Dark
matter, Galaxy, Gravity,
Gravitational radiation,
Gravitational singularity,
Planet, Solar system,
Star, Supernova,
Universe
Atomic,
molecular,
and optical
physics
Atomic physics,
Molecular physics,
Atomic and
Molecular
astrophysics,
Chemical physics,
Optics, Photonics
Quantum optics, Quantum
chemistry, Quantum
information science
Atom, Molecule,
Diffraction,
Electromagnetic
radiation, Laser,
Polarization, Spectral
line, Casimir effect
Particle
physics
Nuclear physics,
Nuclear astrophysics,
Particle astrophysics,
Particle physics
phenomenology
Standard Model, Quantum
field theory, Quantum
chromodynamics,
Electroweak theory,
Effective field theory,
Lattice field theory, Lattice
gauge theory, Gauge theory,
Supersymmetry, Grand
unification theory,
Superstring theory, M-
theory
Fundamental force (
gravitational,
electromagnetic, weak,
strong), Elementary
particle, Spin,
Antimatter, Spontaneous
symmetry breaking,
Brane, String, Quantum
gravity, Theory of
everything, Vacuum
energy
Condensed
matter
physics
Solid state physics,
High pressure
physics, Low-
temperature physics,
Nanoscale and
Mesoscopic physics,
Polymer physics
BCS theory, Bloch wave,
Fermi gas, Fermi liquid,
Many-body theory
Phases (gas, liquid, solid,
Bose-Einstein
condensate,
superconductor,
superfluid), Electrical
conduction, Magnetism,
Self-organization, Spin,
Spontaneous symmetry
breaking

Classical, quantum and modern physics
Since the construction of quantum mechanics in the early twentieth century, it
generally became evident to the physical community that it would be preferable for
many known descriptions of nature to be quantized, that is, to follow the postulates
of quantum mechanics. To this effect, all results that were not quantized are called
classical: this includes the Special Theory and General Theory of Relativity.
Classical theories are, generally, much easier to work with and much research is
still being conducted on them without the express aim of quantization. However,
there exist problems in physics in which classical and quantum aspects must be
combined to attain some approximation or limit that may acquire several forms as
the passage from classical to quantum mechanics is often difficult such problems
are termed semiclassical.
However, because relativity and quantum mechanics provide the most complete
known description of fundamental interactions, and because the changes brought
by these two frameworks to the physicist's world view were revolutionary, the term
modern physics is used to describe physics which relies on these two theories.
Colloquially, modern physics can be described as the physics of extremes: from
systems at the extremely small (atoms, nuclei, fundamental particles) to the
extremely large (the Universe) and of the extremely fast (relativity).
Theoretical and experimental physics
The culture of physics research differs from the other sciences in the separation of
theory and experiment. Since the 20th century, most individual physicists have
specialized in either theoretical physics or experimental physics. The great Italian
physicist Enrico Fermi (19011954), who made fundamental contributions to both
theory and experimentation in nuclear physics, was a notable exception.

Roughly speaking, theorists seek to develop through abstractions and
mathematical models theories that can both describe and interpret existing
experimental results and successfully predict future results, while experimentalists
devise and perform experiments to explore new phenomena and test theoretical
predictions. However, theoretical research in physics may further be considered to
draw from mathematical physics and computational physics in addition to
experimentation. Progress in physics frequently comes about when
experimentalists make a discovery that existing theories cannot account for,
necessitating the formulation of new theories. this is one of the criticisms that has
been leveled against M-theory, a popular theory in high-energy physics for which
no practical experimental test has ever been devised.
Discredited theories
Scientific theories sometimes end up being discredited or superseded. Steady state
theory An established theory of cosmology in the early and middle 20th century,
made obsolete by the success of Big Bang theory. Phlogiston theory An
established theory of the 18th century that attributed combustion to the liberation
of phlogiston from a material.
Phenomenology
Phenomenology is intermediate between experiment and theory.
Applied physics
Applied physics is physics that is intended for a particular technological or practical
use, as for example in engineering, as opposed to basic research. Applied physics is
rooted in the fundamental truths and basic concepts of the physical sciences but is
concerned with the utilization of scientific principles in practical devices and
systems, and in the application of physics in other areas of science.
Branches of Applied Physics
Accelerator physics, Acoustics, Agrophysics, Biophysics, Chemical Physics,
Communication Physics, Econophysics, Engineering physics, Fluid dynamics, Geophysics,
Materials physics, Medical physics, Nanotechnology, Optics, Optoelectronics,
Photovoltaics, Physical chemistry, Physics of computation, Plasma physics, Solid-state
devices, Quantum chemistry, Quantum electronics, Quantum information science, Vehicle
dynamics
History
Since antiquity, people have tried to understand the behavior of matter: why
unsupported objects drop to the ground, why different materials have different
properties, and so forth. the theory of light being equivalent to energy particles
developed by the Indian Buddhist scholars Dignga and Dharmakirti; During the
early 17th century, Galileo pioneered the use of experimentation to validate
physical theories, which is the key idea in modern scientific method. In 1687,
Newton published the Principia, detailing two comprehensive and successful
physical theories: Newton's laws of motion, from which arise classical mechanics;
Classical mechanics was re-formulated and extended by Leonhard Euler, French
mathematician Joseph-Louis Comte de Lagrange, Irish mathematical physicist
William Rowan Hamilton, and others, who produced new results in mathematical
physics. The law of universal gravitation initiated the field of astrophysics, which
describes astronomical phenomena using physical theories.
After Newton defined classical mechanics, the next great field of inquiry within
physics was the nature of electricity. Faraday also formulated a physical conception
of electromagnetic fields. The ability to describe light in electromagnetic terms
helped serve as a springboard for Albert Einstein's publication of the theory of
special relativity in 1905. This theory combined classical mechanics with Maxwell's
equations. Einstein built further on the special theory by including gravity into his
calculations, and published his theory of general relativity in 1915.
One part of the theory of general relativity is Einstein's field equation. In 1733,
Bernoulli used statistical arguments with classical mechanics to derive
thermodynamic results, initiating the field of statistical mechanics. In 1798,
Thompson demonstrated the conversion of mechanical work into heat, and in 1847
Joule stated the law of conservation of energy, in the form of heat as well as
mechanical energy. This initiated the field of nuclear physics. The equivalence of
mass and energy (Einstein, 1905) was spectacularly demonstrated during World
War II, as research was conducted by each side into nuclear physics, for the
purpose of creating a nuclear bomb. By introducing discrete energy levels, Planck,
Einstein, Niels Bohr, and others developed quantum theories to explain various
anomalous experimental results. Quantum mechanics was formulated in 1925 by
Heisenberg and in 1926 by Schrdinger and Paul Dirac, in two different ways that
both explained the preceding heuristic quantum theories. In quantum mechanics,
the outcomes of physical measurements are inherently probabilistic; During the
1920s Schrdinger, Heisenberg, and Max Born were able to formulate a consistent
picture of the chemical behavior of matter, a complete theory of the electronic
structure of the atom, as a byproduct of the quantum theory.
Quantum field theory was formulated in order to extend quantum mechanics to be
consistent with special relativity. They formulated the theory of quantum
electrodynamics, which describes the electromagnetic interaction, and successfully
explained the Lamb shift. Quantum field theory provided the framework for
modern particle physics, which studies fundamental forces and elementary
particles. In 1954, Yang and Robert Mills then developed a class of gauge theories
which provided the framework for understanding the nuclear forces (Yang, Mills
1954). This led to the so-called Standard Model of particle physics in the 1970s,
which successfully describes all the elementary particles observed to date.
Quantum mechanics also provided the theoretical tools for condensed matter
physics, whose largest branch is solid state physics. It studies the physical behavior
of solids and liquids, including phenomena such as crystal structures,
semiconductivity, and superconductivity. The pioneers of condensed matter
physics include Felix Bloch, who created a quantum mechanical description of the
The two themes of the 20th century, general relativity and quantum mechanics,
appear inconsistent with each other. General relativity describes the universe on
the scale of planets and solar systems while quantum mechanics operates on sub-
atomic scales.
The United Nations declared the year 2005, the centenary of Einstein's annus
mirabilis, as the World Year of Physics.
Future directions
Research in physics is progressing constantly on a large number of fronts, and is
likely to do so for the foreseeable future.
In condensed matter physics, the biggest unsolved theoretical problem is the
explanation for high-temperature superconductivity.
In particle physics, the first pieces of experimental evidence for physics beyond the
Standard Model have begun to appear. These experimental results appear to have
solved the long-standing solar neutrino problem in solar physics. The physics of
massive neutrinos is currently an area of active theoretical and experimental
research.
Theoretical attempts to unify quantum mechanics and general relativity into a
single theory of quantum gravity, a program ongoing for over half a century, have
not yet borne fruit. The current leading candidates are M-theory, superstring
theory and loop quantum gravity.
Although much progress has been made in high-energy, quantum, and
astronomical physics, many everyday phenomena, involving complexity, chaos, or
turbulence are still poorly understood. The interdisciplinary relevance of complex
physics has also increased, as exemplified by the study of turbulence in
aerodynamics or the observation of pattern formation in biological systems. In
1932, Horace Lamb correctly prophesied the success of the theory of quantum
electrodynamics and the near-stagnant progress in the study of turbulence:
I am an old man now, and when I die and go to heaven there are two matters on
which I hope for enlightenment. Character of Physical Law. Physics for the
Inquiring Mind: The Methods, Nature, and Philosophy of Physical Science.
Fundamentals of Physics 7th EDITION. Conceptual Physics with Practicing
Physics Workbook (9th ed.). Physics for Scientists and Engineers: Electricity,
Magnetism, Light, and Elementary Modern Physics (5th ed.). College Physics (5th
ed.). Motion Mountain: The Free Physics Textbook. Thermal Physics (2nd ed.).
Quantum Physics of Atoms, Molecules, Solids, Nuclei, and Particles (2nd ed.).
Spacetime Physics: Introduction to Special Relativity (2nd ed.). Modern Physics
(4th ed.). Particles and Nuclei: An Introduction to the Physical Concepts. The
Oxford Guide to the History of Physics and Astronomy. Gaye Physics and Math
Textbooks Usenet Physics FAQ is a FAQ compiled by sci.physics and other physics
newsgroups Physics.org is a web portal run by the Institute of Physics World of
Physics is an online encyclopedic dictionary of physics Website of the Nobel Prize
in Physics The Physics Network is the official Physics Network Physics Today is
your daily physics news and research source The Skeptic's Guide to Physics
PlanetPhysics includes online Physics Physics 2005 is the website of the World
Year of Physics 2005 Physicsweb.org Physics community; the Physics Community
accepts contributions from those knowledgeable in physics Contemporary Physics
Physics Central includes articles on astronomy, particle Physics and mathematics.