Neurons

The nervous system is made up of trillions of nerve cells, divided into two main groups:
neurons and neuroglia. Neurons are long, thin cells that generate and transmit electrical
signals called nerve impulses, and which together form a vast, high-speed communication
system. (Walker, 2003) A neuron is a nerve cell that is the basic building block of the
nervous system. Neurons are specialized to transmit information throughout the body.
These highly specialized nerve cells are responsible for communicating information in both
chemical and electrical forms. (Cherry, n.d.)
Similarities and Differences
Neurons, since they are nerve cells, have similarities with other cells. Neurons and other
body cells both contain a nucleus that holds genetic information. They are both surrounded
by a membrane that protects the cell. The cell bodies of both cell types contain organelles
that support the life of the cell, including mitochondria, Golgi bodies, and cytoplasm.
Contrary to their similarities, they also have differences that make neurons unique. Unlike
other body cells, neurons stop reproducing shortly after birth. Because of this, some parts of
the brain have more neurons at birth than later in life because neurons die but are not
replaced. While neurons do not reproduce, research has shown that new connections
between neurons form throughout life. Neurons have a membrane that is designed to sends
information to other cells. The axon and dendrites are specialized structures designed to
transmit and receive information. The connections between cells are known as synapses.
Neurons release chemicals known as neurotransmitters into these synapses to
communicate with other neurons. (Cherry, n.d.)
Parts of a Neuron

(National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke [NINDS], 2014)
Neurons have three basic parts: a cell body and two extensions called an axon (5) and a
dendrite (3). Within the cell body is a nucleus (2), which controls the cells activities and
contains the cells genetic material. The axon looks like a long tail and transmits messages
from the cell. Dendrites look like the branches of a tree and receive messages for the cell.
Hence, everything we think and feel and do would be impossible without the work of
neurons and their support cells, the glial cells called astrocytes (4) and oligodendrocytes (6).
(NINDS, 2014)

Axons Dendrites
Take information away from the
cell body
Bring information to the cell
body
Smooth Surface Rough Surface (dendritic spines)
Generally only 1 axon per cell Usually many dendrites per cell
No ribosomes Have ribosomes
Can have myelin No myelin insulation
Branch further from the cell
body
Branch near the cell body
(Chudler, 2013)

Synapses
A synapse is a junction between two neurons. At a synapse is the terminal fibre of an
axon which reaches out, but does not touch, the dendrite of the next neuron. The small gap
between them is called the synaptic cleft or synaptic gap. When a neuron is stimulated a
nerve impulse the result of a change in electrical polarity across its membrane travels at
high speed along its axon. The tip of the axon-terminal releases molecules of a chemical
called a neurotransmitter. This crosses the synaptic gap in a matter of milliseconds, and
depolarizes the membrane of the receiving dendrite, thereby generating a new impulse
which passes along the second neuron. This is a one-way process that ensures nerve
impulses only travel in one direction. Some association neurons in the brain form hundreds
or thousands of synapses with other neurons. (Walker, 2003)
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are chemical messengers that are released from the axon terminals to
cross the synaptic gap and reach the receptor sites of other neurons. In a process known as
reuptake, these neurotransmitters attach to the receptor site and are reabsorbed by the
neuron to be reused. Acetylcholine is associated with memory, muscle contractions, and
learning. A lack of acetylcholine in the brain is associated with Alzheimers disease.
Endorphins is associated with emotions and pain perception. The body releases endorphins
in response to fear or trauma. These chemical messengers are similar to opiate drugs such
as morphine, but are significantly stronger. Dopamine is associated with thought and
pleasurable feelings. Parkinsons disease is one illness associated with deficits in dopamine,
while schizophrenia is strongly linked to excessive amounts of this chemical messenger.
(Cherry, n.d.)
Classifying Neurons
One way to classify neurons is by the number of extensions that extend from the
neuron's cell body (soma). Bipolar neurons have two processes extending from the cell
body. Pseudounipolar cells have 2 axons rather than an axon and dendrite. One axon
extends centrally toward the spinal cord, the other axon extends toward the skin or muscle.
Multipolar neurons have many processes that extend from the cell body. However, each
neuron has only one axon. Neurons can also be classified by the direction that they send
information. Sensory (or afferent) neurons send information from sensory
receptors toward the central nervous system. Motor (or efferent) neurons send
information away from the central nervous system to muscles or glands. Interneurons send
information between sensory neurons and motor neurons. Most interneurons are located in
the central nervous system. (NINDS, 2014)
Neurogenesis
Neurons are born in areas of the brain that are rich in concentrations of neural precursor
cells (also called neural stem cells). These cells have the potential to generate most, if not
all, of the different types of neurons and glia found in the brain. Neural stem cells increase
by dividing in two and producing either two new stem cells, or two early progenitor cells, or
one of each. When a stem cell divides to produce another stem cell, it is said to self-renew.
This new cell has the potential to make more stem cells. When a stem cell divides to
produce an early progenitor cell, it is said to differentiate. Differentiation means that the
new cell is more specialized in form and function. An early progenitor cell does not have the
potential of a stem cell to make many different types of cells. It can only make cells in its
particular lineage. Early progenitor cells can self-renew or go in either of two ways. One type
will give rise to astrocytes. The other type will ultimately produce neurons or
oligodendrocytes. (NINDS, 2014)
Migration
Some neurons migrate by following the long fibers of cells called radial glia. These fibers
extend from the inner layers to the outer layers of the brain. Neurons glide along the fibers
until they reach their destination. Neurons also travel by using chemical signals. Scientists
have found special molecules on the surface of neurons -- adhesion molecules -- that bind
with similar molecules on nearby glial cells or nerve axons. These chemical signals guide the
neuron to its final location. Not all neurons are successful in their journey. Scientists think
that only a third reach their destination. Some cells die during the process of neuronal
development. Some neurons survive the trip, but end up where they shouldnt be.
Mutations in the genes that control migration create areas of misplaced or oddly formed
neurons that can cause disorders such as childhood epilepsy or mental retardation. Some
researchers suspect that schizophrenia and the learning disorder dyslexia are partly the
result of misguided neurons. (NINDS, 2014)
Differentiation
Once a neuron reaches its destination, it has to settle in to work. This final step of
differentiation is the least well-understood part of neurogenesis. Depending on its location,
a neuron can perform the job of a sensory neuron, a motor neuron, or an interneuron,
sending and receiving specific neurotransmitters. In the developing brain, a neuron depends
on molecular signals from other cells, such as astrocytes, to determine its shape and
location, the kind of transmitter it produces, and to which other neurons it will connect.
These freshly born cells establish neural circuits - or information pathways connecting
neuron to neuron - that will be in place throughout adulthood. But in the adult brain, neural
circuits are already developed and neurons must find a way to fit in. As a new neuron settles
in, it starts to look like surrounding cells. It develops an axon and dendrites and begins to
communicate with its neighbors. (NINDS, 2014)
Death
Although neurons are the longest living cells in the body, large numbers of them die
during migration and differentiation. The lives of some neurons can take abnormal turns.
Some diseases of the brain are the result of the unnatural deaths of neurons. (NINDS, 2014)

Action Potential
When a neuron is not sending signals, the inside of the neuron has a negative charge
relative to the positive charge outside the cell. Electrically charged chemicals known as ions
maintain the balance of positive and negative charges. Calcium contains two positive
charges, sodium and potassium contain one positive charge and chloride contains a negative
charge. When at rest, the cell membrane of the neuron allows certain ions to pass through
while preventing or restricting the movement of other ions. In this state, sodium and
potassium ions cannot easily pass through the membrane. Potassium ions, however, are
able to freely cross the membrane. The negatively ions inside of the cell are unable to cross
the barrier. The cell must activity transport ions in order to maintain its polarized state. This
mechanism is known as the sodium-ion pump. For every two potassium ions that pass
through the membrane, three sodium ions are pumped out. The resting potential of the
neuron refers to the difference between the voltage inside and outside the neuron. The
resting potential of the average neuron is around -70 millivolts, indicating that the inside of
the cell is 70 millivolts less than the outside of the cell. When an impulse is sent out from a
cell body, the sodium channels open and the positive sodium cells surge into the cell. Once
the cell reaches a certain threshold, an action potential will fire, sending the electrical signal
down the axon. Action potentials either happen or they don't; there is no such thing as a
"partial" firing of a neuron. This principle is known as the all-or-none law. After the neuron
has fired, there is a refractory period in which another action potential is not possible.
During this time, the potassium channels reopen and the sodium channels close, gradually
returning the neuron to its resting potential. (Cherry, n.d.)

References
Book
Walker, R. (2003). Guide to the human body. London: Philips, a division of Octopus
Publishing Group Ltd
Internet
Cherry, K. (n.d.). What is a neuron? Building blocks of the nervous system. Retrieved from
http://psychology.about.com/od/biopsychology/f/neuron01.htm
Cherry, K. (n.d.). Action Potential - How a neuron fires. Retrieved from
http://psychology.about.com/od/aindex/g/actionpot.htm
Chudler, E. (2013). Neuroscience for kids - Cells on the nervous system. Retrieved from
https://faculty.washington.edu/chudler/cells.html
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke [NINDS] (2014). The life and death of
a neuron. Retrieved from
http://www.ninds.nih.gov/disorders/brain_basics/ninds_neuron.htm
National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke [NINDS] (2014).
Neuron_architecture.jpg. Retrieved from
http://www.ninds.nih.gov/img/neuron_architecture1.jpg