Chapter 24 Alternating Currents

CAMBRIDGE A LEVEL CAMBRIDGE A LEVEL
PHYSICS
CURRENTS
ALTERNATING
CURRENTS
LEARNI NG OUTCOMES LEARNI NG OUTCOMES
NO.
LEARNING OUTCOME
i An a l y s e a n d i n t e r p r e t t h e n a t u r e o f a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t s
a n d v o l t a g e s .
ii Re a d o f f c u r r e n t ( v o l t a g e ) v s . t i me g r a p h s v a l u e s o f p e a k
c u r r e n t ( v o l t a g e ) , f r e q u e n c y a n d p e r i o d . Wr i t e a n d
i n t e r p r e t e q u a t i o n s f o r a l t e r n a t i n g c u r r e n t s a n d v o l t a g e s .
iii Un d e r s t a n d wh a t i s me a n t b y r. m. s v a l u e s . Re l a t e ma x i mu m
p o we r wi t h r. m. s p o we r
iv Ap p l y k n o wl e d g e o f e l e c t r o ma g n e t i c i n d u c t i o n t o ex p l a i n
h o w t r a n s f o r me r s o p e r a t e . T h i s i n c l u d e s e f f i c i e n c y i s s u e s
r e l a t e d t o t r a n s f o r me r s .
v Un d e r s t a n d h o w t o s mo o t h e n t h e o u t p u t f r o m a
t r a n s f o r me r. Di f f e r e n t i a t e b e t we e n h a l f wa v e a n d f u l l wa v e
r e c t i f i c a t i o n .
vi Un d e r s t a n d t h e u s e o f a c a p a c i t o r i n r e c t i f i c a t i o n a n d i t s
r e l a t i o n s h i p wi t h t i me c o n s t a n t .
ALTERNATI NG CURRENTS
Alternating current is current that Alternating current is current that
flows in both directions.
The polarity of the power source
reverses every half a cycle.
This causes current to flow opposite
to the initial direction.
Alternating current is periodic; i.e. it
repeats itself after a certain time
interval.
ALTERNATI NG CURRENT
The graph on the left
shows how AC varies
with time.
Observe the sinusoidal
nature of the graph.
Can you identify where
one cycle completes?
Can you locate points
where the current
direction reverses?
Can you identify where
current is maximum (in
magnitude)?
Figure 7.39; Page 192, Chapter 7: Electricity;
Section 7.5: Alternating Currents, International
A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle, Arnold and
Brown, Hodder Education, United Kingdom,
2008.
ALTERNATI NG VOLTAGE
If current flow is reversed, the polarities If current flow is reversed, the polarities
of the devices connected in the circuit
will also reverse (positive becomes
negative, and negative becomes
positive).
The voltage across any device initially
increases from zero to a maximum, and
then decreases to zero. The voltage
then reverses, increases in magnitude
to a maximum value, and then
decreases to 0.
This is repeated in a periodic manner.
ALTERNATI NG VOLTAGE
The maximum voltage is
known as the peak value.
The time taken for one
complete cycle is known as
the period, of the
alternating voltage/current.
The inverse of the period, or
the number of cycles per
second, is the frequency of
the alternating current /
voltage.
Diagram 31.1, Chapter 31: Alternating Current, Section 31.1, page 1022, Sears and
Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13
th
edition, Pearson
Education, San Francisco, 2012.
MATHEMATI CAL
EQUATI ONS
MATHEMATI CAL
EQUATI ONS
If we look at both the graphs of voltage
I. I. I. I.
II. II. II. II.
If we look at both the graphs of voltage

/ current vs. time for alternating sources
of electricity, we can see that the graphs
have a sinusoidal shape.
We can represent this graphs
mathematically by using the equation in
the forms of:
I. I. I. I.
, for current, and

II. II. II. II.
, for voltage

mathematically by using the equation in
the forms of:
I. I. I. I.
, for current, and

II. II. II. II.
, for voltage
where instantaneous current, A;
peak current, A; angular

frequency, rad s
-1
; t = time, s;
instantaneous voltage, V;
peak
voltage, V.
Recall
MATHEMATI CAL
EQUATI ONS
MATHEMATI CAL
EQUATI ONS
ROOT MEAN SQUARED
( R. M. S) VALUES
ROOT MEAN SQUARED
( R. M. S) VALUES
Alternating current that flows is time Alternating current that flows is time
varying. This results in time varying values
of current (voltage).
The effective value of the current (voltage)
is known as the root mean squared
(r.m.s) value of current (voltage).
Definition: The r.m.s value of a current
(voltage) is that value of the of the direct
current (voltage) that would produce the
same heat in a resistor.
The r.m.s calue is also known as the
declared value.
ROOT MEAN SQUARED
( R. M. S) VALUES
ROOT MEAN SQUARED
( R. M. S) VALUES
To obtain the r.m.s value of a current

To obtain the r.m.s value of a current
(or voltage) , we square the equation
for current (or voltage) vs. time, find
the average of the

(or

and
then square the mean.
This calculation involves integration,
so we would not delve into it.
However, there is an easy way to
calculate the

or

.
ROOT MEAN SQUARED
( R. M. S) VALUES
ROOT MEAN SQUARED
( R. M. S) VALUES
We use the equation

for
current, and

for voltage.
Source of Image:http://www.bbc.co.uk/bitesize/standard/physics/images/waveform2.gif
MAXI MUM POWER vs .
R. M. S POWER
MAXI MUM POWER vs .
R. M. S POWER
Lets assume that we have a resistive
Lets assume that we have a resistive

load (e.g. a resistor) that has alternating
current flowing through it.
The voltage across and the current
through the resistor is time varying.
When the voltage across it is
maximum, the current through it will
also be maximum.
Hence, the maximum power dissipated,
MAXI MUM POWER vs .

R. M. S POWER
MAXI MUM POWER vs .
R. M. S POWER
Hence,

Hence,

or

.
This implies that the r.m.s value of
the power dissipated by a resistive
load is half of the value of the
maximumpower it dissipates.
EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
Question 1, Set 60:
Simple A.C. Circuits;
page 191;
PROBLEMS IN
PHYSICS ; E.D
GARDINER, B.L
McKITTRICK;
McGraw Hill Book
Company, Sydney
1985.
EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
Question 4, Set 60: Simple A.C. Circuits; page 191; PROBLEMS IN PHYSICS ; E.D
GARDINER, B.L McKITTRICK; McGraw Hill Book Company, Sydney 1985.
EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
Question 5, Set 60: Simple A.C. Circuits; page 191; PROBLEMS IN PHYSICS ; E.D
GARDINER, B.L McKITTRICK; McGraw Hill Book Company, Sydney 1985.
EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
Question . Question .
Example; Page 194, Chapter 7: Electricity; Section 7.5: Alternating Currents,
International A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle, Arnold and Brown, Hodder
Education, United Kingdom, 2008.
TRANSFORMERS
Transformers are devices that are to amplify Transformers are devices that are to amplify
or attenuate alternating voltages.
Figure 12.41; Page 342, Chapter 12: Electromagnetism; Section 12.3:
Electromagnetic Induction, International A/AS Level Physics, by Mee, Crundle,
Arnold and Brown, Hodder Education, United Kingdom, 2008.
TRANSFORMERS
A transformer is made up of: A transformer is made up of:
I. A primary coil,
II. A secondary coil, and
III. A laminated soft iron core.
The A.C input is connected across the
primary coil.
Alternating current flows through the
primary turnings, which behaves like a
solenoid.
This produces a magnetic field around
the primary turnings.
TRANSFORMERS
Is the magnetic field around the Is the magnetic field around the
primary coil constant or time
varying?
The magnetic field lines that exist
around the primary turnings pass
through the secondary coil.
This produces a magnetic flux
linkage between the turnings in the
secondary coil.
TRANSFORMERS
The magnetic flux linkage The magnetic flux linkage
between the secondary windings
is time varying.
According to Faradays Law, this
would produce an induced e.m.f
across the ends of the secondary
turnings.
TRANSFORMERS
The secondary coil behaves like an The secondary coil behaves like an
A.C battery as long as there is A.C
flowing in the primary coil.
Current will flow in the output if the
secondary coil is connected to an
output device.
Will the current in the output be in
phase or be out of phase with the
current in the input?
TRANSFORMERS
What is the function of the What is the function of the
laminated soft iron core? The soft
iron core intensifies the
magnetic flux linkage in the
secondary coil. It is laminated
(cut into smaller sheets and
separated by insulators) to
prevent excessive heating that
could damage the transformer.
TRANSFORMERS
Diagram 31.24, Chapter 31: Alternating Current, Section 31.6, page 1042, Sears and
Zemanskys University Physics, Young and Freedman, 13
th
edition, Pearson
Education, San Francisco, 2012.
TRANSFORMERS
The type of transformers we deal

The type of transformers we deal

with are considered ideal (100 %
efficient).
This means that all the power
delivered to the primary coil is
delivered at the output.
Mathematically, this can be written
as

or

TRANSFORMERS
Transformers can either be : Transformers can either be :
I. step up, or
II. step down transformers.
Step up transformers amplify the
input voltage (at the output)
while step down transformers
attenuate the input voltage.
TRANSFORMERS
The turns ratio of a transformer The turns ratio of a transformer
determines whether the
transformer is a step up or step
down transformer.
The turns ratio

If the turns ratio , then it is a

step up transformer, while if the
turns ratio is , it is a step down
transformer.
TRANSFORMERS
If we were combine the If we were combine the
equations on the previous three
slides, we can obtain

EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
Example; Page 343, Chapter 12: Electricity; Section 12.3: Electromagnetic Induction,
EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
Questions 11 and
12, Set 60: Simple
A.C. Circuits; page
193; PROBLEMS IN
PHYSICS ; E.D
GARDINER, B.L
McKITTRICK;
McGraw Hill
Book Company,
Sydney 1985.
EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
Question 13, Set
60: Simple A.C.
Circuits; page 193;
PROBLEMS IN
PHYSICS ; E.D
GARDINER, B.L
McKITTRICK;
McGraw Hill
Book Company,
Sydney 1985.
ADVANTAGES OF
ADVANTAGES OF
One advantage of using A.C is that One advantage of using A.C is that
A.C. voltages can be stepped up or
stepped down using transformers
while we cannot step up or down
D.C.
Why do we need to step up or step
down voltages?
Electricity transmission using higher
voltages offer economical benefit
compared to lower voltages.
ADVANTAGES OF
ADVANTAGES OF
When A.C voltage is stepped up
When A.C voltage is stepped up

using a transformer at generation
site, the output current will be
lower (by the same factor the
voltage was stepped up).
Recall

Since electricity needs to be

transmitted over long distances, a
lower current will significantly
reduce resistive heat

losses.
EXAMPLE EXAMPLE
RECTI FI CATI ON
The output of a transformer is also A.C. The output of a transformer is also A.C.
How do we convert this A.C output into
D.C?
We use a rectification to convert A.C
into D.C.
Rectification employs the use of diodes
to rectify and capacitors to smoothen
the output.
We will look at both half wave and full
wave rectification.
HALF WAVE
RECTI FI CATI ON
HALF WAVE
RECTI FI CATI ON
The diagram on the left shows a
half wave rectifier circuit.
The diode allows current to
flow in only when it is forward
biased.
This happens when the base of
the triangle has a higher
potential than its vertex.
No current flows through the
diode when it is reverse biased;
the base of the triangle has a
lower potential than its vertex.
Figure 7.40; Page 194, Chapter 7: Electricity; Section 7.5: Alternating Currents,
HALF WAVE
RECTI FI CATI ON
HALF WAVE
RECTI FI CATI ON
The diagram above compares the input and output of a half wave
rectifier.
Note that the negative portion of the voltage is chopped off.
To get the full waveform at the output we use a full wave (bridge)
rectifier.
FULL WAVE
RECTI FI CATI ON
FULL WAVE
RECTI FI CATI ON
FULL WAVE
RECTI FI CATI ON
FULL WAVE
RECTI FI CATI ON
Diagram (a) in the previous slide Diagram (a) in the previous slide
shows a full wave or a bridge
rectifier circuit.
There are four diodes that form a
bridge circuit.
It is very important to remember
how the four diodes are
connected with each other.
FULL WAVE
RECTI FI CATI ON
FULL WAVE
RECTI FI CATI ON
Diodes allow current to flow only Diodes allow current to flow only
when forward biased; i.e. current
flows into the base of the triangle.
Also note that current can only flow
from higher potential to lower
potential.
Therefore, current will only flow
upwards through the galvanometer.
FULL WAVE
RECTI FI CATI ON
FULL WAVE
RECTI FI CATI ON
Figure 7.42 shows the input and output voltages in a full wave (bridge)
rectifier circuit.
The positive half cycle is replicated, while the negative half cycle gets
flipped.
SMOOTHI NG THE
OUTPUT
SMOOTHI NG THE
OUTPUT
If we refer to the output of a If we refer to the output of a
rectifier, it does not at all look
like a d.c. source.
How do we then obtain a d.c
output?
The answer is connect a
capacitor in parallel with the
output load resistor.
SMOOTHI NG THE
OUTPUT
SMOOTHI NG THE
OUTPUT
The diagram above shows a capacitor connected in parallel
with an output load resistor, R
2
of value 100 for a half wave
rectifier.
The output trace on a CRO is shown on the next slide.
Source of image: http://wjec.co.uk/uploads/publications/8024.doc
SMOOTHI NG THE
OUTPUT
SMOOTHI NG THE
OUTPUT
The output trace is shown in red, while the input in green.
What happens when we change the value of the output load
resistor?
SMOOTHI NG THE
OUTPUT
SMOOTHI NG THE
OUTPUT
The output trace is shown in red is for a lower output load
resistance value of 10 .
What had happened?
SMOOTHI NG THE
OUTPUT
SMOOTHI NG THE
OUTPUT
The diagram above shows a capacitor connected in parallel
with an output load resistor, R
1
of value 10 when a full wave
rectifier is used..
The output trace on a CRO is shown on the next slide.
SMOOTHI NG THE
OUTPUT
SMOOTHI NG THE
OUTPUT
The ripple voltage is lower due to the use of a full wave
rectifier.
How can we further improve on the output?
SMOOTHI NG THE
OUTPUT
SMOOTHI NG THE
OUTPUT
When we vary the value of the When we vary the value of the
output load, we change a parameter
called the time constant, of
the circuit.
The higher the value of the time
constant, the longer it takes for the
capacitor to discharge.
This is why for higher values of R,
the voltage across R does not drop
too much before rising again.
EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
Question 34, Set 196: Simple A.C. Circuits;
page 193; PROBLEMS IN PHYSICS ; E.D
GARDINER, B.L McKITTRICK; McGraw Hill
Book Company, Sydney 1985.
EXAMPLES EXAMPLES
Questions 35 and
36, Set 196:
Simple A.C.
Circuits; page 193;
PROBLEMS IN
PHYSICS ; E.D
GARDINER, B.L
McKITTRICK;
McGraw Hill
Book Company,
Sydney 1985.
HOMEWORK HOMEWORK
1. Question 6, Paper 4, Winter 2008. 1. Question 6, Paper 4, Winter 2008.
2. Question 7, Paper 41, Winter 2009.
4. Question 6, Paper 41, Summer 2010.
HOMEWORK HOMEWORK
8. Question 6, Paper 41, Summer 2011. 8. Question 6, Paper 41, Summer 2011.

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CAMBRIDGE A LEVEL CAMBRIDGE A LEVEL

II. II. II. II.

If we look at both the graphs of voltage

, for current, and

, for current, and

peak current, A; angular

We use the equation

Lets assume that we have a resistive

MAXI MUM POWER vs .

The type of transformers we deal

If the turns ratio , then it is a

When A.C voltage is stepped up

Since electricity needs to be

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