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Microwave Fundamentals
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Proprietary & Confidential Slide1Microwave Fundamentals
Proprietary & Confidential Slide2Microwave Fundamentals-Radio
PropagationTerminologies.Polarization.Microwave Frequency Bands.Free space Loss.Antenna
.Fresnel ZoneModulation Technologies (QAM).SDH,PDH,E1
Proprietary & Confidential Slide3Radio Propagation
Proprietary & Confidential Slide4a.Radio Wave Propagation & Its Charactersticsi) Definition of
Microwave :Microwaves in a descriptive term used to identify electromagnetic waves in the
frequencyspectrum ranging approx from 1 GHz to 30GHz. This corresponds to wavelength 30cmto 1 cm.
Since the wavelength is small the phase varies rapidly with distance, thus asignal reaching to a point
from two different routes may cause constructive or destructiveinterference. Moreover these
frequencies contain two energies (Electric and Magnetic)so also known as ELECTROMAGNATIC WAVES.
Propagations of this waves happensin such a way that direction of propagation, Electric field and
Magnetic field alwaysremains perpendicular to each other. Microwaves frequencies characteristics are
verymuch similar to light. The same is shown in the figure: Radio Wave Propagation & Itscharacteristics
Proprietary & Confidential Slide5Radio Wave Propagation & ItscharacteristicsEHPDepending on the
topography and the meteorological conditions, radio waves propagateIn different ways causing
attenuation to the original wave. Following propagationmechanisms come into play:ii) Reflection :When
electromagnetic waves incide on a surface they may be reflected depending onthe smoothness of the
surface. When the surface is smooth and its size is greater thanthe wavelength of the wave then it is
Reflected. Proprietary & Confidential Slide6iii) Refraction :Bending of waves when passing through one
media to other media of different refractiveindex is called REFRACTION. Radio waves travel with
different velocities in differentmedium depending on their dielectric constants. The dielectric constant
of theatmosphere decrease with altitude. Thus the waves travel slower in the lower part ofatmosphere
where dielectric constant is greater and faster in the upper part wheredielectric constant is lower thus
refracting the beam downwards.Radio Wave Propagation & ItscharacteristicsGlazy Surfaceir Where i =
incident angler = reflected angle Proprietary & Confidential Slide7iv) K-Factor & Effective Earth
Radius:In a horizontally homogeneous atmosphere where the vertical change of dielectricconstant is
gradual, the bending or refraction is continuous, so that the ray is slowlybent away from the thinner
density air towards thicker, thus making the beam tend tofollow the earths curvature. This bending can
be directly related to the radii of spheres. The first sphere being the earth itself (radius =6370 km) and
the second Radio Wave Propagation & ItscharacteristicsRI1RI2RI1 < RI2Where RI1 = Refractive index of
medium 1RI2 = Refractive index of medium 2Medium 2Medium 1 Proprietary & Confidential
Slide8Radio Wave Propagation & Itscharacteristicssphere is formed by the curvature of the ray beam
with its center coinciding theearths center. The K- Factor thus can be defined as the ratio of the
radius,r, of theray beam curvature to the true earth radiusr.i.e.K = r / r, where K is called effective earth
radius factor andris the effective earthradius.Transmitter AntennaReceiverAntennaEffective
EarthEffective RadioOptical Line of sightFor K = 0.5For K = 1For K = infinity Proprietary & Confidential
Slide9Radio Wave Propagation & Itscharacteristicsv) Scattering :When Electromagnetic waves incide on
a rough surface having rough edges whosedimension is less than the wavelength of the wave, it is
scattered in differentdirections. Scattering is a phenomenon which causes vector distribution of energy
asshown in the figure.Incident waveScattered wavesvi) Absorption :At frequencies above 10 GHz the
propagation of radio waves through the atmosphereof the earth is strongly affected by the resonant
absorption of electromagnetic energyby molecular water vapour and oxygen. The amount of water
vapour in theatmosphere strongly varies from place to place according to the local
meteorologicalconditions. Proprietary & Confidential Slide10Radio Wave Propagation &
Itscharacteristicsvii) Attenuation :As the EM waves travels it losses its energy, this is due to attenuation.
Attenuation isdue to presence of other field (Magnetic or Electric), Due to fog, Due to Rain etc.Rain
Attenuation : Scattering and absorption of the radio wave by raindrops causesattenuation. Although all
frequencies are subject to these effects, rain attenuation isof practical importance for frequencies above
10 GHz. Due to the randombehaviour of the rain events the same is not included as a contribution to the
LinkBudget calculation.P1 P2Attenuation = 10 log (P2/P1) db Proprietary & Confidential Slide11Radio
Wave Propagation & Itscharacteristicsviii) Fading :Fading is defined as any time varying of phase,
polarization, and/ or level of areceived signal. The most basic propagation mechanism involved in Fading
arereflection, refraction, diffraction, scattering, attenuation and guiding(ducting).i.Multi path Fading :It
is a common type of fading encountered in LOS radio links. This type of fadingresults due to the
interference between direct rays and component of groundreflected wave & partial reflection from
atmosphere.ii.Fading due to Earth Bulge :iii.Duct & Layer fading : Atmospheric ducts consisting of
superrefractive and asubrefractive layer or vice versa.iv.Surface duct fading on over water path : It is a
combination of multi path fadingdue to water body and fading due to atmospheric duct. Proprietary &
Confidential Slide12Radio Wave Propagation & ItscharacteristicsEffective EarthEffective EarthEffective
EarthMulti path fadingFading due to earth bulgeAtmospheric ductSurface ductWater Body Proprietary
& Confidential Slide13 Trunk Radio Characteristics Long distance Therefore lower frequencies
Therefore subject to Multipath fading Diversity route compensation Lower frequencies less effected
by rain Proprietary & Confidential Slide14Wave Propagation in AtmosphereWith AtmosphereNo
Atmosphere The highest index of refraction is near the surface of theearth, the waves are bent
towards the ground K-Value is a common used value to indicate ray bendingwith respect to the
physical radius of the earth For a normal atmosphere K value equals 4/3 Proprietary & Confidential
Slide15MultipathDirect beamDelayed beam Multipath propagation occurs when there are morethen
one ray reaching the receiver Multipath transmission is the main cause of fading Proprietary &
Confidential Slide16Diffraction Radio path between transmitter and receiver obstructedby surface
with sharp irregular edges Waves bends around the obstacle, even when line of sight does not exist
Proprietary & Confidential Slide17 Fade MarginsFading depends on atmospheric conditions, path
climaticconditions and path terrain (need a path profile)Rx Threshold level + interferenceRx signal
levelRx Threshold levelRx signal level -
rainRSLThermalFadeMarginFlatFadeMarginFlatfadeMarginRainEffectiveFadeMarginFlatFadeMarginDisp
ersiveFadeMarginf, Proprietary & Confidential Slide18Rain Fading Rain Outage due to water
absorption Increases with frequency Depends on amount of water in path Rain rate (mm/hr)
Depends on rain region How often does that mm/hr occur Rain falls as flattened droplet V better
than H Proprietary & Confidential Slide19i) Electromagnetic Waves & FieldsEnergy in EM waves is in
form of Electric and Magnetic field. Energy of any MW waveis vector sum of its all-electrical and
magnetic components. The concept can be betterunderstood from the following diagrams
:EMPE1E2E13E12E11E10E9E14E16E15E8E7E6E5E4E3H13H14H9H8H7H6H5H10H12H11H4H3H2H1H16H
15Polarization Proprietary & Confidential Slide20ii) Polarization ( H, V & Circular):When EM wave
contains E and H energies in all direction that is know as circularlyPolarized as shown in the last
figure.When EM waves has got only electrical component perpendicular to Horizon of earth,is known as
Vertical Polarized wave.When EM waves has got electrical component parallel to Horizon of earth,
known asHorizontally polarized wave.Vertically polarized wave travels longer distance as compare to
horizontally polarizedwave.EarthEEHHP = V P = HPolarization Proprietary & Confidential
Slide21Microwave FrequencyBand Proprietary & Confidential Slide22i) Microwave Frequency Bands as
per ITU Radio Regulation :Radio Waves are defined by Radio Regulations of the International
telecommunicationUnion.The radio spectrum allocated for Microwave are UHF,SHF and EHF
asmentioned below in the table:Band NumberSymbolFrequency RangeCorrespondingMetric Subdivision
Abbreviations forthe band4VLF3 to 30 kHzMyriametric wavesB. Mam5LF30 to 300 kHzKilometric
wavesB. km6MF300 to 3000 kHzHectometric wavesB. hm7HF3 to 30 MHzDecametric wavesB.
dam8VHF30 to 300 MHzMetric wavesB. m9UHF300 to 3000 MHzDecimetric wavesB. dm10SHF3 to 30
GHzCentimetric wavesB. cm11EHF30 to 300 GHzMilimetric wavesB. mm12300 to 3000
GHzDecimilimetric waves Proprietary & Confidential Slide23Microwave frequency bandsBand
Designator Frequency (GHz Wavelength in Free Space(centimeters)L band1 to 2 30.0 to 15.0 S band2 to
4 15 to 7.5 C band4 to 8 7.5 to 3.8 X band 8 to 123.8 to 2.5 Ku band 12 to 182.5 to 1.7 K band 18 to 271.7
to 1.1 Ka band 27 to 401.1 to 0.75 V band 40 to 750.75 to 0.40 W band 75 to 1100.40 to 0.27
Proprietary & Confidential Slide24Prefix Factor Symbol atto 10-18 a fempto 10-15 f pico 10- 12p nano
10- 9n micro 10-6m milli 10-3m centi 10-2c deci 10- 1d deka 10 1Da hecto 102H kilo 103 k mega
106 M giga 10 9G tera 10 12 T Proprietary & Confidential Slide25ii) Microwave
Frequency Band used in Practical Systems :2, 6 and 7 GHz Frequency Bands are used for Intercity
Backbone routes.Nominal Hop Distances 25 40 Km15,18 and 23 GHz Frequency Bands are used for
Access NetworkNominal Hop Distance 1 10 Km.: Government will allocate spot Frequency. Index of
Radioswill be decided by Spot frequency. Channel No will be calculated using allocated spotfrequency.
To obtain the same applications have to be forwarded to the followinggovernment bodies :iii)
SACFA(Standing Advisory Committee for Frequency Allocation) It is a government Wing which
allocates frequency and also gives tower ht clearance.Before allocation Of frequency it checks not to
cause interference to existing users.Before giving tower Proprietary & Confidential Slide26height
clearance it checks that it should not cause obstruction to exiting MW link,should not be in funnel zone
of Aircraft etc.iv) WPC(Wireless Planning Committee) - It is a government wing which takescharges from
operator for use of MW frequency pair. Charges are based on theand width used and annual gross
revenue. Proprietary & Confidential Slide27v) Frequency & Bandwidth :a) Introduction :The
implementation of digital LOS radio links has accelerated due to transition oftelephone network to an all
digital network. The digital network is based on a PCMwaveform, which when compared to analog FDM
is wasteful of bandwidth. A nominal4-kHz voice channel on an FDM baseband system occupies about 4-
kHz ofbandwidth. On an FDM/FM radiolink, by rough estimation we can say it occupiesabout 16 kHz.In
conventional PCM baseband system, allowing 1 bit per Hz ofbandwidth, a 4-KHz voice channel roughly
requires 64kHz (64 kbps) of bandwidth.This is derived using Nyquist sampling rate of 8000 / sec (4000 Hz
x 2) and eachsample is assigned an 8-bit code word, thus 8000 x 8 bits per second or 64 kbps.Thus it is
essential to select modulation techniques that are bandwidth conservative. Proprietary & Confidential
Slide28b) Modulation techniques used :The digital modulation schemes such as FSK, BPSK/QPSk, 8-ary
PSK, 4-QAM, 8 QAM and 16-QAM are most commonly used. For eg the table shows comparision
ofAnalog and digital modulation techniques:600 channel FM Analog 16 QAM DigitalBandwidth 10 MHz
10 MHzVoice Channel Capacity 600 384Max Data Capacity 11.52Mbps 25 MbpsE1 capacity 10 12System
Gain 110.4 dB 111.5 dBc) Bandwidth Requirement :As per the no. of channel requirements the
bandwidth of the system can be decided.For example for 4mbps I.e. 60 nos of 64 kbps channels I.e. 4
Mbps , bandwidth of of3.5MHz is required and so on as mentioned below:7 MHz for 8 Mbps, 14 MHz for
16 Mbps and so on.
Proprietary & Confidential Slide29Terminologies
Proprietary & Confidential Slide30i.Azimuth and Importance of North directionIt is angle of antenna
direction w.r.t. north in clockwise direction. This is also known asbearing.Nii.AMSLAbove mean sea level.
An antenna at AMSL 20m means it is 20meter higher than the meansea level.Terminologies
Proprietary & Confidential Slide31iii.db, dbmdb=it is logarithmic ratiodb = 10 log P1/P2.3db loss of
power is power reduced to half.dbm is the logarithmic ratio of power w.r.t 1. miliwatt1 mW power in
dbm is =10 log 1mW/1mW = 10 log 0 = 0dbm1 W power in dbm is = 10 log 10W/1mW =30dbm iv)
Antenna Gain and Beam widthBeam width of an antenna is the angle in which antenna radiates
energy.Antenna Gain is measured w.r.t. isotropic antenna. An isotropic antenna radiates power in all
direction.In practical system the energy needs to be radiated in the desired direction in desired beam
width. Thusthe total energy confined in the smaller aperture. Unit of antenna gain is dbi.Antenna
Gain=17.8 + 20 * log10 (f *d) dBiWhere d= Antennae Diameter in Meter and f= Frequency in GHzBeam
widthTerminologies
Proprietary & Confidential Slide32v)AGCAGC stands for Automatic Gain Control. Media between two
antennae in MW system is variablethus the path loss. MW system is designed in such a way that it can
add or reduces the gain tocompensate the variation in path loss. This mechanism is known as AGC
system.vi)Spot frequencyMW system transmits information aftermodulation on carrier frequency from
one point to another. The carrier frequency is known as spotfrequency. We need to set a spot frequency
in MW system (also known as channel number).Terminologies
Proprietary & Confidential Slide33TerminologiesSpaceDiversityFrequencyDiversityF2F1i.Diversityii.It is
used to improve system performance. There are two types ofdiversity used.1.Space
Diversity2.Frequency Diversity
Proprietary & Confidential Slide34Free Space Propagation Activity (1)
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