Electromagnetic Waves

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11
Electromagnetic Waves
Education should be exercise;
it has become massage.
Martin H. Fischer
CHAPTER OBJECTIVES
To enable the students to understand the following:
Uniform plane wave
Electromagnetic spectrum
Wave polarisationlinear, circular, and
elliptic polarisations
Wave propagation in conducting media
and lossy dielectrics
Reection and refraction of waves
Poynting Vector and the ow of power
11.1 Introduction
When we set up a communication link between a transmitter and receiver without
the help of cables we usually set up two antennas, a transmitting antenna and a re-
ceiving antenna. The transmitting antenna transmits electromagnetic waves which
are essentially waves whose nature is that of light waves but at very lower frequency.
These waves are generally sinusoidal, described by frequency and the velocity of
propagation, which in turn depend on the medium in which the waves propagate.
Thus if the waves propagate in a dielectric, then the medium is described by its
permittivity, =
r
0
. If the medium is a conductor, then the conductivity comes
into play, and so on.
In this chapter we concentrate on the fundamental properties of electromagnetic
waves as they propagate in various types of media, and their interaction with matter.
11.2 UniformPlane Wave
In the very beginning we consider the simplest of waves, namely, the uniform
plane wave. Let a sinusoidally time-varying wave travel in the +z direction but
with no variation in either x or y directions. Figure 11.1 depicts how the wave
COPYRIGHTED MATERIAL
OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS
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342 Fundamentals of Engineering Electromagnetics
Direction of propagation
H
E
x
y
z
Plane perpendicular to propagation
Fig. 11.1 The geometry of the uniformplane wave
travels. The shaded region shows a single phase front, perpendicular to the direction
of propagation.
The procedure outlined below is standard for the analysis of most wave
phenomena.
Since we are considering a wave, the electric and magnetic elds must satisfy
the wave equation.
Since the nature of the wave is oscillatory, havinga exp( jt) time dependence, the
elds must satisfy Helmholtzs equation (see Section 10.9 for a better understand-
ing of this point). The Helmholtzs equation for the electric eld is Eqn (11.72)
2
E +k
2
E = 0
where k =
If we recall the results of the last chapter, a travelling wave must have a functional
dependence,
E(R, t) = {E
0
e
j(tz)
} (11.1)
where is the propagation constant of the wave and is the frequency of oscil-
lation. Here may or may not be equal to k. In the case of a uniform plane wave,
E
0
is a constant but real phasor,
E
0
= a
x
E
x0
+a
y
E
y0
+a
z
E
z0
(E
x0
, E
y0
, E
z0
are real and constant) (11.2)
Let us rst satisfy the Helmholtz equation
2
E = k
2
E
E
0
2
e
j(tz)
?
= k
2
E
0
e
j(tz)
E
0
e
jt

2
z
2
e
jz
?
= k
2
E
0
e
j(tz)
E
0
e
jt
(
2
e
jz
)
?
= k
2
E
0
e
j(tz)
2
E = k
2
E
which is satised if = k. The term exp{j(t kz) } ensures that the wave is a
travelling wave, travelling in the +z direction. The phase of the wave at time t
0
is
given by
t
0
kz = constant = K
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Electromagnetic Waves 343
which is the equation of a plane in three dimensions and which is parallel to the
z = 0 plane.
z =(t
0
K)/k = another constant = K
1
Now working only with the phasor
E = E
0
e
jkz
(11.3)
The sinusoidal elds in time are
(Ee
jt
) = (E
0
e
jkz
e
jt
)
= E
0
cos(t kz) (11.4)
The term E
0
can be pulled out of the bracket since it is real and constant. If this
electric eld is to represent an actual wave, it must satisfy Maxwells equations. The
rst Maxwell equation which has to be satised is
E =

v
But we know that the wave is travelling in a region free of charges. So

v
must
be zero.
E = 0
x
(E
x0
e
jkz
) +

y
(E
y0
e
jkz
) +

z
(E
z0
e
jkz
) = 0
0 +0 jkE
z0
= 0
E
z0
= 0 (11.5)
In other words there is no electric eld in the direction of propagation; there are
only transverse components.
Hence E = a
x
E
x0
e
jkz
+a
y
E
y0
e
jkz
(11.6)
The second Maxwell equation which the electric and magnetic elds have to
satisfy is
E = jH (11.7)
which is Eqn (11.65). Writing out the various components starting with the
x-component
( E)
x
= j H
x
E
z
y

E
y
z
= j H
x
0 +jkE
y0
e
jkz
= j H
x
Similarly, we can get the other components
( E)
y
=
E
x
z

E
z
x
= jkE
x0
e
jz
= j H
y
( E)
z
=
E
y
x

E
x
y
= 0 = j H
z
From the last equation, we get H
z
= 0 or the magnetic eld is also transverse to
the direction of propagation. Figure 11.1 clearly shows how both the electric and
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magnetic elds lie on z = constant planes. From the above equations, the magnetic
eld components are
j H
x
= j E
y0
e
jkz
H
x
=
j
j
E
y0
=
_
E
y0
(11.8)
and j H
y
= j E
x0
e
jkz
H
y
=
j
j
E
x0
=
_
E
x0
(11.9)
Concentrating on the term
_
/, we calculate its units
Units of
__
_
=
_
F/m
H/m
=
_
F
H
=
_
s
s
=
_
2
= (11.10)
Since
_
/ has the units of , we represent
_
/ by Z, a resistance
H
x
=
1
Z
E
y
(11.11)
H
y
=
1
Z
E
x
(11.12)
Z =
_
(11.13)
Z is called the characteristic or intrinsic impedance of the medium. For air or
vacuum, a quick calculation of the characteristic impedance, Z Z
0
gives
Z
0
=
_
0
377 (11.14)
Since
0
= 410
7
and
0
= (1/36) 10
9
;
therefore
_
0
/
0
=

4 36
2
100 = 120= 377 . The magnitude of the
magnetic eld is
H =
_
H
2
x
+H
2
y
=
1
Z
_
E
2
y
+E
2
x
=
E
Z
(11.15)
Taking a different tack, we calculate E H for the uniform plane wave.
E H = a
x
(E
y
H
z
E
z
H
y
) +a
y
(E
z
H
x
H
z
E
x
) +a
z
(E
x
H
y
E
y
H
x
)
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= a
z
(E
x
H
y
E
y
H
x
) (E
z
and H
z
are both zero)
= a
z
_
E
x
_
E
x
Z
_
E
y
_
E
y
Z
__
( From the previous set of equations)
= a
z
1
Z
_
E
2
x
+E
2
y
_
V
2
/( m
2
) W/m
2
|E H| =
1
Z
_
E
2
x
+E
2
y
_
=
1
Z
|E|
2
(11.16)
It is important to note that the direction of E H is the direction of propagation.
To compute the angle , between E and H we must compute the dot product
between the two. Since
E H = EH cos
Using Eqns (11.11) and (11.12)
E H =(a
x
E
x0
e
jkz
+a
y
E
y0
e
jkz
) (a
x
H
x0
e
jkz
+a
y
H
y0
e
jkz
)
=
e
j2kz
Z
(a
x
E
x0
+a
y
E
y0
) (a
x
E
y0
+a
y
E
x0
)
=
e
j2kz
Z
(E
x0
E
y0
+E
y0
E
x0
)
= 0 (11.17)
Now E =0 and H =0, therefore cos must be zero. In other words, the angle from
E to H is /2. It is an important conclusion:
See MagPoyntVect.m in Chapter 11
Not only are the electric and magnetic eld perpendicular to the direction of
propagation, but they are perpendicular to each other; the vector E H is
directed towards the propagation direction.
Figure 11.2 depicts the advance of the plane wave where the electric eld is drawn
as the solid line while the magnetic eld as the dotted line. Notice that the magnetic
eldis always inphase withthe electric eld; that is whenthe electric eldincreases,
the magnetic eld increases, and when the electric eld decreases the magnetic eld
0
1
1
0
E field
H field
1
E
max
H
max
1
Fig. 11.2 Electric and magnetic fields of a uniformplane wave
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does the same, keeping the ratio of the electric to the magnetic eld constant (= Z,
the characteristic impedance).
Example 11.1 For a plane wave travelling in air, if = 210
9
rad/s, nd the
propagation constant k.
Solution The propagation constant k is given by
k =
2
where is the wavelength of the wave. Also

f = c
where f =/(2) is the frequency of the wave in Hz and c is the velocity of the
wave in air (= 3 10
8
m/s). So
k =
2f
c
=

c
=
210
9
3 10
8
=
20
3
m
1
Example 11.2 If the electric eld E =(10a
z
+20a
y
) cos(210
7
t kx), show
that this is the electric eld of a wave.
Solution If we compare the functional dependance of the electric eld with
Eqn (11.51), we can identify that
= 210
7
r/s
and k as the propagation constant. Therefore, this is the electric eld of a plane wave.
Example 11.3 Express E=(10a
z
+ 20a
y
) cos(210
7
t kx) as a phasor.
= 210
7
.
Solution
E = {(10a
z
+20a
y
) e
j(210
7
tkx)
}
=(10a
z
+20a
y
) {e
j(210
7
tkx)
}
so the phasor is
E =(10a
z
+20a
y
) e
jkx
Example 11.4 Find the H eld of an plane wave whose E vector is given by
E =(10a
z
+20a
y
) cos(210
7
t kx)
in air. Find the value of k and the wavelength .
Solution From inspection of the E eld it is clear that =210
7
t( = 2f )
where f is the frequency of the wave. So f =10
7
Hz. Since the velocity
c =3 10
8
m/s the wavelength is given by
= c/f = 3 10
8
/10
7
= 30 m
from , we can calculate k by
k = 2/ = 0.20944 rad/m
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Again from inspection it is clear that the wave is travelling in the +x direction. So
H =
1
Z
0
a
x
E =
1
377
(10a
y
+20a
z
) cos(210
7
t kx) A/m
See PhaseConstant.m in Chapter 11
Example 11.5 A plane wave caries a power density of 1 MW/m
2
. Find the
magnitude of the electric and magnetic eld vectors.
Solution The power density S is given by
S = E
2
/Z
0
= 10
6
W/m
2
so E =
_
10
6
377 = 1.9416 10
4
V/m
and H = E/Z
0
= 51.501 A/m
11.3 Electromagnetic Spectrum
Electromagnetic waves in actual use for different purposes are characterised by their
frequency f and wavelength, . These bands of frequencies have been given names
byengineers, andthere is anagreement all over the worldabout their use. Figure 11.3
shows the frequency bands, their names and their uses.
In the gure, the frequency spectrum is depicted on a logarithmic scale from
3 Hz to 3 PHz. (Read as petahertz). At the top the approximate analytical technique
is outlined: for example the lumped element approach is used from DC to a few
Visible and UV
3

H
z
3
0

H
z
3
0
0

H
z
3

K
H
z
3
0

K
H
z
3
0
0

K
H
z
3

M
H
z
3
0

M
H
z
3
0
0

M
H
z
3

G
H
z
3
0

G
H
z
3
0
0

G
H
z
3

T
H
z
3
0

T
H
z
3
0
0

T
H
z
3

P
H
z
I.R. Micro Waves Radio Waves
Lumped Distributed Optical
V
o
i
c
e

f
r
e
q
u
e
n
c
y
A
M

R
a
d
i
o
S
h
o
r
t
w
a
r
e

R
a
d
i
o
F
M

R
a
d
i
o
T
e
l
e
v
i
s
i
o
n
M
o
b
i
l
e
S
a
t
e
l
l
i
t
e
3
3
0

H
z

E
L
F
3
0
3
0
0

H
z

S
L
F
0
.
3
3

K
H
z

U
L
F
0
.
3
3

M
H
z

M
F
3
3
0

K
H
z

V
L
F
3
3
0

M
H
z

M
F
3
0
3
0
0

K
H
z

L
F
0
.
3
3

G
H
z

U
H
F
>

3

G
H
z

E
H
F
3
0
3
0
0

M
H
z

V
H
F
Fig. 11.3 The electromagnetic frequency spectrum
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Table 11.1 IEEE microwave band designations
Band Frequency
L 12 GHz
S 24 GHz
C 48 GHz
X 812 GHz
Ku 1218 GHz
K 1827 GHz
Ka 2740 GHz
V 4075 GHz
W 75110 GHz
mm 110300 GHz
hundred megahertz; the distributed element approach is used from a few hundred
megahertz to about a fewhundred gigahertz, and so on. Belowthe logarithmic spec-
trum is the rough demarcation of the frequency bands: radio waves, microwaves,
infrared, visible, and beyond. At the bottom of the gure, the designated frequency
bands are named: VLF, very low frequency; LF, low frequency; MF, medium fre-
quency; HF, high frequency; VHF, very high frequency; UHF, ultra high frequency
and EHF extremely high frequency and so on.
Apart from the radio frequency bands there is yet another set of designations
which is primarily due to the US military, but nowadopted worldwide. These bands
are shown in Table 11.1.
11.4 Wave Polarisation
The electric eld in the case just discussed always moves on a plane as the eld ad-
vances inthe directionof propagation. Examinationof Fig. 11.2illustrates this point.
The gure shows the electric eld in the x-direction while the magnetic eld moves
in phase in the y direction, and the direction of propagation is in the a
z
direction:
a
x
E
x
a
y
H
y
= a
z
|E
x
H
y
| (11.18)
11.4.1 Circular Polarisation
Let us examine the solution to the wave equation, Eqn (11.6) under different cases
and conditions. So far we have stipulated that the amplitudes are real and we found
that the electric eld moved along a plane as the wave advanced.
Let us now consider the case when one amplitude of the set [E
x
, E
y
] is complex,
and the other one real. Taking a specic case
E
x0
= A
0
e
j0
(11.19)
E
y0
= A
0
e
j(/2)
(11.20)
E
0
= a
x
E
x0
+a
y
E
y0
(11.21)
where A
0
is of course real. The sinusoidal elds in time are
E(R, t) = {E
0
e
j(tkz)
}
= {(a
x
E
x0
+a
y
E
y0
) e
j(tkz)
}
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= {[a
x
A
0
+a
y
A
0
e
j(/2)
]e
j(tkz)
}
= A
0
{a
x
e
j(tkz)
+a
y
e
j(/2)
e
j(tkz)
}
= A
0
{a
x
e
j(tkz)
+a
y
e
j(tkz+/2)
}
= A
0
[a
x
cos(t kz) a
y
sin(t kz) ] (11.22)
The magnitude of the eld in time is
|
E(R, t) | =
_
A
2
0
[cos
2
(t kz) +sin
2
(t kz) ]
= A
0
(11.23)
which is constant. How do we interpret this result? Let us analyse this situation in
greater detail.
The original electric eld in time is
E = a
x
E
x
+a
y
E
y
= A
0
[a
x
cos(t kz) a
y
sin(t kz) ] (11.24)
We get rid of the z coordinate by setting it to zero. By setting z to zero we are
analysing the behaviour of the electric eld on the plane z = 0.
E( x, y, z = 0, t) = A
0
[a
x
cos(t) a
y
sin(t) ] (11.25)
This seems simpler. Let us now proceed to calculate the electric eld

E at different
times: at t = 0, t = T/4, t = T/2, and t = 3T/4, where T is the time period of
one cycle. Since = 2/T, t = 0, /2, , and 3/4 at these times.
E = A
0
a
x
(At t = 0)
E = A
0
a
y
(At t = T/4)
E = A
0
a
x
(At t = T/2)
E = A
0
a
y
(At t = 3T/4)
t = 0 wt = 0
t = T/4
wt = p/2
t = T/2
wt = p
t = 3T/4 wt = 3p/2
t = T wt = 2p
E
x
E(t = 3T/4)
E(t = T/4)
E(t = T/2) E(t = 0)
E
y
Fig. 11.4 Figure illustrating left circular
polarisation
We notice that the electric eld vector ro-
tates in a direction of the ngers of the
left hand when made into a st and the
thumb points in the direction of propaga-
tion in accordance left hand thumb rule.
Figure 11.4 illustrates this point.
The next Fig. 11.5 shows how the wave
advances helically in a polarised wave.
The gure shows the wave at time t = T.
The tip of the electric eld vector at t = 0
is at point a; at t = T/4 it is at b. In this way
it traverses a full circle in time T, going
through points c and d. In time T differ-
ent parts of the wave advances by varying
amounts. The electric eld at point a advances to a
which is one wavelength

away. The electric eld at point b advances to b
three quarters of a wavelength

away, and so on. The electric eld vectors all lie parallel to the x-y plane but all
their tips lie on a helix. On the x-y plane, the electric eld traces a clockwise cir-
cle. This type of polarisation is called left circular polarisation (LCP) because as
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x
1
y
d
c
c
d
d
b
b
E field on the xy plane
E field helix
a
l
a
z
A
0
A
0
o
Fig. 11.5 The advance of the wave in a left circular polarisation (LCP) plane wave
the left hand is held in the formof a st, with the thumb extended, the ngers curl in
the direction of motion of the electric eld while the thumb points in the direction
of the propagation of the wave.
Consider the case of a right hand circularly polarised wave. For such a wave, ad-
vancing in the +z direction, the electric eld rotates in the anti-clockwise direction
on any plane parallel to the x-y plane and the wave travels in the direction of the
thumb. The electric eld then can be written as
E
x0
= A
0
e
j0
E
y0
= A
0
e
j(/2)
E
0
= a
x
E
x0
+ a
y
E
y0
E = E
0
e
jz
(11.26)
The sinusoidal time-dependent eld is
E = {Ee
jt
}
= {A
0
[a
x
e
j0
+ a
y
e
j(/2)
]e
j(tkz)
}
= A
0
_
a
x
cos(t kz) +a
y
cos
_
t kz

2
__
= A
0
[a
x
cos(t kz) +a
y
sin(t kz) ] (11.27)
choosing z = 0 as the plane on which the electric eld is evaluated
E(z = 0, t) = A
0
[a
x
cos(t) +a
y
sin(t) ] (11.28)
This is a vector which is rotating in the counter-clockwise direction and obeys the
right-hand thumb rule.
Example 11.6 If E
x
= 545
and E
y
= 545
, nd the type of polarisation.

Solution If E
x
= 545
and E
y
= 545
then
E
x
= 5 cos(t +45
E
y
= 5 cos(t +45
)
and

E
y
= 1

E
x
whichis the equationof a straight line. Sothe wave is linearlypolarised.
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Example 11.7 If E
x
= 545
and E
y
= 1545
nd the type of polarisation.

Solution If E
x
= 545
and E
y
= 1545
then
E
x
= 5 cos(t +45
E
y
= 15 cos(t +45
)
and

E
y
= 3

E
x
which is the equation of a straight line. So the wave is linearly polarised.
Example 11.8 If E
x
= 50
and E
y
= 590

Solution If E
x
= 50
and E
y
= 590
then
E
x
= 5 cos(t)
E
y
= 5 cos(t +90
)
= 5 sin t
and

E
2
y
+

E
2
x
= 50
which is the equation of a circle. So the wave is circularly polarised.
11.4.2 Elliptical Polarisation
We have studied two types of polarisationslinear and circular polarisation. Let us
take a look at the most general type of polarisation, namely elliptical polarisation.
Let
E = a
x
E
x
+a
y
E
y
= a
x
E
x0
cos(t kz) +a
y
E
y0
cos(t kz+ ) (11.29)
where E
x0
and E
y0
are the wave amplitudes inthe x andy directions and is the phase
angle with which

E
y
leads

E
x
. Choosing the plane z = 0 to evaluate the polarisation
E( z = 0) = a
x
E
x0
cos(t) +a
y
E
y0
cos(t+ )
= a
x
E
x0
cos t +a
y
E
y0
(cos t cos sin t sin ) (11.30)
cos t =
E
x
E
x0
(11.31)
sin t =
_
1
_

E
x
E
x0
_
2
(11.32)
E
y
E
y0
= cos t cos sin t sin
=
E
x
E
x0
cos
_
1
_

E
x
E
x0
_
2
sin (11.33)
or
_

E
y
E
y0
_
2
+
_

E
x
E
x0
cos
_
2
2
_

E
y
E
y0
__

E
x
E
x0
cos
_
=
_
_
1
_

E
x
E
x0
_
2
_
_
sin
2
(11.34)
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_

E
y
E
y0
sin
_
2
+
_

E
x
E
x0
sin
_
2
2
_

E
y
E
y0
__

E
x
E
x0
_
cos
sin
2
= 1 (11.35)
Let us discuss these equations.
Case 1. = 0 or ; E
x0
and E
y0
can be anything. This case gives us linear polari-
sation.
To illustrate this statement we use Eqn (11.34) since Eqn (11.35) is unsuitable.
Letting sin = 0, we have
_

E
y
E
y0
_
2
+
_

E
x
E
x0
cos
_
2
2
_

E
y
E
y0
__

E
x
E
x0
cos
_
= 0
_

E
y
E
y0
E
x
E
x0
cos
_
2
= 0
E
y
E
y0
=
E
x
E
x0
cos
E
y
=
_
_
E
y0
E
x0
E
x
for = 0
E
y0
E
x0
E
x
for =
(11.36)
which is a straight line between the variables

E
y
and

E
x
. This is shown in Figs 11.6
(a) and (b).
Case 2. = /2, E
x0
and E
y0
can be anything. This gives elliptical polarisation
with the major and minor axes of the ellipse along the coordinate axes. We use
(a) x=cos(t), y=2cos(t) (b) x=cos(t), y=2cos(t + )
(c) x=cos(t), y=2cos(t + /2) (d) x=2cos(t), y=cos(t + /2)
0 1
1
0
1
2
2
2
1 2
0 1
1
0
1
2
2
2
1 2
0 1
1
0
1
2
2
2
1 2
0 1
1
0
1
2
2
2
1 2
Fig. 11.6 Linear and elliptical polarisations
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Eqn (11.35) with cos = 0 and sin = 1
_

E
y
E
y0
_
2
+
_

E
x
E
x0
_
2
= 1 (11.37)
0
E
x
E
y
0.5 1 1.5 2
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0.5
1
1.5
2
1.5cos(t), 2cos(t + p/6)
0.5 1 1.5 2
Fig. 11.7 The case for =/6,
E
y0
= 2 and E
x0
= 1.5
which is the equation of an ellipse with major
and minor axis along the x and y directions,
respectively. This is shown in Figs 11.6(c)
and (d). If E
y0
= E
x0
then we obviously get
circular polarisation.
Case 3. , E
y0
, E
x0
all of which can be any-
thing. In this general case, we have elliptical
polarisation, with the major axis of the el-
lipse tilted in any general direction. The case
for =/6, E
y0
= 2 and E
x0
= 1.5 is shown
in Fig. 11.7.
Example 11.9 If E
x
= 515
and E
y
=
790

Solution We rst remove the excess phase
by 15
. E
x
= 50
and E
y
= 775
. Then
E
x
= 5 cos t
E
x
5
= cos t
E
y
= 7 cos(t +75
E
y
7
= cos t cos 75
sin t sin 75
= 0.2588 cos t 6.7615 sin t

= 0.2588
_
E
x
5
_
0.9659
_
1
_
E
x
5
_
2
from the previous theory we realise that this is elliptical polarisation.
11.5 Wave PropagationinConductingMedia
In conducting media, as the wave propagates, currents are set up. These currents
circulate in the medium and produce heat. Thus, energy carried by the wave must
necessarily get diminished. We already know that where an electric eld is present
in a medium with conductivity , there the current density generated at a point in
the medium is related to the electric eld through the equation
J = E
Using Maxwells Eqn (11.67), in phasor form
H = j E +J
= j E+ E (11.38)
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= j
_

j
_
E (11.39)
= j
_
1
j
_
E (11.40)
= j
C
E (11.41)
where
C
is the complex dielectric constant which is so called because of the above
set of equations, where
C
is introduced to simplify things. The conducting medium
can be modelled as a dielectric but one with a complex permittivity.
C
=
(11.42)
= j
(11.43)
The ratio /( ) is dimensionless (the same as
r
). This ratio is called the dissi-
pation factor, D
D =

_
1, for a good dielectric
1, for a good conductor
(11.44)
Generally, the dissipation factor for lossy dielectrics is also called its loss tangent.
D =

(11.45)
D = tan q
s/w or e
q
e or e
Fig. 11.8 Loss tangent for
a dielectric
Why it is so called may be seen from examining
Fig. 11.8.
Usingthe notationof
C
as the complex propagation
constant
C
=
R
+j
I
= +j
=
C
To compute
C
2
C
=( +j )
2
=
2
2
+j2
C
=
2
2
+j2
_
j
_
=
2
2
+j2
Equating the real and imaginary parts, and solving the resulting equations, we get
=
R
=
_
_
1 +
_

_
2
+1
2
(11.46)
=
I
=
_
_
1 +
_

_
2
1
2
(11.47)
What is the meaning of a complex propagation constant
C
? Let us examine a wave
travelling in the z-direction, with the electric eld in the x-direction. The wave in
complex notation is then
E
x
= E
x0
e
j
C
z
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= E
x0
e
j(j)z
= E
x0
e
z
e
jz
(11.48)
Using sines and cosines, the wave in the real world is
E
x
= [E
x0
e
z
e
jz
e
jt
]
= E
x0
[e
z
e
j(tz)
]
= E
x0
e
z
cos(t z) (11.49)
Observing the previous equation we can see that as the wave progresses in the
z direction, the electric eld is still oscillating (the cosine factor), but its amplitude
decays (the exponential factor). This is shown in Fig. 11.9. The gure shows a snap-
shot at some time instant of a wave incident from air into a conductive medium. As
the wave progresses into the medium, the following happens
1. The wavelength of the wave decreases. This is so because
Cond Med
=
2
C
=
_
_
1 +
_

_
2
+1
2
>
_
=
2
_
where
C
is the wavelength in the conducting medium.
2. The wave amplitude decays as exp( z). The term exp( z) forms an enve-
lope of the cosine term.
See AttenuationConstant.m and DissipationFactor.m
in Chapter 11
Concentrating on the decaying term, the amplitude of the wave falls by E
x0
exp(1)
in a distance given by
z
skin depth
= = 1/
E
x0
e
= E
x0
e
1
= 0.3679E
x0
is called the skin depth and depending on the value of , the skin depth varies. Let
us obtain the value of the magnetic eld. Using the notation x /x etc.,
H =
1
j
E
=
1
j
[a
z
(
x
E
y
y
E
x
) +a
x
(
y
E
z
z
E
y
) +a
y
(
z
E
x
x
E
z
) ]
Conducting medium Air
Envelope
Skin depth
Fig. 11.9 Profile of a wave propagating fromair to a conducting medium
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=
1
j
_
_
_
a
z
(
x
E
y
y
E
x
)
. ,, .
x
=0,
y
=0
+a
x
(
y
E
z
z
E
y
)
. ,, .
y
=0, E
y
=0
+a
y
(
z
E
x
x
E
z
)
. ,, .
z
=j
C
, E
z
=0
_
_
In the rst factor the E-eld is not a function of either x or y. The same argument
applies to the next factor taking into account the additional fact that E
y
= 0. In the
last bracket, differentiation with respect to z is the same as multiplication by j
C
.
Therefore,
H =
1
j
[a
y
(j
C
E
x
) ]
= a
y
E
x
= a
y
_
E
x
(11.50)
which means that the characteristic impedance is complex
Z
C
=
_

C
=
_

=
_

j(/)
The meaning of a complex characteristic impedance is that the electric and magnetic
elds are not in phase with each other. Thus, in a propagating wave, propagating in
the n direction if the electric eld is E then the magnetic eld is (1/Z) n E. Let
us apply what we have learnt to different materials.
Example 11.10 A wave of frequency f = 1 MHz travels in a material with
= 2 10
5
/m and
r
= 15. Compute the complex propagation constant.
Solution For the material
=
0
r
= [15/(36)] 10
12
= [1/(24)] 10
11
and
C
=
_
1
j
_
=
_
1 24j
24
_
10
11
The formula for is
C
=
C
=
1 24 j
500
6
with
R
= 0.009073
I
= 0.008703
11.5.1 LowConductivity Materials
Low conductivity materials are generally lossy dielectrics with a small dissipation
factor. Consider such a dielectric. In the following equations, we have used the
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Taylor series expansions, where x 1
1 +x 1 +
x
2
(11.51)
1
1 +x
1 x (11.52)
Reproducing Eqns (11.46) and (11.47) with
1
=
_
_
1 +
_

_
2
+1
_
_
1 +
1
2
_

_
2
_
+1
2
(Taylors expansion of sq. root)
=
_
1 +
1
4
_

_
2
_
1 +
1
8
_

_
2
_
(Taylors expansion of sq. root) (11.53)
=
_
_
1 +
_

_
2
1
_
_
1 +
1
2
_

_
2
_
1
2
=
_
2
_
_

_
(11.54)
The characteristic impedance
Z =
_

C
=
_
1
_
1 j( / )
=
_
_
1 +j

2
_
(applying the Taylor series expansion)
Example 11.11 Apply these results to a case of a wave travelling in a dielectric
with a loss tangent of 0.05 and a dielectric constant of 2. Let the frequency of the
wave be 10 GHz. The loss tangent is 0.05 1.
Solution The permeability
0
; the permittivity =
r

0
= 2
0
.
= 2f = 210
6
rad/s
also (see Fig. 11.8)
= 0.05 1
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0
=
0
= 298.3412
=
0
_
1 +
1
8
_

_
2
_
= 298.4345

0
2
_

_
= 7.4585
= 1/ = 0.04268 m ( Skin depth)
_
= 266.6
The characteristic impedance
Z =
_
C
=
_
1
_
1 j( / )
_
1 +j

2
_
= 266.6(1 +j0.0025)
= 266.60.14
The magnetic eld may be obtained from

H =
1
Z
( n E) =
_
0
( n E)
11.5.2 HighConductivity Materials
For the case of high conductivity materials like metals,
1
and =
_
_
1 +
_

_
2
+1
_
_

_
+1
2
_
since

1
_
_
_

2
_
since

1
_
_

2
(11.55)
and =
_
_
1 +
_

_
2
1
_
_

_
1
2
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_
_

2
=
_

2
(11.56)
Therefore, for high conductivity materials
= =
_
2
(11.57)
The characteristic impedance is given by
Z =
_
C
=
_

0
0
j( /)
=
_
_
1
1 j
_

0
_
Z
0
_
j
_
= Z
0
_
1 +j
2
__
The characteristic impedance of a high conductivity material is therefore

Z Z
0
_
1 +j
2
__
where Z
0
is the characteristic impedance of free space ( 377 ).
Example 11.12 Taking the example of copper with a conductivity = 5.814
10
7
/m;
0
at a frequency of f = 1 MHz (= 6.28 10
6
rad/s), nd , the
propagation constant; , the skin depth and , the wavelength.
Solution
/(
0
) = 1.045 10
12
1
and so =
_
2
= 15150
The skin depth
= 1/ = 6.6 10
5
m (11.58)
The wave decays to e
1
= 0.369 in a distance of 0.066 mm. The wavelength in air is
air
=
c
f
=
3 10
8
1 10
6
= 300 m
the wavelength in copper at the same frequency is
copper
=
2
=
2
15150
= 4.15 10
4
m
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Skin depth for copper as a function of frequency
0.1
0.01
0.001
0.0001
1 10 100 1000 10000
Frequency (Hz)
S
k
i
n

d
e
p
t
h

(
m
)
100000 1e+06 1e+07
1e05
Fig. 11.10 Skin depth for copper as a function of frequency
Example 11.13 Find the skin depth as a function of frequency for copper.
Solution The skin depth by Eqn (11.58) is given by
= 1/ =
_
2
A typical example of the skin depth as a function of frequency for copper is shown
in Fig. 11.10. As we can see from the gure, the skin depth rapidly decreases with
increasing frequency, and at dc (zero frequency) the skin depth becomes innity. On
the other hand as the frequency is increased into the GHz range, the skin depth goes
into the m range. It is for this reason that in many microwave components, the
conducting surface is coated with a very thin layer of gold (in which the wave
penetrates) to minimise the energy dissipated. In high conductivity materials, the
wavelength and skin depth are related by
material
= 2
material
(11.59)
The characteristic impedance for copper is given by
Z Z
0
_
1 +j
2
__
= 377 145
9.57 10
13
= 3.61 10
10
45
11.6 Boundary Conditions

When we consider electromagnetic problems we need to look at the conditions of
the electromagnetic elds at the boundary between two media. Principally what
we are interested in is: what are the relations between the electromagnetic eld
components in the two media which are (a) tangential to the surface separating the
two media? and (b) normal to this surface?
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n
t
1
(a) (b) (c)
e
2
, m
2
,s
2
e
1
, m
1
, s
1
R
E and H fields
e
2
, m
2
, s
2
e
1
, m
1
, s
1
Medium
Boundary
x
y
z
e
2
, m
2
, s
2
e
1
, m
1
, s
1
t
2
n
a
d
c
b
Medium
Boundary
x
y
z
Fig. 11.11 The behaviour of electromagnetic fields near a boundary consisting
of a change of medium
There is one special case which we always have to keep in mind: the case of a
perfect electric conductor, the conductivity, . In this case, no time vary-
ing elds can exist inside a conductor: E and H will both be zero. In this case
there will be both a surface charge,
s
, as well as a surface current, J
s
, at the
boundary of the two media.
To investigate these problems we take a look at the case where electromagnetic elds
are present inside andoutside a bodywithpermittivityandpermeability(
2
,
2
,
2
).
This we call region 2. The body is immersed in a region with permittivity and per-
meability (
1
,
1
,
1
), called region 1. This conguration is shown in Fig. 11.11. In
the (a) part of the gure the macro level diagram is shown where a small region
labelled Ris shown. This region is shown blown up in parts (b) and (c) of the gure.
The elds in regions 1 and 2 must satisfy Maxwells equations.
D =
v
E =
B
t
B = 0
H =
D
t
+ J (11.60)
These are the differential form of the equations. The integral forms are
___
DdV =
__
D dS =
___

v
dV
__
E dS =
_
E dl =
__
B
t
dS
___
BdV =
__
B dS = 0
__
H dS =
_
H dl =
__
D
t
dS +
__
J dS (11.61)
We rst take a lookat the rst of the above equations (Maxwells equations inintegral
form). The equation is applied to the pillbox shown in part (c) of the gure. The
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mathematical description of the pillbox is
Height of pillbox 0
Area of the top and bottom A
Applying Gausss law to this pill-box with the knowledge that there may or may not
be accumulated charge on the interface. There is no surface charge (
s
= 0) if
2
is nite. If we have a perfect conductor then
2
then there will be a surface
charge,
s
. Writing Gausss law in the most general case (i.e., if a surface charge
exists)
D
1
a
z
A + D
2
(a
z
) A =
s
A (11.62)
D
z1
D
z2
=
s
(11.63)
in other words, the normal component of the ux density is discontinuous across a
dielectricdielectric boundary by the amount of the surface charge density. Writing
the above equation in a more general form
D
n1
D
n2
=
s
n (D
1
D
2
) =
s
(11.64)
If there is no surface charge (
s
= 0), then the right-hand side is replaced by zero
and in that case, the normal component of the D eld is continuous.
Let us take the case where the second medium is a perfect electric conductor.
Then there will be no elds there and D
n2
= 0 but there will be a surface charge,
s
. So
D
n1
=
s
(11.65)
Now considering the the second of the Maxwells equations in integral form (the
second of the Eqn set (11.61)) to part (b) of Fig. 11.11. In this case
Length (b c) = Length (d a) 0
Length (a b) = Length (c d) |x|
Applying the line integral to the loop a-b-c-d in the anti-clockwise direction,
E
1
a
x
|x| + E
2
(a
x
) |x| = 0
where E
1
and E
2
are the electric elds in regions 1 and 2, respectively. The right-
hand side of the integral
__
B
t
dS
__

B
t
|dS| = 0
since one side enclosing the area is vanishingly small, the area is vanishingly small,
i.e.,
|dS| x Length (b c) = 0 (11.66)
is zero. The condition on the electric eld may then be summarised as
E
t1
E
t2
= 0 (11.67)
The subscript t is used to signify the tangential component. E
t1,2
are the tangen-
tial components of the electric eld next to the boundary but in media 1 and 2
respectively. Writing this in a more compact form
n (E
1
E
2
) = 0 (11.68)
Notice that the normal goes from medium 2 to medium 1.
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Let us take the case where the second medium is a perfect electric conduc-
tor. Then there will be no elds there and E
t2
= 0. So
E
t1
= 0 (11.69)
Taking a look at the next Maxwell equation
___
BdV =
__
B dS = 0
we apply the same arguments as for the D vector and get
B
n1
B
n2
= 0 (11.70)
or n (B
1
B
2
) = 0 (11.71)
tor. Then there will be no elds there and B
n2
= 0. So
B
n1
= 0 (11.72)
Finally we treat the last Maxwell equation
__
H dS =
_
H dl =
__
D
t
dS +
__
J dS
Integrating over the small loop abcd in the anticlockwise sense,
H
x1
|x| H
x2
|x| =
D
y
t
A +J
y
A +J
sy
|x|
Here |x| is the longer side of the loop and A is the area of the loop. J
y
is the
y-directed volume current while J
sy
is the surface current just at the boundary. The
line integrals of H over the shorter sides of the loop are equated to zero since there
lengths are virtually zero. Using the same argument, A is also considered to be
zero. Therefore
H
x1
|x| H
x2
|x| = J
sy
|x|
or H
t
1
1
H
t
1
2
= J
st
2
(11.73)
t
1
,
t
2
, and n form a right-handed orthogonal coordinate system.

t
1
,
t
2
, and n are
akin to a
x
, a
y
, and a
z
. Scrutinising the gure, J
st
2
is the y- (or
t
2
-) directed surface
current. Writing equation in vector notation
a
z
(H
1
H
2
) = J
s
(11.74)
or n (H
1
H
2
) = J
s
(11.75)
tor. Then there will be no elds there and H
2
= 0. But in this case there will
be the surface current J
s
. So
n H
1
= J
s
(11.76)
note that n will be from the pec (perfect electric conductor) into medium 1.
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11.7 ReflectionandRefractionof Waves
11.7.1 Reflectionfroma Metal Surface
Electromagnetic waves have the same nature as light and therefore reect from
metallic objects andsuffer refractioninthe presence of dielectrics. The simplest case
is one where a plane wave falls on a metal or dielectric plane surface. Let us consider
rst the case of a uniform plane wave obliquely incident on a air metal boundary.
For the sake of convenience the metal may be considered to be a perfect one with
. The wave may approach the boundary in either of two congurations:
where the electric eld is perpendicular to the plane of incidence or when it is
parallel to the plane of incidence. Both congurations are shown in Fig. 11.12.
We need to look at a plane wave travelling in a general direction whose unit
vector is n. The equation of a plane is
f ( x, y, z) = ax +by +cz = constant = p (11.77)
then the normal to this plane is
f = aa
x
+ba
y
+ca
z
(11.78)
(Recall that the normal to any surface f ( x, y, z) is f ) and the unit normal to the
plane is
n =
aa
x
+ba
y
+ca
z
a
2
+b
2
+c
2
(11.79)
note that a/
a
2
+b
2
+c
2
is the direction cosine of the vector n in the x-direction,
and the other direction cosines are b/
a
2
+b
2
+c
2
and c/
a
2
+b
2
+c
2
. The
equation of the plane, Eqn (11.77), may now be written as
n r =
p
a
2
+b
2
+c
2
= p
(11.80)
where p
is the shortest distance of the plane fromthe origin. With this introduction,
the equation of a uniform plane wave travelling in the n direction is
E = E
0
e
jk n r
(11.81)
where E
0
is perpendicular to n and
n r = a
x
x +a
y
y +a
z
z
Medium 1
Medium 2
Parallel
polarisation
s
e
1
E
r
z
E
i
H
i
n
i
y y
n
r
q
r
= q
i
q
i
z
E
i
H
i
n
i
q
i
H
r
E
r
n
r
q
r
= q
i
H
r
(b) Perpendicular
polarisation
(a)
Fig. 11.12 A wave obliquely incident fromair on a metal ( )
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describes different planes all parallel to to each other. We can see for instance if the
wave travels in the a
y
direction then a
y
r = y, then
E = E
0
e
jky
and so on.
Example 11.14 Find the equation of the electric eld with amplitude E
0
when the
wave travels in the (a) x direction, (b) z direction and (c) in the direction a
x
+a
y
+a
z
.
Solution
(a) When the wave travels in the x-direction, n = a
x
, n r = x, and E = E
0
n
exp{jkx}, where n
is a unit vector perpendicular to a

x
.
(b) When the wave travels in the z-direction, n = a
z
, n r = z, and E = E
0
n
exp{jkz}, where n
is a unit vector perpendicular to a

z
.
(c) Whenthe wave travels inthe a
x
+a
y
+a
z
direction, n =(a
x
+a
y
+a
z
) /
3, n r =
(x + y + z) /
3 and E = E
0
n
exp{jk(x + y + z) /
3}, where n
is a unit
vector perpendicular to n.
Referring now to Fig. 11.12(a),
n
i
= a
z
cos
i
+a
y
sin
i
(11.82)
n
r
= a
z
cos
i
+a
y
sin
i
(11.83)
E
i
= a
x
E
x0
e
jk(y sin
i
z cos
i
)
(11.84)
Let the reected E-eld be
E
r
= a
x
RE
x0
e
jk(y sin
i
+z cos
i
)
(11.85)
where R is the reection coefcient which is to be determined.
At the boundary of the metal, the tangential electric eld must vanish as per the
previous section. The coordinate system is: the y and z coordinates as shown in the
gure and the x coordinate comes out of the plane of the paper. The metal surface
is dened by the equation z = 0. Therefore,
(E
i
+E
r
)
z=0
= 0 or (11.86)
_
a
x
E
x0
e
jk(y sin
i
z cos
i
)
+a
x
RE
x0
e
jk(y sin
i
+z cos
i
)
_
z=0
0 or (11.87)
R = 1 (11.88)
the reected electric eld is therefore for perpendicular incidence,
E
r
= a
x
E
x0
e
jk(y sin
i
+z cos
i
)
(11.89)
We now analyse the case of parallel incidence where the magnetic eld is perpen-
dicular to the plane of incidence as shown in Fig. 11.12(b). The electric eld is
given by
E
0i
= Z
0
H
0i
n
i
= Z
0
H
x0i
[a
x
(a
z
cos
i
+a
y
sin
i
) ]
= Z
0
H
x0i
(a
y
cos
i
+a
z
sin
i
) (11.90)
where Z
0
=
_
/
1
, ( 377), the intrinsic impedance of free space. We nowproceed
to apply the boundary condition at the metal boundary: the tangential electric eld
is zero at the boundary.
E
y0r
= Z
0
H
x0i
cos
i
(11.91)
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so E
0r
= Z
0
H
x0i
(a
y
cos
i
+a
z
sin
i
) (11.92)
and the reected magnetic eld is n
r
E
0r
/Z
0
H
0r
=(a
z
cos
i
+a
y
sin
i
) H
x0i
( a
y
cos
i
+a
z
sin
i
)
= H
x0i
(cos
2
i
+sin
2
i
) a
x
= H
x0i
a
x
(11.93)
We notice that the reected magnetic eld remains as it is at z = 0! The incident
and reected magnetic elds are
H
i
= a
x
H
x0
e
jk(y sin y
i
z cos
i
)
(11.94)
H
r
= a
x
H
x0
e
jk(y sin
i
+z cos
i
)
(11.95)
11.7.1.1 Normal Incidence
Fromthe above discussion it is clear that for normal incidence, the two polarisations
become one and the same. Referring to Eqns (11.84) and (11.85), we set
i
=
r
= 0,
E
i
= a
x
E
x0
e
+jkz
E
r
= a
x
RE
x0
e
jkz
and set R = 1
E
i
= a
x
E
x0
e
+jkz
E
r
= a
x
E
x0
e
jkz
Adding these two waves,
E
T
= E
i
+ E
r
= a
x
E
x0
e
+jkz
a
x
E
x0
e
jkz
= 2ja
x
E
x0
sin(kz)
which is a standing wave.
The electric eld is zero on the surface of the metal and goes through maximas
and minimas as we move vertically perpendicular to the metal surface. That is
sin(kz) =
_
_
1, kz
min
=/2, 5/2, . . .
1, kz
max
= 3/2, 7/2, . . .
0, kz
zero
= 0, , 2, . . .
Therefore, the minimas occur at
z
min
= /4, 5 /4, . . .
the maximas occur at
z
max
= 3 /4, 7 /4, . . .
and the zeros at
z
zero
= 0, /2, , . . .
since the electric eld in real time is [E
T
exp{jt}] therefore
E
T
(z, t) = 2a
x
sin(kz) cos(t+/2)
which means that every half cycle the maxima becomes a minima and the minima
becomes a maxima. The zeros remain where they are.
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Example 11.15 For a wave of 1 GHz normally incident on a metal surface, nd
the maximas and minimas and zeros of the standing wave for t = T/4.
Solution For 1 GHz, the wavelength is
= c/f = 3 10
8
/1 10
9
= 0.3 m
and the time period T is
T = 1/f = 1 ns
The equation of the electric eld at t = T/4 is
E = 2 sin(kz) cos(T/4+/2)
= 2 sin
_
2
z
_
cos
_
2
T
(T/4) +/2
_
= 2 sin
_
2
0.3
z
_
cos[] = 2 sin
_
2
0.3
z
_
Now the maximas are dened by
2
0.3
z
max
=/2, 5/2, 9/2 . . .
z
max 1
= 0.075 m
z
max 2
= 0.375 m
z
max 3
= 0.675 m
.
.
.
Similarly, the minimas are dened by
2
0.3
z
min
= 3/2, 7/2, 11/2 . . .
z
min 1
= 0.225 m
z
min 2
= 0.525 m
z
min 3
= 0.825 m
.
.
.
and the zeros are dened by
2
0.3
z
zero
= 0, , 2, . . .
z
zero1
= 0 m
z
zero2
= 0.15 m
z
zero3
= 0.3 m
.
.
.
11.7.2 Refractionfroma Dielectric Surface
11.7.2.1 Perpendicular Polarisation
We now consider a wave obliquely incident on a dielectric surface as shown in
Fig. 11.13. First let us consider the case where the electric eld is perpendicular
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Medium 1
Medium 2
y y
e
1
e
2
z
E
i
H
i
q
i
q
t
E
r
q
r
= q
i
H
r
E
t
H
t
n
t
q
t
E
t
H
t
n
t
z
E
i
H
i
n
i
n
r
q
i
y
E
r
n
r
q
r
= q
i
H
r
y
Parallel
polarisation
(b) Perpendicular
polarisation
(a)
Fig. 11.13 A wave obliquely incident fromair (
1
) on a dielectric (
2
)
to the plane of incidence as shown in part (a) of the gure. The incident, reected,
and transmitted electric elds are given by
E
i
= a
x
E
x0i
e
jk(y sin
i
z cos
i
)
(11.96)
E
r
= a
x
E
x0r
e
jk(y sin
i
+z cos
i
)
(11.97)
E
t
= a
x
E
x0t
e
jk(y sin
t
z cos
t
)
(11.98)
At the dielectric interface (z = 0) the tangential elds must be continuous, so we
equate the sum of the elds in Region 1 to the elds in Region 2.
E
x0i
+E
x0r
= E
x0t
(11.99)
similarly, the incident, reected, and transmitted magnetic elds are given by
H
m
=
1
Z
j
n
m
E
m
(11.100)
where Z
j
=
_
0
/
j
characterises the medium(1 or 2) and mcharacterises the wave:
incident, transmitted, or reected waves. So
H
i
=
E
x0i
Z
1
(a
y
cos
i
+a
z
sin
i
) e
jk(y sin
i
z cos
i
)
(11.101)
H
r
=
E
x0r
Z
1
(a
y
cos
i
+a
z
sin
i
) e
jk(y sin
i
+z cos
i
)
(11.102)
H
t
=
E
x0t
Z
2
(a
y
cos
t
+a
z
sin
t
) e
jk(y sin
t
z cos
t
)
(11.103)
At the dielectric interface, the tangential magnetic elds must also be continuous
(E
x0i
E
x0r
) cos
i
Z
1
=
E
x0t
cos
t
Z
2
(11.104)
using Eqn (11.99),
(E
x0i
E
x0r
) cos
i
Z
1
=
(E
x0i
+E
x0r
) cos
t
Z
2
(11.105)
or E
x0r
(cos
i
/Z
1
+cos
t
/Z
2
) = E
x0i
(cos
i
/Z
1
cos
t
/Z
2
) (11.106)
E
x0r
E
x0i
=
cos
i
/Z
1
cos
t
/Z
2
cos
i
/Z
1
+cos
t
/Z
2
(11.107)
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R
=
cos
i
Z
1
cos
t
/Z
2
cos
i
+Z
1
cos
t
/Z
2
(11.108)
=
cos
i
(
2
/
1
) cos
t
cos
i
+
(
2
/
1
) cos
t
(11.109)
In these equations, R
is the reection coefcient. Also from Snells law

sin
i
sin
t
=
_
1
(11.110)
which makes cos
t
=
_
1 sin
2
t
=
_
1(
1
/
2
) sin
2
i
(11.111)
which gives R
=
E
r
E
i
=
cos
i
_
(
2
/
1
) sin
2
i
cos
i
+
_
(
2
/
1
) sin
2
i
(11.112)
Example 11.16 Prove that R
of Eqn (11.112) will never be zero for any angle

0<
i
</2 and
2
>
1
.
Proof We know that
_
1 sin
2
i
= cos
i
therefore
_
(
2
/
1
) sin
2
i
> cos
i
, for
2
>
1
therefore cos
i
_
(
2
/
1
) sin
2
i
<0
11.7.2.2 Parallel Polarisation
Proceeding to analyse the case of parallel polarisation, the magnetic elds for the
incident, reected, and transmitted waves are
H
i
= a
x
H
x0i
e
jk(y sin
i
z cos
i
)
(11.113)
H
r
= a
x
H
x0r
e
jk(y sin
i
+z cos
i
)
(11.114)
H
t
= a
x
H
x0t
e
jk(y sin
t
z cos
t
)
(11.115)
equating the tangential magnetic elds at the boundary
H
x0i
+H
x0r
= H
x0t
(11.116)
we now nd the corresponding electric elds
E
i
= Z
1
H
x0i
(a
y
cos
i
+a
z
sin
i
) e
jk(y sin
i
z cos
i
)
(11.117)
E
r
= Z
1
H
x0r
(a
y
cos
i
+a
z
sin
i
) e
jk(y sin
i
+z cos
i
)
(11.118)
E
t
= Z
2
H
x0t
(a
y
cos
t
+a
z
sin
t
) e
jk(y sin
t
z cos
t
)
(11.119)
equating the tangential electric elds at the boundary
Z
1
(H
x0i
cos
i
H
x0r
cos
i
) = Z
2
H
x0t
cos
t
(11.120)
substituting Eqn (11.116) in this equation
Z
1
cos
i
(H
x0i
H
x0r
) = Z
2
cos
t
(H
x0i
+H
x0r
) (11.121)
H
x0r
(Z
1
cos
i
+Z
2
cos
t
) = H
x0i
(Z
1
cos
i
Z
2
cos
t
) (11.122)
H
x0r
H
x0i
=
(Z
1
cos
i
Z
2
cos
t
)
( Z
1
cos
i
+Z
2
cos
t
)
(11.123)
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from where we get using Snells law
R
||
=
E
r
E
i
=
(
2
/
1
) cos
i
_
(
2
/
1
) sin
2
i
(
2
/
1
) cos
i
+
_
(
2
/
1
) sin
2
i
(11.124)
Example 11.17 Prove that R
||
of Eqn (11.124) may be zero for some angle
0 <
i
</2 and
2
>
1
.
Proof We know that
_
1 sin
2
i
= cos
i
therefore
_
(
2
/
1
) sin
2
i
> cos
i
, for
2
>
1
or cos
i
_
(
2
/
1
) sin
2
i
<0
and (
2
/
1
) cos
i
_
(
2
/
1
) sin
2
i
may be zero. (See next section)
Brewster Angle We nowconsider a case when R
||
of Eqn (11.124) is zero at some
angle when
i
=
b
which is the Brewster angle and which implies no reection. For
R
||
to be zero, the numerator must be zero,
(
2
/
1
) cos
b
_
(
2
/
1
) sin
2
b
= 0
(
2
/
1
) cos
b
=
_
(
2
/
1
) sin
2
b
(
2
/
1
)
2
cos
2
b
=(
2
/
1
) sin
2
b
(
2
/
1
)
2
(1 sin
2
b
) =(
2
/
1
) sin
2
b
sin
2
b
_
_
1
_
2
1
_
=

2
1
_
1
1
_
sin
2
b
=

2
/
1
_
1
_
+1
we now compute the value of sin
b
and cos
b
sin
2
b
=

2
1
+
2
cos
2
b
= 1 sin
2
b
=

1
1
+
2
and from which we get
tan
b
=
_
1
(11.125)
where
b
is the Brewster angle, when no reection takes place.
Example 11.18 Find the Brewster angle for fresh water with
r
= 80.
Solution The Brewster angle is
tan
b
=
_
1
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=
_
b
= tan
1
80
= 83.62
11.8 PoyntingVector andthe Flowof Power

If we stand out in the sun we knowthat our skin is warmed by the rays fromthe sun.
Howdid the energy fromthe sun reach us? It is obvious that the light which falls on
our skin has warmed our skin. And light is a formof electromagnetic radiationthe
same waves which we have studied. But our studies have not given us a clue as to
how waves carry energy and power. All we knowas a hintis that the product
|E| |H|
has the units of power density:
(V/m) (A/m) = W/m
2
Fromthe knowledge obtained fromthis chapter, we can speculate that the dot prod-
uct will not do, since the electric and magnetic elds are perpendicular to each other
E H = 0 (11.126)
Though the dot product is zero, the wave still caries power. We can consider the
cross product, which denoted by P is
P = E H (11.127)
The units are right. That is, though Phas the units of power density, but it is a vector?
To understand about the concept of Power which is a vector we need to study the
basic equations in more detail. In many books S = E H is used instead of P.
The basic work on P, called the Poynting vector, was carried out by Henry
Poynting (18521914) in 1884. He was an English physicist, and a professor of
physics at Mason Science College (now the University of Birmingham) from
1880 until his death. The Poynting vector describes the direction and magnitude
of electromagnetic energy owand is used in the Poynting theorem, a statement
about energy conservation for electric and magnetic elds.
11.8.1 Poyntings Theorem
Let us concentrate on the vector identity
(E H) = H E E H (11.128)
The units of this equation is W/m
3
throughout. Now
E =
H
t
(11.129)
H =
E
t
+ J (11.130)
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which are the standard Maxwells equations. Substituting these equations in the pre-
vious identity
(E H) = H
_
H
t
_
E
_
E
t
+ J
_
(11.131)
Considering each term
H
_
H
t
_
is the power density (W/m
3
), of the magnetic eld at any point in space. If we in-
tegrate over any given volume we will get the total power of the magnetic eld in
that region. Obviously, the term
H H
is proportional tothe energy density stored inthe magnetic eld(J/m
3
) at anyinstant
of time, and at a given point in space. Similarly,
E
_
E
t
_
is the power density of the electric eld, and
E E
is proportional to the energy density stored in the electric eld. The last term of
Eqn (11.131),
E J
is the ohmic power density. Integrating Eqn (11.131) over a region in space in
accordance with Fig. 11.14
___
V
(E H) dV =
___
V
_
H
_
H
t
_
E
_
E
t
+ J
__
dV
__
S
(E H) dS
. ,, .
Poynting Vector
=
___
V
_
_
_
_
2
|H|
2
t
. ,, .
Magnetic Field
+

2
|E|
2
t
. ,, .
Electric Field
+E J
.,,.
Heat
_
_
dV
(11.132)
where we have used
A
A
t
=
1
2
|A|
2
t
To prove this, we expand the left- and right-hand sides
i=x,y,z
_
A
i
A
i
t
_
=
1
2
i=x,y,z
_
A
2
i
t
_
=
1
2
i=x,y,z
_
2A
i
A
i
t
_
= LHS
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Chapter11 2012/5/5 17:35 pg. no. 373 #33
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S
V
+ = +
V
V
E H dS
S
E
H dS
S
E
J
E
m
dV
dV
2
H
2
t
v
v
e
dV
2
E
2
t
m
H
2
2
t
e
2
E
2
t
JdV
Fig. 11.14 Figure Illustrating Poyntings theorem
To correctly interpret Eqn (11.132) (refer to Fig. 11.14) the term on the left is
the total power entering the surface S which encloses the volume V. The surface
integral denotes the total ux leaving the surface. The negative sign implies that
the power is entering. The terms on the right are (in that order): the total power
gained(a) by the magnetic eld, and (b) by the electric eld. The last term is the
power dissipated in ohmic losses. Hence we can write this equation as
Power entering S = Power gained by{E in V + H in V}
+ Heat dissipated in V
The two terms
2
H H,

2
E E
are the energy densities, J/m
3
, stored in the electric and magnetic elds respectively.
11.8.2 PoyntingVector
The Poynting vector, P, is associated with the ow of power. Does the vector
have actual physical signicance? Famous scientists have expressed doubt about
its reality.
Sir James Jeans in his book The Mathematical Theory of Electricity and
Magnetism said that
The integral of the Poynting Flux over a closed surface gives the total ow
of energy into or out of a surface, but it has not been proved, and we are not
entitled to assume, that there is an actual ow of energy at every point equal
to the Poynting Flux.
For instance, if an electried sphere is placed near to a bar magnet, this
latter assumption would require a perpetual ow of energy at every point in
the eld except the special points at which the electric and magnetic lines of
force are tangential to one another. It is difcult to believe that this predicted
circulation of energy can have any physical reality. . .
The italicised part states that Poyntings theorem has meaning, but not the Poynting
vector. That is the Poynting vector has no real physical signicance whatsoever.
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H
P
y
z
x
I
E
Fig. 11.15 Poynting theoremapplied to the case of a wire carrying a steady current
However, inthe engineeringworld, andinmost areas of electromagneticsespecially
in antennasthe Poynting vector has been used with great success. We look at the
case of the energy ow of the case of wire carrying a steady current.
Consider the case of a current carrying conductor of conductivity which carries
a current I as shown in Fig. 11.15. The conductor has a steady electric eld E
z
. The
magnetic eld in the cylindrical coordinate system, at a point ( , , z) outside (and
just inside the conductor) is given by
H
=
I
2
Now I = J
z
a
2
=a
2
E
z
( J
z
= E
z
)
where the radius of the conductor is a, and J
z
is the (constant) current density inside
the conductor. Therefore
E
z
=
I
a
2
J
z
=
I
a
2
H at the surface of the conductor is
H
=
I
2a
We apply Poyntings theorem, Eqn (11.132), to the Gaussian surface shown as a
cylinder S in the gure. The Poynting vector is
P = E H
=
a
z
0 0 E
z
0 H
= a
(E
z
H
)
It is interesting to note that the power ow is inward from the surface of the cylin-
der. This is due to the negative sign with the unit vector a
. The only region where

the electric eld and magnetic eld are present together is inside the conductor. The
Gaussian surface (shown as S in the gure) is made to coincide with the surface
of the conductor, but innitesimally smaller and its length is d. Integrations on the
two at surfaces contribute nothing, because the direction of the Poynting vector
is parallel to those surfaces. The Pointing vector contribution is from the curved
surface, an element of area which is
dS = a
addz
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Chapter11 2012/5/5 17:35 pg. no. 375 #35
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On the surface of the conductor, the a
part of the Poynting vector is

P
= E
z
H
=
_
I
a
2
_
I
2a
_
=
I
2
2
2
a
3
where we have used the earlier equations of E

z
and H
. Now
__
S
P dS =
=2,z=d
__
=0,z=0
I
2
addz
2
2
a
3
=
I
2
( 2) d
2
2
a
2
=
I
2
d
a
2
= Total power ow into the conductor

If we calculate the total E J term
___
V
E J = E
z
J
z
a
2
d
=
_
I
a
2
__
I
a
2
_
a
2
d =
I
2
d
a
2
= Total power dissipated inside the conductor

We notice that the two results are equal.
Let us look at another example, that of a uniform plane wave travelling in space
in the a
z
. The electric and magnetic elds in phasor notation are given by
E
x
= E
0
e
jkz
H
y
=
E
0
Z
0
e
jkz
(11.133)
where k is the notation used for the propagation constant , for free space and Z
0
is
the characteristic impedance of free space. We cannot work with phasor quantities
since the Poynting theorem has been dened for real time variables. These elds in
the real time are
E
x
= E
0
cos(t kz)
H
y
=
E
0
Z
0
cos(t kz) (11.134)
Then

P =

E

H =
a
x
a
y
a
z
E
x
0 0
0

H
y
0
= a
z
E
x

H
y
= a
z
E
2
0
Z
0
cos
2
(t kz)
= a
z
E
2
0
Z
0
_
1
2

cos 2(t kz)
2
_
(11.135)
We notice that (a) The Poynting vector travels in the direction of wave propaga-
tion, which is intuitively satisfying; (b) the Poynting vector is always positive but
pulsating, increasing from 0 to E
2
0
/Z
0
and then back to 0, and so on, sinusoidally;
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and (c) the average value of the

P is E
2
0
/(2Z
0
), since the average value is given by,
(T = 2)
P
av
=
1
T
_
T
0
E
2
0
Z
0
_
1
2

cos 2(t kz)
2
_
dt
=
1
T

E
2
0
Z
0
T
2
(integral of the cosine term is zero)
=
E
2
0
2Z
0
These ideas expressed above are reminiscent of circuits where the average power
supplied, for example, to a load is given by
P = VI cos
where V and I are the rms phasor voltage across and current through the load and
is the angle between them. Similarly, working with electromagnetic phasors (but
not rms values)
P =
1
2
(E H
) (11.136)
Because these are not rms values, the factor 1/2 has to be included. P is called the
Poynting vector, and E and H are the phasor electric and magnetic elds. On the
other hand the time averaged Poynting vector is given by
P
av
=
1
2
{(E H
) } (11.137)
Let us nd out whether we are right. Using Eqn set (11.133) and applying the
denition given above, we get
P
av
=
1
2
{(E H
) }
=
1
2
_
_
_
a
x
a
y
a
z
E
x
0 0
0 H
y
0
_
_
_
=
1
2
{(E
x
H
y
) }
=
1
2
{E
0
e
jkz
H
0
e
+jkz
} =
|E
0
|
2
2Z
0
POINTS TOREMEMBER
The Helmholtz equation for the electric eld for a travelling wave in air is
2
E +k
2
E = 0
where k =
A travelling wave must have a functional dependence,
E(R, t) = {E
0
e
j(tz)
} (11.138)
where is the propagation constant of the wave and is the frequency of oscillation. Here
may or may not be equal to k.
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For the uniform plane wave, there is no electric eld in the direction of propagation; there
are only transverse components.
E = a
x
E
x0
e
jkz
+ a
y
E
y0
e
jkz
The magnetic eld is given by
H
x
=
1
Z
E
y
H
y
=
1
Z
E
x
and Z =
_
The magnitude of the magnetic eld is

H =
_
H
2
x
+H
2
y
=
1
Z
_
E
2
y
+E
2
x
=
E
Z
The magnitude of the Poyting vector E H is given by
|E H| =
1
Z
_
E
2
x
+E
2
y
_
W/m
2
Z is called the characteristic or intrinsic impedance of the medium. For air or vacuum,
Z
0
=
_
0
377
Wave polarisation is dened as
linear when the tip of the electric eld vector moves on a line in a plane perpendicular
to the direction of propagation
circular when the tip of the electric eld vector moves on a circle in a plane perpen-
dicular to the direction of propagation
elliptical when the tip of the electric eld vector moves on an ellipse in a plane per-
pendicular to the direction of propagation
The complex permittivity is given by
C
=
= j
The dissipation factor, D

D =

_
1, for a good dielectric
1, for a good conductor
for lossy dielectrics it is also called the loss tangent.
Using the notation of
C
as the complex propagation constant
C
=
R
+j
I
= +j
=
C
For
C
=
R
j
I
, the complex propagation constant (also called )
=
R
=
_
_
1 +
_

_
2
+1
2
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Chapter11 2012/5/5 17:35 pg. no. 378 #38
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=
I
=
_
_
1 +
_

_
2
1
2
The wave in complex notation is then E = E
0
e
z
e
jz
The skin depth is given by = 1/
For low conductivity materials,

_
1 +
1
8
_

_
2
_

_
2
_
_

_
Z
_
_
1 +j

2
_
For high conductivity materials,
= =
_

2
The characteristic impedance is given by
Z Z
0
_
1 +j
2
__
The boundary conditions for time-varying elds between two media are
For E E
t1
E
t2
= 0
n(E
1
E
2
) = 0
For D D
n1
D
n2
=
s
n (D
1
D
2
) =
s
For B B
n1
B
n2
= 0
n (B
1
B
2
) = 0
and
For H n(H
1
H
2
) = J
s
in all these cases the unit normal n extends from medium 2 to medium 1. Also if
medium 2 is a perfect electric conductor, all the elds are zero.
For perpedicular polarisation (electric eld perpendicular to the plane of polarisation) the
reection coefcient is
R
=
E
r
E
i
=
cos
i
_
(
2
/
1
) sin
2
i
cos
i
+
_
(
2
/
1
) sin
2
i
for a wave incident from medium 1 (
1
) to medium 2 (
2
).
For parallel polarisation (electric eld parallel to the plane of polarisation) the reection
coefcient is
R
||
=
E
r
E
i
=
(
2
/
1
) cos
i
_
(
2
/
1
) sin
2
i
(
2
/
1
) cos
i
+
_
(
2
/
1
) sin
2
i
1
) to medium 2 (
2
).
The Brewster angle,
b
, the angle at which R
||
= 0 is given by the relation
tan
b
=
_
1
1
) to medium 2 (
2
).
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Poyntings theorem is
__
S
(E H) dS =
___
V
_
2
|H|
2
t
+

2
|E|
2
t
+ E J
_
dV
where S is the surface enclosing a volume V. The term on the left is the power entering
the surface S. The rst term on the right is the power stored in the magnetic eld; the
second term on the right is the power stored in the electric eld; and the third term on the
right is the power dissipated as heat.
The average power propagated in a plane wave is given by
P =
|E|
2
2Z
0
where E is the magnitude of the electric eld and Z
0
is the intrinsic impedence of the
medium.
SELF ASSESSMENT
Objective Type Questions
1. A wave is called a plane wave because
(a) it travels in planes (b) it appears like a plane
(c) its phase is constant over a plane (d) none of the above
2. For a wave travelling in free space at a frequency of 1 GHz and in a material with
= 10
3
and =
0
compare the velocity (v) wavelength () and radian frequency ()
in the two media.
(a) all three are equal (b) two out of three are equal
(c) one out of three are equal (d) none of the three are equal
3. The magnitude of the magnetic eld of a circularly polarised wave travelling in space
at a point z = constant is
(a) sinusoidally varying (b) circularly varying
(c) is a constant (d) none of the above
4. The tip of the electric eld vector of a linearly polarised wave travelling in space at a
point z = constant is
(a) sinusoidally varying (b) circularly varying
(c) is a constant (d) lies on a straight line
5. The power density in W/m
2
of a plane wave
(a) propagates with the wave (b) is equal to ( 1/2) |E H|
(c) is equal to E
2
/( 2Z
0
) (d) none of the above
6. Distributed components are used in circuits in the frequency range
(a) 3 Hz to 3 kHz (b) 3 kHz to 300 kHz
(c) 3 GHz to 30 GHz (d) none of the above
7. The complex permittivity is
(a)
0

r
where
r
is a real number (b)
0

r
(1 j)
(c)
0

r
[1 +j( /)] (d)
0

r
{1 +j[ /(
0

r
)]}
8. The unit of /
0
is
(a) (b) (c) dimensionless (d) s
1
9. The skin depth is
(a) 1/
C
(b) 1/ (c) 1/( ) (d) none of the above
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10. In a metal of high conductivity
(a) = (b) Z
0
is complex (c)
metal
(d) none of the above
11. The boundary condition of sinusoidally varying electric eld phasor at an airmetal
surface is
(a) E
tan
= 0 (b) E
n
= 0 (c) D
n
=
s
(d) none of the above
Short-Answer Questions
1. Many Direct to Home channels, like Tata Sky and Airtel operate in a range of
frequencies. Find the downlink satellite frequency band in terms of name and numbers.
2. If the electric eld of a uniform plane wave is z directed, and the wave is also travelling
in the z direction, is this possible?
3. Find the electric eld strength
E = 10 cos(t z)
for
(a) For t = 0 and for all values of z
(b) For z = 0 and for all values of t
(c) For t =/4 and for all values of z
(d) For z =/2 and for all values of t
4. Find the magnetic eld associated with
E = E
0
a
x
e
z
e
j(tz)
5. Find the propagation constant , for free space at f = 1MHz, 10 MHz, and 1 GHz.
Review Questions
1. Why is the plane wave so called?
2. Write the Helmholtz equation and outline its solution in rectangular coordinates.
3. Write the the functional dependance of the electric eld which is sinusoidal in nature
and travelling in the z-direction.
4. Write a short note on the complex propagation constant.
5. How would you identify RCP and LCP waves?
6. Explain why a circularly polarised wave can still be a plane wave.
7. Explain how standing waves form for normal incidence on a metal surface.
Numerical Problems
If the medium is not specied, please assume =
0
and =
0
.
1. Write the Helmholtz equation of the electric eld which is z directed. Write its solution
for a wave travelling in the y direction with a velocity c and frequency .
2. In what range of frequencies is the wavelength in the range 110 cm? Which are the
frequency bands involved?
3.

E = E
0
cos(2.1 10
8
t z) is the equation of the electric eld of a wave travelling in
air. What is the velocity of the wave? Find the value of (a) , (b) , (c)
4. If the electric eld expression for a plane wave is given as
E
x
= E
0
cos( 1.5 10
10
t +60z)
then determine (a) its wavelength, (b) phase velocity, and (c) direction of travel. Find
the magnetic eld H associated with this electric eld.
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5. A plane wave is written as
E( z, t) = E
0
a
x
cos(t kz) +2E
0
a
y
cos(t kz)
Express this wave in phasor form and nd its polarisation.
6. A plane wave is written as
E( z, t) = E
0
a
x
cos(t kz) 2E
0
a
y
cos(t kz)
Find its polarisation.
7. Find the magnetic eld associated with
E = E
0
a
z
e
x
e
+j(tx)
8. A plane wave is travelling from free space to a medium with
r
= 3 and
r
= 3. If the
expression in free-space is
E = E
0
a
x
e
j(
0
t
0
z)
write the general expression of the electric eld in the medium of the same wave.
9. Show that E( x, t) = f
1
( x ct) +f
2
(x +ct)
is a solution of the wave equation
(
2
+
2
) E = 0
with k =
and c =/k.
10. Find the intrinsic impedence of a medium at a frequency of 1 GHz with = 5.8
10
7
/m,
r
and
r
= 4. What happens to the impedence for the two cases of (a) = 0
and (b) = if the other parameters are constant.
11. A plane wave propagating through a medium with
r
= 6 and
r
= 4 has a magnetic
eld given by
H = 10a
z
e
z/5
sin(210
8
t+ x)
nd the expression for the electric eld, the wave velocity, and the wave impedance.
12. An EM plane wave travels with
E = 20a
y
e
j
_
3
2
y+
1
2
z
_
e
j210
8
t
determine (a) , (b) the direction in which the wave travels, and (c) .
13. Given that

E = a
y
E
0
sin(10x) cos(610
9
tz)
Find H and .
14. Specify the polarisation of the wave if its electric eld is dened as
E = E
0x
a
x
cos(tz +
x
) +E
0y
a
y
cos(tz +
y
)
for the following cases:
(a) E
0x
= E
0y
, and
x
=
y
+2n, and where n = 0, 1, . . .
(b) E
0x
= E
0y
, and
x
=
y
+(2n +1) , and where n = 0, 1, . . .
15. Specify the polarisation of the wave if its electric eld is dened as
E = E
0x
a
x
cos(t z+
x
) +E
0y
a
y
cos(t z+
y
)
for the following cases:
(a) E
0x
= E
0y
and
x
=
y
+(2n +1) (/2), and where n = 0, 1, . . .
(b) E
0x
= E
0y
and
y
=
x
+(2n +1) (/2), and where n = 0, 1, . . .
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Path 1
Path 3
Path 2
RHCP
Wave
Perfect
reflector
Fig. 11.16
16. An RHCP wave is incident on a perfect reector as shown in Fig. 11.16.
Specify the polarisations on Paths 2 and 3. Write equations for all cases
17. Show that any linearly polarised wave can be written as a sum of two RHCP and LHCP
waves.
18. For a material having
r
= 2,
r
= 4, and = 100 S/m, calculate the attenuation
constant, phase constant, and intrinsic impedence at 10 GHz.
19. Find the skin depth for silver and gold at frequencies 1 MHz and 1 GHz. Also nd
the propagation constant and wave velocity for both cases.
20. If a material has = 341 nS/m, what are the frequency ranges in which the material
can be considered to be (a) a low-loss dielectric and (b) a good conductor.
21. A 500 MHz plane propagates normal to a material of = 10
5
S/m. Calculate the skin
depth and the distance where the wave amplitude decreases to 20% of its initial value.
22. Plot the dissipation diagram () for silver.
23. A medium has a propagation constant = 200 + j500/m. (Note that the dependence
is exp{ z}). The intrinsic impedence = Z = 7545
at a frequency f = 500
MHz. The electric eld is given as
E
x
= 100e
z
cos(25 10
8
t z)
Calculate the magnetic eld and average power/m
2
at z = 1 mm.
24. In free space
E( x, t) = 100a
y
sin(t x)
Find the average Poynting vector and power crossing a square area of 1 m
2
in the plane
x = 3.
25. A plane wave is incident from air on a dielectric with
r
= 10. If the angle of incidence
is 75
, nd the reection coefcient for both polarisations. Find also the power reected
and transmitted in both cases.
26. Find the Brewster angle for dielectric with
r
= 10.
Answers
Objective Type Questions
1. (c) 2. (c) 3. (b) and (c) 4. (a) and (d) 5. (a), (b) and (c)
6. (c) 7. (d) 8. (d) 9. (b) 10. (d) 11. (a), (b) and (c)
Short-Answer Questions
1. C-band (48 GHz) or Ku-band (1218 GHz)
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i
i
2. No
3. (a) E = 10 cos( z), (b) E = 10 cos( t), (c) E = 10 cos( z /4),
(d) E = 10 cos( t /2)
4. H =( E
0
/Z) a
y
e
z
e
j(tz)
where Z is the intrinsic impedence of the medium.
5. = j; At 1 MHz = 0.0209; at 10 MHz = 0.209; At 1 GHz = 20.9r/m.
Numerical Problems
1.
2
E
z
+k
2
E
z
= 0; E = E
0z
a
z
e
j(w/c)y
2. = 1 cm corresponds to f = 30 GHz (Ka band); = 10 cm corresponds to f = 3 GHz
(C band); bands involved are C bank, X band, Ku band, and Ka band.
3. c = 3 10
8
m/ s ( a) = 0.7 r/m, (b) = 8.98 m, ( c) = 2.1 10
8
r/s
4. H = a
y
E
0
1.2
120
cos(1.5 10
10
t +60z)
(a) = 10.47 cm (b) V
p
= 2.5 10
8
(c) travelling in the z-direction.
5. E = E
0
a
x
0 +2E
0
a
y
0; linear polarisation.
6. Linear polarisation.
7. H =
E
0
Z
a
y
e
x
e
j(tx)
8. E = E
0
a
x
e
j(w
0
t3
0
z)
10. Z = 0.0165 +j0.0165; (a) Z = 376.73 (b) Z = 0
11.

E = Z10a
y
e
z/5
sin( 2 10
8
t+ x) where Z = 307.8 +j6; = 10.26 r/m.
V = 6.12 10
7
.
12. (a) = 1 (b) n =
3
2
a
y

1
2
a
z
(c) = 2 10
8
13.

H = a
x
( E
0
/377) sin( 10x) cos( 610
9
t z) where = 62.83 r/m
14. (a) Linear polarisation
(b) Linear polarisation
15. (a) RHCP
(b) LHCP
16. Path 2: LHCP; Path 3: RHCP
18. = 2778 Np/m, = 2840 r/m and Z = 28.4 +j27.8
19. For silver: at 1 GHz = 2.02 m, = = 4.935 10
5
/m; at 1MHz = 64.07 m,
= = 1.5610
4
/m. For gold: at 1GHz = 2.485 m, = = 4.0210
5
/m; at 1 MHz
= 78.6 m, = = 1.27 10
4
/m. Wave velocity for silver =1.2710
4
m/s at GHz,
= 402 m/s at 1 MHz. Wave velocity for gold = 1.56 10
4
m/s at 1 GHz, = 493 m/s
at 1MHz.
20. The material may be considered a low loss dielectric for f >0.48 MHz Hz and a good
conductor for f <4.8 kHz.
21. = 7.117 10
5
m. Distance at which the wave decays to 0.2 of its initial value is
1.15 10
4
m.
23. H
y
=
4e
z
cos( zt)
3
_
i
2
+
1
2
_ average power = 31.6W/m
2
.
24. P = 13.26a
x
W/m
2
; average power crossing 1 m
2
at x = 3 is 13.26 W.
25. R
= 0.8417, R
||
= 0.0755; Power reected. R
2
P
inc
= 0.7085P
inc
; R
2
||
P
inc
=
0.0057P
inc
; Transmitted power. P
t = 0.2915P
inc
; P
||t
= 0.9943P
inc
26. 72.5

Electromagnetic Waves

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i

But we know that the wave is travelling in a region free of charges. So

where is the wavelength of the wave. Also

which is one wavelength

three quarters of a wavelength

, nd the type of polarisation.

nd the type of polarisation.

, nd the type of polarisation.

, nd the type of polarisation.

= 0.2588 cos t 6.7615 sin t

The magnetic eld may be obtained from

The characteristic impedance of a high conductivity material is therefore

11.6 Boundary Conditions

is a unit vector perpendicular to a

is a unit vector perpendicular to a

is the reection coefcient. Also from Snells law

of Eqn (11.112) will never be zero for any angle

11.8 PoyntingVector andthe Flowof Power

. The only region where

part of the Poynting vector is

where we have used the earlier equations of E

= Total power ow into the conductor

= Total power dissipated inside the conductor

A travelling wave must have a functional dependence,

The magnitude of the magnetic eld is

The dissipation factor, D

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