ASSESSMENT OBJECTIVES

The examiners expect you to:

recall, select, organize and show your knowledge about a specific topic;
show that you understand:
change & continuity, cause & consequence, similarity & difference;
the motives, emotions, intentions and beliefs of individuals in history;
understand, interpret and use different sources as evidence of certain events, individuals or
groups
!our exam is made up of three papers: "apers #, $ & %:
"aper # : &# hour %' minutes ( divided into $ sections)
*ection + has % questions about $,
th
century history, answer any $,
*ection - is about .ermany &#/#/0#/%') and there are $ questions, do #
All the questions are structured into 3 parts and will be based on stimulus material i.e.
there will be a picture or written source at the beginning of each question.
"aper $ : &$ hours ( only # topic)
$,
th
century topic: The Treaty of Versailles
"aper % :
1o any one question on .ermany #/#/0#/%'
IGCSE HISTORY
The $,
th
2entury ( 3nternational 4elations since #/#/
BIG Q!"TI#$% &ere the peace treaties '()()*+3, fair-
5hat were the motives and aims of the -ig Three at 6ersailles7
5hy did all the victors not get everything they wanted7
5hat was the impact of the peace treaty on .ermany up to #/$87
2ould the treaties be 9ustified at the time7
"eace treaties of #/#/0$8
4oles of individuals like 5ilson, 2lemenceau and :loyd .eorge on the peacemaking
process
The impact of the treaties on the defeated countries
;odern opinions about the treaties
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
BIG Q!"TI#$% To what e.tent was the /eague of $ations a success-
<ow successful was the :eague in the #/$,=s7
<ow far did weaknesses in the :eague=s organization make failure inevitable7
<ow far did the 1epression make the work of the :eague more difficult7
<ow successful was the :eague in the #/8,=s7
:eague of >ations: strengths and weaknesses in its structure and organization
*uccesses and failures in peacekeeping during the #/$,=s
The impact of the .reat 1epression on the work of the :eague after #/$/
The failures of the :eague in the #/8,=s, including ;anchuria and +byssinia
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
BIG Q!"TI#$% &hy had international peace collapsed by ()3)-
5hat were the long0term consequences of the #/#/0$8 peace treaties7
5hat were the consequences of the failures of the :eague in the #/8,=s7
<ow far was <itler=s foreign policy to blame for the outbreak of war in #/8/7
5as the policy of appeasement 9ustified7
<ow important was the >azi0*oviet "act7
5hy did -ritain and ?rance declare war on .ermany in *eptember #/8/7
The collapse of international order in the #/8,=s
The increasing militarism of .ermany, 3taly and @apan &+xis "owers)
<itler=s foreign policy to #/8/: the *aar, remilitarization of the 4hineland, +nschluss
with +ustria, appeasement crises over 2zechoslovakia and "oland
The outbreak of war
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
BIG Q!"TI#$% &ho was to blame for the 0old &ar-
5hy did the A*+0A**4 alliance begin to break down in #/%'7
<ow had the A**4 gained control of Bastern Burope by #/%C7
<ow did the A*+ react to *oviet expansionism7
5hat were the consequences of the -erlin -lockade7
5ho was more to blame for starting the 2old 5ar, the A*+ or the A**47
The origins of the 2old 5ar: the #/%' summit conferences and the breakdown of the
A*+0A**4 alliance in #/%'0D
*oviet expansionism into Bastern Burope to #/%C and +merican reactions to it
The occupation of .ermany and the -erlin -lockade
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
BIG Q!"TI#$% 1ow effecti2ely did the "A contain the spread of 0ommunism-
+merica and events in 2uba, #/'/0D$
+merican involvement in 6ietnam
Bvents of the 2old 5ar: +merican involvement in 2uba from #/'/ until #/D$, reactions
to the 2uban 4evolution, the missile crisis and its aftermath & involvement in 6ietnam
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
BIG Q!"TI#$% 1ow secure was the ""34s control o2er !astern !urope5 ()67*()7)-
5hy was there opposition to *oviet control in <ungary #/'D and 2zechoslovakia in #/DC, and
how did the A**4 react to this opposition7
<ow similar were events in <ungary &#/'D) and 2zechoslovakia &#/DC)7
5hy was the -erlin 5all built in #/D$7
5hat was the significance of *olidarity in "oland for the decline of *oviet influence in Bastern
Burope7
<ow far was .orbachev personally responsible for the collapse of *oviet control over Bastern
Burope7
*oviet power in Bastern Burope: resistance to *oviet power in <ungary &#/'D) and
2zechoslovakia &#/DC)
-erlin 5all
*olidarity in "oland
.orbachev and the collapse of the *oviet Bmpire
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
0A"! "T89% Germany5 ()() : ()6;
&as the &eimar 3epublic doomed from the start-
<ow did .ermany emerge from defeat at the end of 55 37
5hat was the impact of the Treaty of 6ersailles on the 4epublic7
To what extent did the 4epublic recover after #/$87
5hat were the achievements of the 5eimar "eriod7
&hy was 1itler able to dominate Germany by ()36-
5hat did the >azi "arty stand for in the #/$,=s7
5hy did the >azi=s have little success before #/8,7
5hy was <itler able to become 2hancellor by #/887
<ow did <itler consolidate his power in #/8808%7
The $a<i regime% how effecti2ely did the $a<i4s control Germany from ()33*6;-
<ow much opposition was there to the >azi regime7
<ow effectively did the >azi=s deal with the political opponents7
<ow did the >azi=s persecute any groups in .ermany society7
5as >azi .ermany a totalitarian state7
The $a<i regime% what was it li=e to li2e in $a<i Germany-
<ow did young people react to the >azi regime7
<ow successful were >azi policies towards women and the family7
1id most people in .ermany benefit from >azi rule7
<ow did the coming of war change life in >azi .ermany7
----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
"ources
"rimary *ources: "rimary sources are contemporary to the time studied &?rom that time)

*econdary *ources: These sources come from after the time being studied They are not contemporary
>ewspapers: >ewspapers are both primary and secondary The photographs are primary, but the reports
are not usually written by eyewitnesses, so are secondary Therefore they contain both primary and
secondary sources 1efinition of a newspaper: E3t should be an accurate account of what happened in
the world, yesterday= This brings the conclusion that newspapers are mainly secondary
4eminiscences: 5hen people reminisce, they are primary to the event, but what they say is secondary
to the event 4eminiscences are unreliable for three reasons: exaggeration, lies and omission &they
forget)
+utobiographical *ources: +utobiographical *ources are seldom secondary: They are usually primary
sources
*ources in the $,th 2entury: There is a multitude of new sources, mainly audio0visual archive material
There are many computer data formats There is also more literacy leading to more records There is
such a flood of evidence, it is difficult to sift through it all ?raud is easier this century *ources can
often contradict, and the state confidentiality on its documents makes research difficult +s we have
not finished living the events, it is difficult to write about the results
0artoon "ymbolism
Countries
-ritain: 3s usually represented by a @ohn -ull figure &fat, prosperous, frock coat, gaiters,
crumpled hat, Anion @ack waistcoat) or by a :ion
A*+: *he is usually shown as Ancle *am &tall and thin, tall hat, wispy beard, striped
trousers, stars on waistcoat) or by an eagle
?rance: The typical symbol is either a cockerel or a girl revolutionary whose most
characteristic garment is a pixie0style hat with a three0coloured cockade
&roseta)
.ermany: 3ts usual figure up to the ?irst 5orld 5ar is the Faiser with a big moustache in
his military greatcoat and spiked, Epickel0haub= helmet +fterwards, of course,
the typical <itler figure and the swastika dominate
4ussia: This country will be shown as a 2ossack or other fur0hatted figure, sometimes
drawn to resemble the Tsar &pre0#/#G), as a menacing figure, worker or
soldier, featuring the <ammer and *ickle since the 4evolution, or as a bear at
any time
3taly: *he is often shown as a young sailor in the past, though the ;ussolini image
dominates the inter0war years
@apan: The symbol for this country is the rising sun, but during her militaristic era she
was also depicted as a ferocious, sword0wielding samurai warrior
2hina: This nation is shown as a pigtailed 2hinese man with a long and flowing
moustache, but is now characterized by the 2hairman ;ao figure in the typical
gray unisex pants and 9ackets
Other sy!o"s
*ome other symbols which might appear are the fasces, a bundle of twigs bound together with an axe,
representing ?ascist 3taly, or a single star on military equipment, which would be red in fact &though
hardly so on an exam paper) This indicates the *oviet or Ered= army
0olours
2olours are often used or referred to in cartoons The re#, $!er $!er, %reen sequence of traffic lights may
represent danger, warning and safety Re# also stands for 2ommunism, especially 4ussian B"$&' and
(hite &regrettably for the anti0racist lobbyH) tend to stand for 1arknessIBvil and :ightI.ood
respectively B"$&' also represents ?ascism &;ussolini=s -lackshirts and <itler=s **) and is supported by
!ro(n &<itler=s *+) Ye""o( Ye""o( means @apan or 2hina
Animals
+nimals other than those specific to countries &see above) which may be used are the sn$'e &evil or
danger), the r$!!it &innocence or vulnerability) the #on'ey &stupidity), the r$)en &danger or death),
the #o)e, with or without an olive branch &peace), the horse &dogged determination, persistence or
hard work), the *i%+ &brutality), the shee* &docility or inability to think for oneself) and the &o(
&docility or stupidity)
>lowers
?lowers represent friendship or good will, with the laurel &wreath) meaning victory
2hanges in the ;ap of Burope &#/#%0#/$8)
(Refer to the maps showing Europe in 1914 and 1919 in your textbooks.)
The peace treaties that ended the ?irst 5orld 5ar &#/#%0#/#C) altered the political map of Burope
A""ies Centr$" ,o(ers -./

.reat -ritain .ermany

?rance +ustria0<ungary

4ussia &J) -ulgaria

-elgium Turkey

3taly &changed sides ;ay #/#')
A*+ &9oined #/#G)

&K) The central powers were punished, they had to lose land and they had to pay reparations &payment
for war damages)
&J) 4ussia was also punished in #/#/ because the +llies felt betrayed when 4ussia left the 5ar early
&8I8I#/#C, Treaty of -rest0:itovsk)
Ger$n 0osses
?rance regained +lsace0:orraine "osen05est "russia went to "oland, forming a corridor to the coast
>orthern *chleswig was given to 1enmark Troppau was given to 2zechoslovakia +ustria and .ermany
were >LT allowed to unite
Austro-Hun%$ri$n 0osses
Bu"%$ri$n 0osses
-ulgaria loses 5estern Thrace to .reece
Tur'ish 0osses
Two treaties were signed with Turkey, in the first she lost land to .reece, and in the second it was
returned
Russi$n 0osses
4ussia lost land to recreate "oland, and four countries became independent Three were the -altic
*tates, and the other was ?inland
+ustria and <ungary became two small, landlocked republics, <absburg land was used to create two
new states: 2zechoslovakia in the north, and !ugoslavia in the south !ugoslavia was formed from
+ustria and *erbia Lther countries gained land 4omania got Transylvania, and roughly doubled in size
"oland gained .alicia, 3taly gained the *outhern Tyrol
Tre$ties $t the En# o1 the 2irst 3or"# 3$r
Treaty of 6ersailles with .ermany 0 $Cth @une #/#/
Treaty of *t .ermain with +ustria 0 #,th *eptember #/#/
Treaty of Trianon with <ungary 0 #/$,
Treaty of >euilly with -ulgaria 0 $Gth >ovember #/#/
Treaty of *evres with Turkey 0 #/$,
Treaty of :ausanne with Turkey 0 #/$8
The first five were named after palaces, and were also diktats. The last was the only negotiated treaty
&+ MdiktatN is an imposed, unilateral document)
The Treaty of Versailles : +7th ?une ()()
Intro#u&tion
-y #/#C .ermany was suffering defeat in most areas of the war The .erman nation was hungry, war
weary and demanded peace The .erman government eventually asked for an armistice, and on
##I##I#/#C, cease0fire began The problem of peace remained ;any people hoped that a peace
settlement would prevent war from happening again A* "resident 5ilson thought that he had the
answer to all Burope=s problems <e stated his views in 42ourteen ,oints5
3i"son5s 2ourteen ,oints
Ln @anuary Cth, #/#C, 5ilson outlined his peace proposals to the +merican 2ongress These became
known as the 42ourteen ,oints5 $n# 42our *rin&i*"es5 Ln >ovember 'th, #/#C, 5ilson sent a note to
the .ermans The .ermans agreed to an armistice and expected a peace settlement to be based upon
the ?ourteen points
Lf the fourteen points these were the most important:
There were to be no secret treaties between powers like the treaties that had helped to cause
the ?irst 5orld 5ar &Lpen 1iplomacy)
*eas should be free in peace and in war to ships of all nations &?reedom of >avigation)
The barriers to trade between countries such as custom duties should be removed &?ree trade)
+ll countries should reduce their armed forces to the lowest possible levels &;ultilateral
disarmament)
The national groups in Burope should, wherever possible, be given their independence 5ilson
supported the idea of >ational *elf01etermination &>*1), whereby a nation had the right to self0
government
4ussia should be allowed to operate whatever government it wanted
Territorial changes:
.ermany should give up +lsace0:orraine and any lands taken away during the war
The 3talian frontier should be read9usted
-elgium should be evacuated
"oland should be given access to the sea
The defeated nations should not be made to pay for the war as a whole
+ E:eague of >ations= should be formed to protect world peace in the future
;ost of the points are very general: not all of them stated specific changes -ritain and ?rance
considered the points as being too impractical, they thought that 5ilson was hoping for far too much
They had used much of their wealth on the war, and ?rance had suffered two .erman invasions &#CG, &
#/#%) ?rance wanted to ensure that a third attack would never take place, and wanted .ermany to be
reduced to a minor Buropean *tate &The ideal situation would be of course >L .B4;+>!HH)
The ,$ris ,e$&e Con1eren&e
The terms for peace were discussed in "aris from #Cth @anuary #/#/ until @une
The conference was attended by thirty0two states, but the ma9or powers dominated the conference:
@apan, 3taly &Lrlando), ?rance &.eorges 2lemenceau, the Lld Tiger), -ritain &:loyd .eorge) and the A*+
&5ilson)
4The Bi% Three5 ( 5ilson, 2lemenceau and :loyd .eorge made all the ma9or decisions
.ermany and the defeated states were not invited to attend the conference
"eace was difficult to make because of the widescale disruption to Burope during the war and the
general unrest that existed while the peace conference sat 5hen the 6ersailles Treaty was signed, few
of 5ilson=s fourteen points were adhered to, though a 40e$%ue o1 N$tions5 was set up
Ger$n 0$n# 0osses
(Refer to the map in your textbook showing German land losses.)
2lemenceau wanted to make sure that ?rance was secure from .erman attack and so demanded that
her northeastern boundary was safe
.ermany therefore lost +lsace0:orraine
The 4hineland was demilitarised so that ?rench borders were secure
Three frontier areas were given to -elgium
>orthern *chleswig went to 1enmark
Troppau was transferred to 2zechoslovakia
"oland gained 5est "russia and "osen This made up a Ecorridor=, giving "oland access to
the -altic *ea "oland also gained half of *ilesia
Bast "russia was separated from .ermany
The :eague of >ations took control of certain areas:
3ndustrial area of the *aar &.ermany regained it in #/8')
"ort of ;emel taken from .ermany &annexed by :ithuania, #/$8)
1anzig made a free city under the control of the :eague of >ations
+ll .ermany=s gains at the Treaty of -rest0:itovsk &8rd ;arch #/#C) were surrendered
.ermany had made considerable gains when 4ussia made peace
.ermany lost all of her overseas colonies covering a total of approx $,,,,,,,, square
kilometres -ritain gained Tanganyika in Bast +frica, part of Togoland and the
2ameroons The remaining +frican colonies were shared between -elgium and *outh
+frica
3n the "acific, .erman possessions were shared between -ritain, +ustralia, >ew Oealand
and @apan
The union &Anschluss) of +ustria and .ermany was forbidden
+s a result of these losses, .ermany=s total territorial losses amounted to $C,,,, square miles, and six
million people
Mi"it$ry 0osses
The .erman army was reduced to #,,,,,, men, and conscription &obligatory military service)
was illegal
>o tanks, aircraft or heavy artillery were to be manufactured for the .erman armed forces ( no
weaponsImilitary equipment
.erman navy reduced to: six battleships, six light cruisers, twelve destroyers, and twelve
torpedo boats
E&onoi& 0osses
The .erman steel industry depended on coal from the *aar, and iron ore from +lsace0:orraine .ermany
lost both of these areas .ermany also lost coalmines in Apper *ilesia, to "oland
Re*$r$tions &compensation payment for war damages)
This was a very difficult and delicate problem to solve + 4eparations 2ommission was established to
decide how many goods and how much money .ermany should pay
The figure PD,D,, million was eventually agreed upon *ome people thought this figure was too high
@; Feynes &a -ritish economist) said that .ermany would only become poorer and bitter <e was right
3$r Gui"t C"$use
This refers to +rticle $8# of the Treaty of 6ersailles, which placed the blame for all losses received by
the +llies in the ?irst 5orld 5ar, on .ermany The treaty also specifically asked that Faiser be brought
on trial Faiser 5ilhelm 33 fled to <olland in #/#C, and the 1utch refused to release him
The Si%nin% o1 the Tre$ty o1 Vers$i""es
The terms of the treaty were presented to the .ermans and they complained of its severity
The .ermans were given three weeks to prepare their formal complaint The .ermans complained
about nearly every clause The allies ignored all but a few complaints
5ith no other option, the .ermans signed the treaty E"eace= was signed in the <all of ;irrors, at
6ersailles The .ermans felt cheated by this treaty, because virtually none of 5ilson=s E?ourteen
"oints= had been included in the treaty The .ermans called the treaty a Ediktat= because it was
dictated to them, without real consultation The 5eimar government, especially Bbert who had signed
the treaty, was looked upon as traitorous
Re$&tion o1 Brit$in+ 2r$n&e $n# the 6SA
;ost people in -ritain had wanted revenge and so had gained some satisfaction :loyd .eorge was
satisfied that -ritain had gained most of .ermany=s colonies, so that after #/#/, -ritain could recover
its wealth and power ?rance, however, was not satisfied that .ermany had been weakened enough +
high0ranking ?rench officer said in #/#/: !his is not a pea"e. #t is an armisti"e for twenty$one years%
-y this he meant .ermany had not been weakened enough and would rise again in twenty0one years <e
predicted .ermany=s rise correctly -ritain and +merica promised help to ?rance should .ermany
threaten her in the future ;ost remarkable of all, the A*+ refused to ratify the treaty 5ilson was a
1emocrat The republican part in +merica opposed 5ilson=s involvement in Burope, and in the autumn
of #/#C, the 4epublicans had a ma9ority in 2ongress 2ongress refused to sign the Treaty of 6ersailles
because:0
4epublicans were against 1emocrats
4epublicans wanted Eisolation=
?rance still felt insecure, because -ritain would not support ?rance without +merican aid
Re$sons (hy Ger$ny Thou%ht the Tre$ty o1 Vers$i""es ($s 6N2AIR 6N2AIR7
.ermany thought the Treaty of 6ersailles &$Cth @une #/#/) was unfair because it was a Ediktat= The E-ig
Three= had not negotiated with .ermany at "aris from @anuary ( @une #/#/ .ermany was given only
three weeks to comment on the vast amounts of peace clauses <er ob9ections were largely ignored
.ermany resented the attitude of revenge which was summed up by the -ritish press as:
@Aa=e Germany Bay@ and @"quee<e the German /emon until the Bips "quea=C@
.ermany thought the Treaty was unfair because it was not based fully on 5ilson=s E?ourteen "oints= Ln
the 'th >ovember, #/#C, .ermany had accepted the ?ourteen "oints as the basis for peace and an
armistice began at ## o=clock on the ##th >ovember #/#C -y the $Cth @une #/#/, when the Treaty of
6ersailles was signed, the ?ourteen "oints had been largely forgotten
Ho( the 2ourteen ,oints (ere I%nore#

2ourteen ,oints Tre$ty o1 Vers$i""es
O*en 8i*"o$&y )s The E-ig Three= made all the decisions at
6ersailles, so the treaty was a Ediktat=

2ree#o o1 the Se$s )s .ermany could not en9oy freedom of navigation
because her navy was so reduced

Mu"ti"$ter$" #is$r$ent )s Lnly .ermany disarmed at 6ersailles 3t was
enforced unilateral disarmament +lso, to
humiliate .ermany further, she had to build ships
for the +llies &+llies rearmed)

N$tion$"-Se"1 8eterin$tion )s >*1 was applied unfairly at 6ersailles, eg "oland
NS8 "oland was given "osen05est "russia, and
therefore, the .ermans on this land were now
under foreign rule +lso the +nschluss of .ermany
and +ustria was not allowed, and so the .ermany
speakers in these lands were denied >*1


,e$&e Tre$ties (ith Ger$ny5s A""ies -9:9:-2;/
(Refer to the map showing the land losses of Germany%s &llies.)
Intro#u&tion
+fter peace had been made with .ermany at 6ersailles &$Cth @une #/#/), EThe -ig Three= turned their
attention to .ermany=s allies Their intention was to have one treaty with the <absburg Bmpire, but
two separate treaties were signed with +ustria and <ungary There had been a 2ommunist uprising in
-udapest and this delayed signing the treaty with <ungary -oth of these treaties were diktats, as were
those signed with -ulgaria and Turkey <owever, a second negotiated treaty was signed with Turkey in
#/$8
The Tre$ty o1 St7 Ger$in -90th Se*te!er+ 9:9: < 3ith Austri$/
The principle of >*1 was used in the treaty with +ustria:
3taly gained the Tyrol and Trentino in the >orth, and 3stria and Trieste in the >ortheast
2zechoslovakia gained the *udetenland &.erman speaking), the 2zech provinces and
*lovakia
*erbia was given various states in the -alkans: -osnia, <erzegovina, 2roatia and
1almatia, to form the Fingdom of !ugoslavia &!ugoslavia Q The *outhern *lavs)
"oland gained .alicia
>o +nschluss with .ermany
+ustria was disarmed to 8,,,,, men plus three 1anubian &river) police boats
+ustria was supposed to pay reparations, but as she was bankrupt in #/$,, none were
paid
The Tre$ty o1 Tri$non -=th June+ 9:20 < 3ith Hun%$ry/
Coents on the Tre$ties o1 St7 Ger$in $n# Tri$non
+ustria complained because she was disarmed and unable to defend herself against the hostile
neighbours that encircled her -oth states were land0locked and surrounded by weak or hostile
neighbours ;any of these neighbouring countries were hostile because they wanted to keep their new0
found independence, and they resented the former control of the <absburgs
<ungary lost some border districts to 2zechoslovakia and !ugoslavia
Transylvania was given to 4umania, which doubled 4omania=s size
Tre$ty o1 Neui""y -2>th No)e!er+ 9:9: < (ith Bu"%$ri$/
-ulgaria lost territory to .reece, which meant that she lost the coastline that lead more directly into
the ;editerranean
Sett"eents (ith Tur'ey
Tre$ty o1 Se)res -Au%ust+ 9:20 < $ #i't$t/
The Turks agreed to lose their ;iddle0Bastern empire
*audi +rabia became independent;
-ritain gained "alestine, Trans0@ordan and 3raq as mandates &;andate Q a lease
-ritain and ?rance only looked after these lands for 8, years)
?rance was given :ebanon and *yria as mandates
3n Burope Turkey lost other lands .reece gained Bastern Thrace and *myrna on
the Turkish mainland
3taly gained 4hodes
The 1ordanelle *trait was demilitarised &:eague of >ations)
Tre$ty o1 0$us$nne -9:2; < Ne%oti$te#/
Turkey regained all the land she had lost to .reece The *traits remained
demilitarised and 3taly kept 4hodes Turkey was now a republic with its new
capital at +nkara 2onstantinople was renamed 3stanbul
Inter*&ar 8iplomacy
Intro#u&tion &3;"L4T+>T -+2F.4LA>1 3>?L4;+T3L>H)
The ma9or powers had different aims in #/#/ for the post0war world
A*+: The republicans defeated 5oodrow 5ilson in the #/$, presidential election,
and they wanted isolation from Buropean affairs
?rance: ?rance still wanted security from the possibility of a third .erman attack To
do this she had two policies:

Bncirclement
?rance rearmed herself and strengthen her 4hineland border with .ermany, by
building the ;aginot :ine &#/$/08%)
-ritain: *he wanted to recover her wealth and power via trade
-oth treaties were diktats >*1 was applied and denied 0 8 million +ustrians lived in the *udetenland
under foreign rule, 8 million ;agyars lived under 4omanian rule in Transylvania >o +nschluss for
.ermany and +ustria 2zechs and *lovaks resented being in one country +ustria was disarmed +ustria
lost its monarchy &loss of "restige and >ational identity) -oth +ustria and <ungary lost out
economically; they were both landlocked and this damaged trade +lthough +ustria and <ungary
en9oyed free trade before the war, they did not afterwards <ungary lost valuable agricultural land in
Transylvania -oth countries suffered from a drop in population &5orkforce) +ustria=s population
dropped from $$ million to D' million and <ungary=s population dropped from $# million to G' million
( *he tried to surround .ermany with countries who were friendlier
to ?rance, !ugoslavia, 2zechoslovakia, 4omania and "oland &The :ittle Bntente)
.ermany: The 5eimar government wanted recovery in every sense: military, economic,
political and diplomatic 3n order for .ermany to achieve any of these, she
would have to break the Treaty of 6ersailles &$Cth @une #/#/)
-Note? Brit$in $n# Ger$ny h$# one thin% in &oon < the nee# to re&o)er )i$ tr$#e7/

I*ro)eent $n# 8e&"ine in Intern$tion$" Re"$tions -9:20-;:/
9:20s
There was an improvement in international relations in the #/$,s, mainly due to the work of three
foreign ministers: +usten 2hamberlain &-ritain), -riand &?rance) and *tresemann &.ermany)
9:;0s
4elations between the powers deteriorated in the #/8,s, especially after #/$/, after the 5all *treet
2rash &$/th Lctober) when the ma9or powers= economies declined, leading to the .reat 1epression +s a
result of the depression, extremist groups &2ommunists and ?ascists) became popular &flourished) The
aggressive policies of the ?ascists &.ermany, 3taly and @apan) resulted in the *econd 5orld 5ar
Inter-3$r 8i*"o$&y? I*ro)e# Re"$tions 9:29-2:
+ 5ashington >aval Treaties &#/$#0$)
3n spite of her a policy of isolation, the A*+ hosted these talks about naval disarmament, and the
balance of power in the "acific This was the ideal assignment for the :eague of >ations ( why did this
organization not do it7
+greements 4eached
-ritain, A*+, @apan, ?rance and 3taly agreed to respect each other=s "acific possessions &
guarantee 2hina=s independence
@apan would restore certain territory to 2hina and withdraw from *iberia, in 4ussia
There would be a ten0year stoppage in the building of capital ships &more than #,,,,, tons with
guns larger than CR) + ratio of A*+?' -r?' @?8 ?r?#G' 3t?#G'
was to be maintained in the building of capital ships
Bffects
:essened possibility of naval war in the ?ar Bast where @apan & A**4 had ideas about expanding
into 2hina
The alliance of 55 3 victors was reaffirmed, despite A*+=s isolation policy
Though better international relations resulted, the A**4 was not invited to the talks, despite
her extensive ?ar Bastern interests &A**4 was not recognized because of 2ommunist
government)
Treaty of 4apallo &+pril #/$$) ( *igned $ months after the 5ashington Treaty, by .ermany and
*oviet 4ussia They said they would not attack each other and trade links were opened -oth
powers were no longed isolated They also secretly agreed to arms deals ?rance was upset
because .ermany could now MbreakN the rules of the 6ersailles Treaty
These meetingsIconferences highlighted the ineffectiveness of the :eague of >ations The fact
that countries were able to do as they pleased to, severely weakened the authority of this
peace0keeping organization

- The :ocarno "acts, #/$'
-ritain, ?rance & .ermany agreed to meet in *witzerland, at :ocarno, in #/$'
+greements
.ermany accepted her frontiers with ?rance and -elgium, & agreed not to change them
.ermany agreed not to alter &change) her borders with "oland or 2zechoslovakia (ithout
#is&ussion &7H) with ?rance and her :ittle Bntente partners
Bffects
?ranco0.erman relations improved because ?rance felt more secure and .ermany realized there
was some hope of regaining lands on her eastern borders
.ermany 9oined the :eague of >ations as a permanent member of the 2ouncil in #/$D
2 Fellogg0-riand "act &"act of "aris) #/$C
3n #/$D .ermany signed a Treaty of >eutrality with the A**4 &4enewed 4apallo of #/$$) This
worried the ?rench
3n +pril #/$G -riand appealed to the A* *ecretary of *tate, ?- Fellogg for assistance
+ nine0power conference met in "aris in +ugust #/$C and eventually D' nations signed a pact
that outlawed war unless a nation acted in self0defence
Bffects
A* involvement reassured ?rance and +merica=s other Buropean allies
A**4 signed the "act and gained some recognition for 2ommunist 4ussia by other powers
.ermany signed the "act and this calmed ?rench suspicions of .ermany=s aggression
This "act was later viewed as being of good intent, but having no practical means of preventing
war
1 2hanges to 4eparations
The -ritish economist, Feynes, had warned that the amount established at 6ersailles, was too much to
expect from .ermany in reparations Two plans, in #/$% and #/$/, gave .ermany assistance from the
A*
8$(es ,"$n 9:2=?
.ermany fell behind in reparation payments to ?rance, so in @anuary #/$8,
?rance occupied the 4uhr valley &on the ?ranco0.ermany 4hineland border)
?rance=s intention was to take reparations in the form of coal ?rance only
withdrew her troops after the 1awes "lan was drawn up .ermany still had the
same amount to pay in reparations, but received a loan from the A*+ and
payments were scaled down so that it could be paid easier
Bffects
The 4uhr was evacuated in @uly #/$'
.ermany was treated as an equal for the first time, and this paved the way for
:ocarno &#/$') and .ermany=s entry to the :eague &#/$D)
.ermany=s economy improved under *tresemann &died #/$/)
Youn% ,"$n 9:2:
*tresemann appealed to the A*+ for further assistance in paying reparations &to
update the 1awes "lan) The !oung committee reduced .ermany=s liability
&responsibility) to approximately a #I8 of the original sum, to be paid over '/
years &ie until #/CC) 3t was to start in ;ay #/8,
Bffects
*tresemann=s status as an international statesman grew, as did his popularity at
home
The realistic sum to be paid by .ermany promised good future relations between
.ermany, ?rance and -ritain
NB The !oung "lan collapsed because in Lctober #/$/, the 5all *treet 2rash
occurred in +merica, and this financial crisis spread to .ermany, and then other
Buropean powers .ermany could not afford to pay reparations #/8#0$, and <itler
refused to pay anything after #/88
2onclusion
3mprovements in international relations in #/$,s, +01 above, were the result of
Epower diplomacy= and NOT the work of the :eague of >ations whose main aim
was to keep peace
8eterior$tion in Re"$tions -9:2:-;:/
3n the #/8,s relations between the powers deteriorated #/$/ *tresemann died and -riand and
2hamberlain were out of office Lctober #/$/, 5all *treet 2rash, led to a depression in Burope and
extremist political groups &?ascist, >azis) grew in popularity ;ussolini in 3taly and <itler in .ermany
offered economic growth to their Edepressed= peoples and their aggressive foreign policies led to the
*econd 5orld 5ar &#/8/0%') 3n the #/8,s neither power diplomacy, nor the :eague of >ations, could
prevent war
The 0e$%ue o1 N$tions
Ori%ins
The idea of international co0operation was not a new one in #/#/ There had been earlier attempts, for
example: the 3nternational 4ed 2ross, .eneva &#CD%), the 3nternational Telegraph Anion &#CD'), the
3nternational ;eteorological Lrganisation &#CGC) and the 3nternational 2ourt, The <ague &#C//)
The last of 5ilson=s fourteen points said that a :eague of >ations should be set up, to keep peace after
#/#/ To ensure that it was established, 5ilson insisted that the :eague of >ations should be written
into the Treaty of 6ersailles &$Cth @une #/#/)
Ais
To keep peace
To improve living conditions of men and women world0wide
Or%$nis$tion
The :eague first met in @anuary #/$, and each state had to take an oath &covenant) to say they would
abide by the :eague=s rules for international law and order
+ssembly : Bach year, each state would send up to three delegates to the .eneva assembly to
discuss world problems Bach country had one vote, and a unanimous vote was needed to decide
action +s unanimity was never reached, resolutions were passed onto the council
2ouncil : The great powers &-ritain, ?rance, 3taly and @apan) of #/$, sat permanently on the
council, with smaller nations who observed They met three or four times a year, and at times
of crisis -y a unanimous vote they could levy &implement) the following sanctions against a
nation who broke peace ( this was known as Co""e&ti)e Se&urity The four basic steps of this
policy were:
3or"# ,u!"i& O*inion or ;oral sanction ( + polite warning, based on world public
opinion condemning the aggressive behaviour
Bconomic or Tr$#e s$n&tions ( The :eague stopped trading with the offender
8is$r$ent 0 "romoting arms reduction and eventual disarmament
;ilitary sanction or The 6se o1 Mi"it$ry 2or&e( +s a last resort the :eague would impose
its will by force
>o sanction could be used if a nation used its veto The idea was that collective action would
produce collective security, and thereby peace &Anited we stand, divided we fall) The :eague=s
responses were long0winded
The 2ourt of @ustice : *et up in #C//, at The <ague, in <olland, this department dealt with legal
disputes between nations
3nternational :abour Lrganisation &3:L): 3ts first chairman was +lbert Thomas, and he collected
evidence world0wide, about working conditions <e wrote a code of good practice, which
included:
*afety regulations, *ick pay, "ensions, ;aternity leave, Trade Anion rights, 4estrictions
of child labour
2ommissions : *pecial departments dealt with specific world problems
*ecretariat : The first *ecretary .eneral was *ir Bric 1rummond, and he led the :eague=s
administration department &2ivil *ervice)
*ome nations 9oined the :eague late, eg .ermany in #/$D, A**4 in #/8% #C nations left the :eague,
eg .ermany in #/88 because other nations would not disarm to her level, @apan in #/88 after invading
;anchuria, 3taly in #/8G after invading +byssinia, A**4 in #/8/ dismissed after the >azi0*oviet "act
>ote: AMERICA NEVER JOINE8 THE 0EAG6E O2 NATIONS &This was because the A* 2ongress, then
under 4epublican control, refused to accept 5ilson=s, who was a 1emocrat, plea to 9oin the :eague
<owever, they did 9oin the 3:L)
0e$%ue o1 N$tions $t 3or' -9:20-9:;:/
*uccess in achieving its second aim 0 3mproving living conditions world0wide
The 3:L was so successful that the A*+ 9oined it 3n #/%' it transferred to the A>L
The <ealth 2ommission stopped disease epidemics &eg measles) ( today the 5orld <ealth
Lrganization &5<L)
The :eprosy 2ommission helped eliminate leprosy
The Transit and 2ommunication 2ommission standardized passports and visas, and radio codes
were also made common
The ;andates 2ommission helped colonies to reach independence
The 4efugee 2ommission helped resettle homeless and stateless people
The :eague=s failure in its first aim ( To keep peace
The powers improved international relations in the #/$,s, rather than the :eague &'ee notes
on interwar diploma"y)
The :eague did settle a few minor disputes in the #/$,s, however in the 2orfu incident &#/$8) it
had to refer the problem to the powers to solve
?inland against *weden &#/$,0$#) ?inland and *weden were in dispute over the +aland
3slands in the -altic *ea The :eague settled in favour of ?inland
.ermany against "oland &#/$#0$$) .ermany and "oland disputed control of Apper
*ilesia The :eague settled in favour of "oland: an unpopular decision &with the .erman
speaking people of Apper *ilesia, who said, quite rightly, that they had been denied
>*1)
3taly against .reece &#/$8) +ka the 2orfu 3ncident, 3taly held .reece responsible for
the death of some 3talian Lfficers on the frontier of +lbania and .reece .reece refused
to compensate 3taly for the loss, and so 3taly bombarded the .reek island of 2orfu The
:eague was approached about the conflict and referred the dispute to a 2ongress of
+mbassadors who persuaded .reece to make a financial settlement, after which 3taly
evacuated 2orfu &>- The powers were keeping peace, again)
The :eague ?ailed to bring about ;ultilateral 1isarmament
The :eague proposed two main documents, trying to encourage disarmament These were The 1raft
Treaty of ;utual +ssistance &#/$8) and The .eneva "rotocol &#/$%) -oth of these asked member
nations to respect a certain level of disarmament, but were re9ected
#/$80% ( .eneva 1isarmament Talks &including A*+ and A**4)
This failed because ?rance still felt insecure, and would not disarm 3n Lctober #/88 <itler withdrew
from the talks stating that if other powers did not reduce the level of their arms to .ermany=s level, he
would rearm .ermany to their level
NOTE? The on"y su&&ess1u" ste* to($r#s #is$r$ent too' *"$&e $t 3$shin%ton -9:29-2+ N$)$" Si@es
in ,$&i1i&7/ This ($s hoste# !y the 6SA+ not the 0e$%ue o1 N$tions7
The :eague failed to control ma9or crises in the #/8,s
The Aanchurian 0risis
#Cth *eptember #/8#, @apanese troops invaded ;anchuria and attacked the
industrial city of ;ukden 2hiang Fai *hek &2hinese nationalist :eader) appealed
to the :eague and to the A*+ for help +merica protested and the :eague made
a E;oral sanction= and sent a :ytton 2ommission to ;anchuria led by *ir :ytton
whose report condemned @apanese aggression Anperturbed &undisturbed) @apan
renamed ;anchuria, E;anchukuo= in ;arch #/8$, and continued to occupy it 3n
#/88 @apan left the :eague of >ations This was a significant step in further
breaking down the :eagueSs authority, because this peace0keeping organization
did not have any say in matters of non0member nations The big powers were
more concerned with domestic issues &>ational interests came before the
:eague=s affairs) @apanese aggression was not halted, the :eague=s Ecollective
action= had amounted to nothing
NB7 On"y Ger$ny $n# It$"y re&o%ni@e# J$*$n5s &ontro" in 4M$n&hu'uo57
The Abyssinian 0risis ()3;*D %
This involved the aggression of 3taly, led by ;ussolini, in +byssinia &now
Bthiopia) ;ussolini wanted to create a ?ascist 4oman Bmpire and saw the <orn
of +frica as an ideal area for expansion 3taly already controlled :ibya, Britrea
and 3talian *omaliland, so +byssinia would help link its possessions 3taly had
unsuccessfully tried to conquer the area in #C/D 3n Lctober #/8' ;ussolini was
successful against the meagre &weak) troops of Bmperor <aile0*alassie +byssinia
appealed to the :eague and within two weeks ;ussolini=s actions were
condemned and economic sanctions were imposed These sanctions were not
very good because 3taly still managed to obtain steel, copper and oil The
:eague did ban arms sales to 3taly, but made +byssinia weak by not letting it
have any arms eitherH ;ussolini did not take the :eague=s sanctions seriously and
he threatened war if his oil supplies were stopped -ritain argued in favour of
an oil embargo but the issue was complicated by secret diplomacy
<oare0:aval "act &1ecember #/8') :
*amuel <oare &-ritain) and :aval &?rance) made an agreement that if ;ussolini
stopped fighting, he could have most of +byssinia The world press published the
pact, <oare resigned and the agreement failed ;eanwhile ;ussolini conquered
+byssinia in ;ay #/8D
;ussolini had said E3f the :eague had extended economic sanctions of oil 3 would
have had to withdraw from +byssinia in a weekR The :eague had bungled its
negotiations and had, once again failed miserably to maintain peace
>LTB: The +byssinian affair destroyed the E*tresa ?ront= -ritain and ?rance had been
meeting with ;ussolini at *tresa in an attempt to unite against <itler=s .ermany The
actions of <oare and :aval caused 3taly to side with .ermany from #/8D onwards
The 0e$%ue o1 N$tions 1$i"e# !e&$use it ($s (e$' 1ro the st$rtA
:ook at the following:
I#e$" 0e$%ue 0e$%ue in ,r$&ti&e ($s 3e$'
# +ll nations should be members B6TA >ot all nations were members &eg A*+)

$ +ll nations should be equal partners B6TA >ot equal partners because ma9or powers in the
:eague made decisions in the 2ouncil

8 The :eague should be able to make B6TA :eague structure was weak, unanimity decisions quickly
and easily caused delays

% >ational interests should be second to B6TA >ations were more interested in their L5> the
league=s interests affairs, especially after #/$/ with the
economic crisis

' ;embers should obey the :eague=s B6TA ;oral, Bconomic & ;ilitary sanctions were
sanctions ignored eg @apan #/8#
D Lffenders could trade with none :eague members &eg +byssinia 2risis ( #/8'ID)
G 3t was silly to use violence to stop violence


Germany
?eatures of ?ascism
# Lne leader ( a dictator
0e$#er 3l 1uce ?Threr 2audillo
N$e ;ussolini <itler ?ranco
,$rty ?ascisti >azi ?alange
Country 3taly .ermany *pain


$ + fascist state is TOTA0ITARIAN &one party state), so there would be no choice between parties in an
election
8 + dictator maintained his power by violence and fear "rivate armies were used &eg ;ussolini=s
-lackshirts, <itler=s -rownshirts Q *turmabteilung or *tormtroopers) to protect the leader and attack
enemies &eg 2ommunists)
% + dictator maintained his power by strict control of the media 2B>*L4*<3" denied people
information, and "4L"+.+>1+ forced fascist ideas onto people
' >ationalism was encouraged with the use of symbols, eg 3taly with the clenched fist and the sheath
of corn, and .ermany with the swastika, goosestep and straight0armed salute
D <itler united the ma9ority of .ermans by attacking minority groups <e said +4!+> people &Teutonic,
blue eyed, blond haired) were a <B44B>6L:F or master race <e said inferior races &@ews, *lavs,
.ypsies, !ellowI-lack skinned people) should be exterminated Aneconomic peoples &eg the aged or
the disabled) or non0conforming +ryans &homosexuals, socialists, @ehovah=s witnesses etc) were to be
exterminated

,o"iti&$" Grou*s
3n theory, the communists are opposite to the fascists, because 2ommunism preaches equality, whereas
?ascism believes in the superiority of one man over another 3n practice both 2ommunism and ?ascism
are Totalitarian
3ei$r Go)ernent
-ackground >otes
# :eft wing Q 2ommunists
$ 4ight wing Q ?ascistsI>azis &ie the extremist groups)
8 2onstitution Q 4ules by which a country is governed
% 5B3;+4 .L6B4>;B>T Q .ermany=s first democratic republican government &#/#/08%), based at
5eimar, a *pa town in the centre of .ermany
' .erman .overnments
a "re #/#% .erman government Q autocracy of Faiser
b #/#/08% .erman government Q 5eimar democratic government
<ead of *tate Q "resident &elected)
<ead of .overnment Q 2hancellor &elected)
#/8%0%' .erman government Q <itler=s dictatorship
D "arliament in two houses:
a 4eichsrat Q Apper <ouse
b 4eichstag Q :ower <ouse
G 6oting *tructure
5eimar government was elected by universal suffrage &all adults voted) ;"s were
elected by proportional representation &"4) ;ethod Q $ votes taken before an ;" is
chosen This system caused too many small parties to be elected +s a result, no
single party held a ma9ority to form a government To solve this, a coalition
government was formed, but passing laws took longer because of disagreements
&*trong government Q Lne that passes laws quickly)
Ger$ny? The 3ei$r Go)ernent -9:9:-;=/
3ntroduction
+fter the ##th >ovember #/#C, .ermany had three problems to solve: peacemaking, rebuilding
.ermany=s economy, and the creation of an adequate form of government Bventually, the 5eimar
constitution was written, which made .ermany a democratic republic This government failed by #/8%,
when +dolf <itler became dictator of .ermany
Re$sons 1or the 1$i"ure o1 the 3ei$r %o)ernent
5eaknesses of the 5eimar 2onstitution
<atred of the Treaty of 6ersailles signed by the 5eimar government
2hallenges from :eft and 4ight wing groups
?ailure to solve economic problems
<itler came to power
The 5eimar .overnment
:eft wing groups rose against Faiser 5ilhelm 33=s government at Fiel, and in -avaria *ocialists in the
4eichstag demanded the abdication of the Faiser Ln the /th >ovember #/#C, the Faiser abdicated and
?riedrich Bbert became president ?rom ?ebruary #/#/, a >ational assembly met at 5eimar to write a
constitution The 4eichstag was elected, and passed laws The 4eichsrat could only delay legislation
The president could choose the chancellor, dissolve the 4eichstag and rule by decree in times of
emergency The chancellor in the 4eichstag chose the cabinet, and commanded a ma9ority of the votes
"rovision was made for a referendum on matters of acute controversy within the country, a *upreme
2ourt was set up, and basic rights, such as freedom of speech, religion and movement were guaranteed
5eaknesses :
3t was a weakness to give the 4eichsrat delaying powers because laws could not
be passed quickly ( weak government
3t was a weakness to allow the president to rule by decree because democracy
could change to a dictatorship
The constitution was over0optimistic because it was difficult to change from
autocracy to democracy overnight
Anpopularity of the Treaty of 6ersailles &$Cth @une, #/#/)
Lne of the first tasks of the 5eimar government was to sign the Treaty of 6ersailles The .erman
?oreign ;inister, 5alter 4anthenau &a @ew), who upheld the 6ersailles agreement, was seen as a traitor
The treaty was very unpopular because it was a diktat, and because it was not based on the fourteen
points &see previous notes)
Lpposition to the 5eimar .overnment from :eft and 4ight 5ing .roups
Bbert=s government soon faced the *particist rising Two communists, 4osa :uxemburg and Farl
:iebknecht led this uprising -eginning in #/#C it reached its climax in @anuary #/#/, when it was
suppressed, and the leaders killed 4ight wing groups also rose up against the 5eimar government The
returning soldiers were bitter and thought they should have remained fighting The ?ree 2orps was a
Eclub= of returning ex0soldiers 3n the Fapp "utsch &armed rising) people protested at the Treaty and at
the governments acceptance
?ailure of the 5eimar .overnment to solve Bconomic "roblems
4eparations posed the greatest problems to .ermany after #/#/ The Treaty said .ermany must pay
PD,D,, million .ermany paid reparations through foreign laws in the early twenties ?rance invaded the
4uhr valley and took coal when .ermany failed to pay in #/$8 This invasion horrified .ermans who saw
the 5eimar government as weak
4esults of the ?rench occupation of the 4uhr
Bxtremist groups &namely ?ascists and 2ommunists) grew in number in #/$8
The .erman mark dropped in value because in order to combat inflation, the 5eimar
government printed extra bank notes, without increasing the gold held in its treasury -ank
notes then dropped proportionally in value This led to <!"B43>?:+T3L> .erman marks in
exchange for one dollar
.ermany gained loans from the A*+ *tresemann arranged the economic recovery of .ermany #/$80$/
The 1awes plan and the !oung plan staggered .ermany=s reparations over a period of time, and
included A*+ loans Buropean powers gradually accepted .ermany: witness the :ocarno "act &#/$') and
the entry of .ermany to the :eague of >ations in #/$D
Bconomic *lump
;any .ermans gained faith in the 5eimar .overnment while *tresemann was in power, but his death,
and the E5all *treet 2rash= in Lctober #/$/, saw the growth of extremist groups The 5all *treet 2rash
collapsed the .erman economy because the A*+ wanted her loans repaying The 5eimar government
suffered because the coalition of moderate right and left wing groups ended The ruling by decree and
the system of proportional representation caused political confusion in the 5eimar government
+utocracy was being forced onto a democracy and many small parties were being formed :aw passing
was slow
Bnd of the 5eimar .overnment
The "resident, "aul 6on <indenburg, appointed three chancellors between #/8, and #/8$ &-runing, 6on
"apen and *chleicher), but because these men could not command a ma9ority in the 4eichstag
<indenburg reluctantly appointed +dolf <itler to be chancellor, in @anuary #/88 <itler became dictator
of .ermany in +ugust #/8% after the death of "resident 6on <indenburg
The Rise o1 Hit"er
Re$sons 1or his rise
5eimar .overnment was weak
The .erman people did not trust democracy; they preferred the autocracy of the Faiser
:aws could be delayed by the 4eichstag &:aws could not be passed quickly)
"roportional representation produced weak 2oalition governments &:aws could not be passed
quickly)
1emocracy could end if a president ruled by decree in an emergency
Bconomic problems were not solved
>azism was popular 0 <e promised strong, national government <e said he would correct the
errorsIweaknesses of 5eimar rule, and end the Treaty of 6ersailles &$Cth @une #/#/), including:
reparations, war guilt, disarmament
<e promised full employment
<e said he would get rid of lawlessness
<e united all classes in society behind >azism:
Apper 2lass &@unkers) ( ?eared communism and saw their futures reviving, if .ermany
rearmed
;iddle 2lass ( 5anted the strengthening of the law
5orking 2lass ( 5anted employment
2hurches in .ermany ( .erman churches &2atholic and :utheran) feared communism and
+theism &.odless society), and therefore were more sympathetic towards <itler
<itler united the ma9ority of .ermans, by attacking the minorities
<itler=s Barly :ife &up to c#/#C) &?L4 3>?L4;+T3L> "A4"L*B*)
<itler was born of the $,th +pril #CC/, at -raunau am 3nn &am Q on the, 3nn is the name of an +ustrian
river), in Apper +ustria <e was the son of a minor customs official Barlier, in #CGD, the family name
had been changed from *chickelgruber to <itler, because *chickelgruber was @ewish <e was educated
at :inz, but he was not very academic; he had a talent for art 3n Lctober #/,G, he moved to 6ienna,
attempting to get into the art academy, but he failed the entrance exam &<e later blamed the @ews for
this) <e frequented -ierkeller, with other unemployed, where his hatred of the @ews and the *lavs
grew <e had part time 9obs ( eg postcard selling and as an unskilled mechanic
3n #/#$ he moved to ;unich in the province of -avaria 3n the ?irst 5orld 5ar he 9oined the -avarian
army, where he was promoted to corporal, and he was awarded the 3ron 2ross first class &got it twice)
for being gassed <e was convalescing at the time of the peace treaty, and claimed he would never have
signed it &$Cth @une #/#/)
Hit"er5s E$r"y ,o"iti&$" C$reer
+t the end of the ?irst 5orld 5ar he returned to ;unich, where he 9oined the .erman 5orkers "arty,
which became the >*1+" &>ational *ocialist .erman 5orkers "arty) or >azi party <e became its ?Threr
&leader), and used the swastika as its emblem <e befriended Brnst 4ohm, the leader of the *+
&*turmabteilung or *tormtroopers) which defended <itler and attacked the 2ommunists <e spoke at
meetings, often at -eer halls, where his active, and aggressive, policies appealed to all classes
Muni&h ,uts&h -2;r# No)e!er+ 9:2;/
+ putsch is an armed rising The ;unich putsch is compared to ;ussolini=s march on 4ome, but whereas
;ussolini was successful, <itler failed to gain power Ln the $8rd >ovember #/$8, <itler tried to take
over the .overnment of -avaria The attempted coup d=Utat failed, because of mistiming <itler=s
rebels left the beer hall and collided with the police on their way to the state building *hots were
fired, #D >azis were killed, and <itler, and his aid 4udolf <ess, were arrested The attempted coup
received widespread support, because the 5eimar .overnment was unpopular in #/$8 &hyperinflation
and the ?rench occupation of the 4uhr valley, @anuary #/$80$') Bstablished figures supported <itler,
eg .eneral :udendorf &gave support in camera) and 5ilhelm ?rick &the ;unich chief of police was
actively involved <is men were supposed to be dealing with a false riot at the other end of the city, but
the diversion failed, and they ran into the "utsch)
0$n#s!er% $n# I*risonent
<e was tried and sentenced for Treason in +pril #/$%, and used his trial to advertise >azi ideas <e was
supposed to serve five years but was imprisoned for only nine months, in the comfort of :andsberg
2astle This lenient sentence for so serious a crime shows that the 9udiciary was sympathetic to right0
wing groups 5hile he was in prison he wrote ;ein Fampf &;y *truggle) which was partly
autobiographical, and partly about >azi ideas <ess acted as his amanuensis <is ideas included:
The 5eimar .overnment was weak
The Treaty of 6ersailles was unfair
.ermany should increase its population ( Etake lands in the east by the power of the
sword= &This would involve rearming, taking the "olish 2orridor by force, and a
likelihood of war)
<e said the +ryan &Teutonic people) race, which had blonde hair and blue eyes, was a
<errenvolk &master race) <e said inferior races &@ews, *lavs, "oles, .ypsies &4omanies),
Lrientals &Fincaid), and -lacks) should be exterminated
<e was released after nine months, and he said that in future, he would come to power by democratic
means, rather than using violence
Strese$nn? Re&o)ery B Co""$*se
5hen <itler was released, he found .ermany in the capable hands of .ustav *tresemann, who was
foreign secretary and chancellor, improved .ermany=s economy and international position, eg
#/$%0$/ :
<e improved the economy by arranging the 1awes &#/$%) and !oung &#/$/) plans, with
the A*+, to ease the payment of reparations
@uly #/$': <e organised ?rench withdrawal from the 4uhr
#/$': The :ocarno "act improved relations between .ermany and ?rance
#/$D: @oined the council of the :eague of >ations
+s a result of the improvements in economic conditions, the >azis had poor results in elections during
.ermanySs M.olden !earsN under *tresemann 3n the #/$% elections they obtained only 8$ out of %/,
4eichstag seats and in the #/$C elections this dropped to #8 seatsH
The death of *tresemann &8rd Lctober #/$/) and the 5all *treet 2rash &$/th Lctober #/$/) caused the
.erman economy to collapse and so <itler realized his part would do better in the elections Note? ,oor
e&onoi& &on#itions C EDtreist %rou*s *ros*er7
N$@i Re)i)$" -9:2:-;;/
<itler claimed that he knew there would be a crisis, and that he had been waiting, and prepared, for
the >azis to save .ermany <e gained financial backing from some @unkers and from two 4uhr *teel
;agnates &;anufacturer and 3nvestor): Frupp & Thyssen The deal was money to <itler in return for
orders later <e expanded the existing scout movement who the <itler !outh which by #/$% had G
million members 3t extended to girls in #/$C with the -1; &:eague of .erman ;aidens) <e stressed
physical fitness, so they could fight in future, and he indoctrinated them with >azi ideas so they would
vote for him in future <e was shaping young minds 4allies were organised by @osef .oebbels, and he
and <itler whipped their audience into a frenzy of support +s a result, >azi seats in the 4eichstag
increased 3n *eptember #/8, they won #,G of %/, seats and in @uly #/8$ that number rose to $8,
<itler did >LT have an overall ma9ority, and so did not automatically become chancellor
Hit"er !e&oes Ch$n&e""or
"resident "aul 6on <indenburg used his power of decree in an emergency to appoint four chancellors
between #/8$088 3n ;ay #/8$, -rTning was dismissed, and replaced by 6on "apen, who in turn was
replaced by .eneral *chleicher These three could not control the communists and the >azis in the
4eichstag and so reluctantly in @anuary #/88 6on <indenburg appointed <itler <indenburg=s idea was
that <itler would be his puppet and only two other >azis were in the cabinet: .Vring and ?rick
<indenburg disliked <itler for two reasons:
<itler was only an +ustrian 2orporal &.erman snobbishness)
<itler had stood against <indenburg in the presidential election of #/8$ <itler gained #8 million
votes; <indenburg gained #/ million votes &"ersonal 9ealousy)
<itler=s appointment as chancellor is a vital step in the downfall of the 5eimar government
The Est$!"ishent o1 the N$@i 8i&t$torshi*
3t took <itler only #C months to change from 2hancellor to 1ictator of .ermany:
@anuary #/88 ( <itler became chancellor
+ugust #/8% ( <itler became dictator

Burnin% o1 the Rei&hst$% -2>E2E;;/
Ln the night of the $Gth ?ebruary #/88, the 4eichstag was set ablaze &set fire to) by a 1utch communist
student, 6an der :ubbe, who was found guilty of arson and treason, and beheaded &This shows the :aw
2ourts were harsh towards left0wing groups) The .erman 2ommunists had not caused the blaze and
they tried to blame the >azis <itler used 6an der :ubbe=s guilt as an excuse to discredit all
communists &;any historians believe that the young student was not really responsible, that he was set
up ( all to convince the .erman people of the effectiveness and the urgency of the >azi regime)
The En$!"in% A&t -2;E;E;;/
+s a result of communist unpopularity, the >azis increased their votes in the ;arch #/88 election where
they gained $CC, or %8W, so <itler still had no 4eichstag ma9ority <e forced <ugenburg=s '$ nationalists
to form a coalition <itler now passed the Bnabling +ct, which gave executive power &power to pass
laws) to the cabinet for four years, hereby <itler made all the decisions &dictator)
Censorshi*
5ith the power of the Bnabling +ct, <itler banned all other political parties, so .ermany became
Totalitarian TL further weaken the communists, he banned the Trade Anions in #/8%, and workers had
to 9oin the >azi :abour ?ront, led by 1r 4obert :ey There was no freedom of speech, and <itler
imprisoned people without trial
RFh ,ur%e -;0E6E;= - Lperation <umming birdIThe >ight of the :ong Fnives)
<itler became increasingly suspicious of the intentions of Brnst 4Vhm, the leader of the three and a half
million working class, brownshirted, *+ <itler was told by .oebbels, .Vring and <immler that 4ohm
wanted to be a military dictator with <itler as his puppet The *+ then disgraced themselves by not
saluting <itler, at a mayday parade <itler plotted 4ohm=s downfall <e gave them summer leave, and
its leaders were arrested <itler arrested 4ohm himself at -ad 5eisse in -avaria 4ohm=s chauffeur was
shot and 4ohm refused to commit suicide, so was shot in -erlin <immler gained the most, because his
** &*chutz *taffel ( "rotection squad) replaced the disbanded *+ +t the same time, <itler=s other
enemies were rounded up and shot, including Bx0chancellor *chleicher 3n the 4eichstag next day
&#IGI8%), <itler said he had executed over D, traitors, though the number was nearer $,,,, <e said he
was Esupreme 9udge with a licence to kill=
8e$th o1 Von Hin#en!ur% -2EGE;=/
<indenburg=s death meant the cabinet could combine the roles of chancellor and president, so <itler
became fuhrer of the Third 4eich
8i# Hit"er !eh$)e #eo&r$ti&$""yH
Yes+ !e&$use he h$# the *o(er o1 the En$!"in% A&t7 -H/
No+ !e&$use the 3ei$r &onstitution s$i# the *resi#ent shou"# !e e"e&te#7 -H/
0i1e in N$@i Ger$ny -9:;;-;:/
97 Hit"er5s E&onoi& ,o"i&y
1uring the years #/8808/ <itler was popular because he was able to improve .ermany=s economy The
virtual abolition of reparations by the +llies in #/8# also helped The unemployed people went down
from '' million in #/8$ to less than X a million in #/8C The main reason for this was an increase in
government expenditure, in #/88 it was % billion, from #/8C08, it was 8, billion <itler found work for
people by beginning "ublic 5ork *chemes, eg the autobahns ( the splendid new roads of .ermany
4earmament also helped to reduce unemployment via conscription and munitions factories "eople were
conscripted into the army so were no longer unemployed, and people gained employment producing
weapons ?irms involved with the production of weapons were encouraged to expand Frupp and
Thyssen produced steel parts, but later, weapons for <itler too The disadvantage of the expansion of
large firms was the smaller firms suffered <itler wanted to gain autarky, which means to make
.ermany economically self0sufficient, which involved expanded .erman lands The country produced
ersatz &substitute) material to replace imported goods ?or example, plastics replaced rubber
.ermany needed to expand her lands to achieve self0sufficiency, so she had suitable lands for the
mining and production of products 4aw materials &eg coal and iron from Apper *ilesia) needed
somewhere to be mined from, land was needed for farming and industry, and people needed to form a
workforce for the new areas 3f .ermany expanded beyond its #/#/ national boundaries war would
follow
27 N$@i ,ro*$%$n#$
<itler=s minister of "ropaganda was @osef .oebbels <itler=s ideas about race and nationalism were
taught in schools 3ntellectual life in .ermany was stifled &kept under) by the lack of free expression
Aniversities were unable to play a significant role, as they were under constant fear of being
suppressed
+ young person who did not belong to the <itler !outh ;ovement was unlikely to make progress in life,
and so nearly all young people were sub9ected to >azi propaganda constantly 3t did produce physically
fit youths, which <itler could conscript for war 3ndoctrinating >azi ideas to young people made them
support <itler, and they would vote for him when they were older &not necessary after he became a
dictator) They would fight for him in war, and follow him to the bitter end
;7 The Chur&hes o1 N$@is
There were two ma9or branches in .ermany: the .erman :utheran 2hurch &"rotestants) and the 4oman
2atholic 2hurch The "rotestant 2hurches either 9oined the >azi controlled E.erman 2hristians= or found
their leaders persecuted and imprisoned ?or example, "astor >iemoller was opposed to <itler and was
sent to a concentration camp The 2atholic 2hurch signed a concordat with the >azi regime in @uly
#/88, by which the liberty of the 2hurch was guaranteed <itler did not adhere to this agreement, so
"ope "ius Y3 issued the Bncyclical E;it -rennender *orge= &E5ith burning sorrow=) in which he accused
the >azi regime of breaking the 2oncordat and in which he forecast the dangers emanating from
.ermany &;arch #/8G)
=7 The ,erse&ution o1 the Je(s
3n the early years of <itler=s rule the @ews were persecuted 3n #/8' the >uremberg laws were passed,
which deprived .ermany=s D,,,,,, @ews of citizenship ?or example the @ews were not allowed to vote,
receive medical, or rely on police protection, and sub9ected them to various indignities, such as
traveling in separate parts of buses and trains, and the need to display a distinctive badge or sign to
shown that they were @ews 3n >ovember #/8C, a young @ew killed a .erman diplomat in "aris The
>azis used this as an excuse to launch a violent revenge on @ews "lain0clothes ** troopers were issued
with pickaxes and hammers and the addresses of @ewish businesses They ran riot, smashing up @ewish
shops and workplaces /# @ews were murdered <undreds of synagogues were burned $,,,,, @ews were
taken to concentration camps Thousands more left the country This event became known as
Fristallnacht or EThe >ight of the -roken .lass= ;any .ermans watched the events of Fristallnacht with
alarm and concern The >azi controlled press presented Fristallnacht as the spontaneous reaction of
ordinary .ermans against the @ews ;ost .ermans did not believe this <owever, hardly anyone
protested The few who did were brutally murdered Two ma9or groups persecuted the @ews, the press
and the .estapo &.eheime *taats "olizei) and ** &*chutz *taffel or Eprotection squad=) 3t protected
<itler from all political enemies such as the communists <immler was head of the .estapo and **, his
deputy was <eydrich
Con&entr$tion C$*s
The ** ran the >azi concentration camps There were two types of >azi concentration camps:
:abour camps: originally set up by .Vring to house political prisoners
Bxtermination camps: to eliminate Einferior= races in a policy of mass murder
&genocide) known as the Efinal solution= or Eholocaust=
0$!our C$*s
?or political prisoners mainly, eg 2ommunists 1achau was the first camp to be
opened by .oring in ;arch #/88, for ',,,, men -y #/8G it held $G,,,, prisoners
The ** under <immler ran the camps
EDterin$tion C$*s
?or inferior races in the E?inal *olution= after #/%# >ot only @ews were sent The
.ypsies, *lavs, "oles and 4ussians were also victims @ews were transported in cattle trucks
expecting to go to re0settlement camps in remote, rural areas, near railway lines Those who
survived the 9ourney were divided into two groups
The 42it5 &Those individuals who are physically and psychologically equipped
to survive) !oung adults and selected essential workers would pass through a
gate marked E+rbeit ;acht ?rei= &5ork makes you free) ;ost were used as slave
labourers and were flogged if they refused or could not work 3n some camps
they were used for medical experiments &eg at +uschwitz, 1r ;engele
experimented on twins) 5orkers were housed in cold, stark, insanitary
barracks +ll belongings were confiscated, hair removed and skin tattooed with
a number 2onfiscations were recycled They were given a small bowl for the
dual purpose of food vessel and a toilet They worked all daylight hours, in all
weather conditions 1iseases were rife or very common &egI pneumonia and
malnutrition) Lnce unfit to work they were Eexterminated= with the Eunfit=
The 46n1it5
The young, aged and lame, were taken to gas chambers expecting to be
deloused in a shower ?ellow @ews &kappos) were made to work these
chambers Barlier attempts to gas with exhaust fumes in lorries were
inefficient ** guards would pass canisters of Yyclon - &prussic acid) through a
gap in the chamber wall and as it was pierced, the gas entered the shower
room through Ewater= roses Lpened doors revealed a pyramid of tangled
corpses -odies were cremated Barlier mass graces had been used, but in
time corpses suppurated and the graves erupted +pproximately six million
@ews were exterminated in the <olocaust

E11e&ts o1 the Se&on# 3or"# 3$r on Ger$ny -9:;:-=I/
97 E&onoi&
.ermany had been rearming since #/8%, but with the outbreak of war conscription and output from
munitions &arms) factories increased +griculture was also part of the Ewar economy=: prime produce
was sent as victuals &supplies) to troops 5ith the increase in conscripted men, women and aged men
farmed and worked in factories, taught and ran hospitals +s .ermany began to lose the war, the <itler
!outh were employed, and by #/%', children were even conscripted to defend -erlin They also acted as
night watchmen during air raids
27 ,ro*$%$n#$
.oebbels made the most of >azi military successes before c#/%$, and <itler refused to accept defeat,
even in 4ussia, so the news of defeat at *talingrad &@anuary #/%8) shocked ordinary .ermans
"ropaganda had led them to believe they were still winning
;7 A""ie# Bo!in% o1 Ger$ny
Though E-omber 2ommand= had bombed .ermany from #/%$, the raids increased after @une #/%%, when
the second front was opened -erlin, <amburg and 1resden were key targets of the 4+? >ote the
following statistics:
3n @uly and +ugust #/%8, %,,,,, civilians were killed in <amburg
3n ?ebruary #/%', 1resden, an architectural masterpiece, was razed to the ground
#/8/0%' -ritish civilians killed in the blitz Q D',,,, #/8/0%' .erman civilians killed by
aerial bombardment Q D,,,,,,
-ombing raids weakened and strengthened the morale of .ermans "roud >azis were
certainly shocked at the devastation The .erman economy was also damaged Asually
-omber 2ommand aimed to destroy dams, railways and factories 3t seems the target in
1resden was people
=7 Resist$n&e
+s the .erman people became more aware of defeat &gradually after #/%8), more .ermans resisted
<itler, though the effect of propaganda made most people either too afraid to resist, or unable to
accept defeat @ews were largely passive and did not resist the >azis, but anti0*emitism,
totalitarianism and brutality from a government led by a common +ustrian, caused real resentment
among some intellectuals and @unkers ?or example, 2ount 6on ;olkte led a network of .ermans who
helped resistance movements in Burope, and helped rescue some @ews +ttempts were made by younger
offices to assassinate <itler, but these all failed
?or example in >ovember #/%8 at -erlin, <itler avoided a bomb plot by cancelling his visit to a factory
making new great coats for the 4ussian ?ront The best0known and nearly successful plot was:
The *tauffenburg "lot &@uly #/%%)
2ount 2olonel Flause 6on *tauffenburg plotted with other high0ranking officers
against <itler, at <itler=s -avarian <eadquarters &The 5olf=s :air) <itler was
meeting the chiefs of staff in a bunker *tauffenburg arrived with a briefcase,
with a bomb in it <e puts it under the table, then as planned, goes to receive a
phone call The suitcase is kicked under the table accidentally, before it goes
off, so the bomb went off at the wrong end of the table *tauffenburg says it is
a success, but <itler was not killed, only in9ured Lne naval officer was killed
*tauffenburg and two others were shot, others were rounded up and faced trial,
but were guilty to start with, the trial was meaningless The convicted were
taken to a place with meat hooks in the ceiling, and hung them with piano wire
<itler made a movie of this to discourage others
I7 Ger$ny5s 2in$" Co""$*se
+s A**4 approached .ermany from the east, .-IA*+ and 2anadian forces came from the west using
large amounts of artillery and tanks, with air cover <itler still believed &#'th @uly #/%%) that he could
win the war, so ordered a counter0attack in the +rdennes, which failed 3n this desperate plight the 2 in
2 gave the following order on /th ;arch #/%' EThe capital will be defended to the last man and the
last bulletZ for the successful defence of -erlinZ every building, every house, every floor, every hedge,
every shell, every crater, be defended to the utmost= -y #/th ;arch #/%', even <itler accepted
defeat, and he ordered that nay weapons that could be used by the enemy must be destroyed <is
forces in -erlin amounted to conscripted veterans and teenagers <itler and his wife committed suicide
in the ?Threrbunker &8,I%I%') +dmiral 1oenitz was named ?Threr
Hit"er5s Hen&hen i7e7 The C"ose Inner Cir&"e &"eople he Etrusted=)
Ru#o"1 Hess 1eputy ?Threr until #/%#, crashed his plane in *cotland on a peace mission <e suffered
from amnesia <e was tried at >uremberg, sentenced to life imprisonment at *pandau "rison, -erlin <e
died in #/CG in hospital 5e do not know whether is was heart failure or strangulation7 5as it even
<ess7
Jose1 Goe!!e"s7 "ropaganda chief from #/$/0#/%' <e committed suicide in #/%' in the fThrerbunker
<is wife committed suicide after poisoning her six children
Her$nn GFrin%7 <ead of the :uftwaffe <e was sentenced to execution, but committed suicide by
poisoning himself
Heinri&h Hi"er7 :eader of ** and .estapo <e committed suicide in #/%', by poisoning
Ernst Roh7 :eader of the *+ <e died 8,th @une #/8%, in the 4ohm "urge <e was shot by the **
<itler arrested him, shot his chauffeur, then shot him
Jo$&hi Von Ri!!entro*7 >azi foreign minister <e was hanged in #/%D
M$rtin Bor$n7 "arty chairman after #/%# <e disappeared <e may have gone to *outh +merica, or
have been killed in bomb raids
Reinh$r#t Hey#ri&h7 <immler=s deputy and in charge of -ohemia <e was assassinated in "rague in
#/%$ &$Gth ;ay, died on $/th)
E)$ Br$un7 ;istress and wife of <itler 2ommitted suicide in the bunker
The E11e&ts o1 N$@i Ru"e on Ger$ny
Youn% *eo*"e5s re$&tion to the N$@i re%ie
!oung people were among the most fanatical supporters of the >azi regime and the >azis had great
success in controlling them The >azis wanted to control young people because:
They would be the future fighters for <itler in his war effort
They would be loyal to <itler in any uprisings

The >azis used a range of methods to control young people:
3ndoctrination of >azi ideas
6iolence
<itler !outh ;ovement
<owever many young people in .ermany were enthusiastic about life under the >azi regime, especially
as they en9oyed leisure opportunities >ot all young people supported the regime, however .roups
that opposed the >azis were:
The E*wing= movement
The Bdelweiss "irates
These groups opposed the >azis because they resisted the >azi control of their lives 1ue to their
opposition, the >azis acted against them by hanging the ring leaders and breaking up meetings
8i# the Ger$n ,eo*"e Bene1it 1ro Hit"er5s Ru"eH
3t has been argued that if <itler had died in #/8CI/, he would have been hailed as the greatest .erman
leader of all time 2ertainly after #/8/, with the *econd 5orld 5ar and the ruination of .ermany, <itler
cannot receive the same praise
.overnment Anlike the 5eimar government, <itler=s government was strong ( it passed laws quickly
.ermany did not benefit from democracy <itler was a dictator and .ermany was totalitarian &Bnabling
+ct: $8I8I88) 2ensorship prevented freedom of speech because they believed that propaganda gave
people a biased view

+s the press published the positive side of .ermany, the morale of the people was boosted
-ut censorship and propaganda meant people had a distorted view of events This was bad in the long
run as the people were not informed about alternatives or the true state of events

The 9udiciary system and the law courts were known to be biased against the left wing, and in favour of
the right wing ( eg <itler=s trial &#/$8) The bias got worse &#/880%'), eg The -urning of the
4eichstag &#/88) and the *tauffenburg "lot &@uly #/%%)

5ith regards to the economy ( <itlerSs government reduced inflation and unemployment, eg the
building of the +utobahns <e tried to make .ermany self0sufficient ?oreign trade improved, eg
6olkswagen -ut women deprived of 9obs, which were given to men ;inorities lost their 9obs, eg the
@ews &>uremberg :aws, #/8D) The economic growth was wrecked by the burden of the war effort

<itler used the +rmed ?orces for much more than 9ust building an armyH The @unkers benefited from
rearmament Anemployment was reduced by conscription and the construction and working of
munitions factories
The 2atholic 2hurch and its followers were supposed to be protected by the 2oncordat with the "ope
&#/88), but in #/88 the 2oncordat was broken "rotestant ministers were also persecuted, eg pastor
>iemoller who was sent to +uschwitz "re9udice and intolerance were encouraged by propaganda, eg
against , .ypsies, *lavs, "oles and -lacks ?rom the onset of <itlerSs government until its downfall in
;ay #/%', the minority groups in .ermany were persecuted, eg the @ews were exterminated after
#/%# &The <olocaust)
The youth benefited from the <itler !outh ;ovement as they were encouraged to be healthy and fit
>arrow0minded youth resulted through propaganda and education 5omen, like men, benefited from
the effects of economic reform as they en9oyed more wealth in general 5omen depended on the
incomes of men for their wealth 5omen lost 9obs &#/880%#) then regained them as men were
conscripted 5omen were also sub9ect to sexist policies, eg medals for breeding ( gold cross for C
children

C$uses o1 the Se&on# 3or"# 3$r &<itler=s ?oreign "olicy)
a <itler=s +ims
To unite .erman speaking people &using >*1 which had been denied at the Treaty of 6ersailles
<e wanted lebensraum &living space) in order to gain autar=y &self0sufficiency)
<e wanted to dominate Burope and the 5orld
To achieve any of these aims would involve breaking the Treaty of 6ersailles, and this could lead to war
b The aggression of <itler=s +llies
3taly : ;ussolini wanted a ?ascist04oman empire in the ;editerranean and +frica &eg +byssinian
invasion in #/8')
@apan : @apan wanted a >ipponese empire in the "acific, extending into 2hina and +ustralia
&eg ;anchurian invasion in #/8#)
.ermany, 3taly and @apan were hostile to 2ommunism &A**4), and this way a cause of war and
vice versa &4ome0-erlin0Tokyo "act [ +xis ?orces)
c 1emocratic powers were passive
A*+ : 3solated
?rance : ?rance was unlikely, and reluctant, to intervene against .ermany, because she could
not rely on -ritain=s and +merica=s support
-ritain : -etween #/8% and #/8G, -ritain was sympathetic to .erman recovery -etween ;ay
#/8G and ;arch #/8/, -ritain appeased .ermany
These powers could have stopped ?ascist aggression earlier than #/8/
d The :eague of >ations failed to keep peace
*ee previous notes
e 2onclusion
5ar was caused by a combination of Ea= to Ed=, but <itler=s aims and actions were the main cause of
war
Re$sons 1or C$uses o1 3$r
The *econd 5orld 5ar was caused by ?ascist aggression and the failure of democratic powers to
stop this aggression
The rearmament of .ermany was a cause for war because it broke the Treaty of 6ersailles &$Cth
@une, #/#/)
The remilitarization of the 4hineland &Gth march, #/8D) was a cause of war because it broke the
Treaty of 6ersailles and the :ocarno "acts &#/$')
The 4ome0-erlin +xis &Lctober #/8D) was a cause of war because it united the aggressive fascist
powers and divided Burope into hostile camps
2hamberlain=s appeasement policy &after may #/8G ( ;arch #/8/) was a cause of war because it
broke the Treaty of 6ersailles and Treaty of *t .ermain &#,th *eptember, #/#/)
The +nschluss of .ermany with +ustria &#8th march, #/8C) was a cause of war because it broke
the Treaty of 6ersailles and Treaty of *t .ermain &#,th *eptember, #/#/)
The >azi annexation of the *udetenland after the ;unich conference &$/th *eptember #/8C) was
a cause of war, because it broke the Treaty of *t .ermain
The >azi occupation of 2zechoslovakia in ;arch #/8/, cause war because it defied the ;unich
agreement and ended -ritain=s appeasement policy
The >azi0*oviet "act &$/th +ugust #/8/) caused war because it sealed "oland=s downfall
The >azi invasion of "oland &#st *eptember #/8/) caused war because -ritain had guaranteed
"oland=s borders
C$uses o1 the Se&on# 3or"# 3$r '8etail,
Nine Ste*s to 3$r
# The 4earmament of .ermany
.erman rearmament began after <itler left #/8$0% .eneva 1isarmament 2onference, stating that as the
powers would not disarm to his level, he would rearm .ermany to their level -y #/8' rearmament was
well underway This involved conscription and munitions factories
4earmament alarmed the ?rench who, feeling insecure, reinforced the M$%inot "ine &built between #/$/
and #/8%) This was a line of steel and concrete fortifications stretching from -elgium to *witzerland
and was called Ea gate without a fence= because .ermany would be able to avoid it and invade ?rance
via -elgium ?rance remained passive without -ritain=s support
-ritain was sympathetic towards .ermany and even signed an An%"o Ger$n N$)$" Tre$ty &@une #/8')
allowing .ermany=s navy to be 8'W of the size of the 4oyal >avy <itler used his new found arms to
support ?ranco in the *panish 2ivil 5ar &#/8D0/) <itler sent the :uftwaffe &.erman +ir ?orce) to bomb
*panish 4oyal ?orces at .uernica on $Dth +pril, #/8G .uernica was leveled to the ground and ?ranco
went on to conquer the -asque areas of *pain <itler had used *pain as a practice ground to see how
strong his +ir ?orce was
$ The 4emilitarization of the 4hineland &#/8D)
<aving broken the Treaty of 6ersailles once, <itler risked doing it a second time by marching 8,,,,,
troops into 2ologne on Gth ;arch #/8D ?rance, with $',,,,, troops mobilized, remained passive
because -ritain would not support her -ritain took the view that .ermany was Emarching into her own
back yard= To show that his remilitarization was popular, <itler held a plebiscite, which showed that
/CCW were in favour <e went on to build his own defensive fortification, the Sie%1rie# 0ine
8 The 4ome -erlin +xis &Lctober #/8D)
Lriginally ;ussolini did not want to be <itler=s ally and in #/8' talks were held with -ritain and ?rance
at the Stres$ 2ront, but these came to nothing when -ritain threatened oil sanctions against ;ussolini
during the +byssinian crisis This caused the Roe-Ber"in ADis in #/8D ;ussolini and <itler
strengthened their alliance on two occasions:
a The +nti02ommintern "act &>ovember #/8G) with @apan
b The "act of *teel &;ay #/8/)
% -ritain=s policy of +ppeasement &;ayI@une #/8G ( ;arch #/8/)
&+ppeasement in #/8C0/ was to maintain peace at all costs, even when it meant giving <itler what he
wanted, knowing that they were sacrificing the independence of smaller nations) >eville 2hamberlain
became -ritish "rime ;inister on $Cth ;ay #/8G, and followed the policy of appeasing .ermany,
believing that all <itler wanted to do was unite .erman0speaking people 3n so doing, <itler would break
the Treaty of 6ersailles &$Cth @une #/#/) but 2hamberlain did not believe <itler would cause war
2hurchill disagreed, citing ;ein Fampf &#/$%) where <itler had written that .ermany must regain lands
Ein the Bast Z by the power of the sword= 2hamberlain had misinterpreted <itler=s aims &5e know this
because we have the obvious benefit of hindsight, ie we can look back on history and see what had
happened)
' The +nschluss with +ustria &#8th ;arch, #/8C)
+ustrian ?ascists wanted to unite with .ermany but *chuschnigg, the +ustrian 2hancellor, wanted
+ustria to be independent <e was unable to gain support from abroad &?rance and the :ittle Bntente)
so agreed to meet <itler in -erlin <e was persuaded to accept an +ustrian >azi supporter as ;inster of
the 3nterior 4iotingIviolent protests in 6ienna increased under the >azi=s leadership and *chuschnigg
resigned <itler was then invited to establish control in +ustria and on #8th ;arch, #/8C troops from
the 5ermacht &.erman +rmy) entered +ustria 3n a plebiscite on the Ans&h"uss a vote of //G'W in
favour was recorded This was Erigged= by biased questioning <itler made it seem that he had been
invited into +ustria, in fact he had incited the union
D <itler .ained the *udetenland &$/th *eptember, #/8C)
The *udetenland was lost by +ustria in the Treaty of *t .ermain &#,th *eptember #/#/) and hereby
2zechoslovakia gained 8 million .erman speaking people +fter the +nschluss the *udeten .erman
leader, Fonrad <enlein, demanded a union with .ermany Anable to receive help from ?rance, the
2zech "remier, -enes, mobilized alone ?earing war, 2hamberlain met <itler on three occasions at
-erchtesgaden, .odesburg and at ;unich
;unich +greement &$/th *eptember, #/8C)
This was signed by <itler, ;ussolini, 2hamberlain and 1aladier -enes was not
present 3t said:
<itler could take the *udetenland the following day without a plebiscite
<ungary and "oland could take border districts from 2zechoslovakia
-ritain and .ermany would never go to war
2hamberlain=s 4eaction
Ln his return to Bngland, 2hamberlain announced that he had gained Epeace
with honour, peace in our time= The ma9ority re9oiced, except 2hurchill
<itler=s 4eaction
3n public <itler seemed satisfied, but in private he exploded saying Ethat fellow
2hamberlain has spoiled my entry into "rague=
G The ?all of 2zechoslovakia &;arch #/8/)
3n ;arch #/8/, <itler forced :ithuania to give him ;emel where most people spoke .erman *o far
<itler had only taken .erman speaking territory, so 2hamberlain could still appease <itler <owever, in
;arch #/8/, <itler threatened to bomb "rague, so the 2zechs surrendered 2hamberlain realized
appeasement had failed, so he began to rearm -ritain and guarantee peace in "oland
C >azi0*oviet "act &$/th +ugust, #/8/) ( The 4ibbentrop0;olotov "act
-y the summer of #/8/, <itler=s plans to invade "oland were complete <e realized that to invade
"oland mighty cause -ritain to attack him from the 5est but he was more concerned to avoid a 4ussian
attack from the east Therefore to avoid a war on two fronts, he arranged the >azi0*oviet >on0
+ggression "act, which said that if either country went to war the other would remain neutral <itler
gained the chance to invade "oland with a war on one front, if -ritain supported "oland *talin of A**4
gained time to rearm in case <itler attacked him later, and the chance to gain the eastern half of
"oland This would provide the A**4 with a protective buffer zone
/ .erman 3nvasion of "oland &#st *eptember, #/8/)
.erman tanks invaded "oland on the #st *eptember #/8/ using blitzkrieg tactics &This is a lightning,
sudden attack co0ordinating air, then land forces) 2hamberlain sent an ultimatum &a warning with a
threat) saying that if <itler did not withdraw from "oland, -ritain would declare war Ln 8rd
*eptember, -ritain, followed by ?rance, declared war on .ermany
2auses of the *econd 5orld 5ar 0 6ocabulary
0e!ensr$u: living space, eg <itler=s aim to take land from bordering states to achieve self0
sufficiency &autarky)
Ans&h"uss: union, eg +ustria and .ermany &;arch, #/8C)
A**e$seent: to give into an aggressor little by little, in the hope of preventing war Bg -ritain
appeased .ermany &;ayI@une #/8G ( ;arch #/8/)
B"it@'rie%: lightning attack, co0ordinating air and land forces Bg .ermany=s attack on "oland &#st
*eptember #/8/)
Rei"it$ri@$tion: rearming and area, eg .ermany remilitarized the 4hineland &#/8D)
,"e!is&ite -re1eren#u/? a vote on an issue, eg <itler=s plebiscites on remilitarization and the
+nschluss of +ustria and .ermany &<itler fixed his referendums in #/8D and for the +nschluss in #/8C, so
no0one expected him to have a plebiscite for the *udetenland <e fixed them by biased questioning)
6"ti$tu: a warning with a threat, eg -ritain=s ultimatum for <itler to leave "oland by ##am on the
8rd *eptember #/8/
Bu11er @one: a protective barrier of land, eg Bastern "oland taken by the A**4 as protection against a
future .erman attack
Re$r$ent: manufacturing of weapons and conscription, eg .ermany &after #/8%), -ritain after the
taking of *udetenland
Aut$r'y: self0sufficiency economically, eg .ermany under <itler to enable the country to avoid
imports
A%%ression: hostile or violent action, eg .ermany was aggressive towards 2zechoslovakia &;arch,
#/8/) and "oland &#st *eptember, #/8/)
8i't$t: none0negotiated decisionIarrangement, eg The ;unich +greement, forced onto 2zechoslovakia
&#/8C)
,$ssi)e: to not take part in the action, eg -ritain and ?rance were passive towards the .erman
remilitarization of the 4hineland &;arch #/8D)
In&ite: devious planning, eg <itler incited the +nschluss &;arch, #/8C)
C$uses o1 the Se&on# 3or"# 3$r -Su$ry/ -:ong0and0short term, immediate causes)
0on% ter
a The h$rshness o1 the Tre$ty o1 Vers$i""es -2Gth June+ 9:9:/ on Ger$ny:
:and losses I 4eparations I 5ar .uilt
b The 1$i"ure o1 the 0e$%ue o1 the N$tions to:
Feep peace I -ring about disarmament
Short ter
a Hit"er5s $%%ression:
<is aims I <is actions &see steps to war: #,$,8,',D,G,C,/)
b The $%%ression o1 the other *o(ers:
3taly ( +byssinia &#/8'), 4ome0-erlin +xis, +nti02ommintern "act, +lbania
@apan ( ;anchuria &#/8#), +nti02ommintern "act &>ovember, #/8G)
4ussia ( >azi0*oviet "act, 3nvasion of "oland
c The #eo&r$&ies (ere too *$ssi)e
A*+ ( isolation
?rance ( would not do anything without -ritain=s support
-ritain ( sympathetic towards .ermany, eg +nglo0.erman >aval Treaty &#/8') and later appeased her
&;ayI@une #/8G ( ;arch #/8/)
Ie#i$te
a .erman invasion of "oland &#st *eptember, #/8/)
0000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000000
00000
C$uses o1 the Co"# 3$r
The ,e$&e Tre$ties $t the En# o1 3or"# 3$r T(o
*ome peace treaties were signed after the war had ended, but many of the real decisions had already
been made at two meetings in #/%' at !alta and "otsdam &NB7 Be1ore the ($r ($s o)erA) 1uring these
talks and at the "aris "eace 2onference &#/%D) a struggle developed between the 5estern powers and
4ussia to see who could gain certain Buropean ob9ectives before the other
# Y$"t$
a 3n ?ebruary #/%', 4oosevelt, 2hurchill and *talin met at !alta, in the 2rimea in 4ussia
b 3t was agreed that .ermany should be disarmed, demilitarised and divided into zones, to be
occupied by -ritain, A*+ and 4ussia &a ?rench zone was included later)
c -erlin was to be divided into zones as well and shared out amongst the above countries
&-erlin would be in the 4ussian zone) + 9oint 2ontrol 2ommission was set up to govern
-erlin
d *imilar arrangements were made for +ustria and 6ienna
e .ermany was to pay reparations Eto the greatest possible extent= of which half would go to
the *oviet Anion
f +rrangements were made to try war criminals
g 2ountries occupied by .ermany &including her allies) were to be free to elect their own
governments
h 3t was agreed that 4ussia should get eastern "olish territory
i "oland was promised .erman land to her west to compensate her, but 4oosevelt and
2hurchill refused to agree to *talin=s demand that "oland should get all .erman territory
east of the rivers Lder and >eisse
9 "oland was to gain 1anzig
k +s the 4ussians pushed the .ermans out of "oland they backed the establishment of a
communist government in :ublin &M:ublin "olesN), even though there was a "olish
government0in0exile in :ondon &M:ondon "olesN) <owever, *talin promised that :ondon
"oles would be included in the :ublin Egovernment= and that there would be free elections
l 3t was secretly agreed that 4ussia would enter the war against @apan
m + charter for the Anited >ations should be composed at a meeting in *an ?rancisco
$ ,ots#$
a 3n @uly #/%' Truman &A*+), +ttlee &-ritain) and *talin &A**4) met in a suburb of -erlin,
"otsdam
b The war with .ermany was over but no agreement was reached about her long0term future
beyond what had been decided at !alta &see !alta points -\2)
c The -ritish and +mericans were annoyed because .ermany west of the Lder0>eisse :ine had
been occupied by 4ussian troops and was being run by the pro02ommunist "olish
government
d The reparations question was raised again and each country was permitted to extract
reparations from its zone Lnly the A**4 took reparations
e 3t was agreed that .erman minorities were to be deported to .ermany
f Truman did not inform *talin about the nature of the atomic bomb, though the -ritish were
told about it during the conference The first bomb was dropped on <iroshima two days
after the conference had ended
g The war was ended without the need for 4ussian aid, and so did not take part in the
occupation of @apan
8 The ,$ris ,e$&e Con1eren&e+ 9:=6 &3>?L4;+T3L>)
a $# countries were represented, though the defeated countries were allowed little to say
b The talks were dominated by the ?oreign *ecretaries from the A*+, -ritain and the A**4,
represented by ;olotov There were many instances of friction between the 5est and the
A**4, especially as ;olotov=s actions were unpredictable
% The Ger$n $n# Austri$n ,e$&e Tre$ties &3>?L4;+T3L>)
a +ustria and 6ienna were divided into four zones, but unlike .ermany she was allowed her
own government, because she was seen not as a defeated country but as a state liberate
from the >azis
b The +ustrian government had limited powers and had a problem similar to that of .ermany,
the three western powers built up their zones and the A**4 insisted on squeezing
reparations from its zone, mainly in the form of food supplies
c 3t seemed that the A**4 was reluctant to make a permanent settlement but the 4ussians
became unexpectedly co0operative 3n ;ay #/'', a peace treaty was signed, possibly
because the 4ussians feared a merger between the western zones of .ermany and +ustria
d +ustria was to be a neutral country and was forbidden to unite with .ermany
e + peace treaty was never achieved with .ermany because of the continued division of that
country

Me$nin% o1 Co"# 3$r
+t the end of the *econd 5orld 5ar, relations between the A*+ and the A**4 deteriorated, especially
at "otsdam &@uly #/%') and "aris &#/%D) These two powers were rivals and the tension is called the 2old
5ar 3n Burope there was a little bloodshed but outside Burope there was more traditional warfare
&Forea, 2uba, 6ietnam) Therefore, we say that the 2old 5ar is a conflict of political ideologies, using
propaganda, the threat of weapons and build0up of arsenals, but never actual fighting
Ori%ins o1 the Co"# 3$r
# The 2old 5ar began as a result of suspicions that the democratic west had about the A**4 and vice
versa +fter #/%' the A**4 feared a 5estern invasion of her new satellites and the west feared the
spread of ;arxism
$ 4elations between the ma9or powers got worse at the end of the *econd 5orld 5ar This occurred
especially at !alta &?ebruary #/%'), "otsdam &@uly #/%') and "aris &#/%D) +t "aris, ;olotov refused
to accept the west=s ideas about not taking reparations and about wanting free elections in Bastern
Burope
8 .ermany was divided into four occupation zones:
-ritain &.ot the ruinsH)
?rance &.ot the wineH)
A*+ &.ot sceneryH 0 -avaria)
A**4 &.ained the lion=s share and surrounded -erlinH)
c 3n ?ebruary #/%G, peace treaties were signed with 3taly, ?inland, <ungary, 4omania and
-ulgaria >o treaty was signed with .ermany
% 3n #/%D, 2hurchill at ?oulton, ;issouri said:
EAn iron curtain is descending on !urope e.tending from "tettin in the north to Trieste in the
south.4
' Bconomic Lrigins Lfficial +merica anti0*oviet policy began with the Tru$n 8o&trine &;arch #/%G)
where +merican aid was offered to Buropean countries which bordered onto 2ommunist countries This
was extended by the M$rsh$"" ,"$n &@une #/%G) which offered aid outside Burope This was designed to
stop the spread of 2ommunism ( called CONTAINMENT This was officially the end of A* isolation from
#/#G ( #/%#
The A**4 set up Coin1or in *eptember #/%G, which *talin said was a news agency, but really it was a
means of M4ussifyingN the economic policies of the eastern bloc countries
3n @une #/%C, the three western powers united their zones with a new deutschmark This financial union
was the forerunner of a political union &8 zones Q 5est .ermany) *talin was upset about this because
he believed that this was the 5estSs attempt to make .ermany strong again and that in the future this
could be dangerous for the A**4
D The +rms 4ace The A**4 was annoyed not to know about +merica=s atom bomb &#/%') The A**4
gained the atom bomb in #/%/ and both sides began to stockpile arms
The Co"# 3$r Insi#e Euro*e
The ma9or powers often responded to each other in a tit for tat &M3f you can do it, then 3 am also going
to do itHN) fashion being mutually suspicious, defensive and aggressive
# 1ivision of .ermany &*ee map in your textbook)
This was mentioned at !alta &?ebruary #/%') and at "otsdam &@uly #/%') 3t was decided to
divide .ermany into four occupation zones:
-ritain I ?rance I A*+ I A**4
-erlin lies ##, miles within the 4ussian zone and it too was divided into four The powers 9ointly
controlled the city and administered their occupation zones from -erlin
-ritain, ?rance and the A*+ ran their zones on similar lines so that .ermany could recover The
A**4 however took away equipment &eg they dismantled factories and other buildings for their
building material) as reparations in kind *talin=s aim was to reduce his zone so that the people
there would eventually accept communism as a better alternative
3n #/%D and #/%G discussions were held about .erman unity, but ;olotov refused 5ith this
disagreement official +merican anti0*oviet "olicy began
$ 2ontainment
a The Truman 1octrine &;arch #/%G)
Truman outlined aid to be offered to countries in Burope that bordered onto communist
countries &ie *talin=s satellites could also apply for aid) .reece and Turkey received aid and
did not become communist
<e nearly got it right The metaphorical line that separates the communist east from the democratic
west should not end at Trieste, because although !ugoslavia was communist it was independent of the
A**4 &under Tito) The satellites states were: -ulgaria, <ungary, 4omania, "oland, +lbania,
2zechoslovakia and Bastern .ermany
b ;arshall "lan &@une #/%G)
;arshall extended aid to any country in the world 3n all, #D nations received A*
money by #/'#
8 The A**4=s 4esponses
*talin refused to let his satellites receive any aid
*talin set up 2ominform and 2omecon to control the policies and economies in the eastern bloc
To strengthen the A**4=s hold in Bastern Burope, the only none02ommunist country,
2zechoslovakia, was taken over in ?ebruary #/%C
% The 5est=s 4eaction &@une #/%C)
-ritain, +merica and ?rance introduced a new deutschmark to bring financial unity to their three zones
The A**4 was offended This led to the -erlin blockade &@une #/%C)
' -erlin blockade and airlift &@une #/%C ( ;ay #/%/)
The 4ussians struck at what they thought was the west=s weakest point and -erlin was vulnerable,
because it was surrounded on all sides by communists Ln the $$nd @une #/%C &in the night) the A**4
closed and then blocked all road, rail and canal transport into -erlin, and they withdrew from their 9oint
control of the city 3n time the 5est realized that the A**4 did not want direct warfare but wanted to
oust the 5est from -erlin by siege tactics *o, in spite of their desire to solve this problem militarily,
they decided to use different strategies
The -erlin +irlift or Lperation 6ictuals &6ictuals means supplies)
The 5est sent supplies by air, ie $I8 A* aircraft, #I8 4+? aircraft .oods
were landed every 8, seconds and the record for one day was #,%,, landings
They delivered food, clothing, medicines, drink and fuel, eg coal ( ',,,,
tonnes were delivered per day &total ( $8 million tonnes) The $ million 5est
-erliners accepted rationing and to increase their chances of survival they built
a new airfield and extended two others The airlift was very expensive ( the
amount of money spent is most likely exaggerated by 5estern propaganda
The siege ended in ;ay #/%/; one month after >+TL had been set up The
5est claimed a victory, but they knew that the A**4 could strike the same
blow on -erlin at any time in the future
D The 4esults of the -erlin blockade and +irlift
There were political, military and economic results for east and west
a "olitical ( .ermany is divided into two :
The 5est united its three zones as the ?ederal 4epublic of .ermany &-41)
The *oviets responded by naming their zone the .erman 1emocratic 4epublic
&114) The communists used Edemocratic= as propaganda
b ;ilitary &+pril #/%/) ( >+TL ( >orth +tlantic Treaty Lrganisation :
This was set up to bring military unity to the west 3t gave the A*+ the right to
base its troops in 5estern Burope 3ts membership included -ritain, A*+, ?rance, the
-B>B:AY countries, 2anada, 3celand, 1enmark, >orway, 3taly, "ortugal , .reece, Turkey
and in #/'' 5est .ermany also 9oined >+TL=s headquarters was known as *<+"B
&*upreme <eadquarters of +llied "owers in Burope) and it was based in "aris The
2ommander in 2harge &2 in 2) would always be an +merican >+TL was instantly
successful because the -erlin blockade was ended one month later 3n the long term it
was successful, because it achieved containment in Burope &stopped the spread of
2ommunism in Burope)
c Bconomic &@anuary #/%/)
-y forming 2omecon &2ouncil for ;utual Bconomic +ssistance) the A**4
centralized the economic polices of the satellites, eg their trade with the
A**4
d ;ilitary &#/'') ( 5arsaw "act
This was a belated response of the A**4 to >+TL 3t gave the A**4 the right
to base its troops in the satellite countries The "act was set up 9ust after 5est
.ermany 9oined >+TL
e ;ilitary ( The +rms 4ace
There was a steady build0up of arms: 3n #/%' the A*+ already had and used the atom bomb They
thought that it would take the *oviets at least another $, years to develop their own atom bomb
<owever, they were wrong as the A**4 had developed its own in #/%/ 3n #/'% the +mericans had the
<ydrogen bomb and G years later in #/D# the *oviet followed suit Lther weapons were built and
included in the arms race, this increasing the tension between the superpowers 0 Barly 5arning *ystems,
3nterception missiles, *tar wars &*atellite communication system) 3t is important to notice that all of
these are nuclear weapons 3n addition there was a steady build0up in the size of armies, constant
improvement in arms technology and a permanent effort to look for new allies
G Fhrushchev=s &Frushchev) ?oreign "olicy and its effect on the 2old 5ar
*talin died in #/'8, and Frushchev became sole ruler in #/'D ?rom #/'D, Frushchev followed the policy
of de0*talinization, in domestic policy 3n foreign policy he did two things
a 2o0existence with the 5est &The thaw in the 2old 5ar)
This meant that he wanted to agree to differ with the west To show goodwill
to the west he agreed to grant +ustrian unity This was in the #/'' +ustrian
*tate Treaty +ustria claimed neutrality in Burope
b <e offered more freedom to the *atellites
They took advantage of this, as can be seen in the <ungarian 2risis &#/'D)
C The <ungarian 4ising &#/'D)
:ong term causes:
>o traditional ties between <ungary and the A**4
<ungarians disliked the *oviet occupation at the end of the *econd 5orld 5ar
Bven some <ungarian communists were against the pro0*talinist regime in <ungary
The <ungarian 2ardinal was arrestedIimprisoned in #/%/ and 2atholics resented this
<ungarians resented *oviet control via 2omecon &@anuary #/%/) and the 5arsaw "act
&#/'')
*hort term causes:
<ungarians expected more freedom under Frushchev
The <ungarian 4ising [ +fter *talinSs death in #/'8 the ;oscow0controlled leader was
replaced in Lctober #/'D by >agy <e came to office with liberal reforms and
encouraged no totalitarianism, less trade with 2omecon, free trade with the 5est, a
free press The A**4 was alarmed at the initial signs of MindependenceN and *oviet
tanks entered -udapest >agy offered talks, but he made the mistake of saying <ungary
was like +ustria, and that it should leave the 5arsaw "act This was seen as a final
confirmation that <ungary wanted to break free Tanks attacked the city on %
th
>ovember #/'D Aniversity students took to the streets and demonstrated and toppled
the bronze statue of *talin >agy said this was a symbolic act, the rising was anti0*talin,
rather than anti0A**4
NB7 The 3est #i# nothin% to he"* Hun%$ry7
4esults :
+bout $,,,,, people were killed and $,,,,, more imprisoned +ccording to <ungarian
sources more than $,, thousand <ungarians went into internal exile
*oviet control was restored, and >agy was arrested and tried in 4omania, then shot <e
was replaced by Fadar
Frushchev=s policy with the satellites was failing
/ The -erlin 5all &not the -erlin -lockadeH)
Frushchev tried to get the 5est to recognise the 114 &Bast .ermany) <e met the A*+ on two occasions:
a "aris, #/D, &;eeting with "res 1wight Bisenhower)
The talks were wrecked by the A$ scandal
&A$Qspy plane with photographic equipment, which flies above the radar trap) .ary
"ower=s plane landed in the A**4, ;ay #/D,)
3n "aris Frushchev asked Bisenhower for an apology
Bisenhower refused &+nd this meant that the tension between the superpowers was
increased)
b 6ienna, #/D# &;eeting with "res @? Fennedy)
Frushchev wanted @?F to recognise the 114 and to arrange for the 5est to withdraw
from -erlin
Fennedy refused and later, on the $'th @uly, he made a speech about 5est -erlin:
E-erlinZis more than a showcase of liberty 3t is even more than a link
with the free world, a beacon of hope behind the iron curtain, and
escape hatch for refugees=
Frushchev retaliated on the #8th +ugust, #/D#, by building a %,km barbed wire fence
across -erlin
Telephone and postal links ceased between Bast and 5est -erlin
The fence became a wall with a crossing called 2heckpoint 2harlie
The -erlin 5all was built for two reasons:
A*+ would not recognise the 114
To stop the flow of refugees from Bastern Burope into the 5est via -erlin
-etween #/%C and #/D, the exodus amounted to $,,,,, people a month
&Bstimated total $CC million This is very likely 5estern propaganda) 3t wasn=t
9ust the quantity of people it was the quality, because Technocrats were
leaving 3n other words, Bast .ermany was losing all its professionals
5est -erliners protested and @?F sent his deputy to -erlin, :- @ohnson to -erlin who
guaranteed freedom for 5est -erliners
>othing else was done and the 5est -erliners felt betrayed &The wall did not come
down until #/C/)
The Co"# 3$r Outsi#e Euro*e
Two foreign policies affected the 2old 5ar outside Burope:
# The 2ommunist Bast
The *oviets wanted to spread ;arxism around the world, and *outheast +sia was a likely area for
conflict, because the A**4 and 2hina &led by ;ao Tse Tung after #/%/) bordered onto this area
$ The 5est
@ohn ?oster 1ulles, the A* *ecretary of *tate spoke of the E#oino theory5 which said that if one
country in *outheast +sia fell to 2ommunism, the others would follow
Jore$n 3$r -9:I0-9:I;/
'ee your textbooks and refer to the map showing the main e(ents of the )orean *ar (19+,$
19+-).
-ackground :
+t the start of the $,th 2entury, Forea was under 2hinese influence, but 4ussia and
@apan wanted to control it @apan wanted it as a base to attack 2hina from, and 4ussia
wanted it to protect its naval base at 6ladivostok
#/,%0': The 4usso @apanese 5ar &@apan defeated 4ussia) and the treaty gave @apan the
right to annex Forea This lasted until #/%'
#/%': +t "otsdam &@uly) it was decided to divide Forea at the 8Cth parallel, with the
intention of re0uniting it, after free elections The A**4 opposed the elections so the
>orth of Forea became 2ommunist under Fim 3: *ung, and the *outh was +merica=s ally
under 1r *yngman 4hee >orth Forea was slightly stronger, because it had some
industry +lso, the *outh Forean leader, although representing democracy and
capitalism was very corrupt *o much so, that his people demanded unification with the
communist >orth, because they saw that conditions were better there
#/%/: A*+ and A**4 pulled out of Forea and left two inchoate &under0developed)
governments The >orth invaded the *outh
The 5ar :
$'th @une #/', : >orth Forea crossed the 8Cth "arallel and invaded *outh Forea They
occupied *eoul, continuing across the rest of the south until only the area of "usan
remained threatened The +mericans sent a force from their naval base on @apan to
defend "usan ;eanwhile the A>L *ecurity 2ouncil met and used its military sanction
&This was achieved unanimously because the A**4 did not attend, as the A>L would not
recognize 2ommunist 2hina)
*eptember #/', : + A>L force of #D nations led by .eneral ;ac+rthur made an
amphibious attack at 3nchon ?rom here they relieved *eoul and caused the >orth
Foreans to fight a war on two fronts The >orth Foreans were pushed back to the 8Cth
parallel The A>L leader, Trygve :ie, allowed ;ac+rthur to go into >orth Forea to hold
free elections
;ac+rthur advanced 9ust south of the !alu river border with 2hina, capturing "yong
!ang and killing thousands +t this point, 2hina feared a none0;arxist neighbour in >orth
Forea, and after several warnings &3gnored by A*+), the 2ommunist 2hinese armies
invaded without declaring war
-y early #/'#, ;ac+rthur=s forces were south of the 8Cth "arallel, and *eoul had fallen
again, but the 2hinese had stretched their supply line, and were driven back to the 8Cth
parallel
;ac+rthur was not allowed to go into >orth Forea because the A>L said that 2hina was
not technically at war "resident Truman sacked ;ac+rthur, and this shows that the
A*+, and not the A>L, was dominating the war
"eacemaking &@une #/'# to @uly #/'8)
?or two years, fighting continued along the +rmistice :ine, near the 8Cth "arallel, while
peace talks were held at Faesong
The >orth Foreans and *outh Foreans argued over petty matters &eg seating
arrangements) trying to make time for one side to clinch a victory
$Gth @uly, #/'8: "eace was made at "anmun9on, which said that Forea should be divided
at the 8Cth parallel, the *outh friendly to the A*+, and the >orth friendly to the A**4
4esults :
There was no improvement on the #/%' position, except Forean agriculture and society
was wrecked 8' million people had been killed &futile war)
*ince #/'8 there have been no signs of unity
*eptember, #/%': *B+TL &*outh Bast +sian Treaty Lrganisation) was set up as a "acific
version of >+TL, which gave +merica the right to base their troops in: &-A""?+>T) (
-ritain, A*+, "hilippines, "akistan, ?rance, +ustralia, >ew Oealand, Thailand
3n #/G', *B+TL was disbanded, because some members left), eg ?rance
Cu!$n Missi"e B$se Crisis
3mportant I Fey 1ates:
#C/C 0 2uban 3ndependence from *pain
#/8% 0 2uban 3ndependence from A*+
#/'$ 0 -atista regime in power
#/'/ 0 ?idel 2astro in power
#/D#, @anuary 0 A*+ aid to 2uba ended
#/D#, +pril 0 +ttack at the -ay of "igs
#/D#, 1ecember 0 2astro admitted his government was ;arxist
#/D$, #Dth0$/th Lctober 0 2uban ;issile -ase 2risis
:ong Term 2auses
3n #C/C, 2uba gained independence from *pain, and thereafter, until #/8%, it was controlled by
the A*+, who invested in its economy &mainly sugar and tobacco)
?14 granted its independence in #/8%, and in #/'$, -atista came to power <e was right wing,
and so acceptable to the A*+, but he was idle, inefficient and cruel
"rofits dropped and the A* people with business interests complained
?rom #/'G, the A* supported the rise of a young &8,) 2uban lawyer, ?idel 2astro &born, #/$G),
who led a band of 8,, fighters called the $Dth of @uly ;ovement They helped him gain power in
@anuary #/'/
<e began to nationalize industry, collectivize farms and censor the press &This was in direct
imitation of *oviet 2ommunism)
The A*+ realized too late that they had sponsored a ;arxist with their investments and profits
on 2uba at risk +merican aid to 2uba ended in @anuary #/D#
2uban capitalists fled to the A*+ 3t was not until 1ecember #/D#, that 2astro admitted his
government was ;arxist -efore this he had been trying to get aid from both the A*+ and the
A**4
*hort Term 2ause &The -ay of "igs)
Bisenhower accepted the plan by a group of ex02uban nationalists to invade 2uba
They were led by @osU 2ardona and supported by the 23+ The +mericans feared the spread of
2ommunism into +merica
Ln the #Gth +pril #/D#, the groups landed in 2uba at the -ay of "igs, but they were completely
outnumbered and rounded up by 2astro=s forces
The whole affair had been a debacle for the 23+ They realized that, due to the success of the
2uban 4evolution, 2uban citizens were not going to betray their new government &They were
weary of a government like -atistaSsH) Fennedy, the new president, was embarrassed, and
denied his involvement This caused 2astro to make firmer links with the A**4
-Brin'$nshi*? The Cu!$n Missi"e B$se Crisis is $ %oo# eD$*"e o1 !rin'$nshi*+ !e&$use the 6SA
$n# the 6SSR *ushe# e$&h other to the !rin' o1 ($r+ then !$&'e# #o(n !e1ore ($r ($s #e&"$re#7/
The #/D$ 2risis
3n the summer of #/D$ 4ussian advisers visited 2uba, and agreed to build missile bases facing
?lorida The plan was for the missiles to be delivered to 2uba later &3t is now believed that
there were never any missiles on 2uba)
Lctober #/D$ 0 a A$ spy plane photographed the bases, but when asked, 2astro denied they
existed
$$nd Lctober ( @?F, with his photographic evidence, broadcast to the +merican nation that the
bases were a threat to national security, and he followed this by a naval blockade of the island
This was siege warfare and to prevent the A**4 making deliveries
Fhrushchev, the *oviet leader, offered a compromise that if the +mericans removed their
missile bases from Turkey &on the A**4 border), he would dismantle the bases on 2uba
Fennedy refused and gave the ultimatum that he would invade 2uba on the $/th Lctober, if the
missiles were not dismantled
Frushchev gave in on the $/th, and said he would remove the bases under A>L supervision
4esults :
A*+ and A**4=s relations improved
+ hot"ine &direct telephone link) between 5ashington and ;oscow was linked up
#/D8 ( The Test ban Treaty to stop the testing of nuclear devices in the air
The A*+ claimed a victory, with Fennedy as a hero Lthers were concerned that he could have
taken the world into a nuclear war
Fhrushchev never recovered from his humiliation, and was deposed in Lctober #/D%
2uba remained isolated until the #/G,s when it befriended 2hina
;arxism did not spread into +merica, apart from a short0lived regime in 2hile &until #/G8)



Bxam ]uestions &Taken from past 3.2*B examinations)
"apers # & % ]uestions
97 ?rance, .ermany and -elgium confirmed their boundaries as laid down in the Treaty of
6ersailles The 4hineland was confirmed as a demilitarized zone -ritain and 3taly 9oined in
guaranteeing these frontiers and the demilitarization
& summary of part of the .o"arno !reaties
&a) 5hat was the 1awes "lan7
&b) 3n the #/$,s the :eague of >ations promised peace 5hy, then, did countries still
make treaties with each other7
&c) 5as it the :ocarno Treaties which made Burope peaceful by then end of the #/$,s7
Bxplain your answer
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27 <ow important were the effects on international relations of @apanese expansionism in 2hina7
Bxplain your answer ^C_
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;7 Ln G
th
Lctober #/', +merican forces crossed the 8C
th
parallel into >orth Forea They were
taking the war into 2ommunist territory The new 2hinese 2ommunist government was worried by the
+merican advance 3f the +mericans controlled airfields in >orth Forea, they would be close enough to
bomb 2hinese factories and power stations
&a) 1escribe the events in #/', which led to the intervention of the A> in Forea
&b) 5hy did 2hina become involved in the Forean 5ar7
&c) 5as the intervention of the A> in Forea successful7 Bxplain your answer
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=7 "hoto: + A* >avy ship &in the foreground) alongside a *oviet freighter loaded with missiles for
2uba
&a) 5hat was the MThawN in relations between the A**4 and the A*+ between #/'D0D,7
&b) 5hy was there a crisis over 2uba in #/D$7
&c) <ow far was the improvement of relations between the two superpowers after #/D$
caused by the 2uban ;issile 2risis7 Bxplain your answer
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I7 There are certain tasks the :eague is expected to do 3t is expected to settle international
disputes peacefully, punish its members who go to war, and reduce armaments
&a) 1escribe the structure of the :eague of >ations
&b) 5hy did the :eague of >ations not give ;anchuria back to 2hina after #/8#7
&c) 3s it true that the :eague of >ations was a failure even before +dolf <itler came to power in
#/887 Bxplain your answer
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67 "hoto: + photograph from a -ritish newspaper showing 3talian troops fighting, #/8D
&a) 5hat actions were taken against 3taly by the :eague of >ations following the invasion of
+byssinia7
&b) 5hy did most countries condemn 3taly=s invasion and occupation of +byssinia7
&c) <ow important was the invasion of +byssinia for the :eague of >ations Bxplain your answer
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>7 +rticle %:
3n the event of an armed attack in Burope on one or more of the parties of the Treaty by any state of
group of states, each of the parties to the Treaty shall immediately come the assistance of the state or
states attacked
/rom the *arsaw !reaty of /riendship0 1o$operation and 2utual &ssistan"e0 signed by &lbania0
3ulgaria0 14e"hoslo(akia0 5ungary0 East Germany0 6oland0 Romania0 and the 'o(iet 7nion0 14 2ay
19++.
&a) 5hat arrangements were made by the +llies for the governing of .ermany after the defeat
of the >azis7
&b) 5hy was the ;arshall "lan introduced7
&c) <ow important were the >orth +tlantic Treaty Lrganization &>+TL) and the 5arsaw "act7
Bxplain your answer
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G7 "hoto of an A$ airplane
&a) 5hat did Fhrushchev do to improve relations with the A*+ and 5estern Burope between
#/''0D,7
&b) 5hy did relations between the A*+ and the A**4 become strained again in #/D,0#7
&c) 5as the 2uban ;issile 2risis of #/D$ brought about mainly by the actions of the A**47
Bxplain your answer
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:7 1iagram I Lrganigram of the :eague of >ations
&a) 1escribe the work of two of the agencies or commissions of the :eague of >ations
&b) 5hy was the :eague of >ations dominated by ?rance and -ritain7
&c) <ow far did the :eague of >ations achieve its aims in the #/$,s7 Bxplain your answer
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907 @apan has been, and is, a loyal supporter of the :eague, and hopes to remain so <owever,
@apan=s support will only continue if the :eague accepts our policy of preserving peace and order in the
?ar Bast
!he 8apanese representati(e at the .eague of 9ation0 speaking after the publi"ation of the .ytton
Report0 19-:.
&a) 5hat were the aims of @apanese foreign policy in the #/8,s7
&b) 5hy was the :ytton 4eport produced7
&c) <ow important were @apan=s attacks on 2hina in the #/8,s7 Bxplain your answer
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997 2artoon: + -ritish cartoon about the .erman invasion of "oland in #/8/ + bulldog represents
-ritain and it is growling at the .erman burglar
&a) 5hat was the policy of appeasement followed by -ritain and ?rance in the #/8,s7
&b) 5hy did -ritain and ?rance go to war against .ermany over "oland7
&c) <ow far had <itler achieved his aims in foreign policy by the end of #/8/7 Bxplain your
answer
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927 "hotos: +merican landing craft approach *outh Forea, #/', I 2heering crowds in -udapest,
<ungary as the 4ussians agree to move out, Lctober #/'D
&a) 1escribe how the Truman 1octrine was put into practice
&b) 5hy did the Anited >ations intervene in Forea in #/',7
&c) To what extent did the *oviet Anion increase its influence in the world between #/%' and
#/D,7 Bxplain your answer
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9;7 +s compensation for the destruction of the coal mines in northern ?rance and as part payment
towards the total reparations due from .ermany for the damage resulting from the war, .ermany gives
?rance control of the coal mines situated in the *aar basin
&n extra"t from the !reaty of ;ersailles.
&a) 5hat territorial terms of the Treaty of 6ersailles affected .ermany in Burope7
&b) 5hy did .ermans dislike the other terms of the 6ersailles Treaty7
&c) <ow far was the rise of the >azis to power the result of .erman dissatisfaction with the
terms of the Treaty of 6ersailles7 Bxplain your answer
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9=7 "hoto: + .erman military parade through the streets of -erlin at the time of the -erlin Llympic
.ames, +ugust, #/8D
&a) 3n what ways did <itler try to give the impression that .ermany was a great country7
&b) 5hy did the >azis persecute minorities in .ermany in the #/8,s7
&c) <ow successful had <itler=s domestic policies been by #/8/7 Bxplain your answer
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9I7 5hat use could be made of the Treaty of 6ersaillesH Bach one of the points of that treaty could
be branded on the hearts and minds of the .erman people until D, million men and women are aflame
with rage and shame
&dolf 5itler writing in 2ein )ampf%0 19:4.
&a) 3n relation to the peace settlement of #/#/0$,, what was meant by mandates and
plebiscites7
&b) 5hy was the Treaty of 6ersailles severe on .ermany7
&c) <ow far had .ermans accepted the terms of the Treaty of 6ersailles by the end of #/$87
Bxplain your answer
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967 "hoto: Bnthusiastic 6iennese demonstrate in favour of the +nschluss, #$ ;arch #/8C
&a) 1escribe the events of #/8C which led to +nschluss
&b) 5hy did -ritian and ?rance permit the +nschluss7
&c) 5ere <itler=s policies towards +ustria and 2zechoslovakia in #/8C0/ completely successful7
Bxplain your answer
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9>7 2artoon: +n +merican cartoon showing the ;arshall "lan giving help to Burope
&a) 1escribe how "oland and 2zechoslovakia became 2ommunist0controlled as a result of the
*econd 5orld 5ar
&b) 5hy did the wartime unity of the +llies break down in #/%'0G7
&c) 5hich country had the more successful policies in Burope between #/%' and #/%/ ( the A*+
or the A**47 Bxplain your answer
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9G7 M.orbachev=s visit to Bast .ermany encouraged protests against the deeply unpopular
2ommunist regime +t a torchlight parade down the Anter den :inden in Bast -erlin a crowd of
thousands to everyone=s surprise broke into chants of E.orby, .orby, .orby, save us= 3n an
extraordinary turnabout, a *oviet leader was now hailed by Bastern Buropeans as a saviour from the
their own government=s tyrannyN
& des"ription of Gorba"he(%s (isit to East 3erlin in <"tober 19=9.
&a) 5hat was .lasnost7
&b) 5hy was *olidarity formed in "oland in #/C,7
&c) <ow far was the collapse of *oviet 2ommunism due to the reforms of .orbachev7 Bxplain
your answer
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9:7 M*tresemann was ?oreign ;inister of the 5eimar 4epublic from #/$8 to his death in #/$/ <e
guided the return of .ermany to international status <e supported closer relations with the 5estern
"owers 3n #/$D he shared the >obel "eace "rize with -riand of ?rance <itler, however, regarded
*tresemann as a traitor to the .erman causeN
&a) 5hat was the ;unich "utsch7
&b) 5hy was *tresemann=s foreign policy a success7
&c) <ow far had 5eimar .ermany recovered from its earlier problems by #/$/7 Bxplain your
answer
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207 "hoto: "olitical prisoners at the Lranienburg concentration camp
&a) 5hat was a >azi concentration camp7
&b) 5hy did the >azis introduce the E?inal *olution=7
&c) To what extent did .ermans turn against <itler during the course of the *econd 5orld 5ar7
Bxplain your answer
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297 The :eague may be a difficult scheme to work, but the significant thing is that the "owers have
promised to make it work ;ankind has, in the short space of ten years, 9umped from the old order to
the new 5e are witnessing one of the great miracles of history
/rom a spee"h made in 19-,.
&a) 1escribe two successes the :eague of >ations had in the #/$,s in solving disputes
&b) 5hy was the :eague of >ations quite successful in the first ten years of its existence7
&c) EThe good work of the :eague was destroyed by the 1epression of the #/8,s= 1o you agree7
Bxplain your answer
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227 "hoto: +n +byssinian village bombed by 3talian aircraft in the invasion of #/8D
&a) 1escribe the attacks that @apan made on 2hina in the #/8,s
&b) 5hy was 3taly able to defeat the +byssinians7
&c) <ow important for events in Burope were <itler=s pacts with 3taly and @apan7 Bxplain your
answer
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2;7 "hoto: The execution of a 6ietcong suspect during the Tet Lffensive, #/DC
&a) 5ho were the 6ietcong and what part did they play in the 6ietnam 5ar7
&b) 5hy did involvement in the war become increasingly unpopular in the A*+7
&c) <ow successful was A* policy towards 6ietnam in the period #/D80G'7 Bxplain your answer
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2=7 "hoto: + ?reikorps unit in ;unich, ;ay #/#/
&a) 1escribe the activities of the ?reikorps in .ermany, #/#/0$,
&b) 5hy were there so many uprisings and disturbances in .ermany in the years #/#/0$$7
&c) <ow far was .ermany=s treatment in the 6ersailles peace settlement unfair7 Bxplain your
answer
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2I7 + @ew may not be a citizen of the 4eich <e has no vote <e may not fill public office
;arriages between @ews and nationals of .erman or similar blood are forbidden
Extra"t from the 9uremburg .aws0 'eptember0 19-+.
&a) 1escribe the treatment of the @ews in >azi .ermany from #/8'
&b) 5hy were the @ews persecuted by the >azis7
&c) -y the end of the #/8,s, did <itler rule .ermany by oppression or by popular support7
Bxplain your answer
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26 +rticle #D: *hould any member of the :eague resort to war, it shall be regarded as having
committed an act of war against all other members of the :eague, and this will end immediately all
trade and financial relations with that member
/rom the 1o(enant of the .eague of 9ations.
&a) <ow did the :eague of >ations hope to prevent future wars between nations7
&b) 5hy did the :eague of >ations fail to restrict the aggression of @apan in the #/8,s7
&c) <ow far was the :eague of >ations a failure7 Bxplain your answer
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2>7 M3 now have to inform the <ouse that in the event of any action which clearly threatened "olish
independence and which the "olish .overnment accordingly considered it vital to resist with their
armed forces, <is ;a9esty=s .overnment would feel themselves bound at once to lend the "olish
.overnment an assurance to this effectN
9e(ille 1hamberlain speaking in the 5ouse of 1ommons0 -1 2ar"h 19-9.
&a) 5hen <itler cam to power, what did he hope to achieve in foreign policy7
&b) 5hy did -ritain go to war over "oland in #/8/7
&c) <ow far was the Treaty of 6ersailles to blame for the outbreak of war in #/8/7 Bxplain your
answer
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2G7 M?rom *tettin to Trieste on the +driatic, an iron curtain has descended across the continent
-ehind that line lie all the capitals of the ancient states of 2entral and Bastern Burope ( 5arsaw,
"rague, 6ienna, -udapest, -elgrade, -ucharest and *ofia +ll these famous cities and the population
around them lie in the *oviet sphere and are sub9ect, not only to *oviet influence, but to a very high
and increasing measure of control from ;oscowN
*inston 1hur"hill speaking in /ultom0 2issouri0 7'& in 194>.
&a) 5hat was decided at the !alta 2onference7
&b) 5hy was Bastern Burope largely in the hands of the A**4 by #/%D7
&c) ELnly *talin of the +llies achieved what he wanted as a result of the war with .ermany= 1o
you agree7 Bxplain your answer
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2:7 ;ap: The 2uban ;issile 2risis
&a) 1escribe the -ay of "igs incident
&b) 5hy did the A**4 install missile bases in 2uba7
&c) EThe 2uban ;issile 2risis was not as serious as it appeared at the time= 1o you agree7
Bxplain your answer
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;07 +s soon as 3 received my salary, 3 rushed out to buy the daily necessities ;y daily salary, as
editor of a magazine, was 9ust enough to buy one loaf of bread and a small piece of cheese +n
acquaintance of mine, a clergyman, came to -erlin from a suburb with his monthly salary to buy a pair
of shoes for his baby -y the time he arrived, he could only afford to buy a cup of coffee
!he re"olle"tions of a woman who li(ed in 3erlin during 19:-.
&a) 1escribe the effects of the hyperinflation of #/$8 on the lives of .erman people
&b) 5hy did ?rance and -elgium occupy the 4uhr in #/$87
&c) <ow far did *tresemann restore pride and prosperity to .ermany7 Bxplain your answer
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;97 The 4eich "ress :aw of % Lctober #/88 ordered that all editors had to be .erman citizens of
+ryan descent, and not married to a @ew They had to keep out of their newspapers Eanything which in
any manner is misleading to the public, tends to weaken the strength of the .erman 4eich, or offends
the honour and dignity of .ermany=
&a) 5hat was the Bnabling :aw &+ct) of #/887
&b) 5hy did <itler seek to control all forms of the media7
&c) <ow far had <itler=s policies gained the support of the .erman people by #/8/7 Bxplain
your answer
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;27 :ook at the statistics, and then answer the questions which follow
1ec #/#% %
1ec #/#/ /
>ov #/$# G,
@an #/$$ #/$
+ug #/$$ #,,,,
@an #/$8 #C,,,,
@ul #/$8 #D,,,,,
+ug #/$8 #,,,,,,,,
>ov #/$8 %,$,,,,,,,,,,
German 2arks needed to one 7' dollar%s worth of goods.
&a) 1escribe the effects of hyper0inflation in .ermany in #/$8
&b) 5hy did hyper0inflation occur in .ermany in #/$87
&c) <ow far was *tresemann responsible for .erman recovery from #/$8 to #/$/7 Bxplain your
answer
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;;7 3 am beginning to understand some of the reasons for <itler=s amazing success <e is restoring
glory and colour to the lives of $,
th
century .ermans This morning=s meeting was more than 9ust a
colorful show There was a hush over the 8,,,,, people packed into the hall <e walked slowly down
the centre aisle while 8,,,,, hands were raised in salute 3n such an atmosphere no wonder that every
word <itler spoke seemed like a message sent from .od
/rom the diary of a German0 'eptember 19-4.
&a) 5hat were the >uremberg :aws &#/8')7
&b) 5hy were @ews persecuted in >azi .ermany7
&c) EThe main reason the >azis were popular was their anti0@ewish policy= 1o you agree7
Bxplain your answer
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;=7 *tudy the sources, and then answer the questions which follow
*ource +
Today in the <all of ;irrors of 6ersailles the disgraceful Treaty is being signed 1L not forget itH
.ermany will press forward to reconquer its proper place among nations Then will come revenge for
the shame of #/#/
/rom a German newspaper on the day of signing of the !reaty of ;ersailles.
*ource -
@uly #/$# 8
@uly #/$$ /
@uly #/$8 $$,',,
*eptember #/$8 #,,8G,,,,,
>ovember #/$8 %G,,,,,,,,,,,,,
!he pri"e of a loaf of bread in German 2arks0 19:1$-.
&a) *tudy *ource + 5hat can you tell from this source about .erman attitudes to the Treaty of
6ersailles7 *upport your answer with reference to the source
&b) *tudy *ource - <ow far does this source show that inflation was a ma9or problem in
.ermany between #/$# and #/$87 Bxplain your answer
&c) *tudy both sources <ow useful are these sources as evidence about the problems that
.ermany faces after #/#/7 Bxplain your answer
&d) 5hy did the government have difficulty controlling the outbreaks of violence that occurred
between #/#/0$87
&e) <ow successfully did *tresemann overcome .ermany=s economic problems between #/$80$/7
Bxplain your answer
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;I7 *tudy the sources, and then answer the questions which follow
*ource +
The new ;inistry of "ropaganda Bnlightenment has no other aim than to unite the nation behind the
ideal of the national revolution 3f this aim has been achieved then the people can 9udge my methods if
they wish: that would be unimportant, for the ;inistry would then have achieved its goal
@ospeh Goebbels speaking in 19--.
*ource -
1uring the #/8,s, 3 myself was to learn how easily one is taken in by an untruthful and censored press
and radio in a totalitarian state Though, unlike most .ermans, 3 was able to read foreign newspapers
every day and listened regularly to foreign broadcasts, my 9ob meant the spending of many hours a day
in reading through the .erman press, checking the .erman radio, consulting with >azi officials and
going to party meeting 3t was worrying to find that a steady diet of bias and lies made an impression
on one=s mind and often misled it 3t is difficult to escape the results of continuous propaganda
*illiam 'hirer0 an &meri"an ?ournalist0 writing in 19+9. 'hirer had li(ed in Germany during the 19-,s.
&a) *tudy *ource + 5hat can you tell from this source about .oebbels= attitude towards
propaganda7 *upport your answer with reference to the source
&b) *tudy *ource - <ow far does this source show that *hirer was impressed by >azi
propaganda7 Bxplain your answer
&c) *tudy both sources 3s one of these sources more useful than the other as evidence on how
the >azis controlled the .erman people7 Bxplain your answer
&d) >ame two media that .oebbels promoted using propaganda
&e) <ow did the >azis use education to spread their ideas7
&f) 5hy were the >uremberg rallies effective7
&g) 5as propaganda a more effective way of keeping the support of the .erman people than
terror7 Bxplain your answer
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;67 *tudy the extract, and then answer the questions which follow:
5e want a peace which will be 9ust 5e want a stern peace because the occasion demands it, but the
severity must not be for vengeance, but for 9ustice +bove all we want to protect the future against a
repetition of the horrors of this war
.loyd George speaking about the 6aris 6ea"e 1onferen"e.
a) 1escribe what 2lemenceau and :loyd .eorge each wanted to achieve in the peace settlement of
#/#/0$,
b) 5hy did the Treaty of 6ersailles cause problems for .ermany in the years up to #/$87
c) 5as the Treaty of 6ersailles fair7 Bxplain your answer
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;>7 *tudy the cartoon &Ancle *am leaning against a keystone, missing from the :eague of >ations
bridge)
a) 5hat were the aims of the :eague of >ations7
b) 5hy did the :eague of >ations have some successes during the #/$,`s7
c) <ow far can the failure of the :eague of >ations in the #/8,s be blamed on the .reat 1epression7
Bxplain your answer
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;G7 *tudy the extract, and then answer the questions which follow
The -erlin 5all is an open attempt to remove the right to free movement throughout the city, in direct
opposition to the ?our "ower agreement reached in "aris on $, @une #/%/
@ean Rusk0 7' 'e"retary of 'tate0 speaking in &ugust 19>1.
a) 1escribe how the -erlin 5all affected the people living in -erlin
b) 5hy was the -erlin 5all built7
c) <ow far can the decline of *oviet power in Bastern Burope be blamed on the *olidarity movement7
Bxplain your answer
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;:7 *tudy the extract, and then answer the questions which follow
3t was a beautiful autumn evening, the height of the crisis, and 3 went out into the garden into the open
air to smell it, because 3 thought it was the last *aturday 3 would ever see
& "lose ad(iser of 6resident )ennedy talking about the e(ening of :A <"tober 19>:.
a) 1escribe relations between 2uba and the A*+ in the period #/'/0#/D#
b) 5hy was the A*+ concerned about *oviet missiles in 2uba7
c) Fhrushchev claimed that the 2uban ;issile 2risis was a victory for the *oviet Anion 1o you agree
with this view7 Bxplain your answer
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=07 *tudy the extract, and then answer the questions which follow
5e demand the union of all .ermans in .reater .ermany
+ll citizens shall have equal rights and duties
Extra"ts from the 9a4i 6arty 6rogramme0 19:,.
a) 1escribe the ideas and policies of the >azi "arty in the #/$,s
b) Bxplain why the >azi "arty had little success before #/8,
c) MThe effects of the 5all *treet 2rash provided the main reason why <itler was able to become
2hancellor of .ermany by #/88N 1o you agree with this statement7 Bxplain your answer
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=97 *tudy the photograph, and then answer the questions which follow &"hoto depicting thousand
of .erman men ready to work on the first highway or autobahn in #/88)
a) 1escribe the actions taken by <itler to reduce unemployment
b) 5hy did the >azis discourage women from going out to work7
c) <ow total was the control the >azis had over the .erman people before #/8/7 Bxplain your answer
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=27 *tudy the sources, and then answer the questions which follow
*ource +
-illion mark notes were passed on quickly because tomorrow one would no longer pay in notes but in
bundles of notes Lne afternoon 3 rang +unt :ouise`s doorbell The door was opened slightly ?rom the
dark cam a distressed voice: M3`ve used sixty billion marks worth of gas ;y milk bill is one million -ut
all 3 have left is two thousand marks 3 don`t understand what is happening any moreN
/rom the autobiography of a German who li(ed through the hyperinflation of 19:-.
*ource -
The causes of hyperinflation were complicated but the .ermans did not see it that way They blamed
the reparations of the 5eimar 4epublic which had accepted reparations and was the government in
power during the chaos of #/$8 ;any middle0class .ermans never forgave the 4epublic for the harm
they believed it had done to them
/rom a 3ritish textbook0 199:.
a) *tudy *ource + 5hat can you tell from this source about the impact of hyperinflation on .erman
people7 *upport your answer with reference to the source
b) *tudy *ource - <ow far does this source show that the 5eimar government was to blame for the
hyperinflation7 Bxplain your answer
c) *tudy both sources 3s one the sources more useful than the other as evidence about the
hyperinflation7 Bxplain your answer
d) 5hat were reparations7
e) 1escribe how *tresemann brought the #/$8 crisis to an end
f) 5hy did the >azis stage a putsch in ;unich in >ovember #/$87
g) M3t was +merican loans rather than *tresemann`s policies that enabled .ermany to recover from the
disasters of #/$8N 1o you agree7 Bxplain your answer
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=;7 *tudy the extract, and then answer the questions which follow
3f the :eague had extended economic sanction on oil 3 would have had to withdraw from +byssinia
within a week
2ussolini speaking after his su""essful "onBuest of &byssinia.
a) 1escribe the successes of the :eague of >ations in the #/$,s
b) 5hy did the :eague fail to deal with @apanese aggression against ;anchuria7
c) M3t was the +byssinian crisis that destroyed the :eague of >ations as an effective peacekeeping
bodyN <ow far do you agree with this statement7 Bxplain your answer
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==7 *tudy the cartoon, and then answer the questions which follow &+ -ritish cartoon about the re0
militarization of the 4hineland in #/8D 3t shows a goose, dressed up as a >azi soldier with many
weapons, stepping on the :ocarno Treaty)
a) 1escribe the events in the *aar in #/8'
b) 5hy did -ritain and ?rance allow .ermany to re0militarize the 4hineland in #/8D7
c) M<itler`s desire for lebensraum was the most important reason for the outbreak of war in #/8/N
<ow far do you agree with this statement7 Bxplain your answer
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=I7 *tudy the extract, and then answer the questions which follow
5e must fight this war if we are to live in a world where every country can shape its own future 5e
are in 6ietnam because we have a promise to keep Lver the years we have made a national pledge to
help *outh 6ietnam defend its independence
6resident 8ohnson speaking to the &meri"an people in 19>+.
a) 5ho were the 6ietcong7
b) 5hy did the A*+ get involved in the war in 6ietnam7
c) <ow far can the +merican withdrawal from 6ietnam be blamed on military failure7 Bxplain your
answer
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=6 *tudy the extract, and then answer the questions which follow
The rule of the working class means real democracy 3t means the use of power to get rid of middle and
upper class people 3t means the smashing of the ruling classes with all the brutality that the working
class can develop
Rosa .uxemburg in late 191=.
a) 5ho were the *partacists7
b) 5hy did many .ermans hate the Treaty of 6ersailles7
c) To what extent did the 5eimar 4epublic recover after #/$87 Bxplain your answer
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=>7 *tudy the sources, and then answer the questions which follow:
*ource +
5e stilll know little about the dreadful events of 8, @une 5e only know that men whom <itler
constantly praised are dead 5e are told that they are now dead because they were involved in a
conspiracy -ut so far no evidence has been produced to prove this conspiracy
& 3ritish newspaper arti"le0 19-4.
*ource -
5ithout telling me, 4ohm made a plan with .eneral von *chleicher that the present regiime in .ermany
could not be continued; that the army and navy must be combined and that 4ohm ws the man for this
post 3 decided to put an end to this plan Therefore, 3 decided to dismiss 4ohm, to arrest him and a
number of *+ leader 3 gave orders to shoot those that were guilty of treason Bveryone will know in
future that treachery towards the state will end in certain death
5itler%s spee"h to the Rei"hstag0 1- 8uly 19-4.
a) *tudy *ource + 5hat can you tell from this source about the >ight of the :ong Fnives7 *upport your
answer with reference to the source
b) *tudy *ource - <ow far does this source show the extent of opposition to <itler7 Bxplain your
answer
c) *tudy both sources 3s one of these sources more useful than the other as evidence about <itler`s
leadership7 Bxplain your answer
d) .ive two features of the >azi totalitarian state
e) 5hat were the >uremberg rallies7
f) 5hy did <itler want to gain support of .ermany=s youth7
g) <ow far did <itler use unlawful methods to achieve power in #/8808%7 Bxplain your answer