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P. 33
Sprinkler Irrigation 2011 Complete
Sprinkler Irrigation 2011 Complete
Ratings: (0)|Views: 1,519 |Likes: 32
Published by mosne1
TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATION OF SPRINKLER IRRIGATION, PRESSURIZED
IRRIGATION, IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY, DISTRIBUTION UNIFORMITY, HEAD
LOSSES IN WATER FLOW IN PIPES AND ACCESSORIES, FILTRATION,
FERTIGATION, FLOW-RATE - PRESSURE RELATIONSHIP, SYSTEM DESIGN,
IRRIGATION SCHEDULING, SYSTEM MAINTENANCE, PIPES AND TUBES FOR...
TECHNOLOGY AND APPLICATION OF SPRINKLER IRRIGATION, PRESSURIZED
IRRIGATION, IRRIGATION EFFICIENCY, DISTRIBUTION UNIFORMITY, HEAD
LOSSES IN WATER FLOW IN PIPES AND ACCESSORIES, FILTRATION,
FERTIGATION, FLOW-RATE - PRESSURE RELATIONSHIP, SYSTEM DESIGN,
IRRIGATION SCHEDULING, SYSTEM MAINTENANCE, PIPES AND TUBES FOR
IRRIGATION, CONTROL AND AUTOMATION. SOIL MOISTURE MOMITORING
More info:
Categories:Types, Books - Non-fiction
Published by: mosne1 on Nov 28, 2011
Copyright:Attribution Non-commercial
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SP
RI
NK
LE
R
IR
RI
GA
TI
ON
TECH
NOLO
GY
AND
APPL
ICATI
ON
Moshe
SneIrriga
tion and
Plant
Nutrition
Consulta
nt2011
I
FOREWORD

Ten years ago
I had
composed in
cooperation
with the late
Elimelech
Sapir the
bookletSprinkl
er Irrigation.
The publication
was used as a
textbook in
courses on
irrigationorgani
zed by the
Israeli Ministry
of Foreign
Affairs, The
Centre for
InternationalCo
operation
(Mashav),
through its
agricultural
aegis The
Centre for
InternationalAg
ricultural
Development
Cooperation
(CINADCO), of
the Israeli
Ministry of
Agricultureand
Rural
Development.T
he courses
were carried-
out in Israel
and abroad for
farmers,
extension
workers
andpolicy
makers in the
field of
irrigation and
water
management.
They were
designated
forbeginners
and first time
users of
pressurized
irrigation.
Elucidation of
the
theoreticalconc
epts was
simplified to
correspond
with course
participants'
requirements.I
n the last
decade,
irrigation
technologies
became more
advanced and
more
sophisicated,p
erceptions and
attitudes were
changed, so
updating this
publication had
been
essential.The
booklet covers
the technology
and theory of
sprinkler
irrigation. In
addition
toconventional
sprinkler
irrigation, two
derivative
technologies
are dealt
micro-
irrigationand
mechanized
irrigation.
Micro-irrigation
employs micro
emitters of low
volume
waterdischarge
with two
patterns of
water
distribution:a.
Water is
distributed
through the
air.b. Water is
delivered
directly to the
soil from
drippers and
bubblers.The
booklet relates
only to those
emitters that
spread the
water through
the air,drippers
and bubblers
are
excluded.The
mechanized
irrigation
stemmed from
sprinkler
irrigation. In its
first
generation,
theemitters
were solely
impact
sprinklers.
Later-on it
shifted to using
micro-emitters
operatingat low
working
pressure. This
technology is
gaining
momentum all
over the world.
For thatreason
it is covered
with much
more detail
than in the first
edition.The
manuscript
emphasizes
the practical
aspects of
sprinkler
irrigation. The
moreadvanced
reader may
refer to the
extensive
literature
dealing with
the
subject.Relate
d publications
are listed in the
References
and
Bibliography
list at the end
of thebooklet.I
have chosen to
distribute the
new
publication by
the Scribd
network with
the hope
thatusers of
the old version
can update
themselves.Mo
she Sne
II
TABLE OF
CONTENT
S
TOPIC
PaeForword
ITable of
Contents
IIList of
Tables IXList
of Figures XI
1.
INTRODUCT
ION

1
Overview
. 1Surface
Irriation

2Surface
Irrigation
Methods
..
2Advanced
Technologies
... 3
2.
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
4
Introduction
.
4Advantages
.
.
4Disadvantage
s and
Limitations
...
4Definitions
.
.. 5Nominal
Pipe Diameter
6Sprinkler
Types
...
6Sprinkler
Classification
7The Jet
Angle
...
13Sprinkler
Flow-rate
..
14Working
Pressure
(Head)
.
14Sprinkler
Spacing,
Selection and
Operation
... 14
3. MICRO-
EMITTERS
16
Introduction
.
16Micro-
emitter types
.17Stati
c Micro-
emitters
(Micro-jets)
...
17Micro-
sprinklers
...
18Micro-
sprinkler
Types
. 19Emitter
Mounting

20Water
Distribution
Patterns
. 21Pressure
Compensation
... 22
III
4. THE
IRRIGATION
SYSTEM 23
The Pumping
Unit
...
23Pump
Performance
Terminology
.
24Pump Types
..
25Suction Lift
of a Pipe
... 26Kinetic
Pumps
..
27Installation
of Vertical
Turbine Pumps

31Submersible
Pumps
.. 31Pump
Stages
.
32Solar water
Pumps and
Solar Water
Pumping
Systems
... 33Variable
speed drives
...
33Selecting an
Efficient
Pumping Plant
..
34Maintaining
Irrigation
System
Efficiency

34The
Pumping Unit
Efficiency
..
35Cavitation
.
37Pump
Curves

37Pump and
Well Testing
39
5. PIPES AND
ACCESSORI
ES 40
Introduction
.
40Pipe
Materials
..
40Iron, Steel
and Copper
..
40Aluminum
.
41Asbestos-
cement
...
41Concrete
.
.. 41Plastic
Materials
...
41External and
Internal Pipe
Diameter
... 45
6.
COUPLERS
46
Connectors
(Fittings)
...
46Aluminum
Couplers
. 46
7.
REGULATIO
N AND
CONTROL
49
Introduction
.
49Supply
Pipelines
49
IV
The Control
head
.
49Regulation
and Control
Devices
.
50Valves
.. 50Control
Valves
Functioning
and Actuation
..
55Check-
valves

58Pressure
Relief Valves
. 59Pressure
Regulators
.. 60Air-
release Valves

61Atmospheric
Vacuum
Breakers
...
62Valve
Capacity

62Automation
.
. 62Overview
.
. 62Flow-
meters
..
63Metering-
valves
(Hydrometers)
...
64Control
Patterns

64Irrigation
Timers
..
65Computer-
based
Irrigation
control
Systems
.
66Supervisory
Control And
Data
Acquisition
(SCADA)
..68
8. WATER
TREATMEN
T AND
FILTRATIO
N 71
Introduction
.
71Particulate
Matter

71Biological
Substances
.
71Chemical
Precipitates
.. 72Water
hardness

72Iron and
Manganese in
Water
..
73Biological
Oxidation
Demand
(BOD)
..
73Filtration
.. 73Screen
(Strainer)
Filters
... 73Disc
Filters
...
75Media
Filters

75Sand
Seperators

76Filter
Characteristics
77
V
Flow Direction
.
78Filter
Cleaning
.
79Filter
Location
..
81Supplementa
ry Water
Treatments
...
81Chlorination
..
82Acidification
.
82
9.
FERTIGATI
ON 83
Introduction
.
83Advantages
of fertigation
. 83Limitations
and Risks in
Fertigation

83Technologie
s of Fertigation

83Patterns of
Injection
.
83Fertilizer
Tank
..
84Venturi
Injector

85Injection
pumps

85Injecton Site

88Injection at
the Main
Control Head
..
88Injection at
Sub-main
Heads

88Injection at
the Control
Head of each
Block

88Control and
Automation
..
88Quantitative
Dosing
.
88Proprtional
Dosing
...
88Avoiding
Corrosion
damage
...
89Back-flow
Prevention
.. 89Back-
siphonage

89Back-
pressure
...
89Chemical
Aspects of
fertigation
..
89Safety
... 90
10. FLOW-
RATE
WATER
HEAD
RELATIONS
HIP 91
Water Pressure
.
91Elevation
Head (z)

91Dynemic
head ..
..
. 92
VI
Velocity Head
...
92Head Losses

92Friction
Losses
.
92Operating
Pressure
..
96Hydraulic
Characteristics
of Emitters
.
97Calculation
of Head Losses
. 98Technical
data
.
98Pressure
measurement
..
98Calculation
of
Longitudinal
Head Losses

98
11. WATER
MOVEMENT
AND
DISTRIBUTI
ON IN THE
SOIL 109
Soil Properties
.
109Soil
Texture
..
109Soil
Water
relationship
.
111Introductio
n
..
111Saturation
.
111Field
Capacity
111Wilting
Point

111Factors
affecting the
Difference in
Water Storage
...
111Available
Water
Capacity
(AWC)
...
112Water
Movement in
the Soil

112The
Determination
of the Water
Status in the
Soil
..
114Water
Intake Rate
(WIR) of the
Soil
115Soil
Wetting
Patterns
...
120Water
dosage

120Chemical
Composition
of the Water
120Water
Distribution
Uniformity

120Distributio
n Uniformity
in Fully Soil
Surface
Wetting
Irrigation
...
121Distributio
n Uniformity
in Localized
irrigation
.. 129
12.
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
TECHNIQUE
S 131
Overview
. 131Hand-
move
.
. 131Aluminum
Pipes
... 131
VII
Flexible
laterals in
Orchards

133Permanent
Installations
... 134Solid-
set in Orchards
134Mini-
sprinklers
Solid-set
Systems in
Vegetables

135Mechanize
d Irrigation
.
137Introductio
n
..
137Towline
137Wheel
Move
.
138Traveling
Gun (Traveler)
.
141Continuou
s-move
Sprinkler
System
1
47The Water
Emitters
..
147Center-
Pivots

157Lineat-
Move Systems
...
182Control
and
Automation
... 187
13.
PLANNING
AND DESIGN
OF
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
192
Introduction
.
192Planning
... 192Soil
Properties
..
192Climate
Data
.
194Cropping
Data
..
194Water
Resources
...
194Data
Manipulation
...
195Soil
Wetting
Pattern
.
195Manipulati
on Steps
...
196Existing
Equipment
.
198Calculation
Formulae
.. 200The
Design
Procedure
.
201Overview
.
. 201System
Layout
..
201Water Flow
Velocity

203Spacing
.
203Choosing
Emitters and
Laterals
... 204
VIII
Fxample of the
Design Process
...
204Additional
Examples of
System Design
Schemes
.. 209
14.
IRRIGATION
SCHEDULIN
G 212
Introduction
.
212Calculation
of the Water
Amount in
Sprinkler
Irrigation
...
213Calculation
of the
Precipitation
Rate
...
213Calculation
of the
Irrigation
Duration
.. 213The
Total Flow-
rate of the
Irrigated Area

213Scheduling
with the water
Budget
Concept
.
214Scheduling
Software and
On-line
Calculators
. 216
15.
MONITORIN
G AND
CONTROL21
9
Monitoring
.
.. 219Soil
Water
Monitoring
. 219Plant
Water Status
Monitoring
.
220Plant
Organs
Elongation and
Expansion
.. 221Irrigation
Control

221Manual
Control

221Quantitativ
e Automatic
Water
Shutdown

221Fully
Controlled
Irrigation
...
221Integrated
Irrigation and
Fertigation
Control
...
221Integrated
monitoring and
Control
... 222
16.
MAINTENAN
CE 223
Introduction
.
223Installation
.
.. 223Mains
and Sub-mains
...
223Laterals
. 223Routine
Inspection
..
224Pump
Inspection
...
224System
Performance
.
224Routine
Maintenance
...
225System
Flushing and
Cleaning
.
225The
Control Head
. 225
IX
The Irrigation
Network
. 226Micro-
irrigation
Systems
.
228Mintenanc
e of
Accessories
...
228Maintenan
ce of
Fertigation
Systems

230Chemical
Water
Treatments

230Acidificatio
n
.
230Oxidation
.
.
231Overwinter
ing of the
Irrigation
System
.. 231Entire
System
...
231Filtration
Equipment

231Valves
...
231Controllers
and Sensors

231Chemical
Injection
Equipment
.
231Pumps
...
232Electric
Motors
. 232
17.
GLOSSARY
23318.
REFERENCE
S AND
BIBLIOGRA
PHY 262
LIST OF
TABLES
No. PAGE
2.1. Wind
Velocity
Definitions
.
152.2.
Recommended
Spacing
between
Sprimklers
.
155.1. PE
(Polyethylene)
Pipes for
Agriculture
...
425.2. LDPE
Pipes Internal
(Inner)
Diameter and
Wall
Thickness
.
435.3. HDPE
Pipes Internal
(Inner)
Diameter and
Wall
Thickness
.
435.4. PVC
Pipes for
Agriculture
.
445.5. Internal
Diameter and
Wall
Thickness of
PVC Pipes
447.1.
Flow-rate of
Spring
Actuated
Pressure
Regulators
618.1.
Relative
Clogging
Potential of
Micro-emitters
by Water
Contaminants
728.2. Screen
Perforation
Examples
.
748.3. Sand
Particle Size
and Mesh
Equivalent
...
76
X
8.4. Nominal
Filter Capacity
examples
789.1.
Electric
Charges of
Nutrients

9010.1.
Pressure and
Water
Potential Units
... 9110.2.
Friction
Coefficients
9310.3.
Multiple
Outlets factor
F

9710.4. Effect
of the Emitter
Exponent on
Pressure
Flow-rate
Relationship .
9710.5. Head
Losses in Non-
Distributing
Aluminum
Pipes, m. Head
per 100-m.
Pipe Length
(without
Outlets)
..9910.6.
F Coefficient
in Laterals

10011.1. Soil
Classification
According to
Particle
Diameter
... 10911.2.
Available
Water in
Different Soil
Textures
..
11211.3.
Average values
of Water States
in Different
Soil Textures
W/W .
11211.4.
Calculating
Christiansen's
Coefficient of
Uniformity
with
ExperimentalD
ata (example)
1271
2.1.
Recommended
Hose Size for
Traveler
Sprinklers
14712.2.
Characteristics
and
Performance of
the Emitters
..
16512.3.
Wetting
Diameter of
Emitters at 1.8
m
3
/h Flow-rate
17112.4.
Recommended
Spacing m.
for Emitters at
2 m. Height at
DifferentWorki
ng Pressures
.17713.1.
Sprinkler
Performance
(example)
. 19913.2.
Maximum
Allowed
Number of
Sprinklers on
Lateral on
Level Ground
20113.3. The
Chosen
Emitter
... 20613.4.
Allowed
Length of
Laterals
...
20613.5. Basic
data
..
20713.6. Head-
loss
Calculation
20813.7.
Total
Requested
Dynamic Head

20814.1.
Annual Crops
Irrigation
Scheduling
Form

21214.2. The
Estimated
Available
Water per Unit
of Rooting
Depth for Soils
of Various
Textures and
the Intake Rate
for Various
Soil Textures
.21414.3.
Active Root-
zone Depth of
Fruit Trees
. 215
XI
LIST OF
FIGURES
No.

PAGE
1.1.Level
Border Strip
Flooding

21.2.Leveled
Beds between
Contour Lines
.. 31.3.Furrow
Irrigation
..
32.1.Sprinkler
Spacing
Positions
.
52.2.Irrigation
Intensity
52.3.The
Influence of
Wind on the
Uniformity of
Water
Distribution

62.4.Outdated
Pressurized
Irrigation
Systems
..
62.5.Impact-
Hammer
Sprinkler
82.6.Tur
bo-Hammer
Sprinkler
.
82.7.Gun
Sprinkler
(Rain-gun)
.82.8.Sta
nd-alone Gun-
sprinkler with
Stabilizer in
the Field

92.9.Pop-up
Sprinklers
.
102.10.Part-
circle Static
Sprinklers
..
102.11.Impac
t Sprinkler
Components

112.12.Config
urations of
Impact
Sprinklers

122.13.Nozzle
Types

132.14.Jet
Angles
.
132.15.Low-
volume
Under-canopy
Sprinklers

143.1.Diverse
Micro-
emitters
..
163.2.Static
Micro-jets
...
173.3.Vortex
Sprayer
.
183.4.Vibratin
g Micro-jet
..
183.5.Modular
Micro-emitter
Water
Spreading
Pattern
.
183.6.Rotating
Micro-
sprinklers

193.7.Micro-
sprinklers
Configurations
..
193.8.Modular
Micro-
sprinkler
..
19
XII
3.9.Mounting
Alternatives of
Micro-emitters
...
213.10.Water
Distribution by
Micro-
sprinkler at
Different
Flow-rates
...
223.11.Multipl
e-jet (Fan-jet)
Emitter's
Distribution
Patterns
..
224.1.Schemat
ic Plot
Irrigation
System
.
234.2.Electric
Water Pumps

234.3.Pump
Type
Classification

254.4.Centrifu
gal Pump
.
274.5.Differen
t Flow
Patterns in
Centrifugal
Pumps
.
284.6.Water
Flow in Volute
Pump

294.7.Deep-
well Verical
Turbine
Pumps
...
304.8.Pump
Impellers

314.9.Single-
stage Pump

324.10.Multi-
stage Pump
.
324.11.Solar
Pumping
System
. 334.12.A
Variable-
frequency
Drive
Controlls a Set
of 3 Pumps
...
334.13.Pump
Efficiency
Curve

364.14.A
Scheme of
Pump Curves
..
374.15.An
Example of
Pump Curves
Plotted on
One sheet
.384.16.
Horse-power
Curves
.
384.17.Critical
Points on the
Pump Curve
...
396.1.Hermeti
c and
Detached
Band Couplers
..
466.2.Single
Latch
Couplers
. 466.3.Valve
Adapters
.
476.4.Adapter
Made of Al-Pb
Metal Alloy
...
476.5.Aluminu
m Lateral
Assembly
...
476.6.Plastic
and Metal
Connectors
...
476.7.Lock
Fastened
PolyPropylene
Connectors
486.8.On-line
Saddles

487.1.Water
Supply
Network
.

49
XIII
7.2.Typical
Control Head
..
.. 497.3.Valve
Types
.
507.4.Manual
Actuators
.
507.5.Globe
Valve
.
517.6.Angular
Valve
..
517.7.Single-
seat Globe
Valve
...
527.8.Double-
seat Globe
Valve
.
527.9.Gate
Valve

537.10.Ball
Valve
Cutaway
.
537.11.Butterf
ly Valve
.
547.12.Piston
Valve
.
547.13.Diaphr
agm Valve
Components

557.14.Diaphr
agm Valves

557.15.Diaphr
agm Valve
Working
Pattern
..
557.16.Control
Valve
Actuators
.
567.17.Cutawa
y of Solenoid
Valve
.

567.18.Schem
e of Solenoid
Operation

577.19.Fail
Closed (NC)
Solenoid
Valve
Components
and
WorkingPatter
n
.
.577.20.Hydra
ulic Control
Valve
..
587.21.Check
Valves
597.22.Pi
lot Controlled
Hydraulic
Pressure Relief
Valves
..
597.23.Pilot
Valves
..
607.24.Pressur
e Regulators
..
607.25.Cross
Section of
Air-release
Valves

617.26.Atmos
pheric
Vacuum
Breakers
...
627.27.Flow-
meters
.
637.28.Hydro
meters
Cross-section
...
647.29.Hydro
meter
Manual and
Remote-
controlled Dial
... 64
XIV
7.30.Local
Irrigation
Controller
..
677.31.SCAD
A Control
System
.
687.32.RTUs
Connected to
Field-unit
(FU) by Cable
.
697.33.Interne
t Mediated
SCADA
Network

708.1.Screen
Filter
.
738.2.Screen
Patterns
.
748.3.Head
Losses in
Clean Screen
Filters
758.4.Disc
Filter
.
758.5.Media
Filters

768.6.Sand
Separator -
Working
Pattern

768.7.Hydro-
cyclone Sand
Separator
Head Losses
and Optimal
Flow-rates
..778.8.Man
ual Cleaning
of Screen
filters

798.9.Hose
Flushing of a
Disc-filter
..
798.10.Contin
uous Flushed
Circulating-
filter
.
798.11.Autom
atic Screen
Filters with
Scanning
Nozzles

808.12.Autom
atic Flushing
of Disc-filter

808.13.High-
capacity
Media-filter
Array
.818
.14.Back-
flushing of
Media-filters
.
819.1.Fertilize
r Tank
..
849.2.Venturi
Injector

859.3.By-pass
Venturi
Installation
.
859.4.Piston
and
Diaphragm
Hydraulic
Pumps
.
869.5.No-
drain
Hydraulic
Pump

869.6.Piston
Pump
Installation in
Control Head

879.7.Fertilize
r Solution
Flow-meter
with Pulse
Transmitter
879.8.Mixer
Array
..
879.9.Electric
Pump
...
889.10.Tande
m Back-flow
Preventer
...
89
XV
10.1.Graphic
Presentation of
Friction Head
..
9410.2.Feedi
ng Micro-
tube
Connection
...9
510.3.Head-
losses in
Hydraulic
Valves
.
9510.4.Pressu
re
Measurement
...
9810.5.Slide-
ruler for Head-
loss
Calculation in
Pipes
.
10110.6.Nomo
gram for
Hazen-
Williams
Formula
..
10310.7.Nomo
grams for
Head-loss
Determination
In Polyethylene
Pipes .
10410.8.Nomo
gram for Local
Hydraulic
Gradient
Determination
inAccessories
10
510.9.Nomogr
am for
Calculation of
Head-losses in
LDPE Pipes
. 106
.10.10
Nomogram for
Calculation of
Head-losses in
HDPE Pipes
.
10710.11.Nom
ogram for
Calculation of
Head-losses in
PVC Pipes
...
10811.1.Visual
Illustration of
Soil Particle
Diameter

10911.2.Soil
Texture
Triangle
...
11011.3.Illustr
ation of the
Water States in
the Soil
...
11111.4.Water
-air Ratio in
Two Soil
Types, 12
Hours After
Irrigation

11111.5.Illustr
ation of the
Available
Water in the
Soil
.
11211.6.Water
Potential
Values in the
Different
Water States
in the Soil

11311.7.Water
Retention
Curves in
Different Soil
Textures
. 114
.11
.
8
The Sequence
of Soil
Moisture
Determination
by the
Gravimetric(O
ven Drying)
Method
.11511.
9
.Edelman
Dutch Auger
..11.10.Water
Infiltration into
the Soil
Curve
...
11511.11.Soil
Texture
Triangle
Infiltration
Rate Contours
..
11611.12.Typi
cal Infiltration
Curves in
Different Soil
Textures
. 11611.13.The
Basin
Infiltrometer

11711.14.Dou
ble Ring
Infiltrometer

11811.15.The
Sprinkler
Method
...
11911.16.Sing
le Sprinkler
Test
122
XVI
11.17.Single
Lateral Test
...
12311.18.Sim
ultaneously
Operated
Laterals Test
12311.19.
Open-air Test
Plot and
Covered
Distribution
Test Facility
.
12311.20.Grid
of Catch Cans
...
12411.21.Reco
rding Form for
Measurement
of the
Uniformity of
WaterDistribut
ion
..125
11.22.Measure
d Water
Amounts in
One Quarter of
the Wetted
Area inSingle-
sprinkler Test
.12611.23.Si
ngle Sprinkler
Distribution
Pattern in
Wind-less
Conditions
...
12611.24.Wind
Effect on the
Distribution
Pattern on Both
Sides of a
SingleLateral
.
..12811.25.Unil
ateral
Presentation of
the Distribution
Pattern of a
Mini-emitter
.
12812.1.Hand-
move Lateral
..
13112.2.Hand-
move Layout:
2 Aluminum
Pipes, Spacing
6 X 12 m.
4Laterals X 4
Positions
13
212.3.Couplin
g of Aluminum
Pipe
.
13212.4.Ten-
shift Manual
Drag Under-
canopy
Sprinkler
Array
.
13312.5.Orch
ard Under-
canopy
Micro-
sprinkler
Irrigation

13412.6.Solid-
set System in
Orchard.
Spacing 6 X 4
m. Sprinkler
Flow-rate
13412.7.Orcha
rd Overhead
Irrigation

13512.8.Solid-
set Mini-
sprinkler
Irrigation of
Vegetables

13612.9.Towli
ne
...
13712.10.Towl
ine
Accessories
.
13712.11.Line
ar Towline
System: 2 Sets,
8 Laterals
Each, Six
Positions
perLateral,
Spacing 12X18
m
..138
12.12.Sprinkle
r Vertically
Stabilized by a
Swivel and a
Ballast
...
13912.13.Side
-roll Operating
Scheme
.
14012.14.Side
-roll in the
Field
.
14012.15.Ma
nually Moved
Big Gun
.
14212.16.Hos
e-reel Traveler
143
XVII
12.17.Cable-
tow Traveler
..
14312.18.Hos
e-reel
Traveler
Operating
Scheme
..
14412.19.Wate
r-driven Cable-
tow Traveler
Scheme
..
14512.20.Cabl
e-tow Traveler
Operating
Scheme

14512.21.Line
ar-Move
System with
On-top High-
pressure
Impact
Sprinklersand
End-gun
.148
12.22.Impact
Sprinkler
Nozzle
Options
..
14812.23.Stati
onary
Deflection-pad
Emitters
..
15012.24.Noz
zle and
Deflection-pad
Options for
Stationary
Spray

15012.25.Micr
o-emitters On-
drops in Work
15112.26.Noz
zle and Pad
Options in
Rotators
..
..
15112.27.Up-
right Spinner
..
.

15112.28.Rota
tors and
Spinner

15212.29.Disti
nctive Emitters
..
15212.30.LDN
Emitters at
Work
.
15312.31.LD
N (Low Drift
Nozzle)
Emitter
Configuration
s
15412.32.
Oscillating
Deflection Pad
Options
..
15512.33.Com
ponents of
Oscillating
Emitters

15512.34.Inve
rted Wobbler
on Drops
..
15512.35.Dive
rse
Configurations
of Inverted
Wobblers

15612.36.Qua
d-spray and its
Water
Application
Modes

15612.37.Aeri
al View of
Center-Pivot
Irrigated Area
.
15712.38.Cent
er-Pivot
Operation
Scheme
...
15712.39.Net
Irrigated Area

15712.40.Com
ponents of
Center-Pivot /
Linear-Move
Lateral
System
..
15812.41.Uni
versal System
(Can Be Used
as Linear-
Move or
Center-Pivot)
.15912.42.
Center-Pivot
Main Tower
.
16012.43.Cor
ner Arm
..
16012.44.Opti
ons of
Sprinkler
Position and
Dicharge
161
XVIII
12.45.Towabl
e Center-Pivot
..
16312.46.Goo
senecks on
Top of lateral
...
16612.47.Posi
tioning
Options of
Low-pressure
Emitters on
Drops

16712.48.Furr
ow Dikes

16812.49.Boo
m-backs
behind
Center-Pivot
Towers
...
16912.50.Bi-
lateral Boom
Appendage
with end-gun
on a Center-
Pivot .
17012.51.Emi
tter Spacing
Patterns in
Center-Pivot
..
17312.52.An
Example of
Water
Logging by
Spray Emitters
- Close-up

17412.53.The
Effect of
Using Pressure
Regulators in
Slopy Terrain
.
17412.54.Smal
l-diameter
Pressure
Regulators
Installed for
Single Emitters
..
17512.55.Rela
tionship
between
Width of the
Wetted
Coverage (W)
andApplication
Intensity for
the Same
Flow-rate
..17612
.56.Relationsh
ip between
Required
Application
Intensity and
Time
of Application
for the Same
Depth of
Application
..17712.5
7.Center-Pivot
End-gun
Installations
..
17812.58.Irrig
ation of
Orchards by
Center-Pivot
17912.59.Line
ar-Move
Lateral

18212.60.On-
lateral Trip
Switch
.
18312.61.Line
ar-Move
System with
Spray Emitters
on Drops
...
18412.62.Line
ar-Move
System with
Rotators on
Drops
.
18512.63.Line
ar-Move
Main-line in
Field Margin
...............
18612.64.Line
ar-Move
System
Pumping
Water from
Ditch
...
18612.65.Ope
ration Scemes
of Ditch-fed
Linear-Move
Systems
18612.66.VRI
with Individual
Emitter
Control
...
18812.67.VRI
Partially
Irrigating
Lateral
.
18912.68.Indi
vidually
Controlled
Node
..
18912.69.Cont
rol Panel
Positioned in
the Pivot point
.
18912.70.On-
screen
Operation
Presentation
...
19113.1.Topo
graphic Map
. 192
XIX
13.2.Irrigation
Planning Form
..
19313.3.Differ
ent Design
Alternatives
..
202
13.4.Manifold
s Save in Cost
of Accessories

20213.5.Citrus
Grove - 11.5
Ha.

20413.6.The
Design Sceme

20713.7.Hand-
move Design
Scheme
.
20913.8.Gun
Traveler
Design
Scheme
..
21013.9.Solid-
set in Orchard
.
21114.1.Typic
al Root
Systems of
Field Crops
..
21514.2.Irrigat
ion Design
Software
Screenshot
....
21614.3.Visua
l Presention of
Designed
System

21714.4.Sched
uling Software
Screen-shot

21714.5.On-
line Calculator

21815.1.Tensi
ometers

21915.2.Water
mark Granular
Sensor
.
21915.3.Time
Domain
Transmissomet
ry Sensor
...
21915.4.The
Pressure
Bomb
..
22015.5.Fertili
zer and Water
Controller

22115.6.Integr
ated
Monitoring
and Control
..
22216.1.Punch
and Holder
.
22316.2.Auto
matic Lateral
End Flushing
Valve

22516.3.Contr
ol Head

22516.4.Coupl
ing of PE
Pipes
..
22616.5.Repla
cing Seal
.
22616.6.Insert
ion of
Emitters In
Small-
diameter Soft
PE Lateral
..
22716.7.Comp
onents of
Hydraulic and
Metering
Valves. The
Wear-sensitive
Components
22716.8.Sprin
kler Tools

22716.9.Sprin
kler
components
. 227
XX
16.10.Micro-
jets and Mini-
sprinklers
Components
..
22816.11.Verti
cal Stake
...
22916.12.Flow
Regulator
229

SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
1
1.
INTRODUC
TION
1.1
Overview
Water scarcity,
soaring energy
costs,
deterioration of
agricultural
land
anddesertificati
on, threaten
agricultural
development
and food
production for
the fastgrowing
world
population.Irrig
ated
agriculture
increases twice
to ten-fold the
yield per land
unit, compared
withnon-
irrigated
farming.Irrigati
on has its roots
in the history of
mankind and is
even
mentioned in
the Bible:
A stream flows
from Eden to
irrigate the
garden...
(Genesis, 10).
Theprosperous
ancient
civilizations
developed
fresh water
sources and
delivery
systemsthat
were used for
irrigation. In
years of
drought,
people were
forced to
migrate
insearch of
water.
Unfortunately,
innumerable
wars were
triggered by
water
scarcity.Rivers
and streams
are natural
water
conveyors.
Natural and
artificial lakes
are usedas
water
reservoirs. The
construction of
dams converts
segments of
rivers'
coursesinto
reservoirs and
increases their
water storage
capacity.
Following the
introductionof
pumps,
pipelines were
installed as
water conduits.
The pipes are
made of
steel,aluminum
, concrete and
plastic
materials.
Population
growth
triggered long
distanceconve
yance of water
and promoted
the
development of
water
engineering
and thederived
science of
hydraulics.
Irrigation can
be regarded as
the
science of
survival
.
Gigantic
irrigation water
supply projects
were built
throughout the
ancient
world.Among
them: The
1,200 km long
Grand Canal in
China. Water
supply and
irrigationsyste
ms were
constructed
thousands of
years ago in
India and Sri
Lanka.
Today,enginee
rs are still
impressed by
the
sophistication
of ancient
water delivery
systemsand
the irrigation
techniques
employed. The
Romans
constructed
sophisticateda
queducts,
dozens of km
long to deliver
water to the
new built cities.
In Egypt,
foodproduction
is fully
dependent on
the Aswan
dam that
stores water
for irrigation of
theNile valley
and some of
the adjoining
desert and
guarantees
food supply to
thepopulation.
Prior to the
harnessing of
electricity,
water had to
be conveyed
by gravity,
alongnatural
slopes that
required the
construction of
canal
networks, for
the water flow
andexcavating
the water path
accordingly.
This practice
had its
limitation, since
watercould not
be conveyed to
the lands lying
above the
water sources.
A
remarkablerev
olution in
irrigation
technology
commenced
with the
development of
pumps
thatenabled
lifting water
above the
height of the
water
source.Irrigatio
n technologies
are classified
into two main
categories:
a. Surface
(non-
pressurized)
irrigation -
furrow,
borders,
flooding,
basins, etc.
b. Pressurized
irrigation -
sprinkler, spray
and drip
irrigation
(including
mechanizedirri
gation).Surface
irrigation is
regarded as
the most
wasteful
irrigation
technology.
Irrigationefficie
ncy is mostly
below 40%. In
sprinkler and
mechanized
irrigation, the
efficiencyrange
s from 60% to
85%. In micro-
irrigation, the
efficiency can
attain 90% -
95%.Salinizatio
n of irrigated
lands is the
most prevalent
trigger of
desertification(
conversion of
cultivated land
to desert).
More than one
million
hectares of
arableland on
the globe is
lost annually
due to
salinization.
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
2
Careful water
application in
optimal timing
and dosage
with timely salt
leaching
whenneeded,
is a
prerequisite for
long-run
sustainable
agriculture and
inhibition
ofsalinization.S
prinkler
irrigation,
facilitates the
elimination of
salinization by
leaching
theaccumulatin
g salts out of
the active root-
zone by
precise
application of
the
requiredwater
amount.There
are significant
differences
between
surface and
sprinkler
irrigation in
thepattern of
water
movement and
distribution in
the soil.
Ponding of
water on the
soilsurface, in
furrows and
small basins is
common in
surface
irrigation while
waterponding
in sprinkler
irrigation
indicates the
existence of
non-permeable
soil layers
orexessive
water
application
rate, above the
percolation
capacity of the
soil.In today's
raised
standards of
living, more
attention is
given to
irrigation of
residentialand
recreational
facilities like
home gardens,
lawns, sports
and golf
courses.
Theequipment
used is
partially
adapted from
agricultural
appliances and
partiallydedicat
ed gear that is
designed
specifically for
these facilities.
1.2. Surface
Irrigation
Surface
irrigation is the
most
widespread
irrigation
technique used
on the
globe.More
than 90% of
the 280 million
irrigated
hectares in the
world are
irrigated
bysurface
irrigation.
Surface
irrigation
methods can
be classified
into a number
oftechniques.
The selection
of the method
depends on
factors such as
croppingtechno
logy, climate,
soil type,
topography,
water
availability and
distribution
facilities,farmer
s mentality and
tradition. The
most significant
soil factors are
the structure
andthe
physical
properties of
the soil: soil
texture, soil
permeability;
water flow on
the soilsurface
and its
movement in
the soil; field
capacity and
wilting point;
soil aeration.
Themost
relevant
climate factors
are
precipitation
and
evaporation
rates during
thegrowing
season.
Thorough
consideration
of the above-
mentioned
factors
andincorporati
on of advanced
techniques as
zero slope
leveling,
SCADA
(SupervisoryC
ontrol And
Data
Acquisition)
and surge
(intermittent,
pulsating
application of
waterflow)
irrigation, may
facilitate
achieving, by
this ancient
technology,
efficient
wateruse, high
yields and
good produce
quality.
1.2.1. Surface
Irrigation
Methods
Fig. 1.1. Level
Border Strip
Flooding

1.2.1.1. Level
Border Strip
Flooding
The level
border bed
(broad-bed, or
paddy)
resembles a
broad furrow (4
- 18 mwide),
bordered by
levees, with
zero slope
across its width
and a
longitudinal
slopenot
greater than
1%. By
opening the
floodgate at
the head of the
bed, or by
activatingsipho
ns, the bed is
filled with water
from a ditch or
a furrow. This
method, which
is fit
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
3
for
appropriately
leveled
topographic
structures only,
requires some
land leveling
anda high
water flow-rate.
Wetting the
bed during a
short period of
time prevents
waterlosses
beneath the
root zone
depth. The
performance of
the system
should
beexamined by
field tests
(advance and
retreat of water
as a function of
time).
Rice,banana,
alfalfa and
other field
crops are
usually
irrigated by this
method.
1.2.1.2.
Leveled Beds
betweenConto
ur Lines
This method is
similar to
borderstrip
flooding,
however the
bedwalls are
contour lines
as shownin the
illustration to
the right.
1.2.1.3.
Furrows
The water is
distributed in
thefield by
means of
narrow
ditches,each of
them delivering
water toone or
two rows of
plants.Obtainin
g good
irrigationefficie
ncy
necessitates
twostages of
watering. In the
firststage a
high flow-rate
is sent towet
promptly the
soil
surfacealong
the entire
furrow. Then
asecond lower
flow-rate
isdelivered in a
longer time
period.
1.2.2.
Advanced
Technologies
Zero slope
leveling
and
surge irrigation

are two
proceduresthat
increase
irrigation
efficiencyin
surface
irrigation.
Theseprocedur
es can be
applied
withboth flood
and furrow
irrigation
.
1.2.2.1. Dead
Level Layout
When high
precision
landleveling,
supported by
lasersensors is
applied, zero
slope, dead
level layout
can be
practical.
Irrigation
efficiencyin this
layout can be
much higher
than in the
traditional
layouts. Width
of
areabetween
borders is
limited to 100
150 m.
1.2.2.2 Surge
Irrigation
The principle of
surge irrigation
is the splitting
of water
application to
several
pulses.The first
pulse is of high
volume of
water. It is
aimed to wet
as fast as
possible
theentire
length of the
irrigated bed or
furrow without
inducing
erosion. That
first
flowpartially
seals the upper
layer of the soil
and enables
the next pulses
to be of
smallervolume
s for longer
time periods,
rendering even
depth
percolation
along the
flowpath.
Modern surge
irrigation
layouts employ
automatic
surge valves
that direct
waterin
alternating
pulses to
different
sectors of the
plot according
to pre-
plannedtimetab
le.

Fig. 1.2.
Leveled Beds
between
Contour Lines

Fig. 1.3.
Furrow
Irrigation

SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
4
2.
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
2.1.
Introduction
Sprinklers
were first
introduced at
the beginning
of the twentieth
century
aspressurized
irrigation
emitters for the
irrigation of
flower gardens.
Later-on they
wereadapted
to the irrigation
of field crops,
plantations and
greenhouses.S
prinkler
irrigation was
extensively
expanded after
the Second
World War
whenaluminum
became a
cheap and
widely
available
commodity and
flat land,
suitablefor
non-
pressurized
irrigation
became
scarce.
Sprinkler
irrigation
enablessimulta
neous
operation of
many laterals
of sprinklers,
facilitates
accurate
watermeasure
ment and
regulation of
the water
application rate
to the water
intake rate
ofthe soil.
2.2.
Advantages
a. Sprinkler
irrigation is
suitable to
diverse
topographic
conditions
likeuneven
lands and
steep slopes
that cannot be
irrigated by
surfaceirrigatio
n.b. A vast
selection of
emitters and
nozzles
facilitates the
matching of
thewater
application rate
to the intake
rate of the
soil.c. Uniform
distribution of
water in the
field renders
high water use
efficiency.d.
Easy and
simple
operation, only
short training
of the
operators is
required.e.
Capability of
accurate
measurement
of the applied
water
amount.f.
Prospective
high mobility of
the irrigation
equipment
from one field
to another.g.
The operation
of solid-set and
mechaniized
systems,
minimizes
laborrequireme
nt.h. Feasibility
of frequent -
small water
dosage
applications for
germination,co
oling, frost
protection,
etc.i. The
closed water
delivery
system
prevents
contamination
of the
flowingwater,
decreasing the
occurrence of
emitter
clogging. j.
Convenient
blending of
fertilizers with
the irrigation
water.k. Handy
integration with
automation
and
computerized
irrigation
control
devices.
2.3.
Disadvanta
ges and
Limitations
a. High initial
investment.b.
Extra cost of
the energy
consumed for
creation of
water
pressure.c.
Sensitivity to
wind
conditions.d.
Water losses
by evaporation
from soil
surface, the
atmosphere
and
plantcanopy.e.
Induction of
leaf-diseases
in overhead
irrigation.f.
Hazard of salt
burns on
wetted foliage
in overhead
irrigation.g.
Washout of
pesticides from
the foliage in
overhead
irrigation.h.
Interference of
irrigation with
diverse farm
activities like
tillage,
spraying,harve
sting, etc.i.
Hazard of soil
surface
encrustation
and
enhancement
of runoff from
soilsurface. j.
Water losses in
plot margins.
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
5
2.4.
Definitions
2.4.1. Pressure
:
a force acting
on an area,
expressed in
units of kg/cm
2
,
bars,atmosphe
res or PSI
(Pounds per
Square Inch).
2.4.2. Water
head:

the pressure at
the base of a
water column,
expressed in
meterunits.
The head in
the bottom of a
water column
10 m. high, is
10 m. = 1 bar.

1 atm.
2.4.3. Water
amount:

measured in
volume units.
In the metric
system the
commonunits
are liter (l) and
cubic meter (m
3
) (1,000 l = 1 m
3
).
2.4.4. Water
flow-rate
(discharge):

the amount of
water flowing
through a
certaincross-
section per
time unit. In the
metric system
the units are:
m
3
/h or liter/h
(l/h).
2.4.5. Wetting
diameter:

the diameter of
a circle of soil
surface, wetted
by acertain
sprinkler =
twice the
wetting radius
of the sprinkler.
Measured in
meters.
2.4.6.
Sprinkler
spacing:

the spacing
between the
sprinklers
along and
betweenthe
sprinkler
laterals. For
example: 12 m
x 18 m.
a. Rectangular
Position

b. Diagonal

Position

Fig. 2.1.
Sprinkler
Spacing

Positions

2.4.7.
Irrigation
Intensity:

the force of the
water drops
exerted on the
soil
surfaceduring
precipitation.
The intensity
depends on
the number of
drops, their
size,
theirvelocity
and the impact
angle at which
they hit the soil
surface. The
intensity
isexpressed in
qualitative
terms: high,
medium, low.
a. High
Intensity
Rough
Droplets b.
Low Intensity
Fine
Droplets

Fig. 2.2.
Irrigation
Intensity
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
6
2.4.8.
Application
(precipitation)
rate:

the amount of
water applied
to an areaunit
per a unit of
time: 1 mm/h =
1 m
3
per 0.1 Ha/h =
10 m
3
per Ha per
hour.
2.4.8.
Irrigation
interval:

The time
interval
between two
water
applications =
theperiod
between the
start of one
irrigation cycle
and the start of
the following
one.
2.4.9.
Irrigation
cycle:

The period
between the
beginning and
the termination
ofone irrigation
event of a
certain area.
2.4.10. Wind
velocity:

expressed in
meters per
second
(m/sec.) or
km/h units.
Fig. 2.3. The
Influence of
Wind on the
Uniformity of
Water
Distribution

2.4.11.
Nominal pipe
diameter:

The nominal
diameter of
steel and
asbestos-
cement pipes,
up to 10" is the
internal
diameter,
measured in
inches (1 inch
= 25.4mm.) In
wider
diameters, as
well as in
aluminum,
plastic pipes
and tubes the
nominaldiamet
er is the
external
diameter,
measured in
inches in
aluminum
pipes and in
mm.in pipes
made of plastic
materials.
2.5.
Sprinkler
Types
In the early
years, water
under
pressure had
been applied
by
nozzlesmount
ed along
oscillating
galvanized
cast iron
pipes. The
oscillatingmo
vement was
driven by the
inherent
water
pressure in
the
irrigationsyste
m. Another
means for
water
distribution
was
perforated tin
pipes laid
onthe soil
surface.
a. Skinner
Oscillating
Pipe System
b. Perforated
Pipe (Perf-O-
Rain)Fig. 2.4.
Outdated
Pressurized
Irrigation
Systems
Af t er Benami & Of en
1993

Contemporary
sprinklers are
made of metal
and plastic
materials. The
sprinklers
aremounted on
metallic or
plastic risers of
various
heights,
corresponding
to theirrigation
technique and
the crop
canopy height.
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
7
2.5.1.
Sprinkler
Classification
Sprinklers are
classified
according to
their function,
pattern of
operation,
workingpressur
e, flow-rate,
materials from
whom they are
made, etc.
2.5.1.1.
Sprinkler
Function
Sprinkler
function
classification is
based on the
crop and
growing
technologies,
forwhom the
sprinkler type
is designated.
2.5.1.1.1.
General use:

Impact
sprinklers with
jet angle of 30
0
, one or two
nozzles,
areused for
overhead
irrigation in
field crops,
forage and
vegetables, as
well as
inoverhead
irrigation in
orchards, in
hand move,
solid-set and
towed laterals.
2.5.1.1.2. Under-
canopy
sprinklers
:
used

for irrigation in
orchards. The
jet angle is 4
0
-7
0
. This group is
comprised of
under-canopy
impact-
hammers,
turbo-
hammers,whirli
ng sprinklers,
mini-sprinklers,
microsprinklers
and microjets
rotors,
spinners,spray
ers and ray-
jets (multiple
jets). These
emitters are
used also for
solid-
setirrigation in
vegetables and
flowers in the
open field and
greenhouses
and
inmechanized
irrigation.
2.5.1.1.3. Gun
sprinklers:

Used for
irrigation of
wide-scale field
crops and
forageareas,
may be used
as stand-alone
units, in
laterals, moved
by hand or
installed
onself-
propelled
travelers and in
center pivots
and lateral
move
machines, as
end-guns.
2.5.1.1.4. Part
circle sprinklers:

These
sprinklers are
installed at
lateral ends,
plotmargins
and in specific
situations in
mechanized
laterals in
order to avoid
waterlosses
beyond plot
borders and
wetting of
roads and
sidewalks.
2.5.1.1.5.
Regulated
sprinklers
:
May be
pressure-
compensated
or flow-
regulated.Simp
lifies design
and operation
in harsh
topography
conditions.
2.5.1.1.6. Pop-up
sprinklers:

Used in
irrigation of
lawns, golf
courses and
residentialarea
s.
2.5.1.1.7. Small-
size impact and
turbo-
sprinklers:
are used for
under canopy
irrigationin
orchards, and
overhead
irrigation in
open field and
protected
vegetables
andflowers.
2.5.1.1.8. Static
sprinklers
are used in
small
residental
gardens.
2.5.1.2.
Pattern of
Operation
Sprinklers are
operated by
water
pressure. A
water jet that is
ejected from a
nozzleactivates
the moveable
component of
the sprinkler.
2.5.1.2.1.
Rotating impact
sprinkler:

The water jet,
emitted from
the nozzle, hits
thehammer
arm, pushing it
in counter-
clockwise
direction. A
spring returns
the armback.
Its strike on the
sprinkler body
results in rotary
movement of
the body in
theopposite
direction. The
impact
sprinklers are
fitted with one,
two or three
nozzles.This
sprinkler type
is
manufactured
in diverse
configurations.
With a 30
0
ejectionangle it
is used for
overhead
irrigation of
field crops and
orchards. For
under-
canopyirrigatio
n of orchards
the
recommended
jet angles are 4
0
-7
0
.

Initially. the
sprinklerswere
made of metal,
but later-on,
plastic
materials were
also used. The
wear ofmoving
parts and
nozzles made
of reinforced
plastic, is much
lower than that
ofmetallic
ones. Although
impact
sprinklers are
highly reliable,
they require
strictroutine
maintenance to
guarantee
consistent
operation
along time.
2.5.1.2.2. Turbo-
hammer
sprinkler:

The water jet
stirs a grooved
wheel that hits
the
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
8
hammer. The
impact of the
hammer
rotates the
sprinkler. The
turbo-
hammersprinkl
ers are made
of plastic
material and
are used for
the irrigation of
orchards,veget
ables and
gardens at low
flow-rates.
Fig. 2.5.
Impact-
Hammer
Sprinkler

Fig. 2.6.
Turbo-
Hammer
Sprinkler

From "Naan" Brochure
2.5.1.2.3. Gun
Sprinklers
Fig. 2.7. Gun
Sprinkler
(Rain-gun)
Big size
hammer
sprinklers are
made of brass
with two or
three nozzles.
The
workingpressur
e is high (4 - 8
bars). The
sprinkler flow-
rate range is 6
- 60 m
3
/h. Gun
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
9
sprinklers are
used for
irrigation of
forage and
field crops in
solid-set
schemes,
inCenter-Pivot
and Lateral-
Move irrigation
machines and
as a traveling
gun in "stand-
alone"
configuration.
Fig. 2.8.
Stand-alone
Gun-sprinkler
with Stabilizer
in the Field
2.5.1.2.4. Pop-up
sprinklers
-
commonly
used for lawn
and golf
courses
irrigation.
Thesprinkler
pops upwards
at the
beginning of
the irrigation
and falls back
after shut-
down into its
underground
housing, where
it remains in
stand-by
position until
thenext
irrigation. In
the
underground
stand-by
position it
allows the
undisturbed
use oflawns,
parks or golf
courses, and
does not
interfere with
lawn mowers'
operation.Ther
e is a wide-
range of pop-
up sprinkler
types,
including part-
circle
sprinklers,
aswell as rise-
ups of various
heights.
2.5.1.2.5. Gear-
driven sprinklers
are used
mostly in
residential and
public
lawnsirrigation.
Some gun
sprinklers are
also driven by
a turbine and
velocity
reductiongear.
2.5.1.2.6. Rotor
and rotary
stream
sprinklers
often
incorporate a
small water
turbinewhich,
by means of
reducing
gears, provides
for slow,
continuous
nozzle or
nozzlehead
rotation. Gear-
drive
mechanisms
require clean
water to
prevent
clogging
andwear.

SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
10
a. Gear-driven
b. Part-circle
Impact c. Pop-
up Sprinkler
Irrigating A
Lawn

Fig. 2.9. Pop-
up Sprinklers

2.5.1.2.7. Static
sprinklers

aremade of
brass or rigid
plasticmaterial
s, without
moving
parts.These
sprinklers are
usedmainly in
residential
gardens.They
irrigate a full or
partialcircle.
The wetting
range issmaller
as compared
to
rotatingsprinkle
rs.Manufacture
rs' catalogs
providethe
essential data
about
thespecificatio
ns and
performanceof
the sprinklers.
Information
isgiven about
flow-rate (Q),
andthe
effective
wetting
diameter (D),
in the range of
the allowed
working
pressure
(P).Additional
data relate to
the
recommended
spacing
between
sprinklers,
theprecipitation
rate and
distribution
uniformity.
a. Fixed Angle
b. Adjustable
Angle

Fig. 2.10. Part-
circle Static
Sprinkler
s

SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
11
2.5.2.
Components
of Impact
Sprinklers
2.5.2.1. Base:
It is the
connection
tothe riser. It
has internal or
externalthread,
manufactured
in diameters
of0.5 - 3".
2.5.2.2. Tube:
It is inserted in
the baseand
fixed to the
body of the
sprinkler.Betwe
en the base
and the tube
thereare
located 1 - 3
seals that
function
asbearings to
smooth the
rotation of
thesprinkler
and minimize
wear from
thefriction of
the tube with
the base.
2.5.2.3. Sand
protection
mechanism:
Consists of a
thrust spring
and anexternal
plastic sleeve
that
preventsthe
intrusion of
sand and grit
from
theoutside.
2.5.2.4. Body:
Accommodate
s thehousings
in which the
nozzles
arefitted and
carries the
moving parts
ofthe sprinkler.
The body can
be of oneof the
configurations:
2.5.2.4.1 Bridge
:

In some
sprinklertypes,
the hammer is
connected to
thebody by
means of a
shaft fixed to
abridge
between two
vertical
supports.The
sprinkler
rotation is
activated bythe
impact of the
hammer on
one ofthe
supports. The
reverting
springsurround
s the shaft.
2.5.2.4.2. Crown
:

Other types of
sprinklers are
bridge-less.
The spring is
connectedabov
e the hammer
by a plastic or
metallic crown.
Under frost or
dusty
conditions,
anexternal
plastic cover
protects the
spring.
2.5.2.5.
Spring:
Stimulates the
rotation of the
sprinkler by
returning the
hammer
armthat was
activated by
the water jet
that was
emitted from
the nozzle. In
the
Bridge Sprinkle
r
, the spring is
fixed within a
fastening frame
while in the
Crown
Sprinkler
the spring is
not fixed within
the frame.In a
Crown
Sprinkler, the
spring tension
can be
adjusted to the
size of the
nozzle andthe
water head.
Springs are
commonly
made of
copper,
however when
usingreclaimed
water,
stainless steel
springs are
recommended.
2.5.2.6.
Hammer arm:
Activates the
sprinkler
rotation.
Wetting range
and
distributionare
determined by
the number of
strikes per
minutes (30-
60). There are
two types
ofhammer
arms:
2.5.2.6.1. Spoon
drive:

a rigid arm
without moving
parts, used in
medium and
highpressure
conditions.
2.5.2.6.2. Wedge
(dual action)
drive:

a plastic
wedge is fitted
on a shaft at
the edge of
Fig. 2.11.
Impact
Sprinkler
Components

SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
12
the arm. Used
in low-pressure
conditions
prone to
malfunction for
small
diameterwettin
g.
2.5.2.7.
Buffer:
Absorbs
partially the
energy of the
hammer
impact to
Minimize
thewear of the
body by the
strikes and
acts as a guide
to the arm.
a. Spoon Drive

b. Wedge
(Dual
Action)Drive

c. Part-circle
Sprinkler

d. Bridge
Sprinkler

e. Crown
Sprinkler

f. Protected
Crown
Sprinkler

Fig. 2.12.
Configuration
s of Impact
Sprinklers
2.5.2.8.
Nozzles
Each sprinkler
is fitted with
one, two or
three nozzles.
The nozzle
type and
sizedetermine
the flow-rate,
the distribution
pattern and
uniformity and
the droplets
size.Nozzles
are prone to
wear and
change of the
flow-rate as
well as the
waterdistributio
n pattern.
Irrigation water
containing
sand is
abrasive and
may expand
thenozzle
aperture and
increase the
flow-rate, as
well as change
the distribution
pattern.Plastic
nozzles are
more resistant
to abrasion
than metallic
ones.There are
different types
of nozzles. A
circular cross-
section of the
nozzle's
aperture,indica
tes a long
range jet while
an elliptic or
half-crescent
cross-section
indicates
ashort-range
wetting
diameter.
Maximum
range is
achieved by a
jet angle of 30
0
related to the
soil surface
while in under-
canopy
sprinklers, 4
0
and

7
0
angles
aredominant.
Nozzle size is
expressed as
its diameter in
mm. Since the
nozzle cross-
section is not
always circular,
size definition
may be quoted
as the nominal
size thatis
equivalent to a
nozzle of
circular cross-
section with an
identical flow-
rate.Ordinarily,
the nozzle size
is stamped on
the nozzles. In
plastic nozzles
it is common

SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
13
to distinguish
between
different sizes
by different
colors.
Fig. 2.13.
Nozzle Types

After S. Elhanani, 1961

The nozzle
flow-rate (Q)
depends on
the water
pressure head,
the diameter of
thenozzle's
aperture and
its friction
coefficient.(Eq.
2.1)Where:
Q
= Nozzle flow-
rate
(discharge),
expressed as
liters per hour
(l/h)
P
= Water
pressure head,
expressed in m
(meters)
D
= Nozzle
nominal
diameter,
expressed in
mm
C
= Friction
coefficient. Its
value for small
nozzles, up to
5.5 mm. =
0.95.For
medium size
nozzles, 5.5-8
mm. = 0.9For
large nozzles,
over 8 mm. =
0.85.The
pressure
dependent
flow-rate for a
certain nozzle
is:(Eq.
2.2)Where:
Q
1
= The flow-rate
at the P
1
head.
Q
2
= The flow-rate
at the P
2
head.
2.5.3. The Jet
Angle
The angle of
the water
stream ejected
from the nozzle
determines the
range,
thesensitivity to
wind and the
water
distribution
pattern. Larger
angles, up to
45
0
, renderlonger
range but
higher
sensitivity to
wind. For the
irrigation of
field crops a 30
0
angleis
common, while
for under-
canopy
irrigation in
orchards, the
prevalent
angles are 4
0
- 7
0
.
Fig. 2.14.
Jet Angles

SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
14
a. Impact
Sprinklers b.
Turbo
Sprinkler Fig.
2.15. Low-
volume Under-
canopy
Sprinklers
2.5.4
Sprinkler
Flow-rate
Sprinklers are
classified into
three groups in
respect to their
flow-rate.
2.5.4.1. Low
flow-rate:
20 - 500 l/h.
Used in
orchards,
greenhouses
and gardens.
2.5.4.2.
Medium flow-
rate:
500 - 5000 l/h.
Used mainly
for overhead
irrigation infield
crops,
orchards,
fodder and
vegetables.
2.5.4.3. High
flow-rate:
Above 5 m
3
/h. Used in
wide-spacing
positioning
andmechanize
d irrigating
machines.
2.5.5.
Working
Pressure
(Head)
2.5.5.1. Low
pressure:
Up to 2 bar (20
m.). Microjets,
microsprinklers
, mini-
sprinklers,
whirling
sprinklers and
turbo-hammer
sprinklers.
2.5.5.2.
Medium
pressure:
2 - 5 bar (20 -
50 m.). Impact
sprinklers.
2.5.5.3. High
pressure:
Above 5 bar
(50 m.). Gun
sprinklers and
large
impactsprinkler
s.
2.5.6.
Sprinkler
Spacing,
Selection
And
Operation
There are a
number of
elementary
factors that
have to be
considered in
the selectionof
sprinklers
according to
distinct
operating
conditions:a.
The flow-rate
and wetting
diameter at
different
degrees of
pressure.b.
Crop
spacing.c. The
desired range
of the pressure
and the
recommended
spacing
betweenemitter
s.d. Soil intake
rate. The
application rate
has to be lower
than the soil
intake rate.e.
Wind
conditions
during the
irrigation
season.f.
Water
quality.(Eq.
2.3)g. Wind
velocities in the
plot have to be
considered in
the selection of
the
sprinklertype
as well as the
spacing
between the
sprinklers. As
the wind
velocity is
higher, the

SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
15
spacing will be
smaller.
Table 2.1.
Wind Velocity
Definitions:
No wind 0 - 1.0
m/sec.Medium
wind velocity
1.0 - 2.5
m/sec.Strong
wind 2.5 - 4.0
m/sec.Very
strong wind
above 4.0
m/sec.
Sprinkler
overhead
irrigation isnot
recommended.
Table 2.2.
Recommende
d Spacing
between
Sprinklers
Positioning
Wind velocity
m/sec
Spacing
No wind 60%
of wettin
diameter2
50% of wetting
diameter3.5
40% of wetting
diameterRecta
ngularMore
than 3.5 30%
of wetting
diameterNo
wind 65% of
wetting
diameter2 55%
of wetting
diameter3.5
45% of wetting
diameterDiago
nalMore than
3.5 30% of
wetting
diameterThe
diagonal
(staggered)
position allows
for wider
spacing
between
sprinklers
underwindy
conditions.
16
3. MICRO-
EMITTERS
3.1.
Introductio
n
The term
micro-irrigation
relates
topressurized
irrigation
technologiese
mploying water
emitters with
tinyapertures
that deliver
water at a low
flow-rate. The
micro-emitters
are classified
intotwo
principal
groups:a.
Emitters that
distribute water
through the air
: micro-
sprinklers,
rotors,
spinners,worte
x emitters,
vibrating
emitters,microj
ets, sprayers,
rayjets and
foggers.There
is no definite
difference
betweensprinkl
ers for
irrigation and
the micro-
emitters that
distribute water
through theair
in micro-
irrigation.
There is
acontroversy
about the
distinction
betweenmacro
and micro
emitters the
commondivisio
n boundary is
60 120 l/h.b.
Emitters that
deliver the
water
directly to the
soil
drippers and
bubblers.
Theseemitters
are not
covered in this
booklet.The
primary use of
non-drip micro-
irrigation
technology is
for the
irrigation
oforchards and
greenhouses.
Unlike sprinkler
irrigation of
field crops and
vegetables,
inwhich the
desired result
is rain-like
uniform
distribution
over the entire
irrigated
area,in orchard
irrigation, full
cover and even
distribution of
water, is
unattainable
and isnot
necessary. The
objective of
orchard
irrigation is to
deliver a
uniform
amount
ofwater to each
tree and to
distribute it in
compliance
with the
distribution of
the rootsystem
in the
soil.There are
still orchards
that are
irrigated by
overhead
sprinklers,
particularly for
frostand hot
spell
protection. In
these
orchards, the
sprinklers
employed are
of the
sametypes that
are used for
irrigation of
field crops.
Obviously,
because of the
interferenceof
the canopy in
orchards, an
even
distribution of
water on the
soil surface
cannot
beachieved.
Overhead
irrigation in
orchards is
favored when
frost protection
is asignificant
factor in the
selection of the
irrigation
technology.
However there
are
manydrawback
s in the use of
overhead
sprinkler
irrigation in
orchards. It
interferes
withpest
management
by leaching the
pesticides from
the canopy and
enhances leaf
andfruit
diseases. The
energy
consumption in
overhead
irrigation is
higher than in
under-canopy
irrigation.The
dominant
technology in
orchard
pressurized
irrigation,
therefore, is
under-
canopyirrigatio
n by low-
volume, low-
angle
sprinklers, mini
and micro-
sprinklers, as
well
asmicrojets,
sprayers and
drippers.Recen
tly, the use of
micro-
sprinklers had
been extended
to irrigation of
vegetablesand
field
crops.Micro-
sprinklers are
commonly built
of rigid plastic
materials. They
are much
smaller
Fig. 3.1.
Diverse
Micro-
emitters

17
and cheaper
than
conventional
sprinklers.
3.2. Micro-
emitter
Types
There are four
emitter types:
a. Static Micro-
emittersb.
Vortex
Emittersc.
Vibrating
Micro-jetsd.
Micro-
sprinklers
3.2.1. Static
Micro-
emitters
(Micro-jets)
Static micro-
jets have no
moving
components
and are
classified into
three groups:
3.2.1.1.
Sprayers

the water
stream is
fragmented
into tiny
droplets by
means of
astatic
deflector.
Water is
distributed in a
relatively short
range and the
tiny drops
arewind-
sensitive.

In sprayers,
the deflectors
form a fine
spray,
providing
uniform
coverage that
isessential in
sandy soils.
They are
particularly
useful for frost
protection.
However,they
are susceptible
to wind and
bring about
relatively high
evaporation
losses.The
deflectors are
produced in
diverse styles
that allow
sector
coverage from
45
0
to360
0
.
3.2.1.2.
Misters and
Foggers

water droplets
are smaller
than in
sprayers.
Spreadrange is
shorter. Wind
sensitivity and
evaporation
losses are
higher than in
sprayers.This
type is mostly
used to
increase the
humidity in
greenhouses
and poultry
coops,as well
as for frost
protection in
orchards.
3.2.1.3. Multi-
jet Emitters
(Ray-jets,
Fan-jets)

the water
stream is
splitted into 4
20 discrete
jets. The
wetting range
is extended
and wind
sensitivity is
reduced.

Absence of
moving parts
increases its
reliability
compared with
rotating micro-
sprinklers.
a. Static
Sprayer b.
Ray-jet c.
Mister d.
Fogger Fig.
3.2. Static
Micro-jets
18
3.2.1.4. Vortex
Emitters
These emitters
have no
moving
parts.The
water whirls in
a circular
vortexchamber
that delivers a
low flow-
ratethrough a
relatively large
opening
thatreduces
clogging
hazard. The
areawetted by
this emitter is
smaller than
thewetted area
by micro-
sprinklers.
3.2.1.5.
Vibrating
Micro-jets
Water ejected
from a circular
orificestrikes a
deflector and
triggers it
tovibrate. The
vibration of the
deflectorcreate
s larger drops
than those
ofsprayers,
increases the
distributionrang
e and reduces
evaporation
andsensitivity
to wind. The
emitter is
simpleand
reliable.
3.2.2. Micro-
sprinklers
Micro-
sprinklers are
manufactured
in different
configurations.
Their
distinctivechar
acteristic is the
rotation of the
deflector or the
nozzle around
a central shaft.
Thisfacilitates
wetting of
larger area,
compared with
micro-
sprayers.
However,
theinclusion of
moving parts
increases the
susceptibility to
the
interference of
externalfactors,
as well as
wear, tear and
breakage of its
components.
During
harvestoperati
ons, fruit
pickers
sometimes
step on and
break micro-
sprinkler
emitters
andstakes.
Herbicide
spray booms
and other
tillage
equipment can
also damage
theemitters.Mo
st types of
micro-
sprinklers are
modular. Many
components
are
interchangeabl
eand enable
the
modification of
flow-rate,
range,
distribution
pattern and
droplet
size,matching
to specific
requirements,
at low cost.
Fig. 3.5.
Modular
Micro-emitter
Water
Spreading
Pattern
Deflectors in
diverse
configurations
allow sectorial
coverage from
45
0
to 360
0
.
Fig. 3.3.
Vortex
Sprayer

Fig. 3.4.
VibratingMicro
-jet

19
3.2.3. Micro-
sprinkler
Types
3.2.3.1. Rotors

are
manufactured
indifferent
configurations.
The
centralshaft
with the nozzle
is static.
Thewater jet
hits a rotating
deflector
thatdistributes
water in larger
area thanthe
vibrating
emitters.

3.2.3.2.
Spinners

- the nozzle
rotatesand
further
increases the
jet range,that is
bigger than
that of
therotators
.
The movement
of components
inmicro-
sprinklers
increases
theirsensitivity
to the
interference
offactors like
weeds,
precipitates
andsplashed
soil particles. It
alsoaccelerate
s wear and
tear.
Thedamage
danger from
herbicidespray
er booms and
other
tillageequipme
nt increases
during
harvestoperati
ons.Rotors'
and spinners'
configurationaff
ects their
sturdiness.
There are
twoprincipal
forms:
unilateral and
bi-lateral
supports that
hold
therotor/spinne
r swivel. Bi-
lateralsupport
provides
improved
holding tothe
rotating
spinner or
deflector,
butthe two
vertical
supports
create
drysectors
behind them.
a. Micro-
sprinkler
Components
b.
Interchangeab
le
ComponentsFi
g. 3.8. Modular
Micro-
sprinkler a.
rotor

b. spinner

Fig. 3.6.
Rotating
Micro-
sprinklersa.
Unilateral
Support b. Bi-
lateral
SupportFig.
3.7. Micro-
sprinklers
Configuration
s
20
Pressure
compensating
and flow
regulated
micro-emitters
are particularly
suitable
forirrigation of
steep sloping
plots.Micro-
sprinkler
systems
require a
higher volume
of water supply
compared with
on-surface or
buried drip
systems.Dedic
ated micro-
emitters had
been
developed for
use on laterals
in
mechanizedirri
gation. They
will be related
in the chapter
on mechanized
irrigation.
3.3. Emitter
Mounting
Emitters can
be mounted
directly on the
lateral,
attached by a
barbed or
threadedprotru
sion. The most
prevailing
connection to
the lateral is by
means of a
smalldiameter
micro-tube.
The

vertical
position of the
emitter is
secured by a
stake,stabilizin
g rod or a
weight (in
upside-down
positioning In
greenhouses
andmechanize
d irrigation).
The emitter is
raised 10 25
cm above soil
surface to
preventwater
blockong and
disturbance in
the rotation of
the moving
parts of micro-
sprinklersby
weed
interference
and splashed
soil particles.
The micro-
tubes are 50
100 cmlong
and 4 8 mm
in diameter. To
prevent
excessive
head losses,
tube diameter
ofat least 6 - 8
mm is required
for emitter
flow-rates over
60 l/h and
when the
micro-tube
length is over
60 cm.In
greenhouses,
micro-
sprinklers,
misters and
foggers are
frequently used
toincrease the
relative
humidity and
lower the
temperature of
the ambient
atmosphere.Th
e misters and
the foggers
emit tiny
droplets and
are operated
intermittently
inpulses.
These emitters
are often
mounted
upside-down
with the
trajectory
angleslanted
downwards, in
order to avoid
hitting the
glass or plastic
ceiling.Threade
d micro-
emitters are
installed on
1
/
2"

3
/
4
" rigid PVC
risers. Barb
micro-emitters
can be
mounted
directly on the
lateral. In
greenhouses,
micro-emitters
maybe
installed
upside down

for overhead
irrigation and
misting.
Weights are
hung
tostabilize
them vertically.

Micro-
sprinklers are
prone to
clogging, but
when clogging
occurs it is
quickly
visuallynoticed
and easily
cleaned. Some
emitters are
equipped with
a small integral
valve toenable
local water
shut-down
during the
cleaning
process.Some
types of micro-
sprinklers are
prone to
clogging by the
eggs and
excretions
ofspiders, ants
and other
insects. Insect-
proof devices
have been
developed to
preventthese
obstructions.
Spiders are
capable of
tying up
spinners and
halt their
rotation.Micro-
sprinkler
operation can
also be
disturbed by
sand that is
splashed
upward
fromthe soil
surface when
hit by droplets
from adjacent
emitter.Blocka
ge that is not
removed on
time in
orchards that
employ one
emitter per
treemay result
in lower yields
and reduced
produce
quality.
21
3.4. Water
Distribution
Patterns
The emitters
water
distribution
pattern is
determined by
its outlet
(nozzle)
anddeflector
geometry,
trajectory
angle, droplet
size, pressure
and flow-rate.
The higherthe
trajectory angle
(up to 30
0
) and the larger
the droplet size
and flow-rate,
the largerwill
be the wetting
diameter in the
range of the
designed
working
pressure.
Thepatterns of
water
distribution and
wetting depth
in the wetted
area vary with
theemitter
type. In some
emitters the
wetting pattern
is triangular.
These emitters
aresuitable for
overlapping
and full wetting
of the soil
surface. In
some emitters
thedeeper
wetting depth
is adjacent to
the emitter
while in others
the water is
distributedmor
e evenly in
most of the
wetted area.
a. Sprayer
onStakeb.
Upside-down
Misterswith
Stabilizing
Weightsc.
Micro-sprinkler
on Rod d.
Upside-
downMicro-
sprinkler
Fig. 3.9.
Mounting
Alternatives of
Micro-emitters
22
Fig. 3.10.
Water
Distribution
by Micro-
sprinkler at
Different Flow-
rates
(example)Fig.
3.11. Multiple-
jet (Fan-jet)
Emitter's
Distribution
Patterns
From "Bowsmith"
Brochure
3.5.
Pressure
Compensati
on
Micro-
sprinklers and
micro-jets can
be pressure
compensating.
That facilitates
longerlaterals
and uniform
application in
harsh
topographic
conditions.
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
23
4. THE
IRRIGATION
SYSTEM
4.1.
Introduction
The
performance of
a
pressurizedirrig
ation system
depends on
theavailable
water sources,
reservoirs
andpumping
facilities. The
efficiency
ofenergy use
and water
application
isdetermines
by the
properties of
thepumping
unit and the
water delivery
anddistribution
network.
4.1.1. The
Main
Components
of
theIrrigation
System
a. The
pumping unitb.
Supply
pipelinec.
Control headd.
Mains and sub-
mainse.
Manifoldsf.
Lateralsg.
Risersh.
Emittersi.
Accessories:
Valves, check-
valves
(backflow
preventers), air
releasevalves,
vacuum
valves, filters,
couplers,
risers,
pressure and
flowregulators,
fertigation
devices, etc.
4.1. The
Pumping
Unit
While the
water emitters
are the core of
the
pressurizedirrig
ation system,
the pump is its
priming
element.
Thepump lifts
water from the
source (well,
river,
lake,reservoir,
canal, etc.,),
increases its
energy
andgoverns
the capacity
and the
working
pressure in
thesystem.Pu
mps are
activated by
electric motors
or
internalconbust
ion engines
and deliver
water under
pressureto the
irrigation
system. Water
supply can be
attainedalso
from external
water suppliers
that are
responsiblefor
the appropriate
pressure head
in the
connectionpoin
t with the
irrigation
system. In
some cases,
thepressure in
the supply
connection
point is too low
andthe farmer
has to boost
the water
pressure by
means ofa
booster
pump.The
energy use
efficiency of
electric motors
is muchhigher
than that of
combustion
engines.
Hence,
Ifelectricity is
available, it will
be the
preferred
choice. Ifthere
is no electricity
source, pumps
can be
operated bya
diesel,
kerosene or
gas motor.The
efficiency of
the pumping
unit is an
important
factorin water
discharge,
pressure head
and energy
costs.
Fig. 4.1.
Schematic
Plot Irrigation
SystemLayout
After NDSU Extension
Publication
Fig. 4.2.
Electric
Water Pumps

SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
24
The pumping
unit is
composed of
three major
components:
The power
unit,
thetransmissio
n to the pump
(drive or gear
head) and the
pump itself.
4.1.1. Pump
Performance
Terminology
4.1.1.1 Pump
performance -
Capacity is
expressed as
volume per
time unit, e.g.:
cubic meters
per hour (m
3
/h)

and the
pressure as
meters (m.)
of head
.
In theimperial
unit system it is
designated as
gallons per
minute
(gpm)

and
feets
of head
. In general, in
a specific
pump, a trade-
off occurs
between head
and
capacity.Increa
se in head
brings about
the decrease in
capacity and
vice versa.
4.1.1.2. Head
refers to gains
or losses in
pressure due
to change in
topography
andfriction in
the
network.The
following terms
are used when
referring to lift
or head:
4.1.1.3. Static
Suction Lift
- The vertical
distance from
the water
surface in
thereservoir/we
ll to the
centerline of
the pump's
impeller.
4.1.1.4.
Maximum
suction lift -
Pumps lift
water with the
support of
atmosphericpr
essure. The
practical
suction lift, at
sea level, is
~10 m. Later
on, the pump
impartsaddition
al pressure to
the water and
discharges it
from the
casing.
4.1.1.5. Static
Discharge
Head
the vertical
distance from
the discharge
outlet tothe
point of
discharge or
liquid level
when
discharging
into the bottom
of a tank.
4.1.1.6.
Dynamic
Suction Head

the static
suction
lifts plus the
friction in
the suction
line
. Also referred
to as
Total Suction
Head
.
4.1.1.7.
Dynamic
Discharge
Head

the static
discharge
head
plus
the friction in
the discharge
line
. Also referred
to as
Total
Discharge
Head
.
4.1.1.8. Total
Dynamic
Head

the Dynamic
Suction
Head
plus the
Dynamic Disc
harge

Head
. Also referred
to as
Total Head
.
4.1.1.9. Net
Positive
Suction Head

(NPSH)
the head
measured in
the
suctionpoint.
4.1.1.10. Net
Positive
Suction Head
required
(NPSHr) -
The minimum
headrequireme
nt in the pump
inlet. It takes
into
consideration
head losses in
the
suctionpiping
and
connections,
the elevation
and absolute
pressure of the
fluid in the
suctionpiping,
the velocity of
the fluid and
the
temperature,
including what
goes on in the
eyeof the
pump's
impeller. Some
of these factors
add energy to
the fluid as it
moves intothe
pump, and
others subtract
energy from
the fluid. There
must be
sufficient
energyin the
fluid for the
impeller to
convert this
energy into
pressure and
flow. If the
energyis

inadequate we
say that the
pump suffers
inadequate
NPSH. The
NPSHr
is actuallythe
minimum
suction
pressure
necessary to
keep the
pumped fluid in
a liquid
stateand avoid
cavitation in
the pump.
4.1.1.11. Net
Positive
Suction Head
available
(NPSHa)
The head
available at
thepump inlet.
It has to
exceed the
NPSH required
.
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
25
4.1.2. Pump
Types
There is an
extensive
selection of
pump types.
Only a few of
them are used
in
waterpumping.
Fig. 4.3. Pump
Type
Classification
According to the
Hydraulic Institute (HI)
Standards

All pumps may
be divided into
two major
categories,
based on the
pattern in
whichthey
transmit
energy to the
pumped fluid:a.
Kinetic
(dynamic)
pumpsb.
Positive
displacement
pumps1) In
kinetic pumps,
continuously
added energy
increases the
velocity of
thefluid. Later
on, this velocity
is converted
into pressure.
In centrifugal
pumps, energy
isimparted to
the fluid by
centrifugal
action, by
impeller or
lifting action of
a screw withina
close-
clearance
bore.2) In
positive
displacement
pumps,
intermittently
added energy
directlyincreas
es the
pressure of the
fluid. The
reciprocating
action of one
or several
pistons,or a
squeezing
action of
diaphragms,
meshing gears,
lobes, or other
movingelement
s, displaces
the pumped
fluid from the
suction point to
the discharge
outlet.These
pumps have
limited
capacities and
are not suitable
for pumping
when
largevolume of
water is
required for
irrigation or
drainage. They
are used
mainly
forinjection of
chemicals into
irrigation
systems and
will be related
in the chapter
onfertigation.
4.1.2.1.
Comparison
of the Main
Features
between
Kinetic and
PositiveDispla
cement
Pumps
4.1.2.1.1. Flow-
rate and
Pressure Head
The two types
of pumps
behave
differently
regarding
pressure head
and flow-rate:
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
26
a. The
Centrifugal
Pump's flow
varies,
dependending
on the system
pressure(head)
.b. The
Positive
Displacement
Pump's flow is
constant,
regardless of
the
systempressur
e (head).
Generally,
Positive
Displacement
Pumps are
capable
togenerate
higher
pressure than
Centrifugal
Pumps.
4.1.2.1.2.
Capacity and
Viscosity
Another
significant
difference
between these
two pump
types is the
effect of
viscosityon the
capacity:a. In
Centrifugal
Pumps the flow
decreases
when the
viscosity is
increased.Cent
rifugal Pumps
are inefficient
at even modest
viscosity.b. In
Positive
Displacement
Pumps the flow
increases
when viscosity
isincreased.
Liquids with
high viscosity
fill the
clearances of a
PositiveDisplac
ement Pump
causing a
higher
volumetric
efficiency. The
PositiveDisplac
ement Pump is
better suited
for high
viscosity
applications.
Thatproperty is
irrelevant to
pumping of
water, since
water viscosity
changes
onlyslightly as
a function of
temperature
change.
4.1.2.1.3.
Mechanical
Efficiency
The pumps
behave in
different
patterns
considering
mechanical
efficiency.a. In
Centrifugal
Pumps
changes in
system
pressure
(head), affects
significantlythe
flow-rate.
b.
In Positive
Displacement
Pumps
changes in
system
pressure have
little or noeffect
on the flow-
rate.
4.1.2.1.4. Net
Positive
Suction Head
- NPSH
Another
difference
relates to the
Net Positive
Suction Head
(NPSH).a. In a
Centrifugal
Pump, NPSH
varies as a
function of flow
determined by
pressure
.b. In a Positive
Displacement
Pump, NPSH
varies as a
function of
flowdetermined
by
speed
. Reducing the
speed of the
Positive
Displacement
Pumpreduces
the NPSH.
4.1.2.1.5. Pump
Velocity
a. Since in
centrifugal
pumps the
energy is
imparted to the
liquid by
means
ofcentrifugal
force, the
pressure
generated is
proportional to
the square of
thespeed of
the impeller.b.
A positive
displacement
pump is simply
pushing the
liquid against
whateverresist
ance that is put
on its way. The
speed at which
it runs is
irrelevant

thepressure it
can generate is
only a function
of how
mechanically
strong
themachine is.
4.1.3. Suction
Lift of a Pump

The theoretical
suction lift or
suction head is
equal to
atmospheric
pressure
dividedby the
density of the
fluid being
pumped. In
case of plain
water (cold) it
is 10.33meters
or 33.9 feet.
Hence for
other fluids
maximum
suction lift is:
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
27
(Eq. 4.1)
4.1.4. Kinetic
Pumps
Kinetic pumps
are dynamic
devices that
impart the
energy of
motion (kinetic
energy)to a
liquid by use of
a rotating
impeller,
propeller, or
similar
devices.Kinetic
pumps are
classified into
two main
groups:a.
Centrifugal /
Turbine
pumpsb.
Special pump
types:
centrifugal
screw, rotating
case, viscous
drag and
vortexaction.
4.1.4.1.
Centrifugal
Pumps
The
advantages of
centrifugal
pumps brought
about that they
became the
pump ofchoice
in water
delivery.Comp
ared with
positive
displacement
pumps, the
main benefits
are smaller
size andlower
weight.
Centrifugal
pumps attain
much larger
flows in a
compact
device,without
pressure and
flow pulsations.
They are much
easier to
control,
unlikepositive
displacement
pumps in
which flow-rate
can only be
controlled by
varying
thespeed, the
flow-rate of a
centrifugal
pump can be
adjusted
simply by
means
ofdischarge
throttling.Centri
fugal pumps
can be
classified by
impeller shape
and
characteristics.
Impellersare
grouped
according to
the major
direction of
flow with
respect to the
axis ofrotation.
a. Cutaway b.
Pump
Components
Fig. 4.4.
Centrifugal
Pump
With respect
to type of
impeller, all
centrifugal
pumps can be
classified into
threegroups:a.
Radial-flow
pumpsb. Axial-
flow pumpsc.
Mixed-flow
pumpsCentrifu
gal pumps can
also be
classified into
four major
groups
depending on
theirdesign and
application.
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
28
a. Volute
pumpsb.
Turbine
pumpsc.
Diffuser
pumpsd.
Propeller
pumpsCentrifu
gal
pumpsemploy
a
rotatingimpeller
to move
waterthrough a
piping
system.The
rotating
impellerincreas
es water
pressureby
transformation
of kinetic
energy. As
water is drawn
into the pump,
the
rotatingimpeller
releases
kinetic energy
into the water.
When the
water exits
outward
throughthe
impeller vanes,
the kinetic
energy
(velocity) is
converted into
pressure.Centri
fugal pumps
must be
primed by
filling them with
water before
they can
beactivated.
Water has to
flow into the
pump when
pressure at the
center (eye) of
theimpeller is
reduced below
atmospheric
pressure.
Volute
pumps
and
Turbine
pumps
are the two
main
centrifugal
pump
categoriesthat
control and
maintain water
pressure
differently.
4.1.4.1.1 Volute
Centrifugal
Pumps
The primary
difference
between volute
pumps and
turbine pumps
is the presence
orlack of
diffusion
vanes. In
volute pumps
there are no
diffusion
vanes, but the
outercasing is
a spiral. This
shape reduces
water velocity
(and eventual
pressure)
bycreating an
equal flow of
water as it
moves around
the spiral
toward the
dischargenozzl
e. The spiral is
called a
volute.Volute
centrifugal
pumps are
used to pump
from
reservoirs,
lakes, streams
andshallow
wells. They are
also used as
booster pumps
in supply and
irrigationpipelin
es. The
impeller
converts
energy from
the motor to
the water by
centrifugalforce
. The rotation
of the impeller
develops
centrifugal
forces that
drive the
watertowards
the impeller's
external edge.
The impeller is
surrounded by
a volute
casing.The
volute or
stationary
diffuser ring
converts the
kinetic energy
into pressure
energyand
delivers the
fluid to the
pump
discharge
outlet. The
horsepower
input
isproportional
to the pumping
water
discharge and
the pressure
level.As the
resistance of a
system
increases, the
head will also
increase. This
in turncauses
the flow-rate to
decrease and
will eventually
reach zero. A
zero flow-rate
isonly
acceptable for
a short period
without
causing to the
pump to burn-
out.Centrifugal
pumps are
designed for
either
horizontal or
vertical
operation.
Thehorizontal
configuration
employs a
vertical
impeller
connected to
horizontal
driveshaft.
Horizontal
centrifugal
pumps are the
most common
in irrigation
systems.
Theyare
relatively
cheap, require
less
maintenance,
easier to install
and more
accessiblefor
inspection and
maintenance
than the
vertical
pumps.Since
centrifugal
pumps must be
"primed" -
completely
filled with
water, before
theycan
operate, the
suction line
and the pump
have to be
filled with water
and freed
ofair.Air tight
joints and
connections
are particularly
important on
the suction
pipe. Priminga
pump can be
done by hand
operated
secondary
vacuum
pumps,
internalcombus
tion engine or
motor powered
secondary
vacuum
pumps.
Fig. 4.5.
Different Flow
Patterns in
Centrifugal
Pumps
From Grundfos Pump
Handbook
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
29
Vertical
centrifugal
pumps may
bemounted so
that the
impeller
isimmersed
continuously in
the water.
Inthis case,
priming is
unnecessary.T
here are self-
priming
horizontalcentri
fugal pumps
for special
purposeuse.
Self priming is
particularlyess
ential where
there are
frequentelectric
al power
outages. Self
primingis
requested also
with the
newgeneration
of control
panels for
centerpivots,
where
automatic
restart is
aprogrammabl
e function.
4.1.4.1.2.
Turbine Pumps
In a turbine
pump, multiple
diffusionvanes
surround the
rotating
impeller.As
water is
released from
the center(eye)
of the impeller,
it spins
outwardsas the
impeller
rotates. Around
the impellers
circumference
are
constructed
diffusionvanes
- passages that
widen
gradually and
open into a
circular or
spiral casing.
Themain role
of the diffusion
vanes is to
gradually
reduce the
velocity of
water.
Thevelocity is
transformed
into pressure.
Once in the
outer casing,
the water
circlesaround
toward the
outlet (nozzle),
where it exits
the
pump.Heads
over 300 m.
arereadily
developed in a
two-stage
turbine
pump.Vertical
turbines have
vertical drive
shafts and are
used to pump
water from
wells.The
impeller has
tight axial
clearance and
pump channel
rings that
decreaserecirc
ulation head
losses.The
channel rings
create a
circular
channel
around the
impeller's
blades from
theinlet to the
outlet. The
liquid entering
the channel
from the inlet is
picked
upimmediately
by the vanes
on both sides
of the impeller
and pushed
through
thechannel by
the shearing
action. The
repeating
process
continuously
increases
thewater
energy.
4.1.4.1.2.1. Deep
Well Turbine
Pumps

Deep well
turbine pumps
are used in
cased wells or
where the
water surface
isdeeper than
the practical
limits of a
volute
centrifugal
pump. Turbine
pumps are
alsoused with
surface water
systems. Since
in this case,
the water
intake is
continuouslybe
low the water
surface,
priming is not
needed.
Turbine pump
efficiencies
arecomparable
to or greater
than most
volute
centrifugal
pumps. They
are usually
moreexpensive
than volute
centrifugal
pumps and
more
complicated to
inspect and
repair.There
are two
configurations:
a. The pump is
connected with
a vertical gear
shaft to a
motor on topb.
Submersible
motor in water-
proof caseThe
turbine pump
has three main
parts:a. Head
assemblyb.
Shaft and
column
assemblyc.
Pump bowl
assembly
Fig. 4.6. Water
Flow in Volute
Pump
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
30
The pump
head is
normally
madeof cast
iron and
designed to
beinstalled on
a foundation.
Itsupports the
column, shaft
andbowl
assemblies
and provides
adischarge
outlet for the
water.
Itsupports an
electric motor,
a rightangle
gear drive or a
belt drive.

The shaft and
column
assemblyprovi
des a
connection
betweenthe
head and the
pump
bowls.The line
shaft transfers
the powerfrom
the motor to
the
impellersand
the column that
carries
thewater to the
surface. The
lineshaft on a
turbine pump
may beeither
oil or water
lubricated.
Oil-
lubricated
pump has
anenclosed
shaft into
which oildrips,
lubricating the
bearings.
Water-
lubricated
pump has
anopen shaft.
The bearings
arelubricated
by the pumped
water.If the
water contains
fine sand,oil
lubrication is a
must. If
thewater is for
domestic or
livestockuse, it
must be free of
oil and awater-
lubricated
pump have
tobe used.The
impeller is
enclosed by
thepump bowl.
Due to its
limiteddiameter
, each impeller
developsa
relatively low
head. In
mostdeep well
turbine
installations,se
veral bowls are
stacked
inseries one
above another.
This iscalled
staging. A four-
stage
bowlassembly
contains four
impellers,all
attached to a
common
shaftand
creates four
times
thedischarge
head of a
single-
stagepump.Im
pellers used in
turbine pumps
may be either
semi-open or
enclosed. The
vanes onsemi-
open impellers
are open on
the bottom and
they rotate with
a close
tolerance tothe
bottom of the
pump bowl.
The tolerance
is critical and
have to be
adjusted
whenthe pump
is new.During
the initial
break-in period
the line shaft
couplings will
tighten,
therefore,
afterabout 100
hours of
operation, the
impeller
adjustments
should be
checked. After
a. Motor on
Top

b. Submersible

Fig. 4.7. Deep-
well Verical
Turbine
Pumps
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
31
break-in, the
tolerance must
be checked
and adjusted
every three to
five years
ormore often if
sand is
suspended in
the pumped
water.

4.1.5.
Installation of
VerticalTurbi
ne Pumps
Deep well
turbine pumps
must
havecorrect
alignment
between the
pump andthe
power unit.
Correct
alignment
ismade easy
by using a
head
assemblythat
matches the
motor
andcolumn/pu
mp assembly.
The well has
tobe straight
and
perpendicular.
The
pumpcolumn
assembly must
be
verticallyaligne
d so that no
component
touches the
well casing. If
the pump
column
doestouch the
well casing,
vibration will
wear holes in
the casing. A
pump column
out ofvertical
alignment may
also cause
excessive
bearing
wear.The head
assembly must
be mounted on
a good
foundation, at
least 12" above
theground
surface. A
foundation of
concrete
provides a
permanent and
trouble-
freeinstallation.
4.1.6.
Submersible
Pumps
Submersible
pumps are
particularly
advantageous
in pumping
from
exceptionallyd
eep wells.

In a
conventional
vertical wet-pit
pump the
motor is
mounted on
top at the
surface, inthe
open air,
driving the
pump via a line
shaft. The
deeper the
pump is, the
longer theline
shaft must be.
Long shafts,
particularly at
high speed
rotation, are
susceptible
toproblems of
misalignment
and the
intermediate
bearings are
prone to wear
whenthere are
any abrasive
particles in the
pumped liquid.
Submerged
motor drives
thepump
directly. Pumps
can be
submerged in
depth of 2 km
and
more.Submersi
ble pumps can
be installed in
caissons wider
only slightly
than the
pumpitself. The
limiting factor
with regard to
the minimum
diameter is
usually
therequirement
for sufficient
liquid
circulation
around the
pump in order
to keep
themotor
cool.A typical
submersible
pump is a
turbine pump
close-coupled
to a
submersible
electricmotor.
Both pump and
motor are
suspended in
the water,
thereby
eliminating
thelong drive
shaft and
bearing
retainers
required for a
deep well
turbine pump
withmotor on
top. The pump
is located
above the
motor, and the
water enters
the
pumpthrough a
screen
positioned
between the
pump and the
motor.

In submersible
pumps,
enclosed
impellers are
used because
the shaft from
theelectric
motor expands
when it heats
and pushes up
on the
impellers. The
pumpcurve for
a submersible
pump is similar
to that of a
deep well
turbine pump
withmotor on
top.Submersibl
e motors are
smaller in
diameter and
much longer
than ordinary
motors.Becaus
e of their
smaller
diameter, their
efficiency is
lower than that
of motors
usedwith
centrifugal or
conventional
deep well
turbine pumps.
Submersible
motors
areclassified
as dry or wet
motors. Dry
motors are
hermetically
sealed with
high
Fig. 4.8. Pump
Impellers
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
32
dielectric oil
inside for
lubrication, to
exclude water
from the motor.
In wet motors
therotor and
bearings are
open to the
well water and
operate inside
it.If water
circulation
through the
motor is
inadequate, it
may overheat
and burn
out.Therefore,
the length of
riser pipe must
be sufficient to
keep the bowl
assembly
andmotor
completely
submerged
always and the
well casing
must be large
enough toallow
water to easily
flow past the
motor.Submers
ible pumps
used for
irrigation need
three phase
electrical
power.
Electricalwiring
from the pump
to the surface
must be
watertight with
all connections
sealed.Voltage
at the motor
leads must be
within 10% of
the motor
nameplate
voltage.Becaus
e the pump is
located inside
the well,
lightning
protection
should be
wired intothe
control
box.Submersib
le booster
pumps can be
mounted
horizontally in
a pipeline.
Occasionallyth
ey are used as
booster pumps
in the suction
lines of volute
centrifugal
pumps,where
the water level
fluctuates
significantly
along the
season.
Having a
submersiblepu
mp in the
suction line will
convert the
head at the
inlet of the
volute
centrifugalpum
p from a
suction head to
a positive
head.

4.1.7. Pump
Stages

The head
generated by
Volute and
turbine pumps
depends on
the number of
stages.
Fig. 4.9.
Single-stage
Pump Fig.
4.10. Multi-
stage Pump
4.1.7.1.
Single-stage
Pump
a. It has one
impeller keyed
to the shaft.
This is
generally
horizontal but
can bevertical
also.b. It is
usually a low
lift pump.
4.1.7.2. Multi-
stage pump
a. It has two or
more impellers
keyed to a
single shaft
and enclosed
in the
samecasing.
Pressure is
built up in
steps.b. The
impellers are
surrounded by
guide vanes
and the water
is led through
aby-pass
channel from
the outlet of
one stage to
the entrance of
the next
stageuntil it is
finally
discharged into
a wide
chamber from
where it is
pushed on
tothe delivery
pipe.c. Multi-
stage pumps
are used
essentially for
high working
head and the
numberof
stages
depends on
the head
required.
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
33
4.1.8. Solar
Water Pumps
and Solar
Water
Pumping
Systems

DC powered
pumps, are
used in typical
solarelectric
systems that
have an
inverter
available.
DCpowered
pumps are
used for deep
and shallow
wellpumping,
stock tanks,
irrigation and
many
otherapplicatio
ns. DC pumps
are different in
manypropertie
s from the AC
pumps that are
ordinarilyused
in water
delivery
systems.DC
pumps come in
a variety of
types:
smallpressure
booster
pumps,
diaphragm and
pistonpositive
displacement
pumps for
wells,
boosterpumps,
circulating
pumps,
groundwater
samplingpump
s etc.These
low-power
pumps allow
building a
solarpumping
system for a
deep well at a
modest cost.
They are
cheaper than
windmilloperat
ed pumps, and
have peak
output during
dry, sunny
weather when
water isneeded
most. They can
be installed
and pulled by
hand. They
can pump from
wellsof very
low yield that
conventional
pumps may
suck dry in
minutes.
Pumps
areavailable
that pump as
low as 120 l.
per hour.Solar
energy
operated
pumps require
a dedicated
controllers if
they are to
bepowered
directly by
Photo Voltaic
(PV) modules
without battery
backup.
4.1.9. Variable
Speed Drives
For years, the
common
means
fordecreasing
excessive
water
pumpingbeyon
d the
requested
amount
werethrottling
by valves or
release of
theexcess
water to
reservoirs.
These
twotechniques
are energy
wasteful
andpose
hazard of
damage to the
watersystem
by excessive
pressure.Nowa
days, Variable
Speed
Drives(VSDs),
known also as
VariableFreque
ncy Drives
(VFDs),
areextensively
used in water
pumping.They
control the
discharge by
changingthe
velocity (rpm)
of the
impeller/turbine
according to
water demand
and keepthe
pump
operating at
high
energeticefficie
ncy. It also
protects the
pumpfrom
mechanical
damage by
excessivepress
ure and
enhances its
mechanical
reliability. The
old fashion
valve throttling
isexpensive,
contributes to
higher energy
and
maintenance
costs, and
impairs
controlloop
performance.
Employing a
throttled
control valve,
less than 50%
open, on
thepump
discharge
outlet, may
accelerate
component
wear and slow
valve
response.Sinc
e Variable
Frequency
Drives allow
pumps to run
at slower
speeds, the
MeanTime
Between
Failures
(MTBF) is
extended.
Fig. 4.11.
Solar
Pumping
System

Fog. 4.12. A
Variable-
frequency
Drive
Controllsa Set
of 3 Pumps
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
34
4.1.10.
Selecting an
Efficient
Pumping
Plant
The
efficiencies of
individual
pump types
vary among
types,
manufacturers
andmodels.
The minimum
acceptable
pump
efficiency is in
the range 75-
85%. Once
theoperating
pressure
(head) and
system
capacity (in m
3
/h) have been
determined,pu
mp
characteristic
curves should
be consulted to
select the most
efficient pump
forthe specific
requirements.
4.1.10.1.
Power-unit
Efficiency
. Power-unit
efficiency is
important in
pumping
plantperforman
ce. As
mentioned
before, power
sources are of
two types: (a)
internalcombus
tion engines
(either direct
drive engines
used solely for
irrigation or
tractorsequipp
ed with a
power takeoff
to drive
pumps) and (b)
electric
motors.Power-
unit efficiency
is the efficiency
with which
chemical
energy stored
in the fuel(for
internal
combustion
engines) or
electrical
energy (for
electric motors)
isconverted to
mechanical
energy to drive
the pump.
Where
electricity is
available, it
isthe most
efficient power
source. The
efficiency of
electric motors
ranges from
about80% for
motors under
7.5 hp. to over
90% for motors
of 75 hp. or
more.Internal
combustion
engines are
much less
efficient. Diesel
engine
efficiencies
rangeis 25-
37% and
kerosine
engines are
only 20-26%
efficient. The
difference
inoperating
costs among
various types
of power units
and pumps
over the
lifetime ofthe
pumping plant,
must be
weighed
against any
savings in
initial
investment.
4.1.10.2. The
Pump
Efficiency (

)
The efficiency
of a pump is
determined by
its hydraulic
and
mechanical
performance.It
is defined as
the ratio of the
useful power
delivered by
the pump
(WaterKilowatt
s) to the power
supplied to the
pump shaft
(brake
horsepower).
Theefficiency
of the pump is
expressed as
percentage or
decimal
fraction.
4.1.11.
Maintaining
Irrigation
System
Efficiency
Well-designed
irrigation
systems with
properly sized
pumping plants
will
normallymeet
or exceed
performance
standards
during initial
use. However,
over the
lifetimeof the
system,
mechanical
components of
the system
wear, reducing
the
overalleffficien
cy of the
system. The
common
causes of low
overall
effficiency
arediscussed
below.
4.1.11.1.
Internal
Combustion
Engines.
Each
percentage
decrease in
engineefficienc
y increases
fuel
consumption
by 3-5%.Pump
engines should
be tuned-up at
the beginning
of each
irrigation
season
toensure
effficient
performance.
Air and fuel
filters should
be changed
atmanufacturer
s'
recommended
intervals.
4.1.11.2.
Electric
Motors.
A buildup of
dirt or oil,
obstruction of
cooling vents,
wornor
dragging motor
bearings, and
voltage surges
caused by
lightnings can
causeelectric
motors to
overheat.
Overheating
often leads to
shorted wires
in the
windingand is
the most
common cause
of low motor
efficiency.
Voltage surges
can alsocause
damage to or
misalignment
of phases in
three-phase
motors,
resulting in
lowmotor
efficiency.
Misaligned
shafts between
motor and
pump and
over-
tightenedpacki
ng glands or
seals can also
reduce
efficiency. Low
efficiency
caused
byextended
use (wear) can
sometimes be
corrected by
replacing the
accumulatorbr
ushes or
having the
motor
rewound. In
the case of
small motors
(20 - 25 hp.
orless) it is
usually more
practical to
replace the
entire motor.
Electric motors

should be
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
35
protected from
rain and direct
sunlight.
4.1.11.3.
Matching
System
Components.
Often, irrigation
systems are
altered
fromtheir
original design,
resulting in
mismatching of
components.
Alterations
such asadding
or deleting
sprinklers or
laterals are
often made
without making
corresponding
adjustments to
the pumping
plant. A
change in the
depth of water
in deep
wellswhere the
static head has

declined, can
alter the
pumping
conditions so
that thepump
no longer
operates in the
desired
efficiency
range.In some
cases, the
pump can be
adjusted to
resume
operation
within
therecommend
ed range. On
turbine pumps
the bowls can
be adjusted
and the
impellerstrimm
ed. If wear is
excessive,
bowls and
impellers
should be
replaced. If an
internalcombus
tion engine is
used, the
system can
sometimes be
adjusted by
changing
theoperating
speed.
4.1.12. The
Pumping Unit
Efficiency
The overall
"wire-to-water"
efficiency of a
pumping plant
is the
relationship
betweenthe
energy
consumed (in
kWh) and the
amount of
water or other
fluid being
delivered(m
3
/h) at a given
pumping head
(m.).

The greater the
overall
efficiency of
thepumping
plant, the lower
the overall
pumping costs
will be.

The efficiency
of the pumping
unit depende
on the
efficiency of its
3 comonents:
thepower unit
(electric motor
or internal
combustion
engine), the
pump and
thetransmissio
n between
them. The
efficiency is the
ratio of the
output energy
to theenergy of
input to the
system.

The output and
the Input are
expressed in
terms ofWater
Kilowattes
(WKW) of
power being
generated by
the pump.
WKW = Flow
x TDH / 360 (
Eq. 4.1)Where:
Flow
is in m
3
/h
TDH
(Total Dynamic
Head, another
term for
pressure) at
the Best
Efficiency
Point(BEP) on
the pump
curve is
expressed in
m. of water
head.Hence:
WKW = m
3
/h

TDH/360
As mentioned
before, the
efficiency of
electric motors
is 75% - 95%.
Internalcombus
tion engines
are much less
efficient.
Kerosine
engines
efficiencies is
20 26% and
in diesel
engines 25% -
37%.The
efficiency of
the
transmission
system (gears,
shafts, pulleys,
etc.) that
transmitpower
to the pump
can approach
95%
97%.The
efficiency of
the pump itself
is in the range
of 75% - 85%.
Efficiency
under
70%commits
checking and
repairing the
pump.Thus,
the potential
efficiency of an
electric
powered
pumping plant
if
correctlydesign
ed, installed,
and maintained
is in the range
of:
(75% - 85%)
x (95% -
97%) x
(75% - 85%)
= 60% -
70%
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
36
Referring to
the example in
the curve
atright, and
putting in the
numbers :
M
3
/ HR X TDH /
360 = 68 x 76 /
360 =14.36
WKW.
The curve
shows a 60%
efficiency so:
14.36 water
kilowatts / 0.60
efficiency
= 23.93 Kilowatts
required.
If this number
is lower than
shown on
thepump
performance
curve, the
efficiencyof the
plump is
questionable.A
s an example:If
the pump
performance
curve showed
arequirement
for a 30
Kilowatt input,
the actual
efficiency
would be:
14.36 water horse
power / 30
Kilowatts
required = 48 %
actual efficiency.
A pump can
operate over a
wide range of
flow and
pressure
combinations.
That is,the
same pump
may be able to
draw 250 m
3
/h at 20 m.
head pressure
or 125 m
3
/h at30 m.
head.
However, each
combination of
flow and
pressure (the
combination
istermed the
operating
condition) will
result in a
different pump
efficiency. E.g.,
at240 m
3
/h and 20 m.
head, the
pump may be
operating at
80% efficiency.
However,at
120 m
3
/h and 30 m.
head it is
operating at
only 65%
efficiency.
These
differencesin
efficiency are
due to the
physics of
water flow
through an
individual
pump, while
aspecific flow-
rate may result
in more or less
turbulence
than another.
4.1.12.1.
Power Units
The pump
drive transmits
power from the
power
generating unit
to the pump.
Theline shaft
of electric-
driven pumps
is connected
directly to the
motor
shaft,eliminatin
g the need for
a pump drive.
When the
pump is driven
by an
internalcombu
stion engine,
the pump drive
is a right-angle
gear drive, that
may change
theRPM of the
pump. The
efficiency of a
right-angle
gear drive is
about 95%.
Beltdrives may
vary in
efficiency from
85 to 95%.
Calculation of
the power
requested on
the pump
shaft
Q
X
HN =270
X

(Eq.
4.2)Where:
N
= the
requested
power (HP)
Q
= the pump
discharge - m
3
/h.
H
= total required
head
(lift+friction
losses+topogra
phic
losses+workin
g pressure)m.
(1 m. = 0.1
bar).

= the pump
efficiency
(decimal
fraction).Conv
ersion of the
HP. Units to
KW units as it
is customary
with electric
motors
isattainable by
the ratio
1 HP =
0.7457 KW
.

Fig. 4.13.
Pump
Efficiency
Curve
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
37
4.1.13.
Cavitation
Cavitation can
damage
pumps, valves
and other
accessories.
Pump
cavitation is
theformation of
cavities on the
back surface of
an impeller,
resulting in
loss of
contactbetwee
n the impeller
and the water
being pumped
(Walker, 1972).

Cavitation
occurswhen
the local static
pressure is
below the
vapor pressure
of the
fluid.After the
water enters a
pump, its
velocity
increases,
causing
decrease in the
headwithin the
pumping unit. If
the head falls
too low, the
water will
vaporize,
formingbubbles
in the liquid.
These bubbles
collapse
violently as
they move to
areas ofhigher
pressure. The
collapse of the
bubbles occurs
at sonic speed
ejectingdestruc
tive micro jets
of extremely
high velocity,
up to 1000
m/s, strong
enough
tocause severe
wear of the
pump
components,
particularly
impellers.Press
ure reduction
occurs due
to:a.
inadequate
submergence
of the pump
water intake;b.
too high
impeller speed
that creates
extremely low
pressure
behind
theimpeller;c.
constrained
pump intake
route;d. high
water
temperatures
which
decrease the
pressure
needed to
vaporize
thewater.As
mentioned
before, the
pressure
required to
operate a
pump
satisfactorily
andavoid
cavitation is
called Net
Positive
Suction Head
(NPSH). The
head available
atthe pump
inlet has to
exceed the
NPSH required
(NPSHr). The
required NPSH
isspecified by
the pump
manufacturer.
Cavitation is a
common
problem in
pumps and
control valves -
causing
serious
wear,and
damage. In
pumps,
Impeller
surfaces and
pump bowls
will pit and
wear.Cavitatio
n reduces the
life-time
expectancy of
the
components.
This may
happenwhen
the fluid
accelerates in
a control valve
or around a
pump impeller.
4.1.14. Pump
Curves
Pump
manufacturers
provide for
eachpump a
set of curves
from which
Theperformanc
e of the pump
can
beevaluated.In
selecting a
pump, one of
the concerns
isto optimize
pumping
efficiency. It is
goodpractice to
examine
several
performancech
arts at different
velocities to
learn if
aspecific
model is more
efficient than
others.Whenev
er possible, the
lowest
pumpspeed
should be
selected, as
this
willdecrease
wear and tear
of the
rotatingcompo
nents.The
available
curves are:
Performance,E
fficiency,
Horsepower
NPSHRequire
ment and
System curve
.
Fig. 4.14. A
Scheme of
Pump Curves

SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
38
4.1.14.1.
Performance
Curve
A performance
curve is a plot
of Total Head
vs. flow-rate for
a specific
impellerdiamet
er and speed.
The plot starts
at zero flow.
The head at
this point
correspondsto
the shut-off
head of the
pump. Starting
at this point,
the head
decreases until
itreaches its
minimum. This
point is
sometimes
called the run-
out point and
representsthe
maximum flow
of the pump.
Beyond this,
the pump
cannot
operate.
4.1.14.2.
Efficiency
Curves
The pump's
efficiency
varies
throughout its
operating
range. This
information
isessential for
calculating the
motor
power.The
B.E.P. (Best
Efficiency
Point) is the
point of highest
efficiency of
the pump.
Allpoints to the
right or left of
the B.E.P have
a lower
efficiency. The
impeller is
subjectto axial
and radial
forces, which
get greater the
further away
the operating
point isfrom the
B.E.P. These
forces manifest
themselves as
vibration
dependent on
thespeed and
construction of
the pump. The
point where the
forces and
vibration
levelsare
minimal is at
the B.E.P.
Fig. 4.15. An
Example of
Pump Curves
Plotted on
One sheet
4.1.14.3.
Horse-power
Curves
The horse-
power curves
are shownon
the chart and
give the
powerrequired
to operate the
pumpwithin a
certain range.
For
example(Fig.
4.16.), all
points on
theperformanc
e curve to the
left of the2 hp
curve will be
compatible
witha 2 hp
motor. All
points to the
leftof 3 hp
curve and to
the right of
the2 hp curve
will fit to a 3 hp
motor.The
horsepower
can be
calculated from
data of the
Total Head,
flow and
efficiency at
Fig. 4.16.
Horse-power
Curves
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
39
the operating
point.
4.1.14.4.
N.P.S.H.
Requirement
Curves
The pump
manufacturer
specifies the
minimum
NPSH required
(NPSHr). in
order forthe
pump to
operate at its
designed
capacity. The
NPSHr
becomes
higher as
flowincreases,
and lower as
flow
decreases.The
meaning is that
more pressure
head is
required at the
pump suction
for high
flowthan for
low flow. Since
NPSH is a
head term, it is
independent of
the fluid
densityand is
expressed as
absolute fluid
column height.
4.1.14.5.
System Curve
The system
curve is a plot
of theTotal
Head vs. the
flow for a
givensystem.
The higher the
flow,
thegreater the
head required.
Theshape of
the system
curvedepends
on the type of
systembeing
considered.Th
e system curve
is
superimposedo
n the pump
performance
chart.The Total
Static head is
constantand
the friction
head,
equipmenthea
d and velocity
head are
flowdependent.
The calculation
of TotalHead at
different flow-
ratesproduces
a plot of Total
Head vs.flow
that is called
the
systemcurve
.The operating
point is the
point on the
system curve
corresponding
to the flow
andhead
required. It is
also the point
where the
system curve
intersects the
performancecu
rve. The
design system
curve is usually
calculated with
some extra
flow capacity
4.1.15. Pump
and Well
Testing
Pump testing
is an important
testing
procedure. It
is typically
done when the
pumpis
disconnected
from the
irrigation
system. A
flow-meter,
pressure
indicator
andvalve are
installed on
the pump
exit.The pump
is started and
the valve is
gradually
partially
closed, until
the
designsystem
pressure is
attained. The
system is
allowed to run
for a period of
15minutes,
and then the
valve is fully
opened and
closed again
in order to
obtainenough
points to draw
a pressure /
flow curve.
The static
water level
should
berecorded at
each flow
point. The net
positive
suction
pressure of
the pump
shouldbe
determined to
ensure that
the pump is
immersed
deep enough
in the well
toprevent
cavitation. It is
recommended
that pumps
and wells will
be tested
every 2years
when are
operated full-
season.
Fig. 4.17.
Critical Points
on the Pump
Curve
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
40
5. PIPES AND
ACCESSORI
ES
5.1.
Introduction
In pressurized
water supply
and irrigation
systems,
Water delivery
and distribution
isdone by
means of pipes
and
tubes.Actually,
a pipe is a
hollow cylinder
in a specified
length. Most
pipes have
circularcross-
section. Pipes
may be also of
rectangular
cross-section,
but those pipes
areused in
construction
and not for
water delivery.
Apart from
water delivery,
pipes areused
for conveying
different fluids
oil, gas,
slurry,
industrial liquid
compounds
andin some
circumstances
also
powders.The
terms pipe and
tube are
commonly
used
interchangeabl
y. In most of
the worldthe
common term
is pipe. In the
USA, there is a
distinction
between pipes
that
aremanufactur
ed to
international or
national
standards and
are specified
by
outernominal
diameter and
schedule that
indicate the
wall thickness.
Tubes are
made tocustom
sizes, in a
broader range
of diameters
and tolerances
and are
specified
byouter
diameter (OD),
inside diameter
(ID) and the
exerted wall
thickness. In
pipes
theschedule
indicates the
wall thickness
that
determines the
allowed
working
pressure.In
tubes, the
working
pressure is
defined more
explicitly by the
class definition
of theallowed
working
pressure in
bars or
kilopascals
(KPa).Pipes
are made of a
variety of
materials:Metal
s: cast iron,
ductile cast
iron, carbon
steel,
galvanized
steel, wrought
steel,stainless
steel,
aluminum and
copper.Concret
e, ceramic and
compound
materials:
reinforced
concrete,
ceramic,
asbestosceme
nt.Plastic:
PolyVinyl
Chloride
(PVC), UPVC
(Unplasticised
PVC), CPVC
(ChlorinatedPV
C),
PolyEthylene
(PE),
PolyPropylene
(PP), Glass
Reinforced
Polyester
(GRP).
5.2. Pipe
materials
5.2.1. Iron,
Steel and
Copper
Cast iron was
in extensive
use in the early
years of
pressurized
irrigation. Due
to
itsvulnerability
to corrosion, its
life expectancy
time-length
was relatively
short.
Pittingand rust
accumulation
on the inner
wall surface
decreased the
wall
smoothness
andincreased
friction head
losses in the
flowing liquid.
Ductile cast
iron had
improvedpipe
performance
but corrosion
remained a
severe
disturbance.
Carbon steel
furtherimprove
d pipe
functioning.
Later on, in
order to avoid
corrosion, the
inner wall
surfacewas
coated by
reinforced
cement that
kept wall
smoothness
and
preventedcorro
sion. Steel
pipes are
expensive and
are used
mainly in water
supply
networks.In
underground
installed pipes,
the outer wall
surface is
coated with
asphalt, to
avoiddamage
to the outer
surface by
corrosive
elements in the
soil.Stainless
steel is too
expensive to
be used in
irrigation and
water supply
networks.Copp
er is used
mainly in
residential and
industrial
plumbing. In
irrigation
systems,coppe
r small
diameter tubes
are utilized in
hydraulic
control devices
of
automatedsyst
ems.Galvanize
d tin pipes
were used in
the past in
hand-move
irrigation but
were
replacedby
aluminum
pipes.
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
41
5.2.2.
Aluminum
The use of
aluminum
pipes for
irrigation
commenced
after WWII.
They replaced
thegalvanized
tin pipes used
in hand-move
irrigation. Their
low weight and
sturdinessease
d the operation
of hand-move
systems. High
quality pipes
were
manufacturedfr
om corrosion
resistant
aluminum
known as
alclad
aluminum.
Aluminum
pipes
aremanufactur
ed in two
technologies.
In one of them,
pipes are
produced
fromaluminum
flat sheets that
are rounded
and welded.
The other
technology is
extrusion,in
which
seamless
pipes are
produced.
5.2.3.
Asbestos-
cement
Pipes made of
asbestos-
cement were in
wide-scale use
in water supply
networksand
as mains for
irrigation. The
use of these
pipes is now
prohibited
because it
wasfound that
asbestos fibers
are
carcinogenic,
endanger
workers in the
production
lineand may
disintegrate by
some
chemicals
inherent in the
water and
endanger
theusers.
5.2.4.
Concrete
Concrete pipes
are used
mainly in
drainage and
sewage
systems.
5.2.5. Plastic
Materials
5.2.5.1.
Overview
After the
introduction of
aluminum
pipes that were
used mainly in
hand-
moveirrigation,
began the
production of
pipes made
from plastic
materials for
use
asreplacement
of galvanized
iron pipes as
laterals and
single emitter
extensions as
wellas
replacement to
carbon-steel
pipes in water
supply
networks and
as
distributingmai
ns, sub-mains
and manifolds
in the irrigated
parcels.Plastic
s are solid
materials
comprised of
one or more
polymeric
substances
that canbe
shaped by
molding or
extrusion.
Polymers, the
basic
ingredient of
plasticmaterial
s, are a broad
class of
materials that
include natural
and
syntheticsubst
ances. In
professional
terminology,
polymers are
frequently
defined as
resins.For
example, a
PolyEthylene
(PE) pipe
compound
consists of PE
resin
combinedwith
colorants,
stabilizers,
anti-oxidants
and other
ingredients
required to
protect
andenhance
the quality of
the material
during the
fabrication
process and
the operation
inthe
field.Plastic
materials are
divided into
two basic
groups:
thermoplastics
and
thermosets,bot
h of which are
used for the
production of
plastic
pipes.Thermop
lastics include
PolyEthylene
(PE),
PolyPropylene
(PP),
PolyButylene
andPolyVynil
Cloride (PVC).
These
materials can
be re-melted
by heat. The
solid state
ofthermoplastic
materials is the
result of
physical forces
that immobilize
polymer
chainsand
inhibit them
from slipping
past each
other. When
heat is applied,
these
forcesweaken
and allow the
material to
soften or melt.
Upon cooling,
the molecular
chainsstop
slipping and
are held firmly
against each
other in the
solid state.
Thermoplastics
can be shaped
during the
molten phase
of the resin
and therefore
can be
extruded
ormolded into
a variety of
shapes, such
as pipes,
flanges,
valves,
sprinklers and
micro-
sprinklers
components,
drippers and
other
accessories.Th
ermoset plastic
materials are
similar to
thermoplastics
prior to a
chemical
reaction(curin
g) by which
the polymer
chains are
chemically
bonded to
each other by
new
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
42
cross-links.
That is usually
performed
during or right
after shaping
of the final
product.Cross-
linking is the
random
bonding of
molecules to
each other to
form a giant
three-
dimensional
association.
Thermoset
resins form a
permanent
insoluble and
infusibleshape
after applying
heat or a
curing agent.
They cannot
be re-melted
after
shapingand
curing. This is
the main
difference
between
thermosets
and
thermoplastics.
Asheat is
applied to a
thermoset
component,
degradation
occurs at a
temperature
lowerthan the
melting point.
Thermosetting
resins can be
combined with
reinforcements
toform strong
composites.
Fiberglass is
the most
popular
reinforcement
and fiberglass-
reinforced
pipes (FRP
and GRP) are
a common
form of
thermoset-type
pipes.
5.2.5.2.
Polyethylene
Polyethylene
(PE) is the
most prevalent
material in
pipes and
laterals in
pressurizedirrig
ation systems.
There are four
types of PE,
classified by
material
density:
Type I Low
Density
(LDPE),
910 925 g/l
Type II
Medium
Density
(MDPE),
920 940 g/l
Type III
High Density
(HDPE),
941 959 g/l
Type IIII
High Homo-
polymer,
960 and above
g/l
Two percent,
by weight, of
carbon black
agent are
added to
increase
pipesresistanc
e to the
detrimental
impact of
exposure to
ultraviolet (UV)
sun
radiation.Anoth
er classification
relates to the
working
pressure
that the pipe
withstands
(PN).Common
grades of PN
used in
irrigation are:
2.5, 4, 6, 10,
12.5 and 16
bars
(atm).Certain
thin-walled
laterals
withstand
lower PN: 0.5
2 bar. The
pressure
tolerancedepe
nds on pipe
material
density and
wall thickness.
Tolerance data
published
bythe
manufacturers
relate to
standard
temperature of
20 C
0
. At higher
temperatures,t
he tolerance
decreases
significantly,
hence pipes
are tested at
twice the
designatedwor
king
pressure.Plasti
c pipes are
designated
according to
their external
diameter, in
mm. In the
USAand some
other
countries, pipe
diameter is
marked in
imperial inch
units (). 1 =
25.4mm. Pipe
wall thickness
is designated
in mm units (in
the USA by mil
units. Mil
=1/1000 of
inch).
1 mil =
0.0254 mm.
Laterals are
commonly
made of LDPE
(PE 32
grade) while
delivering
anddistributing
pipes of
diameters
greater than 32
mm are mostly
made of
HDPE.HDPE
pipes are
further
classified
according the
grade of the
material: PE-
63, PE-80,PE-
100. The
higher the
grade, the
higher the pipe
quality and
pressure
tolerance.
Table 5.1. PE
(PolyEthylene)
Pipes for
AgriculturePE
typeND
(NominalDiam
eter)

Applications
PN - mLDPE
6 mm Hydraulic
command
tubing 40 120
LDPE
4 10 mm
Micro-emitter
connection to
laterals 40 60
LDPE
12 25 mm
Thin-wall drip
laterals 5 20
LDPE
12 25 mm
Thick-wall drip
laterals 25 40
LDPE
16 32 mm
Micro and mini
emitter laterals
40 60
HDPE
32 75 mm
Sprinkler
laterals 40 60
HDPE
40 140 mm
Main lines and
submains 40
100
HDPE
75 450 mm
Water supply
and delivery
networks 60 -
160
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
43
Table 5.2.
LDPE Pipes
Internal (Inner)
Diameter and
Wall
Thickness -
mmPN

OD

25 m 40 m 60
m 80 m 100
mmm ID
Wallthickness
ID
Wallthickness
ID
Wallthickness
ID
Wallthickness
ID
Wallthickness
12 9.8 1.1 9.6
1.2 9.2 1.4 8.6
1.7 8.0 2.016
13.2 1.4 12.8
1.6 12.4 1.8
11.6 2.2 10.6
2.720 17.0 1.5
16.6 1.7 15.4
2.3 14.4 2.8
13.2 3.425 21.8
1.6 21.2 1.9
19.4 2.8 18.0
3.5 16.6 4.232
28.8 1.6 27.2
2.4 24.8 3.6
23.2 4.4 21.2
5.440 36.2 1.9
34.0 3.0 31.0
4.5 29.0 5.5
26.6 6.750 45.2
2.4 42.6 3.7
38.8 5.6 36.2
6.9 33.4 8.3
Adapted form Plastro
brochure
ND = Nominal
Diameter OD =
External (Outer)
Diameter. In
plastic pipes,
mostly equivalent
to the ND.ID =
Internal (inner)
Diameter
Table 5.3.
HDPE Pipes
Internal (Inner)
Diameter and
Wall
Thickness -
mm
Adapted form "Plastro"
brochure
5.2.5.3. PVC
Pipes
PVC (PolyVinyl
Chloride) is a
rigid polymer.
Addition of
plasticizers
renders
flexibilityto
tubes made of
soft PVC.

PVC pipes are
sensitive to UV
sun radiation.
Soft
andflexible,
they are used
mainly in
gardening and
landscape. In
agriculture and
watersupply
systems, rigid
PVC pipes are
mainly used for
water delivery
and
distribution.PV
C pipes are
installed only
underground to
avoid damage
from UV
radiation.Curre
ntly, un-
plasticized
PVC (UPVC)
pipes are
manufactured
with improved
UV
andpressure
surges
tolerance. PVC
pipes appear in
discrete 4 8
m long
segments
andhave to be
attached in the
field. The
working
pressure of
rigid PVC
pipes is 6
24bars (60
240 m).
PN

OD

25 m 40 m 60
m 80 m 100 m
160 mmm ID
Wallthickness
ID
Wallthickness
ID
Wallthickness
ID
Wallthickness
ID
Wallthickness
ID
Wallthickness
12
8.6 1.7
16
12.8 1.6 11.6 2.2
20
16.8 1.6 16.2 1.9
15.4 2.8
25
21.8 1.6 21.1 1.9
20.4 2.3 18.0 3.5
32
28.8 1.6 28.2 1.9
27.2 2.4 26.2 2.9
23.2 4.4
40
36.8 1.6 35.2 2.4
34.0 3.0 32.6 3.7
29.0 5.5
50
46.8 1.6 46.0 2.0
44.0 3.0 42.6 3.7
40.8 4.6 36.2 6.9
63
59.8 1.6 58.2 2.4
55.4 3.7 53.6 4.7
51.4 5.8 45.8 8.6
75
71.2 1.9 69.2 2.9
66.0 4.7 64.0 5.5
61.4 6.8 54.4 10.3
90
85.6 2.2 83.0 3.5
79.2 5.5 76.8 6.6
73.6 8.2 65.4 12.3
110
104.6 2.7 101.6
4.2 96.8 6.6 93.8
8.1 90.0 10.0 79.8
15.1
125
118.8 3.1 115.4
4.8 110.2 8.1
106.6 9.2 102.2
11.4 90.8 17.1
140
133.0 3.5 129.2
5.4 123.4 9.2
119.4 10.3 114.6
12.7 101.6 19.2
160
152.0 4.0 147.6
6.2 141.0 10.3
136.4 11.8 130.8
14.6
180
172.2 4.4 166.2
6.9 158.6 11.8
153.4 13.3 147.2
16.4
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
44
Table 5.4. PVC
Pipes for
Agriculture
PVC typeND
Applications
PN - m
Soft PVC
6 mm Hydraulic
command
tubing 40 80
Soft PVC
6 10 mm
Micro-emitter
connection to
laterals 40 60
Soft PVC
12 25 mm
Tapes and thin-
wall drip
laterals 5 20
Rigid UPVC
4 Risers
40 100
Rigid UPVC
63 1000 mm
Supply
networks, main
lines, submains
40 240
When PVC
pipes are
installed in
heavy or stony
soil, it is
recommended
to pad
thetrench with
sand to
prevent
damage to the
pipe wall by
swelling soil
pressure
andcontact
with sharp
protrusions of
stones.
Table 5.5.
Internal
Diameter and
Wall
Thickness of
PVC Pipes
PN------>
60 m 80 m 100
mOD - mm ID -
mm
Wall thickness -mm
ID - mm
Wall thickness -mm
ID - mm
Wall thickness -mm
63 59.0 2.0
58.2 2.4 57.0
3.075 70.4 2.3
69.2 2.9 67.8
3.690 84.4 2.8
83.0 3.5 81.4
4.3110 103.2
3.4 101.6 4.2
99.4 5.3140
131.4 4.3 129.2
5.4 126.6
6.7160 150.2
4.9 147.6 6.2
144.6 7.7225
210.2 6.9 207.8
8.6 203.4
10.8280 262.8
8.6 258.6 10.7
253.2 13.4315
295.6 9.7 290.8
12.1 285.0
15.0355 333.2
10.9 327.8 13.6
321.2 16.9400
375.4 12.3
369.4 15.3
361.8 19.1450
422.4 13.8
415.6 17.2
407.0 21.5500
469.4 15.3
461.8 19.1
452.2 23.9
5.2.5.3.1. Lay-
flat Hoses
Flexible PVC
lay-flat hoses
can be used as
mainlines and
sub-mains as
well asfeeding
pipes in
mechanized
irrigation
systems. The
hose is
impregnated
with anti-UV
radiation
protecting
agents. When
the water is
shut-off, the
hose lays flat
on theground
and can be
crossed-over
by tractors and
other farm
machinery.
The lay-
flathoses can
be laid out on
the soil surface
or in a shallow
trench. These
hoses
areavailable in
diameters of
75 200 mm.
5.2.5.4.
Fiberglass
Pipes
In addition to
UPVC and
HDPE pipes,
reinforced
fiberglass
pipes are used
to deliverwater
under high
pressure from
the water
source to the
irrigated area,
as
asubstitution
for steel and
asbestos-
cement
pipes.GRP
(Glass
Reinforced
Polyester)
fiberglass
pipes are
manufactured
in diameters
of300 3600
mm and PN
grades of 40
250 m. They
are particularly
useful in
deliveryof
reclaimed
water.
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
45
5.3.
External
and Internal
Pipe
Diameter
The internal
diameter (ID)
of a pipe can
be calculated
by deducting
twice the
wallthickness
from the
external
diameter (OD).
In most cases,
the designated
nominalpipe
diameter (ND)
is its external
diameter.
Friction head
losses of water
flow in thepipe
are determined
by the internal
diameter.It is
imperative to
check whether
the designated
diameter is
nominal
(mostly
external)or
internal, when
using
nomograms,
on-line
calculators and
design
software.
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
46
6.
COUPLERS
6.1.
Connectors
(Fittings)
Connectors are
made of metal
or plastic
materials. They
may be two-
sided straight-
through or
angular units,
T or Y shaped
triple outlets,
four-sided
crosses or
multi-outlet
splitters.
6.1.1.
Aluminum
Couplers
Aluminum
couplers are
used for
connecting two
pipes. In some
couplers there
areoutlets for
sprinkler
risers.
a. Hermetic
Couplers b.
Detached
Band Coupler
c. ElbowFig.
6.1. Hermetic
and Detached
Band
Couplers
Hermetic
couplers are
used to
connect pipes
in main supply
lines and sub-
mainsthat will
be laid in the
field at least
for one whole
season.Dual
band couplers
are widely
used. They are
manufactured
in diameters of
1.5, 2,3, 4, 5
and 6".The
coupler is
attached to the
pipe by means
of two clamps
and
tworings.There
are rubber
seals at both
the inlet and
the outlet of
the coupler to
preventleakag
e during
irrigation and
to facilitate
drainage after
water shut-off.
There
aredistinct
seals for high
and for low
pressure.The
couplers are
reliable, easily
detached from
the pipe for
transportation
ontrailers,
symmetrical in
construction
and easy to
assemble. In
towlines the
couplersare
affixed to the
wheels or to
slide supports.
Drainage of the
pipe after
water shut-off
can be
accomplished
through a drain
valve that is
mounted in the
middle of
thepipe
Fig. 6.2. Single
Latch
Couplers
Single latch
couplers are
manufactured
in 1, 1.5, 2, 3,
and 4"
diameters.
They
arepermanentl
y fixed by
screws at the
end of the
pipe. They are
used mainly in
hand-move
and tow
systems, due
to their
convenient
dismantling.
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
47
In each style of
couplers
thereare
different
models such
asstarter
elbows for
connectingthe
lateral to the
hydrant;elbows
; reducing
adapters
forchanging
diameters,
endplugs,
etc.Adapters
made of
Al-Pb
metalalloy
should be
installed as
anisolating
interface
betweenalumin
um couplers
tocomponents
made of
othermetals to
prevent the
fusion of the
metal with the
aluminum.For
hand-move
laterals in high-
canopy crops,
like maize,
there are quick
couplersthat
facilitate fast
disconnecting
of the riser
from the
lateral.Risers
are made of
galvanized
iron, aluminum
or P.V.C. One
or both edges
arethreaded.
The common
risers for
sprinklers are
of ", and
1 diameter.
Fig. 6.5.
Aluminum
Lateral
Assembly
6. 1. 2.
Pol ypropyl
ene
Coupl ers
Fig, 6.6.
Plastic and
Metal
Connectors

Their functions
are identical to
those of
aluminum
couplers. They
are
manufacturedi
n diverse sizes
and shapes.
Fig. 6.3. Valve
Adapters Fig.
6.4. Adapter
Madeof Al-Pb
Metal Alloy
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
48
There are two
main
groups:externa
l and
internalcoupler
s. In the
externaltype,
the pipe is
insertedinto the
coupler and is
heldby one or
more
groovedrings.
The internal
type isinserted
inside between
twopipe
segments.
There isalso a
combination of
thetwo
methods -
external
andinternal
fasteners in
oneunit. The
external type
isthe most
prevalent
formused in
sprinkler
irrigation.Thes
e couplers are
cheap,manufac
tured from
rigidplastic
materials such
aspolypropylen
e,
whichprovide
strength
andendurance.
Sprinklers are
attached tothe
laterals in three
modes:a. On a
riser fastened
into a saddle
fitting, mounted
straight on the
lateral.
Thesaddle has
to guarantee
the vertical
position of the
riser.

b. By means of
a tube and a
vertical support
that allows a
certain
flexibility
inspacing. This
type of
connection
ensures the
vertical
position of the
sprinklerindepe
ndently of the
position of the
lateral.c.
Directly on a
saddle.Coupler
s have diverse
forms likehead
elbows, "T",
angle,
etc.Quick
bayonet
couplers are
used
forconnection
of risers to
aluminum
andplastic
pipes, to
valves and
otherdiverse
water outlets.
Fig. 6.7. Lock
Fastened
Polypropylene
Connectors

a.
Polypropylene
b.
AluminumFig.
6.8. On-line
Saddles

49
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION

7.
REGULATIO
N AND
CONTROL
7.1
Introduction
An important
advantage of
pressurized
irrigation over
surface
irrigation is the
ease
andconvenienc
e of regulation
and control of
the given water
amount.The
most basic
level of
regulation is
accomplished
by:a. Selection
of competent
equipment
according to
the
requirements
of water
flowcapacity
and working
pressure grade
of pipes, water
distribution
pattern of
emitters, etc.b.
Manual
opening and
shutting of the
water flow.
7.2.
SupplyPipel
ines
The supply
pipelinedeliver
s the
waterfrom the
source tothe
irrigated
plot.The pipes
are madeof
coated or non-
coated steel
orplastic
materials
likeP.V.C.,Poly
ethylene,Polyp
ropylene
andfiberglass.
The diameter
of the supply
pipeline ranges
from 3 (75
mm) to 14
(350
mm)diameter.
The pipes have
to resist
pressure
surges. The
working
pressure
ranges from 8
to20 bar (80
200 m.).
Contemporary
water supply
networks are
monitored and
controlledby
sophisticated
equipment that
facilitates
efficient water
supply and
billing,
whenapplicabl
eMore
advanced
levels ofcontrol
employ
automaticvalve
s and
controllers,pres
sure and flow
regulators,air-
release and
vacuumvalves,
check
valves,comput
ers
andcommunica
tion devices
7.3. The
Control
Head
The control
head
iscomposed of
the
accessoriestha
t manage the
irrigation
andthe
fertigation
process.
Abasic control
head
maycontain the
valve and a
filter,if needed.
The
moresophistica
ted control
headscontain a
computerized
controller,
fertilizer
injector,
pressure
regulator, air-
release valve,
etc.
Fig. 7.1. Water
Supply
Network

Fig. 7.1.
Typical
Control Head

50
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION

7.4.
Regulation
and Control
Devices
7.4.1. Valves
Valves control
the flow of the
water in
irrigation
systems.
Valves are
used for
on/offcontrol,
regulation of
pressure and
flow rate and
the prevention
of back-
flow.Valves
can be
operated
manually or
automatically
by means of
mechanical,
hydraulicor
electrical
mechanisms.
There are
diverse types
of valves that
have
beendeveloped
for
miscellaneous
service
requirements.
Fig. 7.3. Valve
Types

7.4.1.1.
ValveActuator
s
Valves can
beoperated
manuallyor
automatically
bymeans
ofmechanical,h
ydraulic
orelectrical
actuators.
Fig. 7.4. .
Manual
Actuators

51
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION

7.4.1.2. Globe
Valves
The globe
valve is the
most prevailing
valve used in
irrigation
systems. Its
namestems
from it globular
appearance. In
addition to
on/off tasks,
globe valves
are usedfor
throttling and
flow control.
They
demonstrate
linear flow
response to
partialclosing.
They can be
kept open in
any degree
from fully open
to fully
closed.The
globe valve is
controlled by a
rising-shaft.
The
construction of
the valve
drivesthe water
to make two
90turns when
passing
through the
fully open
valve.Hence,
pressure
losses in the
globe valve are
higher than in
a fully open
gate andball
valves.
Significant
pressure loss
is the main
drawback of
this valve
type.a.
Schematic
View

b. Direct-flow
Body

c. Y Body

Fig. 7.5. Globe
Valve

The major
components of
globe valves
are:a. The
body.b. The
bonnet.c. The
valve seat and
valve plug, or
trim.d. The
valve spindle
(stem) which
connects to
the actuator.e.
The sealing
assembly
between the
valve stem
and the
bonnet.
The principal
pattern of
globe valve
operation is the
perpendicular
movement of
thedisk away
from the seat.
When the disk
approaches
gradually to the
seat ring,
thevalve is
gradually
closing. This
way of work
provides the
globe valve
good
throttlingcapabi
lity for flow
regulation.Gen
erally, globe
valve yields
much less seat
leakage
thangate
valves. The
disk-to-seat
ring contact is
better at
rightangle and
that ensures
the tight
sealing in shut-
off mode.
7.4.1.2.1. Types
of Globe valves
Globe valves
are
manufactured
in three
forms:a. Line
valve with
straight flow
pattern The
connections(fla
nges or
threads) are
along the same
line.b. Y valve -
the
connections
are in the
same
line,however
the valve disc
and the valve
plate
togetherare at
an angle and
the outward
shape is of
theEnglish
letter Y.c.
Angular valve
The inlet and
the outlet have
a 90
0
angle between
them.
Fig. 7.6.
Angular Valve

52
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION

Most globe
valves are built
with a single
seat. In large
globe valves,
delivering
highvolume of
water, much
force is
requested on
the actuator for
shut-off. If that
force isnot
available (with
some electric
or hydraulic
actuators) a
modified
double seat
valveis
requested.
Fig. 7.7.
Single-seat
Globe Valve
Adapted from Control
Valves by Spirax Sarco
Fig. 7.8.
Double-seat
Globe Valve
Adapted from Control
Valves by Spirax Sarco

The double-
seat valve has
two valve
plugs on a
common
spindle, with
two
valveseats.
The valve
seats can be
kept smaller
and the forces
are partially
balanced.Alth
ough the
differential
pressure is
trying to keep
the top valve
plug off its
seat, itis also
trying to push
down and
close the
lower valve
plug, so, the
force
neededfor
shut-off is
smaller than in
single-seat
valve.
Globe valves
are built from
bronze, cast
iron, steel and
plastic
materials. They
areoperated by
manual or
hydraulic
actuators.
7.4.1.2.2.
Advantages of
Globe Valves
a. Long service
life.b. Very little
valve lift is
required to
attain full flow
(unlike gate
valves).c. A
change in
direction of the
fluid flow can
be done (unlike
gate valves) in
theangular
valve type.
7.4.1.2.3.
Drawbacks of
Globe Valves
a. High head
losses caused
by the diverted
water flow.b.
Large valves
require
considerable
power to
operate.c.
Relatively
heavy weight
compared with
other valves
with the same
flow rating.d.
Large opening
necessary for
the disk
assembly.e.
Cantilevered
mounting of
the disk to the
stem.
7.4.1.3. Angle
and "Y"
Valves
Angle and "Y"
valves have
less pressure
losses than
direct-flow
globe valves.
In theangle
valve there are
fewer angles
compared to
the globe valve
and the water
makesonly one
90turn. In the
"Y" valve the
water has to
turn twice, as
in the globe
valve,however,
the angles are
of 45only. The
flow path is
nearly as free
as in the
gatevalve.

53
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION

7.4.1.4.
Gate Valves
The gate
valves areused
mainly foron/off
service.
Theyare not
suitable
forgradual
openingand
closing tasks.A
disk or
wedgeattached
to thevalve
spindleregulate
s the
waterflow. The
commontype
has a rising-
spindle
thatfacilitates
visualindication
how farthe
valve is
open,since the
threadedportio
n of thespindle
is exposed.The
on/off action
isslow. Faster
action can be
achieved by
sliding the
spindle up or
down with
support ofa
mechanical
lever.Since
most of the
shut-off activity
takes place
when the valve
is almost
closed, theflow
control profile
is not linear.
That poses
difficulties to
regulate the
water flow in
apartially open
position.
7.4.1.5. Ball
Valves
The ball valve
is compact and
employs a
spherical flow
control
element. It
isoperated in
90rotations.
When fully
opened, the
ball valve has
a full flow
patternwith
minimum head
losses. Due to
the non-linear
flow nature in
partial closing,
ballvalves are
used only for
on-off tasks
and not for flow
regulation
unless
specificallydesi
gned for
throttling.
a. Side View b.
Diagonal
ViewFig. 7.10.
Ball Valve
Cutawaya .
S i d e
V i e w b .
C u t a w a
y Fig. 7.9.
Gate Valve

54
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION

7.4.1.6.
Butterfly
Valves
In a butterfly
valve, theflow-
control element
is adisk pivoted
on an axisin
the valve
casing.
Thedisk is
turned parallel
tothe flowing
water whenthe
valve is fully
open,resulting
in small
frictionlosses.
Butterfly
valvesare
simple and
compact,and
have good
throttlingcapabi
lity. The
flowresponse
to the shut-
offof the flow
controlelement
is not
linear.Butterfly
valves
offereconomy,
particularly in
larger sizes
and in terms of
flow capacity
per
investedmoney
. Big butterfly
valves require
large or high-
output
actuators (if
are
actuatedhydra
ulically or
electrically).
Soft-seat
assembly is
obtained by
means of a
rubberliner or
by an
adjustable soft
ring in the body
or on the face
of the disk.
7.4.1.7.
Piston Valves
Piston valves
have a piston-
shaped closure
member
thatintrudes
into or
withdraws from
the seat bore.
The
sealingtakes
place between
the lateral
faces of the
piston and
theseat bore. A
fluid-tight
contact
between these
faces
isattained by a
packing that
forms part of
the valve bore
orthe
piston.When
the valve is
being opened,
flow cannot
start until
thepiston has
been
completely
withdrawn from
the seat
bore.When the
valve is being
closed, the
piston tends to
wipeaway any
solids that had
been deposited
on the
seat.Piston
valves may
handle fluids
that carry
solids
insuspension.
If damage
occurs to the
seating, the
pistonand the
seat can be
replaced on
the place.

Like globe
valves, piston
valves allow
good flow
control.
Ifprecise flow
adjustment is
required, the
piston may be
fitted with a
needle
shapedextensi
on. Piston
valves are also
used for
stopping and
starting flow
when
flowresistance
due to tortuous
flow occurs.
7.4.1.8.
Diaphragm
Valves
Diaphragm
valves are flex-
body valves in
which the valve
is composed of
a rigid
andflexible
sections. The
flexible section
is consisted of
a diaphragm
which,
inconnection
with an
actuator,
represents the
closure
member. In
diaphragm
valves theflow
passage is not
obstructed by
moving parts
and is free of
crevices.
a. Cutaway

b. Main
Components

Fig. 7.11.
Butterfly Valve

Fig. 7.12.
Piston Valve

55
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION

The seat is a
rigid body
section
andmay
consist of:a. A
weir across the
flow passage,
orb. The wall of
a straight-
through
flowpassage.

The weir in the
flow passage
isdesigned to
reduce flexing
of
thediaphragm
to a minimum,
in order
toguarantee
long
diaphragm life,
whileproviding
a smooth and
streamlinedflo
w passage.
The short
stroke of
thevalve
permits the use
of plastics such
as PTFE for
the diaphragm.
The back of
thediaphragm
is lined with an
elastomer,
which supports
a uniform
seating stress
duringvalve
closure.Since
the diaphragm
area is
largecompared
with the flow
passage,
thefluid
pressure
imposes
acorrespondin
gly high force
on the
raiseddiaphrag
m.Diaphragm
valves with a
straight-
through flow
passage
require a
moreflexible
diaphragm
than weir-
typediaphragm
valves.In weir-
type
diaphragm
valves the
wateris
separated from
the shaft and
shaftcollar by
the flexible
diaphragm.
Thediaphragm
is forced
against the
weir toclose
the valve. The
fully open
valve has only
small pressure
losses.
Fig. 7.15.
Diaphragm
Valve Working
Pattern
7.4.2. Control
Valves
Functioning
and Actuation
In addition to
simple tasks of
water opening,
shut-off and
flow throttling,
valvesaccompli
sh more
complicated
tasks like: flow-
metering, flow
and head
regulation,back
flow
prevention, air-
release from
the pipes,
fertilizer
injection, filter
flushing, etc.
Fig. 7.13.
Diaphragm
Valve
Components
Adaptedfrom Valve
Types by Valvias
a. Weir Type

b. Straight-
throughType

Fig. 7.14.
Diaphragm
Valves

57
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION

allows manual
operation of
the valve.
Solenoids
position the
valve by
attracting
amagnetic slug
attached to the
valve stem. In
single solenoid
valves, spring
pressureacts
against the
motion of the
slug when
power is
applied to the
solenoid.
Thesevalves
can be
arranged such
that power to
the solenoid
either opens or
closes
thevalve.
When power to
the solenoid is
removed, the
spring returns
the valve to
theopposite
position. Two
solenoids can
be used in one
valve to apply
both opening
andclosing by
switching
power to the
appropriate
solenoid.

Single solenoid
valves are
termed fail
open or fail
closed
depending on
the positionof
the valve when
the solenoid is
de-energized.
Fail open
solenoid valves
are openedby
spring
pressure and
closed by
energizing the
solenoid. Fail
closed
solenoid
valvesare
closed by
spring
pressure and
opened by
energizing the
solenoid.
Doublesolenoi
d valves
typically fail "as
is." That is, the
valve position
does not
change
whenboth
solenoids are
de-energized.
Modern
solenoid valves
offer fast
operation,
highreliability,
long service
life, and
compact
design.

a. Fail-closed

(Normally
Closed)

b. Fail-open
(Normally
Open)Fig.
7.18. Scheme
of Solenoid
OperationFig.
7.19. Fail-
closed (NC)
Solenoid
Valve
Components
and Working
Pattern
In one working
procedure, the

solenoid is
acting directly
on the main
valve. In
othercases, a
small, fully
functioning
solenoid valve
known as a
pilot is used to
actuate alarger
valve. While
the second
type is actually
a solenoid
valve
combined with
a

58
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION

hydraulically
actuated valve,
they are sold
and packaged
as a single unit
referred toas a
solenoid valve.
Piloted valves
require much
less power to
be activated,
but theyare
noticeably
slower. Piloted
solenoids
usually need
full power at all
times to
openand stay
open, where a
direct acting
solenoid may
only need full
power for a
shortperiod of
time to open it,
and only low
power to hold it
open.

a. Blow-out b.
Working
PatternFig.
7.20.
Hydraulic
Control Valve
7.4.2.2.
Hydraulic
Control of
Valves
The structure
of a hydraulic
controller or
actuator is
similar to that
of the
electricalcontro
l valve but the
power is
transmitted by
a pressure
change above
the
diaphragmor
piston actuator.
This change of
pressure is
transmitted
through the
hydrauliccontro
l tubing or by
partial
diversion of
water flowing
through the
valve. Most of
thehydraulic
control valves
are normally
open.Function
ally, hydraulic
valves, like the
electrical ones,
fall into two
categories
:
Normally
Open

(N.O.)

and

Normally
Closed

(N.C.).

a. Normally
Open (N.O.)
valve stays
open until the
control
chamber is
filled withwater
under system
pressure.
When the
chamber is full,
the valve
shuts-off.b.
Normally
Closed (N.C.)
valve is kept
closed by the
water pressure
in the
mainline.In
case of a
rupture in the
command line,
the closure is
secured by
pressure of
aspring. The
valve is
opened when a
tiny valve at
the top of the
control
chamberopens
, releasing
water from the
control
chamber into
the
atmosphere.No
rmally closed
hydraulic
valves have
higher head
losses, but
they are safer
to use,

as the valve
remains closed
even if the
command tube
is torn or
plugged.

7.4.3. Check-
valves
Check valves
are used to
prevent the
back-flow of
water in
irrigation and
watersupply
networks. The
control element
has a variety of
forms: ball,
disk lift, tilting
disk,flipper or a
swinging disk.
The water
passage is
kept open by
the pressure of
thewater
flowing in the
ordinary
direction. It
blocks the
passage for
back-flow by
thegravity force
or by spring
action when
the pressure
downstream is
higher
thanupstream.
The pressure
caused by
back-flow or
the weight of a
water column
in thepipe
presses the
control element
against the
seat to

seal the
passage and
preventflow in
the reverse
direction
.

59
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION

a. Check-valve
b. Check-valve
Cross-section
c. Dual Back-
flow Check-
valve
Fig. 7.21.
Check Valves
7.4.4. Pressure
Relief Valves
Fig. 7.22.
Pilot-
controlled
Hydraulic
Pressure
Relief Valves

Pressure relief
valves protect
the irrigation
network from
excessive
pressure.
Theyare
opened quickly
and release
small amounts
of water to
relieve excess
pressure inthe
system. They
can be closed
by means of a
spring-loaded
disc or
hydraulicpress
ure. In some
types of
valves, the
spring can be
adjusted to a
predetermined
pressure limit.
Excess
pressure
partially opens
the valve and
releases some
water.Fast
Pressure Relief
Valves are
automatic
control valves
designed to
provide
asolution to the
typical
problems
associated with
spring loaded
relief valves
whenconstant
drifting of relief
adjustment
occurs.The
valve is
comprised of
accurate relief
pressure
setting that
remains
constant,openi
ng to full
capacity on
minimum
pressure rise in
the pipe line.
Regulated rate
ofclosure
provides
smooth closure
without
causing
pressure
surges.

60
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION

The Pilots can
be grouped to
3 sets:
7.4.4.1.
Pressure
Reducing
Pilot Valve
It is a direct
acting pilot
valve, actuated
by a pressure
responsive
diaphragm,
whichseeks to
reach
equilibrium
between
hydraulic and
set spring
forces. When
used in
apressure
reducing
circuit,The
pilot-modulate
closes as
downstream
pressure rises
above set
point. An
internalrestricti
on device acts
as an
upstream flow
restrictor.

7.4.4.2.
Pressure
sustaining
pilot valve
This is a 2-way
direct acting
pilot valve,
actuated by
apressure
responsive
diaphragm,
which seeks to
reachequilibriu
m between
hydraulic and
set spring
forces.
7.4.4.3. Fast
Pressure
Relief Pilot
Valve
This pilot
integrates all
principal
functions of a
2-Waycontrol
circuit in a
single
assembly. It is
a direct
actingpilot
valve, actuated
by a pressure
responsive
diaphragm,whi
ch seeks to
reach
equilibrium
between
hydraulic
andset spring
forces. The
pilot opens as
upstream
pressurerise
above set
point.
7.4.5.
Pressure
Regulators
a. Pressure
Regulator
Blow-out

b. Six Unit
Assembly

c. Hydraulic
Controlled
Pressure
Regulator

d. Pressure
Regulators of
Different
CapacitiesFig.
7.24. Pressure
Regulators

Pressure
regulators are
used where
low and
constant
pressure is
necessary for
theproper
function of
pressure
sensitive
components,
such as
laterals and
emitters.They
are used in
systems with
pressure
fluctuations to
maintain
constant
pressuredowns
tream of the
regulator.
Pressure
regulators are
also used in
harsh
topographycon
ditions for
equalizing the
head in
emtters. There
are two types
of
pressureregula
tors. Simple
mechanical
devices
regulate the
pressure
against a
spring, while
Fig. 7.23. Pilot
Valves

61
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION

in the more
sophisticated
devices the
pressure is
controlled
hydraulically by
adiaphragm or
piston.The
pressure
regulatorsstruc
ture is similar
to that ofthe
diaphragm and
spring-loaded
relief valve.The
water flow is
throttledby the
action of a
spring atthe
top of the
diaphragmand
the counter-
pressure ofthe
water on the
lower faceof
the diaphragm.
The waterfrom
the high-
pressure sideof
the valve is
diverted intothe
chamber
above
thediaphragm
to compensate
for the
compression of
the spring as
the
upstreampress
ure changes.
This action
throttles the
controlling
valve and
keeps the
pressureat the
preset level.
7.4.6. Air-
release
Valves
Trapped air is
a critical
problem in
irrigation and
water supply
networks and
maycause
severe
damage to
certain
components of
the system. Air
intrudes into
thesystem
when pumping
is primed or
when the water
is shut-off by
the main valve
andthe local
valves remain
open. The air
enters through
the emitters
into the
drainednetwork
. At the start of
the irrigation
event, the flow
of air through
the water-
metermay bias
the metering
and in extreme
cases may
heat and melt
the impeller
blades.Another
effect of
trappedair in
pipelines is the
waterhammer
caused by
thecompressed
air that
mayburst the
pipes if
thepressure
surge
surpassesthe
working
pressure of
thesystem.
Prevention
oftrapped air
damage can
beattained by
the use of air-
release valves.
The
valvesshould
be installed in
thehigher
points in
theirrigation
system,
wherethe
trapped air
isaccumulating
in
thepipelines.Th
e air-release
valve acts by
means of a
float. When the
pipeline is
empty or
partiallyfull with
water, the float
is lying down
leaving the
orifice in the
top of the
casing
open,enabling
the flow of air
outside and
inside. After
the system had
been filled
withwater, the
float takes its
upper position
and seals the
aperture.There
are two basic
types of air-
release valves:
Table 7.1.
Flow-rate of
Spring
Actuated
Pressure
Regulators
Flow-rate m
3
/hModelMin.
Max
Low flow-rate
0.11 3.0
(one spring)
0.8 5.0
(2 Springs)
1.6 10.0
2" X 4 (4
Springs)
3.2 20.0
2" X 6 (6
Springs)
4.8 30.0
3" X 10 (10
Springs)
8.0 50.0
Fig. 7.25.
Cross Section
of Air-release
Valves

65
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION

watering time-
span. A
combination of
time and
amount-control
employs the
clock to startthe
irrigation and
terminates the
irrigation after
the preset
volume of water
has
beenapplied.
Open loop
control systems
are inexpensive,
readily available
and flexible
butrequire
frequent
manual
resetting to
attain efficient
water
application.
7.6.4.2.
Closed-
control Loop
Systems
In a closed-
control loop, the
operator presets
the general
layout. The
control
systemmakes
the decisions
when and how
much water to
apply. Feedback
is sent in real-
time tothe
controller from
one or more
sensor units.
Closed loop
controllers
acquireenviron
mental
parameters,
such as soil-
moisture,
temperature,
radiation, wind-
velocityand
relative
humidity. The
data are
compared to the
preset program
and the decision
ismade whether
irrigation should
be applied or
not. The
decision can be
based on
themeasureme
nt of soil-
moisture and
calculation of
the water
consumption of
the plants.
7.6.5.
Irrigation
Timers
An irrigation
timer is based
on a clock unit
that activates
one or more
units of the
irrigationsystem
at preset times.
Irrigation timers
may provide
several of the
following
functions:a. A
cl ock/t i me
r
measures the
time for the
irrigation
schedule.b. A
cal endar
sel ect or
allows
presetting the
days in which
the systemhas
to be
operated.c.
St at i on
t i me
set t i ng
allows the
presetting of
start time, day
and hourand
duration of
application for
each station.d.
Manual
st art
allows the
operator to
start the
automatic
cycle,overridin
g the preset
schedule.e.
Manual
operat i on
of each station
allows the
operator to
manuallystart
the irrigation
cycle without
changing the
preset
schedule.f.
Mast er
swi t ch
controls the
activation of
the whole
irrigation
system.g.
St at i on
ski p
is used to
exclude
specified
stations from
the
nextirrigation
cycle.h.
Mast er
val ve
controls back-
flow
prevention
equipment
andautomatica
lly terminates
irrigation in
case of a
failure in the
system.i.
Pump st art
l ead
connects the
pump start
solenoid to the
actuator
ofeach station.
Thus the
pumping
control is
synchronized
with the
irrigationcontr
ol.The timers
can be
electromechan
ical or
electronic.
7.6.5.1.
Electromech
anical
Controllers
Electromecha
nical
controllers are
based on an
electrically
powered clock
andmechanica
l switching to
activate the
irrigation
valves. They
are reliable
and arenot
affected by
spikes in the
power supply.
In case of
power outage,
theprogramme
d schedule will
not be erased.
However, the
scheduling
options
arelimited,
compared with
electronic
controllers.
7.6.5.2.
Electronic
Controllers
Electronic
controllers
rely on solid
state and
integrated
circuits to
actuate
theclock/timer,
memory and
control
functions.
Some of these
systems are
sensitive

66
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION

to the
trustworthines
s of the power
supply and to
spikes, surges
and
brownouts.Th
ese controllers
are modular
and contain
many options
at a relatively
low cost.Time-
based devices
are widely
used in home-
gardens,
nurseries
andpropagatio
n houses.
Irrigation lasts
for relatively
short periods,
and lack
ofprecision in
water amount,
due to
pressure
fluctuations, is
not crucial.
Improvedaccu
racy can be
maintained by
keeping
constant
pressure with
the
combinationof
a buster pump
and pressure
regulators.
7.6.6.
Computer-
based
Irrigation
Control
Systems
A computer-
based control
system
consists of a
combination of
hardware
andsoftware
that manages
both irrigation
and fertigation
by a closed
control
loop.The
system
monitors the
measured
variables,
compares
them with the
targetstatus,
makes
decisions
about the
actions to be
taken and
carries them
out.
7.6.6.1.
Sensors
A sensor is
closing an
electrical
circuit
response to
change in a
specificmeasu
red
parameter.
There are two
basic types of
sensors:a.
continuousb.
discrete.
7.6.6.1.1.
Continuous
sensors
transmit a
continuous
electrical
signal, such
asvoltage,
conductivity,
capacitance,
or any other
measurable
electrical
current.Continu
ous sensors are
used where
values taken by
a state variable
are required and
anon/off state is
not sufficient,
for example, to
measure
pressure
fluctuations in
the system.
7.6.6.1.2. Discrete
sensors
are basically
mechanical or
electronic
switches that
indicateon/off
states. Discrete
sensors are
useful for
indicating
thresholds,
such as the
openingand
shut-off of
devices. They
can indicate
when a
threshold of a
state variable
has
beenreached.
Examples of
discrete
sensors are a
float switch in a
storage tank
and a
switchingtensio
meter that
detects if soil
moisture is
above a defined
threshold.The
variables
measured in
computer-based
control systems
are: Flow rate,
pressure, soil-
moisture, air
temperature,
wind velocity,
solar radiation,
relative
humidity,
electricalconduc
tivity and the pH
level of the
irrigation water.
7. 6. 6. 2. A/ D
I nterface
Since computer
systems work
internally with
digits, the
electrical signals
sent from
thesensors have
to be converted
from analog to
digital data. The
conversion is
accomplishedby
Analog-to-Digital
(A/D) interfaces.
Discrete signals
resulting from
switch closures
andthreshold
measurements
are registered in
memory.
Continuous
electrical
(analog)
signalsare
converted to
binary numbers
of the sensed
variable.
Conversion
accuracy is
affectedby the
resolution of the
conversion
equipment.
7. 6. 6. 3.
Computer
Types
The A/D
conversion
hardware is
directly
connected to the
computer
system.
Thecomputer
system may be
a PC or a
dedicated
programmed
controller.
7. 6. 6. 4.
Funct i ons
of t he
Cent ral
Comput er
The fast
development
and price drop
of
microcomputer
s enables high
sophisticationin
automatic
control of
irrigation. The
new irrigation
computers and
controllers
useindustry
standard
microprocessor
s as well as
standard
memory
boards and

67
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION

terminals. This
configuration
enhances the
integration of
irrigation
scheduling,ope
ration and
control at the
same unit.
Conditional
operation,
relating to the
feedbackinform
ation that is
transmitted
from the local
units and from
sensing units
in the field,is
now a common
routine, as well
as the
integrated
management
of the
wholeirrigation
system, from
water source to
the last end-
valve in the
field.
7. 6. 6. 5.
Communi ca
ti on
Apart from point
automation, in
which the
automation
control unit is
mounted
directly onthe
end valve, in all
other
automation
systems, a
communication
link connects
sensorswith the
control unit to
the end valve.
In some
circumstances,
a multi-stage
communicationli
nking is
necessary.Sign
als between the
control unit and
the end units
can be sent as
hydraulic or
electricpulses.
The electric
pulses can be
transmitted by
wire or
wireless.In
some
circumstances,
for short
distance,
hydraulic
communication
is
advantageousc
ompared with
electric
communication.
There is no
need for an
external energy
sourceand in
hydraulically
operated wide-
diameter valves;
there is no need
for conversion
ofelectric
signals to
hydraulic
signals by
means of
solenoid. The
control water
tube of 4 -
8mm. diameter
pipe is cheaper
than electric
cable.The
drawbacks of
hydraulic
communication
are topography
interference,
vulnerability
tomechanical
damage and air
penetration. In
the past the
length of
communication
lines
wasrestricted to
a few hundred
meters. Latelr-
on, accessories
have been
developed
thatfacilitate
longer lines and
overcome the
topographic
differences.Anot
her drawback of
hydraulic
communication
is the one-way
communication
pattern thatdoes
not enable
transmission of
feedback
information
back to the
main
unit.Electric
pulses can be
transmitted by
cables or by
wireless
devices.
Cablecommunic
ations are prone
to mechanical
damage.Due to
cost reduction,
improved
credibility and
elimination of
broadcasting
interference,the
wireless
communications
are favored on
cable
communications
.Direct
operation of
the end-valves
by electric
pulses takes
place only in
home-gardens
and nurseries,
where valves
are usually of
small
diameter. In
wide-diameter
valves the
operation of
the valve is
hydraulic. The
electric signal
isconverted by
means of a
small solenoid
that controls
operating
water supply
tothe hydraulic
valve.
7. 6. 6. 6.
Conf i gurat i
on
Local
automatic
systems
control the
irrigation time-
table and the
fertigation
device.In
sequential
automatic
systems, a
main
controllingunit
is optional. In
sequential
irrigation, the
shut-offof one
hydraulic
valve sends a
hydraulic
signalwhich
opens the
subsequent
hydraulic
valve. Inmore
sophisticated
systems, the
sequence
iscontrolled by
a central
controller.Ther
e are two
basic models
of wired
centralautoma
tion:a. Starb.
Ring
Fi g. 7. 30.
Local I rri gat
i on
Cont rol l er

68
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION

7.6.6.6.1. Star
Configuration
each local
unit is
connected
directly to the
central unit.
The cable is of
the twin-wire
type that
enables the
central unit to
send signals
as well as to
supplyenergy
to the field
units. If
feedback
information is
required, a
triple-wire
cablehas to be
installed.
7.6.6.6.2. Ring
Networks
All the field
units are chain
connected in a
ring by one
cable to the
central
unit.The cable
is of the multi-
wire type in
which each
local unit is
connected by
two orthree
wires to the
central unit.
Another setup
is based on
twin-wire
cable. Boththe
two cables are
connected to
each one of
the local units.
The computer
of thecentral
unit is
scanning
continuously
the local units
with high
frequency
pulses,identify
ing each unit,
feeding it with
the relevant
information
and picking
upfeedback
information. In
this
configuration,
the field
equipment is
cheaper but
ahigh level
computer is
required. In
the last
decade, most
of the
wiredcommuni
cation
systems are
replaced by
wireless ones.
7.6.7.
Supervisory
Control And
Data
Acquisition
(SCADA)
In the last
decade,
Supervisory
Control And
Data
Acquisition
(SCADA)
softwareapplic
ations in Water
& Irrigation
systems are
increasingly
used. The
SCADA
systemis a
remote control
and status
indicator of the
water
distribution
equipment
thatprovides
early warning
of system
malfunction.
When failure
occurs there
isimmediate
detection of
water leakages
and pressure
fluctuations.
This
enablesimmedi
ate response
to changes in
demand,
maintenance of
adequate
pressure,flow-
rates, pump-
functionality
and overall
system
performance.
Fig. 7.31.
SCADA
Control
System
Adapted
Adapted from
"Motorola" Brochure
Sophisticated
SCADA
systems
support various
communication
infrastructures:
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
72
emitter
passageways
as discrete
entities, but
may flocculate
in pipelines to
formaggregate
s large enough
to clog
emitters.
Bacteria are
small and do
not
causeclogging;
however, they
can precipitate
compounds of
iron, sulfur and
other
chemicalsecret
ions that clog
the emitters.
Some bacteria
secrete slime
that acts as
anadhesive
platform for the
buildup of clay,
algae and
other small
particles into
biggeraggregat
es.Iron and
sulfur bacterial
slime is a
widespread
problem. Iron-
precipitating
bacteria
arenourished
by the
dissolved
ferrous iron in
irrigation water.
These bacteria
stick to
thesurface of
suspended soil
particles and
oxidize the
dissolved iron.
The oxidized
ironprecipitates
as insoluble
ferric iron. In
this process, a
slime called
ochre is
createdand
stick with other
substances in
pipelines to
clog the
emitters.Specifi
c bacteria that
oxidizes
hydrogen
sulfide and
convert it into
insolubleeleme
ntal sulfur,
creates sulfur
slime, a white
or yellow
stringy deposit
formed
byoxidation of
hydrogen
sulfide

that is present
mainly in
shallow wells.
The slime
clogsemitters
either directly,
or by acting as
an adhesive
agent for other
small particles.

8.4.
Chemical
Precipitates
Chemical
clogging of
emitters
frequently
results from
precipitation of
one or more
ofthe following
cations:
calcium,
magnesium,
iron
and
manganese
. These
materialsmay
precipitate
from the
solution and
form scales
that partially or
fully clog
emitters.Precip
itation can be
triggered by
changes in pH,
temperature,
pressure,
water
flowvelocity
and reaction
with ions that
are injected
into the
irrigation water
by fertigationas
well as by
exposure to
atmospheric
oxygen.
Table 8.1.
Relative
Clogging
Potential of
Micro-emitters

by Water
Contaminants
Water
characteristic
Minor
Moderate
Severe
pH <7.0 7.0-8.0
>8.0TDS (Total
dissolved
solids) - ppm
<500 500-2000
>2000Suspend
ed solids - ppm
<50 50 -100
>100Manganes
e - ppm <0.1
0.1-1.5
>1.5Iron - ppm
<0.2 0.2-1.5
>1.5Hydrogen
sulfide - ppm
<0.2 0.2-2.0
>2.0Bacteria
population - per
ml <10,000
10,000-50,000
>50,000
After Blaine Hanson.
1997
8.5. Water
Hardness
Water
containing
substantial
concentrations
of Ca
++
, Mg
++
and Fe
++
is regarded
ashard water.
Hard water can
precipitate
poorly-soluble
carbonates in
the
irrigationsyste
m.Water
hardness is
expressed as a
calcium
carbonate
concentration
equivalent
in mg/l units.
Hardness is
calculated by
measuring the
content of the
abovementione
d Cations,
summing up
their
concentrations
expressed in
meq/l
andmultiplying
by 50 (the
equivalent
weight of
calcium
carbonate).
Example:
Calcium
equivalent
weight

20Calcium
concentration in
the water: 120
mg/l

120/20 = 6
meq/l Magnesium
equivalent
weight

12 Magnesium
concentration in
the water 60 mg/l

60/12 = 5
meq/lTotal 11
meq/l
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
73
Water hardness =
11 meq/l X 50 =
550 mg/l Calcium
Carbonate
Equivalent
The most
prevalent
precipitate
from hard
water is
calcium
carbonate.
However
whenfertigating
with fertilizers
that contain
phosphorous
and sulfur,
calcium
phosphate
andcalcium
sulfate
(gypsum) may
also
precipitate.Simi
lar reactions
precipitate
magnesium bi-
carbonate.
8.5.1. Iron
and
Manganese
in Water
Iron is often
dissolved in
groundwater
as ferrous bi-
carbonate.
When exposed
to air,or to
activity of iron
bacteria, the
iron is
oxidized,
precipitates
and can plug
micro-
emitters.Mang
anese is
occasionally
present in
irrigation water,
but at lower
concentrations
and with lower
activity as a
clogging factor
than iron.
8.6.
Biochemica
l Oxygen
Demand
(BOD)
Organic matter
suspended in
the water is
decomposed
by
microorganism
s thatconsume
oxygen along
the process.
The quantity of
oxygen
consumed by
theseorganism
s in breaking
down the
organic matter
is designated
as the
BiochemicalOx
ygen Demand
or BOD. BOD
is a consistent
indicator for
clogging
hazard of
micro-emitters
by suspended
organic
matter.Raw
sewage and
low-quality
reclaimed
water have
high levels of
contamination
andconsequent
ly high BOD
values.
8.7.
Filtration
Because of the
narrow water
passageways
in micro-
emitters and
the slow water-
flow velocity,
micro
irrigationsyste
ms are
susceptible to
clogging much
more
thanconvention
al sprinklers.
As mentioned
before,
preventionof
clogging
necessitates
high-level
filtration
andcompliment
ary chemical
and physical
water
treatments.
8.7.1 Screen
(Strainer)
Filters

Screen filters'
features are
defined by
filtration
degree,filtratio
n surface area
and filtration
ratio.
8.7.1.1.
Filtration
degree
is designated
in
microns
or
mesh number
. The filtration
degree in
microns
indicatesthe
diameter of the
biggest ball-
shaped particle
that canpass
between the
screen wires.
8.7.1.2. Mesh
number
counts the
number of
wires alonga 1"
(25.4 mm)
length of the
screen. The
two
conceptsare
not fully inter-
convertible.Per
foration width
may differ
between two
screens with
the same mesh
number due
todifferent wire
thickness.
Approximate
conversion
from one
indication
mode to
anotheris done
by rule of
thumb:

mesh number

x microns

15,000.
Example:
Screen
perforation 120
Mesh.What is the
filtration degree
in
microns?15,000/1
20 = 125 micron
Fig. 8.1.
Screen Filter
FromNetafim Brochure
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
74
When selecting
the
filtrationdegree
, the
dimensions of
thewater
passageways
in theemitter
and the
character
ofwater
impurities
should
beconsidered.
When
theimpurities
are
suspendedinor
ganic solids
(sand,
silt,chemical
precipitates),
themaximum
perforation
diametershould
be 25%-30% of
thesprinkler's
nozzle or the
micro-emitter's
water
passageway
diameters.
When
theimpurities
are organic
and biological
materials, the
maximum
perforation
diametershould
not exceed
10%-20% of
the water
passageway
diameter in the
emitters.Scree
n filters are
most suitable
for water with
inorganic
impurities,
while high
loads oforganic
and biological
impurities
commit other
types of filters
since the
impurities
mayquickly
clog the
screen.There
is wide
selection
ofscreens. In
selecting
screentype,
water quality
andemitter
water
passagewaystr
ucture have to
beconsidered.
Perforated
steelscreen is
the
strongeststruct
ure but its
effectivefiltratio
n ratio is the
lowest
.
Itis used
mostly in filters
thatare
installed to
protect
thepumping
unit when
thepumped
water contains
coarse soil
particles,
gravel and
stones.Woven
wire is the
most prevalent
type of screen.
Its effective
filtration ratio is
thehighest, but
the structure is
the least
robust. Wedge
wire strength is
intermediate
andit is only
rarely
used.One of
the main
disadvantages
of screen filters
is the fast
accumulation
of dirt on
thescreen's
surface. The
accumulated
dirt increases
the head
losses and
may
triggercollapse
of the screen.
Monitoring the
pressure
difference
between the
filter inlet
andoutlet is
necessary to
scrutinize
excessive dirt
accumulation
on the screen.
The filterhas to
be flushed and
cleaned when
the pressure
difference
between inlet
and
outletapproach
es 5 m. (0.5
bar).
Table 8.2.
Screen
Perforation
ExamplesMes
h No. Hole
size
micronsWire
thickness -
microns40 420
25050 300
18880 177
119100 149
105120 125
86155 100
66200 74
53Perforated
Steel Wedge
Wire Woven
WireFig. 8.2.
Screen
Patterns
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
75

Fig. 8.3. Head
Losses in
Clean Screen
Filters

Adapted from "Odis"
brochure
8.7.2. Disc
Filters
Disc filters are
suitable for
filtration of
water
containing
mixed,
inorganic and
organicimpuriti
es. The casing
is made of
metallic or
plastic
materials. The
filtering
elementis a
stack of
grooved plastic
rings, tightened
firmly by a
screw on cap
or by a
springthat is
compressed by
a water-piston.
Water is
filtered as it
flows from the
perimeterinto
the stack inner
space through
the grooves.
The
intersections of
the
groovesprovide
in-depth
filtering.
Coarse
particles are
trapped on the
external
surface of
thestack. Finer
particles and
organic debris
stick to the
inner grooves.
Disc filters
havea higher
dirt-retention
capacity than
screen filters.
The definition
of the
filtrationdegree
is identical to
that of screen
filters and is
usually
indicated by
the color of
thediscs.
Fig. 8.4. Disc
Filter

8.7.3. Media
Filters

Media filters
protect
emitters when
using water
with a high
organic load
from
openwater
bodies or
reclaimed
water. Wide-
body (0.5 -
1.25 m in
diameter)
mediacontainer
s are made of
epoxy-coated
carbon steel,
stainless steel
or fiberglass.
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
77
pressure while
the use of
open settling
basins requires
re-pumping of
the
treatedwater
into the
irrigation
system.Centrif
ugal (vortex)
sand
separators
deposit sand
and other
suspended
particlesheavie
r than water by
means of the
centrifugal
force created
by tangential
flow ofwater
into a conical
container. The
sand particles
thrown against
the container
wallsby the
centrifugal
force settle
down and
accumulate in
a collecting
chamber at
thebottom. The
collector is
washed out
manually or
automatically.
Clean water
exitsthrough an
outlet at the
top of the
separator.
Each separator
has an optimal
flow-raterange
in which the
most of the
suspended
particles are
removed
without
excessivehead
-losses. At
lower flow-
rates, more
sand remains
suspended in
the water.

Fig. 8.7.
Hydro-cyclone
Sand
Separator
Head-losses
and Optimal
Flow-rates
From "Odis" brochure
8.7.5. Filter
Characteristic
s
8.7.5.1.
Reliability
Disc filters'
reliability is
higher than
that of screen
filters. Collapse
of the
filtrationelemen
t is uncommon.
In screen
filters, the
screens are
prone to be
ripped due
tocorrosion
and to collapse
by pressure
surges. The
screen-
supporting
frame has
towithstand
these pressure
surges.
8.7.5.2.
Capacity and
Head-losses
Water loses
pressure as it
flows through a
filter. The
extent of head-
losses
dependson the
filter design,
filtering
degree, flow-
rate and the
level of dirt
accumulation.
Normally, for a
specific filter
type and size,
the finer the
filtration
degree, the
lower
thenominal
discharge. This
is due to faster
dirt
accumulation
and higher
head-losses.
8.7.5.3. Key
Screen Filter's
Attributes
8.7.5.3.1.
Diameter
:

Designates the
diameter of the
water inlet and
outlet.

8.7.5.3.2.
Filtration Area
:

The total
surface area of
the filtration
element. The
requiredfiltratio
n area for
moderately
dirty water is
10 - 30 cm
2
for each 1 m
3
/h of flow-rate
forsprinkler
irrigation and
25 - 60 cm
2
for micro-
emitters
8.7.5.3.3.
Perforation
Area:
The total open
area of
perforations.

SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
82
When ferrous
iron is present
in the water,
one ppm (part
per million) of
chlorine
isrequired per
each ppm of
iron to kill iron
bacteria and
precipitate the
iron from
thewater.
When
hydrogen
sulfide is
present, 9 ppm
of chlorine are
needed per
eachppm of
sulfur to kill the
sulfur bacteria,
prevent slime
growth and
precipitate the
sulfurfrom the
water. The
precipitates
formed in
theses
processes,
must be
retained by
thecontrol
filters at the
zonal irrigation
control heads
to prevent
clogging of the
emitters.Effecti
ve chlorinating
decomposes
organic
materials and
blocks the
development
ofalgae and
plankton in the
laterals and the
emitters. 1 - 2
ppm of residual
chlorinedetecte
d at the distal
ends of the
laterals
indicates
adequate
chlorination.
Tomaintain
these residual
levels, chlorine
concentration
in the water at
the
injectionpoint
should range
between 3 15
ppm,
depending on
the impurity
load and
durationof
injection.
Levels higher
than 15 ppm
can harm the
diaphragms in
certain
hydraulicvalves
.
8.8.2.
Acidification
Acidification of
water is
required when
"hard" water
containing high
concentrations
ofbi-
carbonates is
used for
irrigation with
micro-emitters.
The injected
acid
neutralizesthe
transient
hardness and
immerse
calcium
carbonate
precipitates.
Acid can
beapplied with
ordinary
fertigation
equipment or
by a dedicated
metering
pump.
Thecommon
acidifying
agents are
sulfuric, nitric,
hydrocloric and
phosphoric
acids.Chlorinati
on of acidified
water is more
effective than
chlorination of
alkaline
water,reducing
the chlorine
requirement.
Hence if both
chlorination
and
acidification
aredone
simultaneously
, acidification
will be applied
first, followed
by
chlorination.Mi
xing acid with
chlorinating
agents is
forbidden since
it can induce a
toxic
chemicalreacti
on.Commonly,
chemical
treatments are
implemented
upstream from
the
filtrationsystem
. The impurity
load is reduced
and the
decomposed
material is
trapped in
thefilters. The
narrower the
water
passages in
the emitters,
the greater the
need
forchemical
treatments
.
That rule is
excluded
when, as
mentioned
before, the
oxidationof iron
and sulfur
bacteria forms
solid particles
that have to be
retained by
controlfilters in
the irrigation
zonal heads.
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
83
9.
FERTIGATI
ON
9.1.
Introduction
Fertigation is
the technology
of applying
nutrition
elements via
the irrigation
water
byinjection of
fertilizer
solutions into
the irrigation
system.
Contemporary
fertigationtechn
ology emerged
at the sixties of
the 20
th
century,
following the
introduction
ofcommercial
drip irrigation.
Prior to that
era, direct
application of
nutrition
elements tothe
water had
been
implemented
only in
hydroponics
growing
systems. Later
it wasrealized
that crops
benefit of
fertigation in all
the pressurized
irrigation
technologiesan
d in some
circumstances,
although
rarely, in
surface
irrigation
too.The
combined
application of
water and
fertilizers
through the
irrigation
systemincreas
es the
efficiency of
fertilizer
utilization,
raises yields,
improves
produce
qualityand
minimizes
environmental
pollution
caused by
excess
fertilization.
9.1.1
Advantages of
Fertigation
a. Improved
efficiency
1.

Uniform
distribution with
irrigation
water 2.

Better
synchronization
with crop
demands
i.

Adjustment of
amounts and
ratio between
nutrients along
the growing
season
3.

Deeper
penetration of
the nutrients
into the soil4.

Avoiding
nutrient losses
from soil
surface
b. Avoiding soil
compaction by
fertilizer
spreadersc.
Avoiding
damage to
canopy and
yieldd.
Reduction of
fertilizer
lossese.
Additional
functionality
1.

Application of
herbicides and
pesticides via
the irrigation
water
9.1.2.
Limitations
and Risks in
Fertigation
a. Hazard of
backflow of
nutrient
solution into
the drinking
water supply
networkb. Only
fully soluble
fertilizers are
applicablec.
Hazard of
corrosion,
precipitate-
formation and
clogging in the
irrigation
systemd. Use
of dangerous
acids and
inflammable
materialse.
Costly
investment in
accessories
and storage
installationsf.
Incorrect
application
may cause
damage to
crop, nutrient
losses by
leachingbeneat
h the root-zone
and
contamination
of underground
water
resourcesg.
Hazard of
foliage and fruit
scorching in
overhead
irrigationh.
Large storage
volumes are
needed for
nutrient
solutions
9.2.
Technologi
es of
Fertigation
A variety of
technologies
have been
developed for
injecting
fertilizers into
theirrigation
system.
9.2.1. Patterns
of Injection
9.2.1.1.
Fertilizer
Concentration
a. Decreasing
along time
(Fertilizer
tank)b. Uniform
pulsating
(piston and
diaphragm
pumps)
c.
Uniform
constant
(venturi,
internal mixing
pumps, mixers)

SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
84
9.2.1.2.
Energy
Sources
a. Inherent
pressure of the
irrigation
systemb.
External
energy sources
1.

Electricity2.

Internal
combustion
engines
9.2.1.3.
Injector Types
a. Pressure
differentialb.
Venturi
(suction)c.
Fertilization
pumps
9.2.2.
Fertilizer-tank

Throttling the
water flow
inthe control
head
createspressur
e
differential
thatdiverts a
fraction of
theirrigation
water through
atank
containing the
fertilizersolutio
n. A gradient of
atleast 1 2 m.
(0.1 0.2bars)
is required to
redirectan
adequate
stream ofwater
through a
connectingtube
of 9 12 mm
diameter.The
tank, made
ofcorrosion-
resistant
enamel-coated
or galvanized
castiron,
stainless steel
orfiberglass,
has to
withstandthe
irrigation
networkworkin
g pressure.
The diverted
water is mixed
with solid
soluble or
liquid
fertilizers.Whe
n solid
fertilizers are
used, the
nutrient
concentration
remains more
or
lessconstant,
as long as a
portion of the
solid fertilizer
remains in the
tank. Once the
solidfertilizer
had been fully
dissolved,
continuous
dilution by
water gradually
decreasesthe
concentration
of the injected
solution.
9.2.2.1.
Fertilization-
tank
Advantages
a. Simple
construction
and
operationb.
Low cost (of
small units)c.
Extensive field
experienced.
No need of
external
energy
sourcee. Good
mobilityf. Wide
dilution ratio
9.2.2.2.
Fertilization-
tank
Limitations
a. Head losses
by throttlingb.
High cost of
large unitsc.
Non-uniform
nutrient
concentration
along the
period of
applicationd.
Fertilizer
replenishment
is needed prior
to each
applicatione.
Integration with
automation is
problematic
Fig. 9.1.
Fertilizer-tank
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
87

Fig. 9.6.
Piston Pump
Installation on
Control-head
9.2.4.3.2.
Injection
Control
Hydraulic
pumps used in
fertigation can
beautomated.
A pulse
transmitter is
mounted on
thepump. The
movement of
the piston or
thediaphragm's
spoke sends
electrical
signals to
thecontroller
that measures
the delivered
volume.Measur
ement can also
be performed
by
smallfertilizer-
meters
installed on the
injection
tube.Fertilizer-
meter is a
modified water-
meter,corrosio
n resistant and
precise in
measurement
ofsmall
solution
quantities. The
controller
allocatesfertiliz
er solution
according to a
preset
program.In
glasshouses,
simultaneous
application of
amulti-nutrient
solution is
routine. When
the
distinctchemica
l compounds in
the fertilizers
areincompatibl
e and cannot
be combined in
aconcentrated
solution due to
the risk
ofdecompositio
n or
precipitation,T
wo or three
injectors are
installed in-line
one after
another, in the
control-head.
The application
ratio
betweenthe
injectors is
coordinated by
theirrigation
controller.In
high-income
crops grown
inglasshouses
on detached
media,
theirrigation
water is mixed
with fertilizersin
a mixing
chamber
(mixer).
9.2.4.3.3.
Centrifugal
Pumps
Centrifugal
pumps

are used when
highcapacity is
needed or the
fertilizer
Fig. 9.7.
Fertilizer
Solution
Meter with
Pulse
Transmitter
From "Arad"Brochure
Fig. 9.8. Mixer
Array

SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
90
reactions may
create
insoluble
compounds
that precipitate
and may clog
filters
andemitters.
That mostly
happens with
phosphoric
fertilizers
injected into
calcium
andmagnesium
rich water
(hard water) of
high pH
level.Chelates
of iron and
manganese
may
decompose
when mixed
with acid
fertilizers.Other
patterns of
interrelations
are
antagonism
and synergism
between
ions.Generally,
ions of the
same type of
electrical
charge (+ or -)
are
antagonistic to
eachother and
compete in
absorption and
bio-reactions in
the plant. For
example:
highlevel of
potassium
induces
magnesium
deficiency and
vis
versa.Between
ions with
different sign
mayexist
synergism
positive impact
oneach other.
For example,
simultaneouspr
esence of
potassium and
nitrate
insolution
increases
absorption of
bothions.The
chemical
aspects have
to
beconsidered
when nutrient
application
withfertigation
is scheduled.
9.8. Safety

Many fertilizers
are corrosive.
Some ofthem
may be toxic,
carcinogenic
orinflammable.
Dealing with
fertilizers
commits
caution
measures.a.
When dealing
with fertilizers,
one has to
wear protective
clothes and to
usegoggles,
gloves and
boots.
b.
When diluting
acids, the acid
has to be
poured slowly
into a great
amount
ofwater, to
avoid heating
and boiling of
the solution.
Water will be
never poured
into the acid.
c. Some of the
fertilizers are
inflammable.
No weeds and
garbage are
allowed inthe
injection site
and storage
vicinity.
Table 9.1.
Electric
Charges of
Nutrients
CATIONS

ANIONS

Ammonium
NH
4+
Nitrate
NO
3-
Potassium
K
+
Phosphate
H
2
PO
4-
Calcium
Ca
++
HPO
4=
Magnesium
Mg
++
Sulfate
SO
4=
Iron
Fe
++
Molibdate
MoO
4=
Fe
+++
Borate
B
4
O
7=
Zinc
Zn
++
Manganese
Mn
++
Copper
Cu
++
Sodium
Na
+
Chloride
Cl
-

95
S P RI NKL E R
I RRI GAT I ON
10.2.1.1.2. Head
Losses in the
Connecting
Tubes
Micro-
sprinklers and
micro-jets
utilize
occasionally
small diameter
micro tubes of
4 8mm inner
diameter for
connection
between the
lateral and the
emitter. The
smallercross-
section may
generate
considerable
head losses in
relatively short
tubes of 50
100 cm.
Decrease of
pressure below
the requested
operation
pressure may
distort
theoptimal
distribution
pattern of
micro-
sprinklers and
micro-jets. To
prevent
excessivehead
losses,
emitters with a
flow-rate
higher than 30
l/hour will be
connected to
thelateral with
tubes having a
minimum inner
diameter of 6
mm.
10.2.1.1.3. Head-
losses in Valves
and Accessories
As mentioned
before, head
losses in
accessories
are often
designated as
the losses
inequivalent
length of a
virtual pipe
having the
same diameter
as the
accessory.No
mograms of
head losses as
a function of
flow-rate
appear in
commercial
brochuresand
manuals.Certai
n producers
designate a
flowfactor to
valves and
similaraccesso
ries. This value
indicates
theflow-rate
that creates
head losses of
10m. (1 bar)
while flowing
through
theaccessory.
( )
50
.v
pQK
=
(Eq.
10.4)Where:
K
v

flow factor,
m
3
/hour flow-rate
withhead-loss
of 1 bar
Q
flow-rate, m
3
/hour

p
pressure
drop, bars
Example: K
v
= 50; What is the
head loss when
Q = 30 m
3
/h Manipulation
of Eq. 10.04:

p = (Q/K
v
)
2

p = (30/50)
2
= (0.6)
2
= 0.36 bar = 3.6
m.
10.2.1.2. Total
Dynamic
Head

(TDH)
The total
dynamic head
that has to be
created by the
pump is the
sum of the
pumpingsuctio
n lift (the
difference
between water
surface height
at the source,
and
pumpheight),
the requested
working
pressure in the
emitters, and
friction losses
within
theirrigation
system.The
energy
consumed per
pumped unit of
irrigation water
depends on
the
totaldynamic
head output of
the pump and
its pumping
efficiency. As
mentioned
above, thetotal
dynamic head
depends on:a.
The vertical
distance that
the water is
liftedb. The
pressure
required in the
emitters'
inletsc. The
friction losses
that are
created by the
water flow from
the water
source
throughthe
pipelines and
accessories
such as valves
and filters.
Fig. 10.3.
Head-losses
in Hydraulic
Valves(exampl
e)

97
S P RI NKL E R
I RRI GAT I ON
For a lateral
with more than
10 emitters,
F

0.40
can be
usedregardless
of the friction
loss formula
utilized. The
head-loss
dueto friction in
laterals is then
determined by:
H
f
= F

H
p
(Eq.
10.7)Where:
H
f
is the head-
loss due to
friction in the
lateral.
H
p
is the head-
loss due to
friction of the
same flow-rate
in a non-
distributing
pipe of the
same diameter
and length.As
mentioned
before, in
laterals where
connecting
tubes
areinserted,
molded inside
or nailed with
the stem
protruding
intothe inner
cavity of the
lateral, the
protrusions
disturb the
waterflow and
increase the
head losses.
These
additional head
lossesare
designated by
K
d
the
disturbance
coefficient
. The values
range from
zero to2.0 and
higher. When
these values
are high, the
disturbance to
flow and the
derivedhead
losses are
substantial and
commits a
shorter lateral
length.
10.4.
Hydraulic
Characterist
ics of
Emitters
Pressure
variations have
a different
effect on the
flow-rate of
various emitter
types.
Theimpact
depends on
design and
construction.
The
relationship
between the
operatingpress
ure and the
flow-rate of the
emitter is
calculated via
the following
equation:
Q = k

P
x
(Eq.
10.8)Where:
Q
= emitter flow-
rate l/h
k
= emitter
discharge
coefficient
depends on
the
configuration of
the water path
inthe emitter
and the units of
pressure and
flow-rate.
P
= Pressure at
the emitter's
inlet m.
x
= emitter
discharge
exponentThe
emitter
exponent
indicatesthe
relationships
between
thepressure
and the flow-
rate ofthe
emitter. The
range ofemitter
exponents is 0
1. inmost
sprinklers the
exponent
isaround
0.5.The larger
the
emitterexpone
nt, the more
sensitive isthe
flow-rate to
pressurevariati
ons. A value of
1 meansthat
for each
percentage
change in
pressure there
is an identical
percentage
change inflow-
rate. An
exponent value
of 0 (zero)
means that the
emitter's flow-
rate is
notaffected by
pressure
changes. That
happens in
compensating
emitters above
theregulating
pressure
threshold.
Table 10.3.
MultipleOutlet
s Factor
FNumber.of
outletsF
1 1.005
0.41010
0.38420
0.37340
0.368100
0.366
Table 10.4.
Effect of the
Emitter
DischargeExp
onent on
Pressure
Flow-rate
Relationship

Exponent 0.4
0.5 0.6 0.7
0.8Pressurech
ange - %Flow-
rate change -
%10
3.9 4.8 5.9 6.9
7.9
20
7.6 9.5 11.6
13.6 15.7
30
11.1 14.0 17.1
20.2 23.3
40
14.4 18.3 22.3
26.6 30.9
50
17.6 22.5 27.5
32.8 38.3

98
S P RI NKL E R
I RRI GAT I ON
10.5.

Calculation
of Head
Losses
As mentioned
before, slide
rulers, tables,
nomograms,
hand-held and
on-
linecalculators
as well as
dedicated
software can
be used to
calculate head
losses.Manufa
cturers publish
tables and
nomograms
showing the
head losses in
theirproducts.
Valve
producers use
the Kv Flow
Factor that
designates the
discharge of
thevalve in m
3
/h units at 10
m (1 bar) head
loss.
10.6.
Technical
Data
Sprinkler and
micro-emitters
manufacturers
provide
detailed
technical data
in catalogsor
on-line, about
the flow-rate -
pressure
relationships of
their products.
These
datashould be
used for
determining
lateral length
and the
pressure
required at the
lateralinlet. In
taking
decisions, the
convention of
maximum
allowed flow-
rate
differencebelo
w 10%
between
emitters in a
simultaneously
irrigated area
has to be
followed.Manuf
acturers
provide tables
indicating the
acceptable
lateral length in
a plateau
andselected
slopes for a
given emitter
and lateral
combination
that keeps the
headdifference
s in the
allowed range
of 5% around
the average
flow-rate.
10. 6. 1.
Pressure
Measureme
nt
An adequate
pressure
regime in the
irrigated area
isa prerequisite
for optimal
irrigation. Each
type ofemitter
has its allowed
pressure range
in which
thewater
distribution is
satisfactory.
Deviation from
theallowed
range
decreases the
efficiency of
waterapplicatio
n. The
pressure can
be measured
at
fixedmeasuring
points by
mounted
pressure
gauges or
byportable
pressure
gauges that
are fitted to
measurethe
pressure in the
sprinkler
nozzle.
Another device
isa portable
pressure
gauge,
equipped with
a needlethat
can be inserted
into specific
nipples that
havebeen
installed on
specific
accessories in
the
irrigationsyste
m like elbows,
plugs,
fertigation
devices, etc.
10.6.2.
Calculation
of
Longitudinal
HeadLosses
The calculation
of the
predicted head
losses is
essential in the
design of a
newirrigation
system. It is
particularly
important in
the comparison
of the
actualperforma
nce of the
irrigation
system with
the designed
performance.T
he discharge of
the emitter is
related to the
pressure
according to
the
formula:(Eq.
10.9)When:
Q
= Emitter
discharge, m
3
/h
P
= Sprinkler
pressure, bar.
d
= Nozzle
nominal
diameter, mm
C
= Coefficient
dependent on
the sprinkler
structure. Its
average value
is 0.9.
Fig. 10.4.
Pressure
Measurement

99
S P RI NKL E R
I RRI GAT I ON
Table 10.5.
Head-losses
in Non-
distributing
Aluminum
Pipes, m.
Head per 100
m. of Pipe
Length(withou
t Outlets)
Dischare
Nominal
DiameterM
3
/h 2 3 4 6
8
2 0.32 0.02
3 0.71 0.09
0.014 1.24
0.16 0.036
1.89 0.23
0.058 3.54
0.44 0.0910
5.69 0.72
0.1715 13.32
1.66 0.39
0.0320 20.95
2.62 0.63 0.07
0.01
30 49.50 6.07
1.40 0.19
0.0435 63.00
7.82 1.82 0.23
0.0540 9.70
2.28 0.30
0.0645 11.71
2.78 0.37
0.0850 14.39
3.36 0.44
0.1055 17.02
3.94 0.51
0.1260 21.18
4.90 0.60
0.1580 34.50
8.05 1.06
0.2690 44.60
10.42 1.36
0.33100 12.90
1.68 0.40120
19.31 2.58
0.58150 29.90
3.89 0.92180
5.02 1.20200
6.23 1.50
250 9.18 2.19
300 14.60
3.48350 18.90
4.51400
5.11425
6.14450
6.85The
calculation of
head-losses
can be done
with the
Hazen-
Williams
formula. In
dailylife,
tables,
nomograms,
specific slide-
rules and
computer
software
facilitate
thedeterminati
on of head
losses.
Example:
L = 500 m., Q =
60 m
3
/h, d = 6 It is
found in the table
above that at
flow-rate of 60 m
3
/h in 6
aluminum pipe,
the head-lossis
0.6 m. per 100 m.
length (0.6%).
The head-loss in
500 m. length
will be 0.6 X
500/100 = 3m.
10.6.2.1.
Head-losses
in Laterals
The results
obtained from
the tables and
the
nomograms
relate to a
blind pipe
withoutoutlets.
Discharge of
water from
outlets along
the pipe
decreases the
accumulatingt
otal head loss
in the pipe,
compared with
a non-
distributing
pipe. In this
case
thecalculation
of the head
losses along
the pipe can be
done
incrementally
between
theoutlets.

100
S P RI NKL E R
I RRI GAT I ON
A shortened
procedure
facilitates the
calculation of
the head
losses in
laterals by
themultiplicatio
n of the head
loss in blind
pipes by the
F coefficient
. As
mentionedbefo
re, the value of
the F
coefficient
depends upon
the number of
outlets along
thepipe and
the distance of
the first emitter
from the
entrance to the
lateral.
Thisprocedure
is valid if the
discharge of
each emitter
and the
intervals
between
theemitters
along the
lateral are
equal.In table
No. 10.6, (a
more detailed
versionof table
10.3). the F
coefficient in
laterals
ispresented.
X=1 indicates
that the
distancebetwe
en the sub-
main/manifold
and the
firstemitter is
equal to the
intervals
between
theemitters
along the
lateral. X=1/2,
indicatesthat
the distance
between the
sub-main
andthe first
emitter is half
of the distance
thatexists
between the
emitters along
thelateral.
Example:
L = 114 m.
distance from the
sub-main to
the first sprinkler
6 m. Intervals
between
sprinklers 12
m. d = 2,
Sprinkler
discharge 1.5 m
3
/h.What will be
the head-loss in
the lateral?The
number of
sprinklers along
the lateral is10.
114m. 6m. of
the initial section
=
108m.108m./12m
. (The interval
between
thesprinklers) = 9
segments = 10
sprinklers.The
total nominal
discharge of the
lateral: 1.5m
3
/h X 10 = 15 m
3
/h.The head-loss
in non-
distributing 2
lateral willbe
(from table
10.5):For 100 m.
length 13.32
m.For 114 m.
length: 13.32m.
X
114/100=15. 18
m. From table No.
10.6. The F
coefficient for
10emitters (third
columns X=1/2) =
0.353. Theactual
head loss
is:15.18m. X
0.353 =
5.36m.
The F
coefficient
range is from
0.5 for
twooutlets to
0.33 for more
than 100
outlets.
Table 10.6. F
Coefficient in
Laterals
Number
ofEmittersX =
1 X = 1/2
1 1.0 1.02
0.625 0.500
3 0.518
0.4224 0.469
0.3935 0.440
0.3786 0.421
0.3697 0.408
0.3638 0.398
0.3589 0.391
0.35510
0.385
0.35311
0.380
0.35112
0.378
0.34913
0.373
0.34814
0.370
0.34715
0.367
0.34616
0.365
0.34517
0.363
0.34418
0.361
0.34319
0.360
0.34320
0.359 0.342
22 0.357
0.341
24 0.355
0.341
26 0.353
0.340
28 0.351
0.340
30 0.350
0.33940
0.345
0.33850
0.343.
0.337100
0.338
0.337>100
0.333 0.335

SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
101
10.6.2.2.
Pressure
and
Topography
The
topography in
the field affects
the pressure in
the irrigation
system.
Elevation of
1m. in
topographic
height
decreases the
pressure by 1
m. (0.1 atm.).
Downward
declineof 1 m.
increases the
pressure by 1
m.The slope
along the pipe
can be
expressed in
%. That
facilitates the
calculation of
thecombined
effect of friction
in pipes and
topography in
each point in
the field.
10.6.2.3.
Nomograms
and Slide-
rulers
In daily use,
the common
practice of
head-loss
determination
is
accomplished
by theuse of
nomograms,
slide-rulers and
computers.
Fig. 10.5.
Slide-ruler for
Head-loss
Calculation in
Pipes
10.6.2.4.
Head Losses
in PVC and
PE Pipes
The calculation
of head losses
in PVC and
polyethylene
pipes is similar
to that
ofaluminum
pipes. Since
the plastic
pipes are
designated by
their nominal
externaldiamet
er, it is
necessary to
know the wall
thickness.
Knowing the
external
diameterand
wall thickness
facilitates the
calculation of
the internal
diameter and
the net cross-
section of the
pipes. These
values are
required for the
calculation of
head
lossesaccordin
g to the Hazen-
Williams
formula and for
the use of the
common head-
lossnomogram
s, in which the
internal
diameter is the
related
parameter.As
mentioned
before, in
plastic pipes,
as the nominal
working
pressure is
higher, thewall
thickness has
to be greater
and hence the
internal
diameter and
the free cross-
section will be
smaller.For
example, in
PE pipes of 50
mm. of 4, 6
and 8 bars.
working
pressure
classes,the
greatest
internal
diameter is in
the grade 4
pipe and the
smallest is in
the grade
8pipe. For the
same flow-rate,
the higher
head-losses
will occur in the
8-grade pipe
andthe lower in
the 4-grade
pipe. Two
distinct
nomograms
are given on
page 104 for
themost
prevalent PE
pipe diameters
of rigid (high
density) and
soft (low-
density)
PEpipes.
Calculation
example: (using
the Hazen-
Williams
nomogram)
The head -loss of
a 3" aluminum
sprinkler lateral
with 16
sprinklers,
positioned 12 m
apart,has to be
calculated. The
nominal (average)
sprinkler flow-
rate (discharge) is
1.5 m
3
/h; thelength of
the lateral is 186
m. The friction
coefficient [C] of
the pipeline is
120.

SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION
102
Solution:
The cumulative
discharge of
16 sprinklers with
an average
discharge of 1.5
m
3
/h per sprinkler is
24 m
3
/h. A lineis drawn
in the
"Nomogram for
The Determinati
on of the
HydraulicGradie
nt in Pipes"
(to the right),
fromthe point
A
of 24 m
3
/h on the
flow-rate (Q)
scale,
through the point
indicatingthe
pipeline diameter
(D) = 3" on
thediameter scale.
The drawn line
meetsthe axis of
the nomogram in
point
B.
Second line is
drawn from the
point
C
that indicates 120
on the C
coefficient scale
through the
crossing point
B,
which is already
marked on
thenomogram
axis. The line is
stretched tothe J
(head-loss) scale.
The point
D
onthe J scale
indicates head-
loss of
43,namely 43
m. per 1000-m
length of
the pipe.For a
186 m long
whole pipeline
thehead loss is 43
x 186/1000
|
8 m. But the
sprinkler lateral is
a
distributing pipeli
ne. We have to
multiply 8 by the
F coefficient.The
first sprinkler is
mounted on the
end of the first
aluminum 6 m.
long pipe, the
distance from the
sub-main to this
sprinkler is a half
of the distance
between the
sprinklers along
thelateral that is
12 m.From Table
10.6.
F Coefficient in
laterals,
in the
X=1/2
column, it is
found that F
coefficient for 16
outlets on the
lateral is
0.345. Multiplicat
ion of this figure
(0.345) by 8 m.
(the head-loss in
186 m. of non-
distributing
lateral,depicted
from the
nomogram)
indicates head-
loss of 2.76 m. in
the lateral.8 x
0.345 = 2.76

106

SPRI NKLER
I RRI GATI ON

Fig. 10.9.
Nomogram for
Calculation of
Head-losses
in LDPE
Pipes. Class
Designation
Relates tothe
Working-
pressure (PN)
in bar. 1 bar =
10 m
Adapted from
"Plassim" brochure

111
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION

11.3. Soil -
Water
Relationshi
p
11.3.1.
Introduction
By consensus
there are
definitions to
the distinctive
states of water
in the soil.
11.3.2.
Saturation
When water
reaches the
soil either as
rain, or by
irrigation, it
infiltrates
through thesoil
surface and
percolates
downward,
driven by
gravity. At that
point of time
the soilis
saturated,
namely, most
of the soil
pores are filled
with water.
11.3.3. Field
Capacity
After the rain
or irrigation
were finished,
a fraction of
the water
continues to
draindownward
s, driven by
gravity. The
duration of this
movement
depends on
thestructure,
texture and
other
properties of
the soil. Water
drains from the
larger
poreswhere it
is replaced by
air.
11.3.4.
Depletion of
Soil Moisture
Due to
evaporation
from the soil
surface and
absorption of
water by
plants,
themoisture
stored in the
soil after
wetting is
gradually
depleted.
11.3.5. Wilting
Point
The soil-
moisture
content at
which the plant
fails to absorb
water and does
notrecover its
turgor, is
expressed as
percentage
weight per
weight (w/w) or
volume
pervolume
(v/v) of the soil
and designated
as the
Permanent
Wilting Point
.
LEGENDSoil
particles
.Water
...Air
.Sat
uration Field
Capacity
Wilting
PointFig. 11.3.
. Illustration of
the Water
States in the
Soil
11.3.6.
Factors
Affecting the
Differences in
Water Storage
a.
Climate:
temperature,
radiation,
relative
humidity, wind,
etc.b.
Plant:
The
characteristics
of the root
system and the
leaf area index.
Sand ClayFig.
11.4. Water-air
Ratio in Two
Soil Types, 12
Hours After
Irrigation

112
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION

11.3.7.
Available
Water
Capacity
(AWC)
The available
water capacity
is the
difference
between
field capacity
(

fc
)
and the
wilting point (

wp
):

AVC =

fc
-

wp
(Eq. 11.1)The
available water
is the fraction
of soil water
that can be
extracted from
the soil bythe
roots. The
amount of
water available
to the plants
differs in
diverse soil
types
andtextures. It
is not
recommended
to let the
content of the
soil moisture
reach
thewilting point
since this may
cause damage
to the plants.
Table 11. 2.
Available
Water in
Different Soil
Textures
AVAILABLE
WATER IN 0
100 cm.
DEPTHHeavy
Clay 1550 m
3
/haSilty Clay
1450 m
3
/haSandy
Loam 1250 m
3
/haSand 450
m
3
/ha
Fig. 11.5.
Illustration of
the Available
Water in the
Soil

11.3.8. Water
Movement
inthe Soil
Water
movement in
the soiltakes
place in
differentdimens
ions.a.
Downwards
driven
bygravity.b. All
directions
drivenby
capillarity
(cohesion
adhesion
forces withthe
surface area of
soilparticles
and
absorptionby
plant roots).c.
Upward
driven by
suction of the
drying upper
soil
layers.Essentia
lly the driving
force of water
movement is
the difference
in
water
potential
.Water
potential is the
inherent free
energy
attained by the
water in certain
point,
Table 11.3.
Average
Values of
Water States
in
DifferentSoil
Textures
W\W %
SOIL
TEXTURE

fc

wp
AVCCoarse
Sand 10 5
5Sand 15 7
8Loamy Sand
18 7 11Sandy
Loam 20 8
12Loam 25 10
15Silty Loam
30 12 18Silty
Clay Loam 38
22 16Clay
Loam 40 25
15Silty Clay
40 27 13Clay
40 28 12

113
SPRINKLER
IRRIGATION

capable to
perform work.
The work done
can be the
relocation of
water from
onepoint to
another.As
mentioned
before, water
potential units
are bars,
atmospheres
or
kilopascal(Kpa)
.Soil water
potentials are
mostly
negative
pressures
(tension or
suction).Water
flows from a
higher (less
negative)
potential to a
lower (more
negative)poten
tial.The water
potential
reflects how
much energy
plants have to
spend in
waterextraction
.
Fig. 11.6.
Water
Potential
Values in the
Different
Water States
in the Soil
11.3.8.1. The
Components
of the Water
Potential

t
=

g
+

m
+

o

(Eq. 11.2)a.

t
= Total soil
water
potentialb.

g
= Gravitational
potential (force
of gravity on
the water)c.

m
= Matric
potential (force
exerted on the
water by the
soil matrix
soilwater
tension)d.

o
= Osmotic
potential (due
to the
difference in
salt
concentration
across asemi-
permeable
membrane,
such as a plant
root)The matric
potential,

m
, normally has
the greatest
effect on
release of
waterfrom soil
to plants.
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