An Exploratory Study of the Otaku

Adolescent Consumer
Han-Jen Niu
Tamkang University
Yung-Sung Chiang
Taiwan Power Company
Hsien-Tang Tsai
National Sun Yat-sen University
ABSTRACT
High accessibility to Internet technology and popularization of focus media has given rise to various
emerging subcultures among the younger generation who constantly seek novelty. The otaku is such
an adolescent subculture of avid collectors who have a special lifestyle and who are obsessed with
anime products. This study explores this specic adolescent segments traits and purchasing
behavior patterns. A focus-group interview was conducted with some adolescent otaku to allow them
to express their opinions and purchasing behaviors. Then, a questionnaire was developed based on
the interviews ndings, and data from a survey of 105 respondents were collected. Exploratory
factor analysis was applied to extract the otakus trait factors, while conrmatory factor analysis and
structural equation modeling were used for the verication of the scale and structural model,
respectively. The results show that the adolescent otaku present an obsessive preference for visual
perception. The main factor inuencing the otakus purchasing intentions in terms of animation,
comics, and games (ACG) is their strong interest in and participation willingness toward ACG.
Strategic marketing directions applied to this adolescent group should emphasize information
visualization to entice their buying behavior.
C
2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
The purchasing behavior of adolescents has received
much attention from marketing practitioners and re-
searchers over a long period of time. The purchas-
ing behavior of adolescents is not only easily inu-
enced by fashion trends, peers, and purchasing habits
(McAlister & Pessemier, 1982), but has also played a
gradually more important role in affecting the pur-
chases of their families (Arnett, 2002; Beaudoin &
Lachance, 2006; Belk, 2003; Kamaruddin & Mokhlis,
2003; Moschis & Moore, 1979). Even in recent years,
some studies have mentioned Global Teens, which
refers to the explosive growth of teen consumers in
global markets (Arnett, 2002; Kamaruddin & Mokhlis,
2003), result of this explosive growth, mainly be-
cause the buying behavior of adolescents susceptible
to pandemic trends, peer, and consumer characteris-
tics (McAlister & Pessemier, 1982). They pay a lot of
attention on shopping, as often as the task of the fam-
ily shopping (Arnett, 2002; Beaudoin &Lachance, 2006;
Belk, 2003; Kamaruddin & Mokhlis, 2003; Moschis &
Moore, 1979). Therefore, adolescents buying behavior
caught a lot attention in marketing eld.
The omnipresence of Internet access has provided
an optimized environment to enter the visualization
era. The development of information technology has
resulted in the gradual alteration of human lifestyles.
Additionally, human lifestyles have changed along with
the progress of information technology, and the rise of
the Internet era has brought about the reorganization
of interpersonal relationships and a re-orientation of
personal values. The dynamic impact of the mass me-
dia and widespread use of computers have led to the
popularization of computer games, animation, and car-
toons. Adolescents, who were born into the electronic
era, can easily acquire various types of electronic equip-
ment as if this equipment was an extension of their
bodies (Takana, 2002). In such an environment, this
new generation group can adapt to the massive num-
ber of messages fromthe exploding information and get
extreme enjoyment from at-screen images. Besides,
with the changes in emotion projection, humans prefer-
ences for physical objects have been transferred to var-
ious virtual gures and contexts. The evolution of the
lifestyle of this new generation group has diminished
Psychology and Marketing, Vol. 29(10): 712725 (October 2012)
View this article online at wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/mar
C 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc. DOI: 10.1002/mar.20558
712
interpersonal physical contact and caring for others.
Furthermore, since contemporary adolescents are more
interested in at-screen images, their reading ability
has greatly reduced and this has caused the group to
resist textbooks and lengthy articles.
Through the analysis of the consumption patterns
of youth in the 1980s, Japanese cultural researcher
Okada formulates a theory of the otaku, whom he de-
scribes as a new type of advanced life form (Okada,
1996). Okada asserted that the otakunot only represent
a new type of media-savvy human endowed with supe-
rior sensory faculties, but are also the true inheritors of
traditional Japanese culture. The otaku subculture has
emerged as a consequence of technology advancement
and the prosperous Japanese comic and anime market.
The otaku have come to be recognized as the verita-
ble subculture hero unique to Japan over the past few
years (Steinberg, 2004).
The most obvious behavior characteristic of the ado-
lescents who are categorized as otaku is their obses-
sion with novelty collecting. The distinguishing feature
of their purchasing behavior is generous spending, re-
gardless of the price. Therefore, the large otaku mar-
ket, as obsessive collectors of anime and pop culture
toys and books, has gradually received more attention,
and drives mainstream marketing. According to the
statistics announced by the Nomura Research Insti-
tute, the otaku in Japan spent 411 billion yen in 2004
on their distinctive preferences such as anime (anima-
tion) DVDs, manga (namely comics), anime gures, IT
gadgets, and other related items. This statistic is from
a report which summarizes over 10,000 interviews, in-
dustrial reports, and related information via the Inter-
net (Nomura Research Institute, 2005). Business Week
Online reported the consumer characteristics of otaku
in Japan as being fanatical about their preferences,
and representing a surprisingly powerful shopping sub-
culture in Japan, even driving mainstream marketing
(Bremner & Tashiro, 2006). Japanese manga, anime,
games, and related consumer electronic devices which
target the younger generation not only attract much
more Japanese young male enthusiasts (Sangani, 2008)
but are also popular in the overseas markets. In par-
ticular, manga which targets younger consumers have
become the cultural export with the fastest growth in
recent years (Fitzpatrick, 2005). The New York Times
and the New York Times Magazine have also reported
the ourishing of otaku culture among the younger
generation. Otaku culture has not only emerged in
Japanese contemporary art, cultural, and creative in-
dustries, but is also widely discussed by the community
of art and mass media in New York (Jefferson, 2005;
Spindler, 2002). Otaku culture is a result of fashion
culture in Japan, and it makes an inuential contri-
bution to Japanese culture as globalization intensies
(Sangani, 2008).
Havighurst (1953) stated that humans develop their
cognition of society during childhood, while develop-
ing their world view during adolescence. The period of
adolescence is the most important stage for the devel-
opment of social values. Adolescents consumer deci-
sion making may be quite inuenced by family com-
munication pattern (Kim, Lee, & Tomiuk, 2009). In
addition, Isaksen and Roper (2008) have found that
branding and advertising do have positive effects on
adolescents formation of self-concept and consumer be-
havior. Further, Web-consumption behavior of adoles-
cents is mainly and directly inuenced by innovative-
ness and indirectly by their personal values (Hartman,
Shim, Barber, & OBrien, 2006). In Taiwan, in ad-
dition to Japanese culture and lifestyle have being
partly preserved from the time of Japanese coloniza-
tion, the young peoples behavior is greatly inuenced
by Japanese culture due to the powerful marketing
strategies and the communication of the Internet and
mass media. Therefore, various types of entertainment
from the virtual world constantly attract the younger
generation, along with the advancement of information
technology. The active involvement of youth in the vir-
tual world, and the inuence of foreign consumer cul-
ture have led the otaku culture to penetrate into the
broader adolescent culture. A unique group and sub-
culture have thus been formed in Taiwan.
In the past, the concept of lifestyle was adopted to
study the consumer behavior of adolescents (Arnett,
2002; Belk, 2003; Beaudoinand & Lachance, 2006;
Kamaruddin & Mokhlis, 2003; Moschis & Moore,
1979). Lifestyle scales, such as Values and Life Styles
(VALS) and List of Values (LOV), are employed
as instruments for comprehensively measuring the
adolescent lifestyle and making classications. For
instance, adolescents are frequently categorized as ad-
venturers for innovative consumer products with var-
ious attributes such as being young, devoted, showing
appreciation for adventure, change, excitement, etc.
In recent research, youths have been considered the
most active mobile users in many industrialized coun-
tries such as Japan (Okazaki, 2008). However, the de-
tailed attributes of these characteristics, such as pur-
chasing channels or information sources, cannot be in-
vestigated by way of these instruments, especially of
the buying behavior of otaku. This study attempts to
adopt exploratory consumer buying behavior to study
the otakus consumer attitudes and the new genera-
tions consumption behavior.
Addressing the research problems and propose,
this study adopts a two-factor conceptualization of
exploratory consumer buying behavior, including ex-
ploratory acquisitions of products (EAP) and ex-
ploratory information seeking (EIS), proposed by
Baumgartner and Steenkamp (1996) as the theoret-
ical base to study the specic adolescent segments
traits and purchasing behavior patterns in Taiwan. The
characteristics of the otaku are summarized from the
literature review, close observation, a focus-group in-
terview, and questionnaire surveys of otaku. The con-
sumer behavior of otaku is studied from their per-
ceptions of animation, comics, and games (ACG) and
its peripheral products, and the potential inuence of
the otakus characteristics on their buying behavior is
OTAKU ADOLESCENT CONSUMER 713
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
discussed. From a pragmatic perspective, the effective
comprehension of consumer behavior in the target mar-
ket will assist in the planning of an accurate marketing
strategy. In sum, this study expects to understand the
otaku adolescents traits and purchasing behaviors as
well as the practical implications to popular commodity
markets.
LITERATURE REVIEW
Otaku: The Emerging Subculture
The term otaku was rst introduced in Japan during
the early 1980s and came into popular usage by 1989.
The otaku research received attention in the 1980s, and
they became a target population for various studies.
For example, a series of articles called An Investi-
gation of otaku, written by Akio Nakamori and pub-
lished in a comic magazine in 1983, revealed that the
otaku, a unique subculture, presented unusual and ob-
sessive interest in a specic range of subjects, while
lacking general knowledge. They enjoy staying indoors
to play games and read comics alone, but are not con-
cerned about daily living requirements. In the eld in
which they are interested, they are capable of nding
out new information and products very quickly. They
are maniacal collectors of comics and Japanese anime
goods, and call each other otaku instead of you.
Generally speaking, they are called otaku. The word
otaku is a pronoun that means you, while the nuance
of otaku includes the meaning of you isolated in your
house, which implies that people called otaku are those
who tend to be isolated from their friends and family
(Washida, 2005).
Nomura Research Institute (2005) indicated that as
for manga fans, the term otaku is used when address-
ing one another. Furthermore, the term is adopted to
show respect for other manga fans when they are trad-
ing for information and resources. Currently, otaku is
dened as a group of people who are obsessed with
the visualized virtual world and the images supplied
by the modern media (including television, magazines,
comic books, computer, or video games) (Baral, 1999).
Otaku are also known as geeks or nerds, the ones who
is overly obsessed with intellectual pursuits, technol-
ogy, electronics, gaming, and even new media (Brem-
ner & Tashiro, 2006; Steinberg, 2004; Washida, 2005).
With an eccentric character and an obsessive inter-
est in computer technology, the otaku are socially in-
ept although but enjoy socializing with others via the
Internet.
The meaning of otaku was gradually expanded to
be used to refer to any group of people who show in-
tensive interest in a specic preference, and who form
a particular otaku culture (Kinsella, 1998; McNicol,
2007). Okada (1996) indicated otaku as a new cultural
species from the viewpoint of sociology and they are al-
ways the pioneer of cultural development due to their
distinguished capability of information searching and
analysis, and their fanatical involvement in their pref-
erences. Otaku are now regarded as the advocates of
Japanese public culture who created the otaku eco-
nomic body (McNicol, 2007).
It has been well accepted in recent years that otaku
culture is propagated by three types of media: (1) visual
media, which includes science fantasy movies, anima-
tion, special effect video clips, and other image media;
(2) published manga, science ction novels, etc; (3) dig-
ital media, which include PC games, television, and the
Internet. Consequently, the integration for these three
types of media constitutes ACG. Hence, otaku is the
subculture group with ample interest in and purchas-
ing patterns for ACG (Okada, 2006).
Moreover, Okadas (2006) denition of otaku pro-
vided the public with a new impression of this group
of special anime fans. Okada also differentiated otaku
from fans and maniac in accordance with their concen-
tration on and involvement in ACG. From the view-
point of ultimate evolution of cultured people, Okada
perceived the fan as someone with a fondness for a
subject and who would develop their interest through
appreciation, whereas maniac was perceived as an
admirer who was actively involved (by sacricing en-
ergy, material, and time) in gathering related prod-
ucts and resources. However, the otaku enjoyed col-
lecting related information and products to enhance
their deep understanding of a specic eld and to es-
tablish their own opinions on their obsession. There-
fore, otaku evolved from fans and maniac. In other
words, otaku is a result of the evolution of obses-
sion (Okada, 2006). The internal response to obsession
can be explored through the overt behavior of otakus
obsession, and this exploration will evoke the pro-
found exterior features of the purchasing behavior in
adolescents.
The ACG Industry
The development of ACG initiated with the advance-
ment of information technology and the evolution of
media. In addition, comic publishing evolved into an-
imation due to the maturation of display technology.
Games related to animationbecame available once com-
puters were introduced to the market.
Comics/Manga. The contemporary comics originated
from the recurring comic strips (or comics) published in
American newspapers. These comic strips employed a
drawing style with simple strokes, rigid formats, and
limited shots. Subsequently, contemporary comic strips
spread to Japan. With the inuence of movies, comics
in Japan were presented in an exquisite way, accom-
panied with descriptive shots. Hence, comics in Japan
are generally known as manga which means recurring
drawings. From 1988, the amateur manga movement
expanded so rapidly that by 1992 the amateur manga
conventions in Tokyo were being attended by over a
714 NIU, CHIANG, AND TSAI
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
quarter of a million young people. Through the mass
media, amateur manga artists, referred to as manga
otaku, were rapidly made into symbols of Japanese
youth in general (Kinsella, 1998). Most of the otaku
culture and products stemmed from the classic
Japanese manga, the Tetsuwan Atomu, considered to
be one of the most classic manga in Japan, in the 1990s.
However, there were discrepancies between manga
and American graphic novels (Cuchinotta, 2005). Cur-
rently, manga is considered as not only the most impor-
tant contemporary art for the x-generation but also an
essential cultural industry in Japan. Besides, this sub-
culture has been exported to, and is widely accepted in
other countries (Fitzpatrick, 2005).
As the Japanese manga evolved, manga freaks grad-
ually appeared. In the late 1960s, a group of Japanese
initiated the activitycosplay (imitation of manga
characters with customized costumes). The target of
imitation is comprised of characters in animation, com-
puter games, fantasy movies, etc. With the activity of
cosplay, characters in the virtual world will come alive
in the real world. These manga freaks display excep-
tional fanaticism by imagining themselves in the ani-
mation world. On the contrary, manga artists keep in
touch via Doujinshi (self-published manga works ini-
tiated by a group of people who share the same interest)
and form artist communities. Many manga artists en-
joy redrawing other creators works, and publish their
works in the Doujinshi. Moreover, there are manga
artists who adapt their own stories in the Doujinshi.
Some of the works published in the business media may
even be printed into comic books.
Animation
Most adolescents in Japan consider animation (or
anime) to be similar to Western cartoons, while they
perceive manga and graphic novels as another form of
art or entertainment. However, both anime and manga
provide understanding of the inner thoughts of contem-
porary adolescents (Cuchinotta, 2005). There is integra-
tion between anime and manga in their evolution and
cultural development. Therefore, anime and manga are
known as animation in general.
In 1963, Japan Mushi Production released the rst
best-selling manga Tetsuwan Atomu. The release of
this manga changed the developmental trend for inte-
gration of anime and manga, and elicited the in-depth
conjunction of camera movement and comic drawings.
In 1974, Matsumoto Reiji directed the well-known
anime Space Battleship Yamato which was the rst
animation deeply depicting the unbreakable will of hu-
mans ghting for survival. Later when Mobile Suit
Gundam was rst introduced in 1979, the anime not
only constructed characters more similar to the realis-
tic world, but also encompassed sophisticated thinking
which promoted the anime production to another new
stage. Henceforth, the animation industry in Japan be-
gan to prosper.
Takashi Murakami, a famous Japanese contempo-
rary artist, founded the Superat movement which is
deeply inuenced by otaku culture as demonstrated by
the Japanese fashion and subculture contents through
manga, anime, manga characters gures, illustrations,
graphics design, and photography. Not only the at-
tened images in the drawings of anime and manga are
presented in Superat art, but also the shallow empti-
ness of Japanese pop culture is insinuated. Besides,
Superat art also manifests the virtual world of young-
sters inuenced by this subculture. During its 2001 art
exhibition tour of the United States, Superat art re-
ceived a great deal of attention from the art and media
community (Darling, 2001).
Games
Games can be classied into the following ve cate-
gories in accordance with the different game platforms:
computer games, video games, mobile games, arcade
games, and online games. Game players can enjoy per-
sonal gaming or multiplayer gaming (with community
interaction available among gamers) through various
media (e.g., computer, television, PDA, server, Inter-
net, etc.). There are also different genres of games
including action games, puzzle games, sports games,
RPG (role-playing games), racing games, etc. The gam-
ing industry has blossomed due to the active invention
of game consoles by Sony, Nintendo, and Microsoft.
Moreover, online gaming is the most popular form of
entertainment for Internet users. With casual gam-
ing gradually becoming popular, the online gaming
market in Taiwan was worth 9.59 billion Taiwanese
dollars in 2007, making online games the most com-
monly utilized Internet entertainment service. Fur-
thermore, the prosperous development of video games
(such as Nintendo Wii and Microsoft Xbox) and online
games (including Lineage and World of Warcraft) have
formed a community of game otaku and driven them
to collect related products and to try to conquer these
games.
As a result of globalization, the ourishing of the
ACG industry not only inuences Japan but also many
other areas of the world. American artist, Gwen Ste-
fani frequently employs inspiring cartoon characters
from Tokyo in her performance. The Japanese anime,
Spirited Away, directed by Miyazaki Hayao, even re-
ceived the Best Animated Feature in the 75th Oscar
Academy Awards in 2003. In 2005, Nintendo (which
marketed Super Mario and Pets) achieved sales of 350
billion yen (equivalent to 3.1 billion US dollar) in the
United States and Europe. Additionally, the latest LV
advertisement in 2008 was designed by Takashi Mu-
rakami, who presented the products with animation to
attract the new generation of adolescents. Animation
is a magical term which signies any acceptable and
accessible content. Animation has assisted Japan in ex-
panding its culture and commercial inuence overseas
to adolescents around the world.
OTAKU ADOLESCENT CONSUMER 715
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
Theoretical Background of Exploratory
Buying Behavior
The concept of exploratory buying behavior started in
the early 1980s. Berlyne (1976) stated that humans
actively seek excitement to fulll their sensory needs
in addition to fullling their physical needs. These be-
haviors are commonly stimulating and arousing. Ex-
ploratory behavior is the emotional state which in-
cludes the disposition to explore new experiences and
novel environments. Moreover, people with exploratory
behaviors have various dynamic desires and strong cu-
riosity to fulll their inner minds.
McAlister and Pessemier (1982) and Raju (1980)
early applied the theory of exploratory buying behav-
ior in the research of consumer behavior. The con-
cept of exploratory buying behavior comprises the risk
taking and innovativeness of purchases made by con-
sumers, while exploratory buying behavior includes va-
riety seeking, purchases due to curiosity, brand switch-
ing, information seeking, and communication with
experienced buyers.
Hirschman (1980) intensied the theory of ex-
ploratory buying behavior from the innovative per-
spective, and argued that consumers have the behav-
ioral tendency to adopt novelty products (which include
ideas, products, or services). Besides, the concepts of
symbolic innovation and technological innovation were
also mentioned in his study. Commonly, symbolic inno-
vation represents the propagation of newsociety values
(in buying behavior and products) through innovative
social effects. For instance, the social value of products
related to otaku is a new lifestyle value. Furthermore,
technological innovation is a physical innovation which
never appeared in the products genres and purchas-
ing habits. As Internet technology advances, one of the
examples of technological innovation is the ability of
consumers to make purchases in a virtual store.
Conceptualization of Exploratory Buying
Behavior
Baumgartner and Steenkamp (1996) made revisions
and amendments to the concept based on the ex-
ploratory buying behavior of Raju (1980). The psy-
chological factors related to exploratory buying behav-
ior proposed by MacAlister and Pressemier (1982) and
Raju (1980) were transformed into a discussion related
to behavioral outcome. Additionally, revisions were
made to the previous measuring scales. There were
repetitive concepts in the seven factors presented by
Raju (1980). For instance, brand switching and repeti-
tive buying behavior were contrasting concepts. Fur-
thermore, the exploratory buying behavior tendency
and relationship between different aspects could not
be predicted in an accurate manner. The main is-
sue for the three factors of McAlister and Pessemier
(1982) was the difculty to differentiate risk tak-
ing and variety seeking. Therefore, Baumgartner and
Steenkamp (1996) integrated conceptual frameworks
from the above researchers into two factors and de-
veloped the Exploratory Consumer Buying Behavior
Tendency (EBBT). EBBT is used to measure the dis-
position of exploratory buying behavior. The two-factor
conceptualization is as follows:
1. Exploratory acquisition of products (EAP)
EAP is the behavior reected during purchases
that include risk taking, innovation, brand
switching, and behavioral tendencies for vari-
ety purchasing. Consumers with high EAP are
people with willingness to take risks in pur-
chasing unfamiliar and innovative products. This
group of people enjoys collecting a variety of prod-
ucts, emphasizes peculiar purchase experience,
and is easily attracted by innovation or novelty
products.
2. EIS
EIS is the behavior initiated by curiosity which
includes information seeking, intelligence inquir-
ing, and behaviors related to interpersonal com-
munication. These behaviors are mainly reected
during the acquiring of product information and
intelligence. In addition, consumers with high
EIS possess ample curiosity about product infor-
mation. This group of consumers enjoys aimlessly
browsing display shelves, reading advertisement
brochures of related products, collecting intelli-
gence, and sharing their buying behavior among
themselves.
In summary, otaku is the new generation in this
technology development era. From the literature re-
view, otaku with new values, new life style is associ-
ated with technological innovation. This study adopts
the exploratory consumer buying behavior as the-
ory construct to explore the meaning of consumption
behavior.
RESEARCH METHODOLOGY
Data Collection and Analysis Procedure
To further understand the disposition and buying be-
havior of the otaku, this study was based on the two
dimensions, products and information, of exploratory
buying behavior. In addition, both qualitative and
quantitative research methods were adopted to closely
inquire into the target subculture group. First, the tar-
get group was gathered from investigators surround-
ings through close observation, and then a semistruc-
tured focus-group interview was conducted with them.
From the perspective of the interviewees, the essen-
tial values and buying behavior of the target group
was thus summarized. In order to extract the dimen-
sionality of the subculture group behavior models, a
structured questionnaire was developed fromthe focus-
group interviews from which the analyzed quantitative
716 NIU, CHIANG, AND TSAI
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
data were collected. Finally, the relationship among dif-
ferent variables was veried with structural equation
modeling (SEM). By identifying the relationships which
affect the buying behavior of the target adolescents, an
objective quantitative conclusion can be obtained.
Conceptualization
This study dened otaku as someone with fanatical
obsession for their professional eld, and who is so-
cially inept but who enjoys communicating with their
compeers. The denition of otaku was employed as the
principle for the sampling, and the interviewees were
targeted as ACG fanatics. In addition, according to the
adolescent policy of the United Nations (UN), the term
adolescents refers to the population between the ages
of 15 and 24. Member States of the European Union
(EU) dene adolescents as the population between
the ages of 15 and 25. This study adopted the broader
policy and categorized those between the ages of 15
and 25 as adolescents to broaden the sampling frame.
Based on the denition above and the characteristics of
the otaku (socially inept but enjoying communicating
with their compeers), snowball sampling of survey was
employed to access avid consumers of ACG.
FOCUS-GROUP INTERVIEW
Smith (1954) emphasized that the group interview is
conducted to elicit the importance of information, and
the group interview is limited to those composed of
groups small enough to allow members to discuss the
genuine situation. Because of the particularity of otaku,
a focus-group interview was conducted in this study to
ensure the comprehensiveness of the subsequent sur-
vey questionnaire design. The EAP and EIS, the main
dimensions of exploratory buying behavior tendencies
inventory proposed by Baumgartner and Steenkamp
(1996), were also considered in the design of the items.
Consumers with relevant experience were gathered to
form the focus group. By directing an open-ended dis-
cussion, their attitudes affecting consumer behavior
could be comprehended (Calder, 1977; Flanagan, 1954).
The content of the discussion was recorded and then
used to analyze the feedback to the questions. To in-
spect the content validity of the questions, revision of
items was made by comparing the analyzed combina-
tion of questions with the previous questions.
Selection of Interviewees
This study selected interviewees by implementing close
observation of the customers of a specialty store of
games and ACG gures. The observatory session was
conducted in the evening, the time when most otaku
would appear at the stores. The interviewees were
selected based on the time they spent making their
purchases, and the conversations they participated in
while in the store. The customers who spent more time
shopping and who were more frequent buyers were cho-
sen as the candidates.
Eventually, ve customers were invited to be inter-
viewed, including three males (aged 20, 20, and 18)
and two females (aged 19 and 17). Moreover, the non-
structured questionnaire was developed based on the
features of the subculture and the exploratory buying
behavior model reviewed from the literature.
Procedure and Findings of the Interview
The interview was held in the ACG gures store so
that the interviewees would feel comfortable. Besides,
the interview was led by a moderator who attempted to
understand the thoughts of the interviewees based on
the discussion outlined from the literature. The discus-
sion was carried out conversationally to assist in under-
standing the respondents opinions and buying behav-
ior. During the session, there were three rules obeyed
by the moderator: not to express personal opinions, not
to make any value judgments, and not to criticize the
respondents. The duty of the moderator was to create a
comfortable context for the free ow of opinions. More-
over, the moderator would manage the session to avoid
the discussions deviation from the topic. The modera-
tor would bring up critical questions when appropriate
during the process.
Since the otaku group was, by denition, socially
inept, the moderator took a longer period of time to
t in to the interviewees way of thinking during the
session. Besides, the interviewees were eager to express
opinions about the topics related to their own interests,
but were not concerned about others comments. The
session thus lasted 3.5 hours. The information from
the interview was organized and categorized into four
sections, as shown in Table 1.
From Table 1, it can be seen that the personality
traits of otaku include disliking social activities and
going out, and considering the Internet as a required
tool to fulll life and entertainment needs. Under the
section of values, otaku have strong self-esteem, and
possess an extraordinary level of enthusiasm and pro-
fessionalism for the subject of interest. Besides, otaku
also display conspicuous recognition of and are defen-
sive of their group culture. The purchasing behavior of
otaku adolescents demonstrates distinctive differentia-
tion from regular consumers due to their high involve-
ment in postpurchase behavior. Hence, the behavior
traits of the otaku summarized from the literature re-
view were veried. Furthermore, the otaku exhibited
high EAP and EIS purchasing patterns under the the-
ory of exploratory buying behavior.
SURVEY DATA ANALYSIS
This study designed the close-ended questionnaire
items based on the focus-group interview to acquire
OTAKU ADOLESCENT CONSUMER 717
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
Table 1. Results of Focus-Group Interview.
Activities and
Interests Values Personality Traits
Opinions about ACG
Culture Purchasing Behavior
Enjoy indoor
activities
Good knowledge of
ACG-related
products from Japan
and the United
States
Appreciate Japanese
ACG products
Repeatedly read
comics of interest
May self-imagine as
the comics
characters and
imitate moves,
habits, and styles of
the characters
Participate in the
autograph sessions
of various anime
exhibitions
Experienced in
information
searching
Consider the
otaku-ism of oneself
as a unique trait and
feel superior
Neglect of others
recognition while
disliking others
judgments of
otaku-ism
Strong enthusiasm
for and ability in
subjects of interest
An ACG expert
All needs can be
fullled by computer
without going out
Incapable of
dressing up
Dislike staying in
the crowd, most of
the time enjoy
shopping alone
May imagine the
comic character as a
love partner but do
not expect this to
happen in real life
Eager to express
opinions about the
topics of own
interest but not
concerned about
others comments
Strong antipathy for
ctitious reports
published in the
media
Offended by societys
misunderstanding of
ACG culture
Large proportion of
expenditure is used
for anime-related
products
Creativity and
quality
ACG market is a
niche market
ACG creates a
designated
community and
shopping area
Favor products from
Japan
Devoted to collecting
Concerned about the
products related
information
Collect and compare
product information
objective proof and support. The possible relationship
between the characteristics disposition and purchas-
ing patterns of otaku can then be veried. The initial
questionnaire items included characteristics disposi-
tion such as lifestyle activities, hobbies, values, per-
sonality traits, and perspective of ACG, which totaled
32 questions. In addition, there were eight questions on
the outcome variables of the otakus ACG purchasing
patterns. The questionnaire was inspected and revised
by the ve interviewees and two marketing practition-
ers. As a result, the 27 nalized questionnaire items in-
cluded 22 questions on the characteristics disposition of
otaku and ve questions on ACG purchasing patterns.
Prole of Respondents
The questionnaire respondents were invited and in-
troduced by the otaku interviewees who participated
in the focus-group interview. Basically, the age of the
respondent must be between 15 and 25. Additionally,
the interviewees compeers who comformed to the char-
acteristics of otaku were invited to participate in the
questionnaire investigation. One hundred forty-eight
questionnaires were delivered in Taiwan (Kaoshiung
city) and with 105 valid questionnaires returned, giv-
ing a valid response rate of 71%. The respondents were
mostly male (73.3%), and between the ages of 21 and
25 (63.8%). Furthermore, most of the respondents had
an education of college or university level and monthly
expenditure between US$101 and $200. Besides, 44.8%
of respondents spent two to four hours on the Internet
everyday (Table 2).
Table 2. Sample Prole.
Variable Frequency Percentage (%)
Gender
Male 77 73.3
Female 28 26.7
Age
1520 38 36.2
2125 67 63.8
Education
High school 13 12.4
College or university 92 87.6
Monthly pocket money
Under $100 26 24.8
$101200 30 28.6
$201300 27 25.7
$301400 10 9.5
Over $400 12 11.4
Daily PC-use
Less than 2 hours 6 5.7
24 hours 47 44.8
48 hours 37 35.2
More than 8 hours 15 14.3
Item Purication
Some of the measurement items may not be relevant
to the scale, hence a purication process is needed
to identify the effective items by eliminating the re-
lationship between the individual item and the entire
scale. The coefcient alpha and the item-to-total cor-
relation for each item were computed, then the items
whose item-to-total correlations were low and whose
718 NIU, CHIANG, AND TSAI
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
Table 3. Summary of Item-Total Statistics.
Scale Mean Scale Variance Corrected Squared Cronbachs
If Item If Item Item- Multiple Alpha If
Items Deleted Deleted Total Correlation Correlation Item Deleted
Twenty-two items for measuring otaku traits
Q 1 64.45 154.423 0.209 0.371 0.885
Q 2 64.18 151.669 0.280 0.469 0.884
Q 3 64.83 150.066 0.316 0.293 0.883
Q 4 63.62 154.123 0.264 0.522 0.883
Q 5 63.69 156.871 0.110 0.408 0.886
Q 6 65.37 147.197 0.468 0.643 0.879
Q 7 65.23 143.755 0.551 0.550 0.876
Q 8 64.80 142.123 0.577 0.581 0.875
Q 9 64.84 140.675 0.709 0.628 0.872
Q 10 64.58 141.803 0.618 0.512 0.874
Q 11 65.16 141.291 0.614 0.674 0.874
Q 12 65.48 141.406 0.649 0.700 0.873
Q 13 65.89 142.371 0.588 0.560 0.875
Q 14 63.85 151.303 0.323 0.310 0.882
Q 15 65.09 167.118 0.308 0.301 0.901
Q 16 65.26 149.174 0.321 0.376 0.883
Q 17 65.00 144.865 0.601 0.575 0.875
Q 18 65.30 138.060 0.782 0.754 0.869
Q 19 65.37 136.966 0.705 0.692 0.871
Q 20 64.50 137.925 0.659 0.767 0.872
Q 21 64.41 143.456 0.535 0.655 0.877
Q 22 65.11 137.006 0.760 0.767 0.869
Five items for measuring otakus ACG buying behavior
Q 23 10.12 21.475 0.893 0.805 0.932
Q 24 10.13 20.963 0.902 0.822 0.930
Q 25 10.07 20.986 0.854 0.777 0.938
Q 26 10.41 20.744 0.837 0.727 0.941
Q 27 10.05 20.853 0.824 0.684 0.944
Note: Reliability coefcient alpha = 0.883. Standardized items alpha = 0.877.
removal increased the coefcient alpha were deleted.
In addition, squared multiple correlation for each item,
the multiple R
2
from the regression analysis with the
very item as the dependent variable and all other items
as independent variables, was also computed to deter-
mine if the item should be deleted due to its low value.
Thus, the internal consistency of the set of items was
examined.
The rst two columns in Table 3 are scale mean and
scale variance if the itemwas deleted. The stable distri-
bution of these two columns values shows the stability
of the scale. Table 3 indicates that not only is the scale
quite reliable but that no items should be deleted.
Exploratory Factor Analysis
Factor analysis is a statistical method used to describe
variability among observed variables in terms of a po-
tentially lower number of unobserved variables called
factors. In order to examine the common factors of the
measurement, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was
conducted on the original 22 items for the otakus dis-
position, and ve items for their ACG buying behavior.
This study employed the EFA to analyze the unidimen-
sionality and validity (Nunnally, 1978).
This research hence submitted the 22 otaku trait
items to EFA with varimax rotation to explore the un-
derlying dimensions of the construct, and the results
are summarized in Table 4. Cutoff points of 0.5 for an
items factor loading and 1.0 for eigenvalue were used.
All items communality exceeds 0.3 (a variables com-
munality is the estimate of its common variance among
the variables as represented by the derived factors and
the communality increases as a variable is highly cor-
related with other variables) and all items exceed the
0.5 factor loadings threshold, except for item 3. This in-
dicates that convergent validity and unidimensionality
exist. In addition, there was not a high cross-loading
existing for any item, which supports the discriminant
validity. The Kaiser-Meyer-Olikin(KMO) value is 0.842
and Bartletts test of sphericity achieved a signicant
level (p < 0.001) showing that the data were suitable
for implementation of factor analysis. Five factors were
extracted from this EFA and the cumulative variance
explained was 68.76%.
The results for varimax-rotated component matrix
were used to judge item elimination. Item 16 with
a factor loading smaller than 0.5 and item 3 with a
single-item loaded on one factor were dropped. There
were hence 20 valid questions after the elimination
process (Table 4). This procedure ensured convergent
OTAKU ADOLESCENT CONSUMER 719
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
Table 4. Rotated Component Matrix of Otakus Characteristics.
Items Factor Loading Communality Dimension
20. Profound interest in animation 0.894 0.836 Deep ACG research (Disp 1)
21. Profound interest in games 0.781 0.685
22. Highly praise ACG products 0.767 0.796
9. Exceptional knowledge of animation/games stores 0.743 0.693
18. Great understanding of ACG 0.712 0.749
19. A deep interest in Doujinshi 0.667 0.655
12. Imitate animation characters frequently 0.840 0.821 Animation obsession (Disp 2)
11. Imagine myself as animation characters frequently 0.772 0.752
13. Participate in animation autograph sessions frequently 0.736 0.668
10. Read comics of interest repeatedly 0.536 0.549
6. Perceive outdoor activity as very boring 0.879 0.825 Indoor activity (Disp 3)
7. Believe computer can fulll every need 0.759 0.695
8. Carry out activity of interest indoors 0.705 0.640
17. Do not normally shop in crowded places 0.611 0.606
1. Believe I am superior to others 0.721 0.595 Self-superiority (Disp 4)
2. Believe I possess characteristics others do not have 0.766 0.717
15. Believe I am not good at dressing up 0.579 0.597
5. Deeper research into subjects of interest than others 0.806 0.685 Accentuation of interests (Disp 5)
4. Strong enthusiasm for subjects of interest 0.804 0.762
14. Generally seek information via the Internet 0.586 0.601
validity in the factor components. Afterwards, the char-
acteristics of the relative items were employed for the
naming of dimensions including ve characteristics:
deep ACG research, animation obsession, indoor
activity, self-superiority, and accentuation of inter-
ests, which represented the profound understanding
of ACG by otaku, obsession with anime products, pref-
erence for indoor activities, high recognition of self-
values, and avid participation in subjects of their own
interest, respectively. The ve factors identied in Ta-
ble 4 can be described as follows:
r
Factor 1: Deep ACG research. This involves items
related to presenting the otakus profound in-
terest in, and knowledge and appreciation of
ACG.
r
Factor 2: Animation obsession. The items that de-
scribe this factor present the otakus addiction to
the virtual anime and manga surroundings.
r
Factor 3: Indoor activity. This factor is loaded with
the items that the otaku likes to stay indoors more
than in the crowded outdoors.
r
Factor 4: Self-superiority. This involves items re-
lated to such issues as self-recognition and supe-
riority.
r
Factor 5: Accentuation of interests. This factor
emphasizes the deeper, enthusiastic, and dig-
itized research of the otaku into subjects of
interest.
There were ve items loaded on the purchasing
pattern of ACG. The KMO value was 0.893 and the
Bartletts test of sphericity achieved a signicant level
(p < 0.001). Later, the EFA result displayed a single
factor which complied with the original concept of uni-
dimensionality. Moreover, the factor could explain the
variance of 83.43% (eigenvalue of 4.172). Thus, the fac-
tor structure demonstrated convergent validity, and the
dimension of ACG purchase was named based on the
relative items (Table 5).
Conrmatory Factor Analysis
In statistics, conrmatory factor analysis (CFA) is
a special form of factor analysis. It is used to test
whether measures of a construct are consistent with a
researchers understanding of the nature of that con-
struct (or factor). In contrast to EFA, where all loadings
are free to vary, CFA allows for the explicit constraint
of certain loadings to be zero (Campbell & Fiske, 1959).
The empirical validation of the measurement was per-
formed by EFA and CFA as well as reliability analysis
(Churchill, 1979). In this research, construct validity
and eliminated items based on the factor loadings from
EFA were rst examined. The next step was a test to
extract dimensions for the measurement model using
CFA. In Table 6, the results show that the measure-
ment model of this research is a good t.
Reliability and Validity
Mean and standard deviations of each otaku exploring
buying behavior concept score are given in Table 7. The
concept Accentuation of interests reaches the highest
mean score (M = 4.19, SD = 0.60), while the concept
with the lowest score is ACG purchase (M = 2.54,
SD = 1.14). According to Churchill (1979), average cor-
relation is all that is needed to estimate the reliability
of the sample, and all the sources of error occurring
within a measurement tend to lower the average corre-
lation among the items in the test.
720 NIU, CHIANG, AND TSAI
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
Table 5. Rotated Component Matrix of ACG Purchasing Patterns.
Description of Joint Factors for Related Questions Factor Loading Communality Dimension
24. Will purchase Japans ACG-related products 0.940 0.872 ACG purchase
23. Strong ability in collecting ACG information 0.934 0.884
25. Will compare different types of ACG products 0.910 0.828
26. Usually spend the most on ACG 0.896 0.803
27. Collect ACG products with lasting value 0.886 0.785
Table 6. CFA Results.
Suggested Model Model
Indicators Values Values Fit Results
Otaku disposition (20 items)

2
/df 3.00 1.583 Good
AGFI 0.80 0.756 Adequate
RMSEA 0.05 < RMSEA < 0.08 0.075 Good
IFI 0.90 0.908 Good
CFI 0.90 0.905 Good
ACG buying behavior (ve items)

2
/df 5.00 2.328 Good
AGFI 0.80 0.879 Good
RMSEA 0.05 < RMSEA < 0.08 0.097 Adequate
IFI 0.90 0.987 Good
CFI 0.90 0.986 Good
AGFI = Adjusted Goodness of Fit Index; RMSEA = Root Mean
Square Error of Approximation; IFI = Incremental Fit Index; CFI =
Comparative Fit Index.
The subsequent calculation of the Cronbachs for
each dimension is used to determine the reliability of a
measure based on its internal consistency. When 0.35 <
< 0.70, reliability is acceptable; when > 0.70, relia-
bility is good (Guilford, 1954). Six of the components
listed in Table 7 showed acceptable reliability: deep
ACG research with 0.912, animation obsession with
0.840, indoor activities with 0.821, self-superiority with
0.500, accentuation of interest with 0.606, and ACG
purchase with 0.949. In summary, these support the
convergent validity and reliability of the instrument.
Validation of the Structure Model
Before the verication of the variable inuences of the
ve-factor otaku traits on ACG purchase, the variance
ination factor (VIF) was employed for the collinearity
diagnostic to assure more rigorous model validation.
All the VIF values were between 1.41 and 4.20 and
there were only three items, namely items 18, 20, and
22, which had a VIF value larger than 4. These items
loaded on the same common factor and did not have a
substantial inuence on the original factor structure.
Hence, it is supported that the collinearity would not
threaten the model verication (Neter, Wasserman, &
Kutner, 1985).
SEM was subsequently adopted for the verication
procedures. Two models were developed to investigate
the model t of the ve-factor otaku traits related to
the ACG purchase factor: Model 1 was the direct rela-
tionship between the ve antecedence factors and the
single consequence variable, while Model 2 added the
potential intermediary effect into the relationship be-
tween the ve antecedence factors and the single con-
sequence variable. The model t results for the two
structure models are shown in Table 8.
The results for Model 1 showed that
2
/df = 1.854
(suggested value 3.0) and the p value was 0.000. On
the basis of these results, it presents a signicant over-
all structure model t. According to Hair, Black, Babin,
Anderson, & Tatham (2006), the measure of goodness
of t is divided into absolute t measures, incremental
t indices, and parsimony t indices. Due to the lim-
ited sample size, the AGFI was poor (0.672) under the
absolute t measures (except for the RMSEA at 0.091,
which signied a good t). The incremental t indices
[Normed Fit Index (NFI), CFI, and NNFI- Non-Normed
Fit Index (TIF)] fall outside the suggested value, but ap-
proximate to the suggested value, which can be consid-
ered as an adequate t. Overall, there was a consider-
able level of model t between the suggested model and
the actual investigated information. However, from the
relationship among the factors, only ACG research
displayed a signicant inuence on ACG purchase
(standardized path coefcient = 0.96). The path dia-
gram is illustrated in Figure 1.
To further the intermediary effect among variables,
the analysis of Model 2 was conducted. The results for
Table 7. Means, Standard Deviations (SDs), and Correlations Between Variables.
Variable Mean SD Cronbachs Alpha 1 2 3 4 5 6
1. Deep ACG research 2.98 0.97 0.912 1
2. Animation obsession 2.63 0.92 0.840 0.64

1
3. Indoor activity 2.80 0.85 0.821 0.54

0.53

1
4. Self-superiority 3.33 0.70 0.500 0.02 0.01 0.03 1
5. Accentuation of interests 4.19 0.60 0.606 0.27

0.19 0.15 0.12 1

6. ACG purchase 2.54 1.14 0.949 0.87

0.62

0.57

0.02 0.22

Correlation is signicant at the 0.05 level (two-tailed).

OTAKU ADOLESCENT CONSUMER 721
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
Table 8. Fit Indices for the Structure Model.
Fit Suggested Value
Indices (Hair et al., 2006) Model 1 Model 2
Absolute t measures

2
/df 5.00 (Segar & Grover, 1993) 1.854 1.529
AGFI 0.80 0.672 0.729
RMSEA 0.10 0.091 0.071
Incremental t indices
CFI 0.90 0.865 0.918
TLI 0.90 0.850 0.907
IFI 0.90 0.868 0.920
Parsimony t indices
PNFI 0.50 0.676 0.703
PGFI 0.50 0.604 0.634
the model t are shown in Table 8, combined with the
results for Model 1. Referring to t indices, all t values
of Model 2 are better than Model 1 and attain a good t
level, except for AGFI. The path diagram for Model 2 is
illustrated in Figure 2.
Figure 2 reveals that the most important factor of
otaku traits inuencing their ACG buying behavior
is deep ACG research (Disp 1) since otaku are com-
monly interested in ACG products. Animation obses-
sion (Disp 2) and Indoor activity (Disp 3) do not di-
rectly inuence their ACG buying behavior, but indi-
rectly inuence it through the deep ACGresearch fac-
tor (Disp 1). In addition, ACG buying behavior is also
affected by the Indoor activity factor (Disp 3) through
the inuence of Animation obsession (Disp 2). Other
factors have no signicant direct or indirect effects on
ACG buying behavior. In summary, from the perspec-
tive of exploratory buying behavior theory, deep ACG
research expresses the subculture of adolescents with
high exploratory product acquisition and information
seeking for such products, and Animation obsession
(Disp 2) follows.
Figure 1. SEM path diagram for Model 1.
Note: Values on the path are standardized coefcients. Fit measures: AGFI =0.672, RMSEA =0.091, CFI =0.865, PNFI =0.676.
722 NIU, CHIANG, AND TSAI
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
Figure 2. SEM path diagram for Model 2.
Note: Values on the path are standardized coefcients. Fit measures: AGFI =0.729, RMSEA =0.071, CFI =0.918, PNFI =0.703.
CONCLUSIONS
The otaku is a unique group which has emerged from
the advancement of modern media and information
technology, and which is obsessively interested in the
comics, animation, and games generated in the visu-
alization era. In the path of history, every evolution
and invention of new technology has brought about
tremendous subverting power. From the opinion of
McLuhans (1964) the medium is the message, peo-
ple are often distracted by the content of a medium
and noticing change in our societal or cultural ground
conditions indicates the presence of a new message,
that is, the effects of a new medium. There exists a
close and inseparable relationship among the content
of medium, technology, and culture. Thereby, there are
two main points of this study. First, from the person-
ality traits of otaku (socially inept but enjoying com-
municating with their compeers), the communicating
medium for this group is their common interest: an-
imation, comics, and games, collectively named ACG.
Second, the communicating methods for this group
rely on ACG subjects or their extension to express
the messages among the otaku. Therefore, images are
the messaging platform and symbols for communi-
cation among the otaku. For this generation adoles-
cent, products and marketing strategy must combine
technological and trendy. Adolescent buying charac-
teristic is coexisting with personalized and herding,
comparison and show off, which coincides with pervi-
ous research results (Mangleburg, Doney, & Bristok,
2004).
The above nding is of signicance for the linkage of
the adolescent otakus buying behavior to the deep in-
formation searching based on the theory of exploratory
consumer buying behavior. Generally, novelty subjects
attract young peoples attention while the visualized
image, such as ACG products, will most entice the ado-
lescent otakus purchase intentions. In terms of the
otakus consumption, whether anime or gure, it is not
just the things in themselves that are consumed, but
rather the world view is contained therein.
OTAKU ADOLESCENT CONSUMER 723
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
The strategic directions for marketing by ACG
rms and marketers are hence highlighted as fol-
lows. The marketing tactics employed for these ado-
lescents should include recognition, friendliness, and
story background presented in ACG. Additionally, con-
temporary adolescents show a strong interest in at-
screen images, hence the optimal selection for market-
ing media and symbols is propagation through images.
Emphasis on information visualization marketing and
application to this adolescent group are recommended
to entice their buying behavior, such as online ash
advertising, story telling using appealing pictures, and
even customized interactive sales-promotion games on
the net.
This research has some limitations that need to be
considered. First, the sample has not been proved rep-
resentative of the general population. Thus, the results
must be interpreted with considerable caution. Second,
although the goodness-of-t indices suggest a good t
of the model to the data, future research is encour-
aged to test our instrument across different settings.
To do so, researchers are suggested to add more new
items to the scale or to delete some of the existing ones,
and to use alternate factors applicable to the research
setting.
REFERENCES
Arnett, J. J. (2002). The psychology of globalization. American
Psychologist, 57, 774783.
Avolio, B. J., Yammarino, F. J., & Bass, B. M. (1991). Identi-
fying common methods variance with data collected from a
single source: An unresolved sticky issue. Journal of Man-
agement, 17, 571587.
Baral, E. (1999). Otaku: Las enfants du virtuel. Paris: Editions
Denoel.
Baumgartner, H., & Steenkamp, J. E. M. (1996). Exploratory
consumer buying behavior: Conceptualization and mea-
surement. International Journal of Research in Marketing,
13, 121137.
Beaudoin, P., & Lachance, M. J. (2006). Determinants of ado-
lescents brand sensitivity to clothing. Family and Con-
sumer Sciences Research Journal, 34, 312331.
Belk, R. W. (2003). Shoes and self. Advance Consumer Re-
search, 30, 2733.
Berlyne, D. E. (1976). Effects of novelty and oddity on visual
selective attention. British Journal of Psychology, 67, 175
180.
Bremner, B., & Tashiro, H. (2006, August). Otaku: Japans
consumer fanatics. Business Week Online, 3997, 1515.
Calder, B. J. (1977). Focus groups and the nature of qualitative
marketing research. Journal of Marketing Research, 14,
353364.
Campbell, D. T., & Fiske, D. W. (1959). Convergent and
discriminant validation by multitrait-multimethod matrix.
Psychological Bulletin, 56, 81105.
Churchill, G. A. (1979). A paradigm for developing better mea-
sures of marketing constructs. Journal of Marketing Re-
search, 16, 6473.
Cuchinotta, C. (2005). The otakus view on manga. Young
Adult Library Services, 3, 1717.
Darling, M. (2001). Plumbing the depths of superatness. Art
Journal, 60, 7689.
Fitzpatrick, M. (2005). The otaku design generation. Commu-
nication Arts, 47, 7685.
Flanagan, J. (1954). The critical incident technique. Psycho-
logical Bulletin, 51, 327358.
Guilford, J. P. (1954). Psychometric Methods. 2nd Ed. New
York: McGraw-Hill.
Hair, J. F., Black, W. C., Babin, B. J., Anderson, R. E., &
Tatham, R. L. (2006). Multivariate data analysis (6th ed.).
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson.
Hartman, J. B., Shim, S., Barber, B., & OBrien, M. (2006).
Adolescents utilitarian and hedonic Web consumption be-
havior: Hierarchical inuence of personal values and inno-
vativeness. Psychology & Marketing, 23, 813839.
Havighurst, R. J. (1953). Human development and education.
New York: David McKay.
Hirschman, E. C. (1980). Innovativeness, novelty seeking,
and consumer creativity. Journal of Consumer Research,
7, 283295.
Isaksen, K. J., & Roper, S. (2008). The impact of branding
on low-income adolescents: A vicious cycle? Psychology &
Marketing, 25, 10631087.
Jefferson, M. (2005). Theater: Cool Japan: Otaku strikes! New
York Times, 154, E25E25.
Kamaruddin, A. R., & Mokhlis, S. K. (2003). Consumer so-
cialization, social structural factors and decision-making
styles: A case study of adolescents in Malaysia. Interna-
tional Journal of Consumer Studies, 27, 145156.
Kim, C., Lee, H., & Tomiuk, M. A. (2009). Adolescents percep-
tions of family communication patterns and some aspects
of their consumer socialization. Psychology & Marketing,
26, 888907.
Kinsella, S. (1998). Japanese subculture in the 1990s: Otaku
and the amateur manga movement. Journal of Japanese
Studies, 24, 289316.
Mangleburg, T. F., Doney, P. M., & Bristol, T. (2004). Shop-
ping with friends and teens susceptibility to peer inuence.
Journal of Retailing, 80, 101116.
McAlister, L., & Pessemier, E. (1982). Variety seeking behav-
ior: An I interdisciplinary review. Journal of Consumer re-
search, 9, 311322.
McLuhan, M. (1964). Understanding media: The extensions of
man. New York: ARK.
McNicol, T. (2007). Who are you calling otaku? Economy,
Culture & History Japan Spotlight, 26, 3637.
Moschis, G. P. & Moore, R. L. (1979). Decision making among
the young: Asocializationperspective. Journal of Consumer
Research, 6, 101112.
Neter, J., Wasserman, W., & Kutner, M. H. (1985). Applied
linear statistical models: Regression analysis of variance,
and experimental design (2nd ed.). Homewood, IL: Richard
D. Irwin Inc.
Nomura Research Institute (2005). Marketing research of
otaku. Tokyo: Toyo Keizai, Inc. (In Japanese).
Nunnally, J. C. (1978). Psychometric theory. New York:
McGraw-Hill.
Okada, T. (1996). Introduction to otaku. Tokyo: Ohta Publish-
ing. (In Japanese).
Okada, T. (2006). The lecture in Tokyo University. Tokyo: Ko-
dansha Ltd. (In Japanese).
Okazaki, S. (2008). Determinant factors of mobile-based word-
of-mouth campaign referral among Japanese adolescents.
Psychology & Marketing, 25, 714731.
Raju, P. S. (1980). Optimum stimulation level: Its rela-
tionship to personality, demographics, and exploratory
724 NIU, CHIANG, AND TSAI
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
behavior. Journal of Consumer Research, 7, 272
282.
Sangani, K. (2008). Otaku world. Engineering & Technology,
3, 9495.
Segar, A., & Grover, V. (1993). Re-examining perceived ease
of use and usefulness: A conrmatory factor analysis. MIS
Quarterly, 17, 517527.
Smith, G. H. (1954). Motivation research in advertising and
marketing. New York: McGraw-Hill and the Advertising
Research Foundation.
Spindler, A. M. (2002). Do you otaku? New York Times Maga-
zine, 151, 134.
Steinberg, M. (2004). Otaku consumption, superat art and
the return to Edo. Japan Forum, 16, 449471.
Tanaka, K. (2002). Small Talk with Friends and Family: Does
text messaging on the mobile phone help users enhance
relationships? Published doctoral dissertation, University
of Washington, Seattle, Washington.
Washida, Y. (2005). Collaborative structure between Japanese
high-tech manufacturers and consumers. Journal of Con-
sumer Marketing, 22, 2534.
Correspondence regarding this article should be sent to:
Hsien-Tang Tsai, Department of Business Management, Na-
tional Sun Yat-sen University, 70 Lien-Hai Rd., Kaohsiung
80424, Taiwan (htt@mail.nsysu.edu.tw).
OTAKU ADOLESCENT CONSUMER 725
Psychology and Marketing DOI: 10.1002/mar
Copyright of Psychology & Marketing is the property of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and its content may not be
copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's express written
permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use.