Corresponding author : madjid_chaoui@yahoo.

fr
Laboratory of Power Electronics and Industrial Control (LEPCI), Setif University1, Algeria
Copyright JES 2013 on-line : journals/esrgroups.org/jes
A. Chaoui
J-P. Gaubert
A. Bouafia
J. Electrical Systems 9-1 (2013): 52-65
Regular paper
Direct Power Control Switching
Table Concept and Analysis for
Three-phase Shunt Active
Power Filter
JES
Journal of
Electrical
Systems
This paper deals with the concept and analysis of direct power control (DPC) for a shunt
active power filter (SAPF). From the topology of the SAPF and its equivalent scheme a new
predefined switching table is designed by analyzing the voltage source inverter (VSI) switching
vectors effect on the total derivatives of instantaneous active and reactive power. To maintain
the VSI dc-bus voltage at the required level an IP controller is used to obtain the active power
control. The active and reactive powers are directly controlled by selecting the optimal
switching state. The main advantages of this method are that it provides a sinusoidal source
current and unity power factor with no need of linear current controllers and coordinates
transformations or modulators. Extensive simulation and experimental results obtained from
steady and transient states have proven the excellent performance and verify the validity and
effectiveness of the proposed power control scheme.
Keywords: Direct power control; Harmonics; IP controller; PLL; Shunt active power filter;
Switching table.
1. INTRODUCTION
Having as main task to improve source power quality and performed its unity power
factor, three-phase VSIs continue to take a major place in many grid-connected applications
such as active power filter, uninterruptible power systems, and distributed generating
systems using renewable energy sources (e.g., photovoltaic, wind power, etc .).
However, the proliferations of non linear loads, with the generalization of static
converters in industrial activities and by consumers, result in a deterioration of the quality
of voltage and current waveforms and affect the reliability of power electronic equipments
[1], [2]. Traditionally, passive LC filters have been used to eliminate lower order harmonics
(5
th
, 7
th
, 11
th
) of the line current and then limit the flow of harmonic currents in the
distribution system. Nevertheless, these passive second order filters present many
disadvantages such as series and parallel resonances, tuning problems and complexity in the
power system, particularly in case of an increase in the number of harmonic components
that have to be cancelled [3]. Nowadays, active filters are an interesting alternative to
passive filters or in association with hybrid structures [4]-[6]. For harmonic depollution and
reactive power compensation, the most common solution is the three-phase SAPF. This
active filter, based on a three-phase VSI, is connected in parallel with non-linear loads to
eliminate current harmonics and compensate reactive power and also to ensure the stability
of the system. The performance of the SAPF depends on the design of the structure,
strategies control and the robustness of the controllers [7]. In order to control the SAPF and
achieve a proper power flow regulation in a power system, voltage-oriented control (VOC),
which provides a good dynamic response by an internal current control loop, is widely used
[8],[9]. As an alternative to this control method, other control strategies have been proposed
in recent publications, such as predictive control and direct power control (DPC) [10]-[12].
DPC has become more widely used over the last few years due to the advantages of fast
J. Electrical Systems 9-1 (2013): 52-65
53
dynamic performance and simple control implementation when compared with other
methods. which are based on the instantaneous active and reactive power control loops, or
so-called p-q Theory which was introduced by Akagi et al. in 1983 [13], [14].With DPC
there are not internal current control loops and no PWM modulator bloc, because the
converter switching states are selected by a switching table based on the instantaneous
errors between the commanded and estimated values of the active and reactive power, and
voltage position vector. Therefore, the key point of the DPC implementation is a correct
and fast estimation of the active and the reactive line power. The DPC method is based on
the direct torque control (DTC) witch was originally proposed for controlling an induction
motor in 1986 by Takahashi and Nogushi [15]. In 1995, Mannienen has introduced basic
principles of the DTC control method applied to the line converter [16]. The physical
structure of the line converter may be exactly similar to the motor converter, the only
exceptions being the connection to the grid instead of the motor and the introduction of the
line filter. Firstly, the DPC was proposed by Noguchi in 1998 for PWM converter without
power source voltage sensors [17], and developed by Malinowski in 2001 based on virtual
flux estimation for three-phase PWM rectifiers system [18]. Using space-vector modulation
(SVM), Malinowski et al. proposed a new DPC strategy with constant switching frequency
[19], although these control strategies based on modulation techniques have been classified
indirect power control (IPC) techniques [20]. Recently, the DPC was applied for active
filtering function of three-phase boost rectifiers and pure shunt active power filters [21]-
[23].
Several papers, on PWM rectifiers and few of them on active power filters, directly
exploited the switching table of Noguchi for DPC. While, carefully looking at this classical
switching Table , one can note that for all odd sectors ) , ( odd i i = if the digitized error signal
state p d changes ) 1 0 ( , the switching vector remains unchanged witch is an inconvenient.
The same observation can be done for q d and even sectors ) , ( even i i = . So, this shows the
limits of this switching table.
This paper is focused on DPC analysis and new switching table conception. From SAPF
topology and its electrical circuit analysis, variations of mains instantaneous active and
reactive power are obtained. The predefined switching table concept is based on the effect
study of the VSI voltage vectors and their position on the instantaneous power variations. In
the proposed DPC strategy the reference of the instantaneous active power is achieved with
the controller IP by regulating the DC bus voltage of the VSI. the measured voltages and
currents source allow estimating the instantaneous powers (p
s
, q
s
) to be compared to their
references. to minimize the number of commutations by excluding null vectors ) , ( 7 0 v v , the
control vectors ) ( 6 .. 1 = i i v are derived from a decision of the switching table that depends on
the instantaneous active, reactive powers errors states and the position of mains voltage
vector (fig. 1).
Table. I: Classical switching table.
d
ps
d
qs

10

11

12
1
1 v
6
v
7
v
1
v
0
v
2
v
7
v
3
v
0
v
4
v
7
v
5
v
0
0 v
7
v
7
v
0
v
0
v
7
v
7
v
0
v
0
v
7
v
7
v
0
v
0
0
1 v
6
v
1
v
1
v
2
v
2
v
3
v
3
v
4
v
4
v
5
v
5
v
6
0 v
1
v
2
v
2
v
3
v
3
v
4
v
4
v
5
v
5
v
6
v
6
v
1
A. Chaoui et al: DPC Switching Table Concept and Analysis for three-phase SAPF
54
) , ( s v

abc

abc
L L P . .
|

-
-
=
|

s s s s
s s s s
s
s
v i v i
v i v i
q
p
1
tan
-

1
3
4 5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

v
v
Table
Switching
New
-
-
-
-
-
-
sa e
sb e
sc e
Rs
Ls
Lc
Rc
f L f R
L L
L R
sa v
sc v
sa i
sc i
s i s i
s p
s q
) , ( s v

Selection
Sector
dc V
ref dc V
ref p
ref q
dc C
s p \
s q \
s dq
s dp
a S b S c S
Controller
IP
Figure 1: Block diagram of the SAPF under DPC.
Several tests were conducted and simulation results of SAPF under DPC using the new
switching table show the main advantages of the proposed control strategy for the
improvement power quality and its high performance getting a sinusoidal current source,
unity power factor operation and robust control of the dc-bus voltage in steady states and
transient.
2. DPC CONCEPT AND ANALYSIS
In the DPC scheme (Fig. 1), to reduce the DC-link capacitor fluctuation voltages and
compensate the system loss, an Integral-Proportional controller (IP) is used in the DC-link
voltage control loop as its mentioned in Fig. 2.
ref dc V
-
-
dc V
) ( s
1

p k
i k -
-
s
1
- -
a T / 1
-
-
c u r u
s

t
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12

v
v
v

Figure 2: IP controller structure. Figure 3: Voltage vector in stationary

coordinates with twelve sectors.
Where ) ( is represented by
s
dc dc
V
V C ref

=
3
2
(1)
From Fig. 2, the DC voltage closed loop transfer function can be expressed as
J. Electrical Systems 9-1 (2013): 52-65
55

/ /
/
2
) (
i p p
i p
dc
dc
V
k k s k s
k k
V
V
G
ref
IP dc
- -

= = (2)
One can see that, the TF contains two poles and does not possess a zero; this proves that the
IP controller insures a fast response and a good stability for transient states relatively to the
PI controller.
Using a pole placement to identify the controllers parameters for a second order system,
we have obtained for the using parameters (Table V) 0.118, kp = 54 ki = . Finally, to limit
and smooth mains current at starting and dumping transient time, we have introduced
additionally to the IP controller an anti-windup compensation with its gain
-3
a 10 T = , to
deal with the adverse effects caused by control saturation [7].
The bloc scheme in Fig. 1 gives the configuration of direct power control where the
commands of reactive power ref q (set to zero for unity power factor) and active power
ref
p (delivered from the outer integral-proportional (IP) DC voltage controller) are
compared with the calculated
s
p and
s
q values given by (3), in reactive and active power
hysteresis controllers, respectively.
s s s jq p S - =
, ) , ) , ) j |
.
|

\
|
- - - - -
- - - =
sc sb sa sb sa sc sa sc sb
sc sc sb sb sa sa
i v v i v v i v v j
i v i v i v
3
1
) (
(3)
The digitized variables ps d , qs d and the line voltage vector position ) / (

s s n
V V arctg =
form a digital word, which by accessing the address of lookup table selects the appropriate
voltage vector according to the switching table. For this purpose, the stationary coordinates
are divided into 12 sectors, as shown in Fig. 3, and the sectors can be numerically expressed
as:
12 ,..., 2 , 1
6
) 1 (
6
) 2 ( = - s s - n n n n

(4)
Now, for the conception of the new switching table one must develop the instantaneous
active, reactive powers variations equations and analyse them as a function of vectors
voltage and their positions.
2.1 SAPF instantaneous powers variations development
The electrical model per phase representation of SAPF, associated to the non linear load,
connected to AC mains is shown by Fig. 4.
) (t e
) (t is
s L s R f L f R
) (t i f
) (t vs
) (t v f
) (t iL
mains AC Load L - N SAPF
Figure 4: Equivalent circuit diagram of the SAPF connected to a non-linear load fed by an
alternative source.
A. Chaoui et al: DPC Switching Table Concept and Analysis for three-phase SAPF
56
From Fig. 4,one can write the electrical equations in stationary - coordinates as
(5)
(6)
(7)
By subtracting (6) from (5) and neglecting the influence of the resistances f R , s R
|
|

- - =
dt
di
L v e
L dt
di
f
f
f
s
s

1
(8)
From (8) and for a discrete sampling time s T , the variation source current vector is obtained
as follows:
|
|

\
- - = \
s
f
f
f
s
s
s
T
i
L v e
L
T
i

(9)
On the other hand and from(7) one can write
(10)
Where

) 1 ( L
i and

) (h L
i are the fundamental and harmonics non linear load currents
components respectively in stationary frame.
From (10) one can observe that by controlling the source or the filter currents we have the
same dynamic but with inversion of the sign to move fromone control variable to another.
The substitution of (10) in (09) allows obtaining
] [

f
f s
s
s
v e
L L
T
i -
-
= \ (11)
Witch can be rewrite in vector form
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|

-
|

-
=
|

\
\

f
f
f s
s
s
s
v
v
e
e
L L
T
i
i
(12)
Also; in same frame and for a balanced three-phase system, instantaneous active and
reactive powers are defined as follows [24]-[26]

f
s
L
f
f
f
f
s
f
s
s
s
s
s
i i i
i R
dt
di
L v v
i R
dt
di
L v e
- =
- = -
- = -


f
s
f h L
s
L h L L f
s
L
i i
i i i i i i i i i
\ - = \
- - = - - = - = ) (
) ( ) 1 ( ) ( ) 1 (
J. Electrical Systems 9-1 (2013): 52-65
57
|

-
=
|

s
s
s
s
i
i
e e
e e
q
p
(13)
If the sampling time s T is assumed very small compared to that of the source, the change
of the source voltage can be negligible. Then, active and reactive power changes depend
only on currents ones and can be estimated for the next control cycle as follows:
|

\
\
|

-
=
|

\
\

s
s
s
s
i
i
e e
e e
q
p
(14)
By replacing (12) in (14) one can obtain
|
|

-
- - -
-
=
|
|
.
|

\
|
|
|

-
-
-
|

-
=
|

\
\






f f
f f
f s
s
f
f
f s
s
s
s
v e v e
v e v e e e
L L
T
v e
v e
L L
T
e e
e e
q
p
2 2
) ( ) (
(15)
From (15) one can deduce that the change in active and reactive power depends on VSI
output voltage ) ( f v witch can take seven possible states. As result, there are different
ways of selecting the corresponding switching state that controls the evolution in active and
reactive power. So, the change in active and reactive power, for ) 6 ,..., 2 , 1 , 0 ( = i , are given
by the following set:
, )
, )
) 6 ,..., 2 , 1 , 0 (
) ( ) (
) (
) ( ) (
2 2
) ( ) ( ) (
=

-
-
= \
- - -
-
= \
i
i f i f
f s
s
i s
i f i f
f s
s
i s
v e v e
L L
T
q
v e v e e e
L L
T
p


(16)
2.2 New switching table elaboration
a-Normalized powers equations
Firstly, the voltage vector of the balanced source can be written in the stationary frame
as:
|

=
|
|
|

-
- -
=
|

) sin(
) cos(
2 / 3 2 / 3 0
2 / 1 2 / 1 1
3
2

e
e
e
e
e
e
c
b
a
(17)
By replacing (17) in (16), the powers expressions will become:
, )
, )
) 6 ,..., 2 , 1 , 0 (
) ( ) (
) (
) ( ) (
2
) (
) sin( ) cos(
) sin( ) cos(
=

-
-
= \
-
-
-
-
= \
i
i f i f
f s
s
i s
i f i f
f s
s
f s
s
i s
v v e
L L
T
q
v v e
L L
T
e
L L
T
p




(18)
Secondly, to obtain a normalized form of equations, one can define these VSI voltage
components forms:
A. Chaoui et al: DPC Switching Table Concept and Analysis for three-phase SAPF
58
0
3
) 1 ( sin
2
3
3
) 1 ( cos
2
3
) 0 ( ) 0 (
) (
) (
) (
) (
) 6 ,..., 2 , 1 , 0 ( = =

|
.
|

\
|
- = =
|
.
|

\
|
- = =
=

f f
dc
i f
i f
dc
i f
i f
v v
i
V
v
v
i
V
v
v
with i
(19)
Using (18) and (19), the normalized powers equations can be obtained as:
, )
, )
) 6 ,..., 2 , 1 , 0 (
) ( ) (
) (
) (
) ( ) (
) (
) (
) sin( ) cos(
3
2
) sin( ) cos(
2
3
3
2
=

- =

-
\
= \
- - =

-
\
= \
i
i f i f
dc
f s
s
i s
i s
i f i f
dc
dc
f s
s
i s
i s
v v
V e
L L
T
q
q
v v
V
e
V e
L L
T
p
p

(20)
For a better controllability of the SAPF, the first term of the active power variation of (20)
must verify the follow condition:

|
.
|

\
|
s <
=
\
\
3
sin 0
2
3

p
dc
p
K
V
e
K
(21)
b- The selection of the best
p
K value
From (21), many values can be given to
p
K
\
. Hence, before selecting the best value, firstly
its important to give an idea on a bad choice of
p
K
\
and its impact on the switching table
conception.
So, for example by taking 2 / 2 =
\p
K (which verify (21)), the behaviours of
) (i s p \ and ) (i s q \ as function of VSI voltage vectors in the first sector ( 30 0 s s ), is
shown in Fig.5.
) 3 ( s p \
) 0 ( s p \
) 6 ( s p \
) 2 ( s p \
) 1 ( s p \
) 5 ( s p \
) (
) 4 ( s p \
) 3 ( s q \
) (
) 2 ( s q \
) 4 ( s q \
) 1 ( s q \
) 5 ( s q \
) 6 ( s q \
) 0 ( s q \
(a) (b)
Figure 5: Active (a) and reactive (b) power variations behaviour under different voltage vectors for
sector 1 (
2 / 2 =
\p
K
).
J. Electrical Systems 9-1 (2013): 52-65
59
From Fig.5, it can be summarized in Table II the different vectors that affect the sign of
variations in active and reactive powers for sector 1.
TABLE. II: The vectors involved on powers variations signs for sector 1 (
2 / 2 =
\p
K
).
SECTOR 1 0 > \ s q 0 < \ s q
0 > \ s p v
4
OR v
3
OR v
2
(partially) v
6
OR v
5
0 < \ s p
v
2
(partially) v
1
So from the Table II, we see that there is one case whichs directly acceptable since there is
a single vector (v1) ensures the condition ( 0 0 < \ . < \ s s q p ). While for the cases
( 0 0 > \ . > \ s s q p ) and ( 0 0 < \ . > \ s s q p ) we notice that there is a problem of choice
among the three vectors (v
4
, v
3
, v
2
) and the two vectors (v
6
, v
5
), respectively. In addition to
that, there is a single vector (v
2
) which provides partially that ( 0 0 > \ . < \ s s q p ). Finally,
we note that the same problem is repeated for the other sectors.
Therefore, to overcome these inconvenient and obtain a single vector for each condition,
the best value choices is for 2 / 1 =
\p
K . From which, one can deduce the DC bus voltage
reference equation:
s
p
dc
dc
p
U
e
K
e
V
V
e
K ref = = = =
\
\
6
2 / 1 2
3
2
3
2
3

(22)
With

e Us = is the line to line RMS mains voltage value.
Using the value of 2 / 1 =
\p
K , the new powers variations behaviour in sector 1 are shown
in Fig.6.
) 4 ( s p \
) 5 ( s p \
) 3 ( s p \
) 0 ( s p \
) 6 ( s p \
) 2 ( s p \
) 1 ( s p \
) (
) 4 ( s q \
) 1 ( s q \
) 0 ( s q \
) 3 ( s q \
) 2 ( s q \
) 5 ( s q \
) 6 ( s q \
) (
(a) (b)
Figure 6: Active (a) and reactive (b) power variations behaviour under different voltage vectors for
sector 1(
2 / 1 =
\p
K
).
From Fig.6 and taking into account vectors providing a maximum variation in ) (i s p \ , we
can deduce Table III without any partial impact vectors.
A. Chaoui et al: DPC Switching Table Concept and Analysis for three-phase SAPF
60
TABLE. III: The vectors involved on powers variations signs for sector 1 (
2 / 1 =
\p
K
).
SECTOR 1 0 > \ s q 0 < \ s q
0 > \ s p v
4
v
5
0 < \ s p
v
2
v
1
c- A new switching table
By introducing (22) in (20), we obtain:
, )
, )
) 6 ,..., 2 , 1 , 0 (
) ( ) ( ) (
) ( ) ( ) (
) sin( ) cos(
) sin( ) cos(
2
1
=

- = \
- - = \
i
i f i f i s
i f i f i s
v v q
v v p




(23)
Finally, taking in count (19), the normalized powers variations for the SAPF can be written
as:

s s -

|
.
|

\
|
- - - = \
|
.
|

\
|
- - - = \
=
6 / 11 6 /
3
) 1 ( sin
3
) 1 ( cos
2
1
) 6 ,..., 2 , 1 , 0 (
) (
) (

i
for
i q
i p
i s
i s
(24)
Then, the inverter voltage vectors effect on the normalized powers variations behaviour for
the twelve sectors is shown by Fig. 7. Based on the above study, the corresponding
switching table is summarized in Table IV.
) 4 ( s p \ ) 5 ( s p \ ) 6 ( s p \ ) 1 ( s p \ ) 2 ( s p \ ) 3 ( s p \
) (
) 4 ( s q \ ) 5 ( s q \ ) 6 ( s q \ ) 1 ( s q \ ) 3 ( s q \ ) 2 ( s q \
) (
(a) (b)
Figure 7: Active (a) and reactive (b) power variations behaviour under different voltage vectors in all
sectors.
TABLE. IV: New switching table.
d
ps
d
qs

10

11

12
1
1 v
3
v
4
v
4
v
5
v
5
v
6
v
6
v
1
v
1
v
2
v
2
v
3
0 v
4
v
5
v
5
v
6
v
6
v
1
v
1
v
2
v
2
v
3
v
3
v
4
0
1 v
1
v
2
v
2
v
3
v
3
v
4
v
4
v
5
v
5
v
6
v
6
v
1
0 v
6
v
1
v
1
v
2
v
2
v
3
v
3
v
4
v
4
v
5
v
5
v
6
J. Electrical Systems 9-1 (2013): 52-65
61
3. SIMULATION RESULTS
To validate the new switching table, a mathematical model corresponding to the diagram in
Fig.1 was simulated under MATLAB/SIMULINK

using SimPowerSystems with the

parameters summarized in Table V.
TABLE. V: Electrical parameters system.
Line to Line source voltage U
s
87 V
Source frequency f 50 Hz
Source Reactor resistance R
s
0.1
Source Reactor inductance L
s
0.1 mH
Resistance of reactor R
c
0.01
Inductance of reactor L
c
0.566 mH
Dc-bus voltage V
dc
212 V
Dc-bus capacitor C
dc
1100 F
SAPF Inductance L
f
5.0 mH
SAPF Resistance R
f
0.01
Sampling frequency f
s
20 kHz
Load resistors R
L1
21
Load resistors R
L2
9.54
Load inductance L
L
1 mH
Several simulation tests were conducted to verify feasibility and performance of the
proposed DPC. Fig.8 and 9 show that before connecting the SAPF at PCC, and due to the
nonlinear load, the source current wasnt sinusoidal (THDi=26.32%) (Fig.10) and a non-
zero reactive power flows in the source.
0.15
v
s
a
,
b
,
c
(
V
)
i
s
a
,
b
,
c
(
A
)
V
d
c
(
V
)
i
f
a
(
A
)
Time (s)
ref Vdc
Figure 8: Source voltages and currents, dc capacitor voltage and filter current behaviours before
and after SAPF connection.
After starting the SAPF at t=0.15s, the source current becomes quasi-sinusoidal
(THDi=2.05%) and in phase with the source voltages. The active power is constant and
follows closely its reference value. The reactive power is zero on average ensuring thereby
A. Chaoui et al: DPC Switching Table Concept and Analysis for three-phase SAPF
62
a unity power factor operation. The dc capacitor voltage reaches its reference in four cycles
of periods and maintains its stability during the steady state.
p
s
,
p
r
e
f
(
W
)
Q
s
,
q
r
e
f
(
V
a
r
)
Time (s)

1

2

3

4

5

6

7

8

9

10

11

12
0.15
Figure 9: Active and reactive behaviours Powers with their references before and after connecting the
SAPF.
(a) (b)
Figure 10: Source current and its spectrum (a) before filtering, (b) after filtering.
The dynamic behavior of the proposed DPC under a step change of load ((R
L1
, L
L
) (R
L2
,
L
L
)) is presented in Fig. 11. After a short transient, the dc-bus voltage is maintained close to
its new reference with good approximation and stability. The line currents maintain their
quasi-sinusoidal waveforms. From this figure, it can be seen that the powers properly
follow their references in spite of the load change which confirms the robustness of the
control. In addition, one can clearly see that the active and the reactive powers controls are
decoupled of each other which is one of the advantages of the proposed DPC.
J. Electrical Systems 9-1 (2013): 52-65
63
p
,
p
r
e
f
(
W
)
q
,
q
r
e
f
(
V
a
r
)
v
s
a
b
c
(
V
)
i
s
a
b
c
(
A
)
V
d
c
(
V
)
i
f
(
A
)
Time(s)
ref Vdc
Figure11: Source voltages and currents, dc capacitor voltage,
filter current and powers behaviours during load change.
4. CONCLUSION
To overcome the drawbacks and limits of the classical switching table used in the direct
power control strategies, a detail development and analysis of a new switching table are
presented in this paper. This purpose leads us to achieve many goals, which are summaries
as follow:
- Development of SAPF instantaneous powers variations equations from the
electrical model in the stationary frame.
- Optimization of the normalized powers variations for the SAPF by the selection
of the best value
p
K
\
.
- Elaboration of a new switching table based on the study of the normalized active
and reactive powers variations behaviours for different voltage vectors in the
twelve sectors.
Finally, the validation of the proposed DPC using the new switching table for the SAPF
was done with the simulation of the mathematical model under MATLAB/Simulink.
Several simulation tests are conducted to confirm the feasibility and high performance of
the control strategy, showing that the source current which was not sinusoidal
(THDi=26.32%) will become quasi-sinusoidal (THDi=2.05%), in phase with source
voltage after the introduction of the SAPF. The active power follows closely its reference
value and the reactive power will be zero in average ensuring thereby a unity power factor
operation.
The transient state tests, whether during the switching on of the SAPF or changing the
load, prove the robustness of the control by presenting excellent performance either of time
or overshoot and stability.
A. Chaoui et al: DPC Switching Table Concept and Analysis for three-phase SAPF
64
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