INTRODUCTION

I describe below how to construct two telescopes. The first one is simpler to build, but is important for
understanding the solutions adopted in the second one, which is perfected and optimized for
astronomical obserations.
T!" #IR$T T"%"$CO&"
's I said, (ou can build this first simple instrument without difficult( while allowing (ou to learn the
structure and operation of telescopes in general. 'lthough it is simple, it can reeal the craters of the
)oon and the satellites of *upiter. It is also er( useful for demonstrating lens aberrations. +ou reall(
need to build this telescope as a necessar( step towards understanding the solutions emplo(ed in the
second and improed telescope model. In the section ,#rom %enses to Optical Instruments,, (ou saw
how a telescope wor-s. here I simpl( remind (ou that the ob/ectie lens produces an image of the
ob/ect obsered, and this image is magnified b( the e(epiece.
#igures 0 and 1 show our first telescope, which is made using eas(2to2find materials. The components
of this instruments are3
4 2 ring to secure the e(epiece lens from behind
0 2 ring for centering the e(epiece lens
1 2 e(epiece3 lens with focal length of 05265 mm. +ou can bu( one in an optical or photographic shop,
or (ou can get one free b( using the lens of a disposable camera.
7 2 ring to secure the e(epiece lens from the front
6 2 a cardboard tube for the e(epiece. +ou can use the tube from a roll of plastic food wrap or paper
towels. +ou can also use short sections of this tube to ma-e rings 4, 0, and 7 which (ou need to hold the
e(epiece lens in place
8 2 coupling between the e(epiece tube and the main tube. This is a hollow c(linder with an outer
diameter that fits snugl( into the end of the main tube and an inner diameter that proides a snug but
moable fit to the outside of the e(epiece tube. +ou can ma-e the coupling using seeral pl(wood dis-s
glued together or using a pol(st(rene c(linder with a hole bored through it. If (ou use pol(st(rene, (ou
will need to add an opa9ue coering at each end.
: 2 main tube. Use a cardboard or plastic tube about as long as the focal length of the ob/ectie lens and
with an outside diameter of 65285 mm about. $uitable sources include map mailing tubes and core
tubes for carpets, drawing paper, or wrapping paper.
; 2 ob/ectie lens. +ou can use a common e(eglass lens with a focal length of 65524555 mm. +ou can
bu( it in a optical shop. 's- the optician to reduce the lens diameter in order to fit it precisel( into the
tube cap
< 2 diaphragm. Cut it from a blac- card, then open a hole of about 46 mm in diameter in the center of
the dis-
45 2 Cap of the tube. If (ou bu( a tube for drawing sheets, (ou should hae a cap which will be useful
for retaining the ob/ectie and the diaphragm. Otherwise, (ou can made it with a dis- of cardboard.
)a-e a series of radial cuts around the edge of the dis- to ma-e a set of tabs, )oisten the tabs. then
place the tube cap on one end of the principal tube and bend the tabs around the outside of the tube.
=lue the tabs together where the( oerlap, but be careful not to glue the cap to the principal tube (et.
>hen the glue is dr(, slip the cap off and cut in the cap a hole a few mm less in diameter than the
outside diameter of principal tube.

#igure 1 2 The components of the first telescope
?the e(epiece is in the little tube@

The distance between ob/ectie and e(epiece lenses must be e9ual to the sum of their focal lengths. The
e(epiece tube must stic- out a few centimeters so (ou can moe it to focus the telescope. )a-e the
length of the principal tube short enough to allow (ou to grip the protruding part of the e(epiece tube
with (our fingers as (ou ad/ust the focus.
The e(epiece tube must slide smoothl( in its channel, but it should not be loose enough to fall out if
(ou hold the telescope erticall(. &aint the inside of the tubes with blac- opa9ue paint ?matte finish@ or
India in- . $ecure the cap of the main tube to -eep it from pulling awa( from the tube.
!O> TO U$" T!" #IR$T T"%"$CO&"
Do not use the diaphragm at first, but leae
the ob/ectie at the greatest aperture. &oint
the instrument towards a distant ob/ect.
)oe forward and bac-ward the e(epiece
tube until the image is as distinct as
possible. +ou will soon realize that the
image is of poor 9ualit( and is neer
distinct. This simple ob/ectie lens has
man( defects that produce the poor29ualit(
image.
+ou can reduce some aberrations b(
decreasing the lens aperture. This is wh(
we use a diaphragm on the ob/ectie. It is a
round dis- of blac- stiff paper with a 462
mm2diameter hole in the center. This
diaphragm, placed in front the ob/ectie,
reduces both the effects of the lens defects
and the brightness of the image. 's a
conse9uence, (ou can onl( obsere ob/ects
brightl( illuminated b( the $un. To
minimize the chromatic aberrations, (ou
will need to replace the spectacle lens (ou
used as the ob/ectie for (our first
telescope with an achromatic lens, as we
shall see below.

T!" $U&&ORT O# T!" T"%"$CO&"
's soon as (ou use (our telescope, (ou will see that (ou cannot hold it steadil( enough in (our hands
to maintain a stable image. +ou will need to build a support ?fig. 0@ to help (ou to point (our instrument
and -eep it stead(. +ou can mount this support on a photographic tripod b( means of a 4A7 > threaded
hole.
%"N$ 'B"RR'TION$
The first telescope will gie (ou a good feel for lens aberrations ?fig. 1@. In this simple instrument,
chromatic aberration is the most conspicuous. The aberrations can be greatl( reduced b( means of
careful lens design. 's it is not possible to limit all -inds of aberrations using onl( a single lens,
ob/ecties and e(epieces are created using multiple lenses. B( selecting different t(pes of glass for the
arious lenses and using appropriate surface curatures and distances between lenses, it is possible to
control in a satisfactor( manner the aberration of the s(stem. In general, the success of an ob/ectie or
an e(epiece in correcting aberrations depends on the number of lenses used to ma-e it.
#or the second telescope, shown in figure 45, we use an achromatic objective, made up of two lenses
of different shapes, one conerging and the other dierging. $ometimes the( are glued together b(
means of Canada Balsam or a s(nthetic resin ?cemented doublet@, other times the( are -ept separated
?air2spaced doublet@. These two lenses hae different indices of refraction, one high ?#lint glass@, and
the other low ?Crown glass@. !ence, the chromatic aberrations of the two lenses act in opposite senses,
and tend to cancel each other out, thus producing a much more distinct image than a single lens could
achiee.
Usuall(, these ob/ecties are constructed to reduce other t(pes of aberration as well. Obiousl(,
achromatic ob/ecties ar( in 9ualit(. In some of them, it is still possible to perceie a residual
chromatic aberration, or the images the( produce are well focused in the center onl(, or the( produce a
pincushion or barrel distortion. #igure 1 describes the main optical aberrations.
"+"&I"C"$
In our first telescope, we used a simple magnif(ing glass as the e(epiece. 'lso e(epieces made up of a
single lens are affected b( seeral aberrations, particularl( chromatic, and with a single lens it is not
possible to eliminate them. In the earl( 4:55s, !u(gens showed that he could eliminate chromatic
aberration in an e(epiece using a s(stem of two lenses. $ince then, man( e(epiece models hae been
designed to obtain better and better corrections, a wider field corner, etc. !oweer, e(epieces alwa(s
retain the same basic function of magnif(ing the real image formed b( the ob/ectie. The main
parameters that characterize an e(epiece are the following3
Parameter Defines
)OD"% 'berration corrections
#OC'% #ocal lengths combine to determine the magnification power of the telescope
#I"%D
Determines how wide the image appears to the e(e. ' wider field ma-es the
telescope more comfortable to use
"+" R"%I"# or
"+" DI$T'NC"
Indicates the proper distance from the e(e to the e(epiece lens
DI')"T"R
Indicates the outside diameter of the e(epiece tube. )ost e(epieces hae
diameters of either C07 mm or C10 mm
In addition to those shown in figure 7, other t(pes of e(epieces can be made b( using more lenses.
$uch fanc( lenses are made for special purposes, and the( are usuall( eDpensie.
&RODUCIN= 'N U&RI=!T I)'="
>ith the first telescope (ou built, images
were inerted, and in the section ,#rom
%enses to Optical Instruments, I eDplained
wh(. But astronomers donEt reall( care
whether the( see star images ,straight up,
or ,upside down., In fact, with the
eDception of the $un, all stars are so distant
that not een with the most powerful
telescopes has an(one eer seen their
dis-s. The( appear to us alwa(s as points
of light, and to see a point of light upright
or oerturned does not ma-e an(
difference. !oweer, man( people would
li-e to use their telescopes for terrestrial
obserations, in which case ,right side up,
does ma-e a difference.
$eeral different methods allows (ou to erecting images without significantl( degrading their 9ualit(.
#igures 6, 8, :, ;, < show the main erecting s(stems. These optical deices are sold with a case and
tubes for connecting them with the e(epieces and the focusing s(stems.





'N 'C!RO)'TIC T"%"$CO&"
During the construction of this second telescope ?fig. 45@, we will use improed technolog( and
manufacturing methods to achiee better performance than we could get from our simple first
telescope. To build this instrument, (ou will need3 2 an achromatic ob/ectie with a diameter between
75 and 455 mm, and with a focal length between 855 and 4055 mm
2 an e(epiece with a focal length between 05 and 75 mm. 'n( model show in figure 7 is good, with the
eDception of the Ramsden e(epiece
2 a rac- and pinion focusing s(stem. It is made up of two tubes sliding one into the other. The inner one
is moed b( a rac- and pinion couple
2 an image erecting s(stem ?see figures 62<@
2 the main tube in aluminum F4. Bu( it with a length e9ual to the ob/ectie focal length. Its inside
diameter must be greater than the diameter of the ob/ectie mounting brac-et
2 adapter ring in blac- plastic or aluminum
2 coupling ring in blac- plastic or aluminum
2 light shade tube.
+ou can bu( ob/ectie, e(epiece, erecting and focusing s(stems from suppliers who adertise in
astronom( magazines, or (ou can as- an amateur astronom( club for adice. In an( case, ma-e sure to
choose diameters for (our components such that the( will fit each other. otherwise, (ou will need to
fabricate fitting rings. +ou will hae to ma-e the principal mechanical parts with a lathe. If (ou do not
hae one, (ou can go to a machine shop. $ince the parts are all 9uite simple, (ou shouldnEt need to
spend a lot. In an( case, as- for a cost estimate. $tudents of high schools, technical colleges and
uniersities can often get access to their school laboratories. If (ou want to get (our own machine tools,
(ou can find commercial Chinese2made lathes that are aailable for less than a thousand dollars. #or
the same price, (ou can bu( also a small used lathe.
R"$O%GIN= &O>"R 'ND )'=NI#IC'TION &O>"R
The magnification of the telescope ?)@ is gien b( the ratio between the ob/ectie and e(epiece focal
lengths3 M = F
ob
/F
ep
. +ou cannot simpl( magnif( at will, seeing more and more details. The maDimum
magnification (ou can reach with a telescope is limited b( the diameter of the ob/ectie. The larger the
diameter of the ob/ectie, the closer are the points it is able to distinguish as separated.
The resolving power (RP) of a corrected ob/ectie, eDpressed in seconds of arc, is gien b( RP" =
1!/D where D is the diameter of the ob/ectie in millimeters. The human e(e has an R& of about 85,.
!ence, the maDimum magnification (ou can obtain from an ob/ectie ?))@ is gien b( the ratio
between the R& of the e(e and that of the ob/ectie3 MM = RP
e"e
/ RP
ob
.
#or instance, an achromatic ob/ectie with a diameter of ;5 mm has an R& of 405 A ;5 H 4.6,. !ence,
the right magnification using this ob/ectie should be 85 A 4.6 H 75I. In practice, (ou can double this
alue, but it is better aoiding to go further, because the amount of isible detail will not increase. In
the end, follow this simple rule3 the magnification power of a telescope has not to eDceed the diameter
of its ob/ectie, eDpressed in mm. Chec- the real R& of (our instrument b( means of double stars
whose angular distances are tabulated in astronomical boo-s.
OB$"RG'TION$ 'T T!" T"%"$CO&"
The most spectacular heaenl( bod( to obsere with a telescope is without a doubt the )oon. The best
time to obsere the )oon with (our telescope is at the first 9uarter, when it appears onl( half
illuminated. Under these conditions, lunar mountains and craters pro/ect long shadows, ma-ing them
better isible from the "arth.
)a-e (our first obserations with the simple telescope, the one with the e(eglass lens as ob/ectie. 't
the beginning, -eep the ob/ectie at the maDimum aperture. 't the edge of the ob/ects, (ou can see the
blue color at one side, and the orange color at the other side. These colors are produced b( chromatic
aberration. The image will appear 9uite confusing. Now place the diaphragm on the ob/ectie. It will
greatl( reduce the aberrations, (ou see the differenceJ But on the other hand, the brightness of the
image will be dramaticall( decreased as will the resoling power. Using an achromatic telescope,
instead, these defects are b( comparison nearl( imperceptible een without a diaphragm. In fact, with
this t(pe of instrument, the diaphragm is not needed.
Other ob/ects to obsere are the nearest planets. *upiter shows four satellites aligned along the
e9uatorial plane, appearing as a model of the solar s(stem. #or obsering the Rings of $aturn, (ou will
need of an instrument of good 9ualit( and high magnification power. The comparison between the
apparent sizes of *upiter and $aturn gie (ou an idea of great distances in astronom(. +ou can also see
Genus, which shows phases as the )oon, and (ou can een see star clusters and double stars.
>'RNIN=3
DO NOT U$" T!" T"%"$CO&" TO OB$"RG" T!" $UNJ
+ou will burn the retina of (our e(eJ
>hat (ou can do, instead, is to pro/ect the image of the $un on a screen or on a wall of (our room. +ou
can do this during a solar eclipse. +ou will en/o( an amazing spectacle, which (ou can share with man(
friends.
Terrestrial obserations are also amusing. >ith the telescope, (ou can appreciate that the birds fl(ing in
(our garden are not all sparrows, but also titmice, robins, finches, blac-caps, etc. >ith (our telescope,
(ou will be able to recognize the arious species b( their colored plumage. +ou can also obsere the
insects fl(ing on the flowers, without getting (our nose stungJ
BIB%IO=R'&!+