1

Technology of Flight Technology of Flight

References:
R. G. Grant: Flight: 100 years of aviation (DK Publishing Inc., New York, 2002);
The Illustrated Guide to Aerodynamics, 2nd edition, HC SkipSmith, TAB Books,
McGraw Hill Inc., New York, 1992.
R. Wilkinson, Aircraft structures and systems, Addison Wesley Longman
Limited, 1996.
A. C. Kermode, revised by R. H. Barnard and D. R. Philpott, Mechanics of Flight,
10
th
edition, Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1996.
Types of flying machines Types of flying machines
Gliders
Microlights
and ultralights
Fixed wing
aircraft
Rotorcraft
(helicopters
and
gyroplanes
(autogyros)
Photo:NASA
Gliders Gliders
Hang gliding basic
equipment needed
glider and harness.
Control pilots
movements alter the
centre of gravity
Paragliding-more
portable, easy;
Paramotors (powered
paragliders) engine,
propeller, paraglider
Reference: N. Whittall, The complete hang gliding guide,
A&C Black Publishers , 1984
Photo:www.start-flying.com
Microlights Microlights and and ultralights ultralights
Very light 1 or 2 seat
airplanes, usually
less stringent
licensing.
Flexwing and 3 axis
microlights
Photos: www.start-flying.com
Gliders Gliders
Heavier than air
craft without
engines
Gliding principles
similar to gliding
animals
Common methods -
aero-tow, winch
launching,
Photo: Wikipedia
Image: How stuff works
Gliding Gliding- -aircraft aircraft
Gimli glider incident, 1983 Boeing 767-200,
flying from Montreal to Edmonton, run out of fuel
at 12 km altitude and landed in Gimli industrial
park airport.
Air Transat Flight 236, 2001- run out of fuel
above Atlantic, landed in Azores.
Hapag-Lloyd Flight 3378, 2000- Airbus A310-
304, run out of fuel 20 km away from airport,
landed 500 m short from the runway.
J akarta incident, British Airways 009, 1982-
Boeing 747-200, failure of all four engines due to
volcano ash, glided outside the ash cloud, and
engines restarted.
2
1909 Pigs can fl y, Cl aude
Moore-Brabazon
History History
1911, female fl yers
1912 plane takes off from warship
1918-quadruplane
1929
1933
Boeing 247
1933
1933
1936
1936
1945
1947
1948
1949
1949
1954 1954
1954
1977
1989
1989
D. Davies & M. Wines, Antique and Classic Airplanes, Osprey Publishing Limited, 1989.
B. Gunston,The worlds greatest airplanes,
\Elsevier-Dutton Publishing.
Helicopters and Helicopters and autogyros autogyros
1922, the first hovering
for over one minute.
1923, autogyro
Modern autogyro, photo:Wikipedia
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Helicopters Helicopters
S. Newman, The foundations of helicopter flight, Edward Arnold, 1994.
Common configuration: main
supporting rotor+single tail rotor
Photo: Kai Tak : the final decade / Robbie Shaw.
Shrewsbury, England : Airlife Publishing, 1997.
Helicopters Helicopters- -control control
Single main rotor/tail rotor
Vertical main rotor thrust
Longitudinal main rotor
tilt fore/aft
Lateral main rotor tilt
lateral
Pitch main rotor tilt
fore/aft
Roll main rotor tilt lateral
Yaw tail rotor
thrust/engine torque
Twin main rotor (tandem)
Vertical main rotor thrusts
(collective)
Longitudinal main rotors
tilt fore/aft
Lateral main rotors tilt
lateral
Pitch main rotor tilt
fore/aft; main rotor thrusts
(differential)
Roll main rotor tilt lateral
Yaw differential main
rotor tilt
S. Newman, The foundations of helicopter flight, Edward Arnold, 1994.
Helicopters Helicopters twin main rotors twin main rotors
Tandem aligned in
longitudinal direction, one
on each end of fuselage
Side-by-side placed
laterally, on pilons
Coaxial rotors on same
axle
Synchropter- two axles
close together and
inclined outwards
Compound addition of
extra propulsion
S. Newman, The foundations of helicopter flight, Edward Arnold, 1994.
Helicopters Helicopters twin main rotors twin main rotors
S. Newman, The foundations of helicopter flight, Edward Arnold, 1994.
Airplanes Airplanes
Photo:NASA
Airplanes Airplanes
Photo: Kai Tak : the final decade / Robbie Shaw.
Shrewsbury, England : Airlife Publishing, 1997.
Fl yi ng in Hong Kong:
http://www.hkaviationclub.com.hk/
Fl yi ng in remote areas:
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Human powered flight Human powered flight
Light eagle,
prototype
aircraft, 92
pounds
Research
purposes,
dynamics of
low Reynolds
number
aircraft,
aeroelastic
behavior of
light aircraft
Photo: NASA
Human powered flight Human powered flight
1977
1979
Solar powered flight Solar powered flight Pathfinder solar
arrays on upper
wing surface, 8 kW
p
power
Pathfinder Plus
12.5 kW
p
Helios Helios
Helios prototype- solar
remotely piloted aircraft
World altitude record for
propeller-driven aircraft
of almost 97,000 feet.
Photo: NASA
Propulsion systems Propulsion systems
Propeller propulsion
Piston engine
Turboprops
J et propulsion
Turbojet
Turbofan
References:
The Illustrated Guide to Aerodynamics, 2nd edition, HC SkipSmith, TAB Books,
McGraw Hill Inc., New York, 1992.
Aircraft Structures and Systems, R. Wilkinson, Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1996.
Mechanics of Flight, A. C. Kermode, revised by R. H. Barnard & D. R. Philpott,
10
th
edition, Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1996.
Propulsion Propulsion
Choice of power plant
Small private aircraft
Powered by reciprocating (piston) engine
Large commercial transport and military
aircrafts
Predominantly propelled by turbo-jet or turbo-fan
engines
Intermediate size of civil aircraft
Gas-turbine driving a propeller
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Comparison between jet and propeller for
thrust production
Advantage of propeller propulsion
Higher efficiency at lower speed
For a propeller and a jet engines produce the same
thrust
J et-engined aircraft is transferring energy to the
slipstream faster than propeller-engined aircraft
The difference in energy transfer rate becomes less
marked as the flight speed increases
Propulsion systems Propulsion systems
Propeller propulsion
Each part of the blade has a cross-section
similar to airfoil
Thrust is produced since the differences in
pressure between the forward and the
rearward facing surfaces of the rotating
blades
Torque converted
to thrust
Propellers
Production of thrust by rotating blades
The propeller blade is set at a positive angle of attack
relative to the resultant velocity
The resultant force of which is produced can be
resolved into forward thrust and tangential resistance
components
Trailing vortex
The rotating blades produces the trailing vortices take the
form of helical trails
Blade twist
The inner part of the blade is describing a coarser helix
than the tip
If all sections of the blade are to meet the resultant
velocity at the same effective angle of attack, the
blade will need to be twisted, so that the geometric
pitch angle is greater near the hub than at the tip
Propeller efficiency Propeller efficiency
Depends on the ratio of rotation speed to
forward speed, the curve usually given for fixed
pitch
Low pitch propeller high performance for low
forward speed and high rpm.
Variable pitch enables optimal efficiency. To
enable easy operation, modern variable pitch
propellers operate at constant speed.
Number and shape of the blades also important.
Piston engine Piston engine
Older but more complex device compared to jet
engines
Low cost, high efficiency, still popular today
Internal combustion engine
Piston engine Piston engine
Valve opening into cylinder, downward stroke of the piston
starts
Fuel-air mixture is drawn in (combined in a carburator), the
piston makes upward stroke compressing the gas, and
then spark is discharged by ignition system
The burning drives the piston down and provides power to
the crankshaft, and fourth stroke upward exhausts
remaining gas through the now opened exhaust valve.
First engines liquid-cooled since aircraft were too slow for
air cooling. Problem solved first in rotary engine, and then
newer designs with increased airspeeds and adequate
cooling fans.
Radial arrangement high power (lots of cylinders) but
also high drag, with invention of turboprops became
unnecessary and now horizontally opposed configuration
is used in reciprocating engine powered small aircraft.
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Propulsion systems Propulsion systems
J et propulsion
Simple concept, but special alloys and
manufacturing processes needed to withstand
high temperatures
A gas-turbine propulsion device
Compressor
is used to increase the pressure (and temperature) of
the air at inlet
Advantages of jet propulsion
There is virtuallyno limit of speed at which can be operated
Works well at high altitude
The ratio of power to weight can also be veryhigh
J et engines
Ramjet
Nozzle-shaped device, air compressed by rameffect of moving
through the air, fuel is injected and ignited and expanded gas exhausts
at high velocity
High thrust at high speeds; must be in motion at high speed to start,
300 mph at sea level.
Used in some early missiles or helicopter rotor blade tips, not common
in conventional aircraft propulsion
Pulsejet
Shutter-like check valve synchronized with pulsed injection of fuel,
check valve is then shut gas bursts out of the exhaust and rameffect
forces the check vave open to repeat the cycle.
Also requires high speed to start, usuallylaunched bymeans of
booster rockets, used in V-1 buzz-bombs in WWII, not used in
conventional aircraft propulsion
History
Invented in 1930s independently bySir Frank Whittle and Hans van Ohain
First flight for Whittle engine in 1937, Ohains engine in 1939.
Originally designed for militaryaircraft, small intake for lowdrag ->high
noise levels, inefficient.
1940, report byTheodore von Karman, that he doubted that jet engines
could ever be applied to aircraft, while K. D. Woods, aircraft design
professor, claimed that they can never be made cheap enough for
commercial flights.
J et engine J et engine
Combustion chamber
in which fuel is injected into the high-pressure air as a fine spray,
and burned, therebyheating the air
As the temperature rises, each kg of hot air needs to occupya
larger volume than it did when cold, it thus rushes out of the
exhaust at a higher speed than at entry
The jet normally emerges at a pressure close to the ambient
atmospheric value, but high velocity
Turbine
Extracts some of the energy available in the exhaust jet in order to
drive the compressor
Problemwith pure turbojet engine not veryefficient.
Production of thrust by a jet engine
Output thrust is only a small proportion of the total thrust
produced internally, indicating that there are very large
internal stresses
In flight, much of the thrust is come from the pressure
distribution in the intake duct system
The overall net thrust is partly related to the air flow
around the outside of the engine
External flow produces drag
Round the leading edge (rim) of the intake, the flow
speed is high, so the pressure is low, a significant
forward thrust component is produced
The aerodynamic design of the intake, ducting and
engine nacelle is thus very important
Turbofan propulsion
Fan is a propeller with a large number of blades
Producing a large amount of thrust for a given disc
area,blades are close together, each blade strongly
affects the flow around its adjacent neighbors; good
for high speeds; the flow can be compressed
gradually, creating a smaller loss of energy
Ducted fan
A fan or propeller is placed in a duct or shroud
Duct
A duct can provide a means of reducing the air
speed and increasing its pressure locally
A ducted fan can reduce the speed and increase the
pressure of the flow enters the duct
By-pass or turbo-fan
engines
By-passing some of the
compressed air around the
outside of the combustion
chamber and turbine can
increases the size of the low
pressure compressor stage
The efficiency can be
improved by increasing the
mass flow rate of air while
reducing the jet speed
Bypass ratio ratio of air
passing aroundthe engine to
that passing through the
engine
Higher bypass ratio, higher
efficiency, but lower maximum
thrust
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High by-pass ratio turbo-fans or fan-jets
A significant proportion of the overall thrust comes
form the pressure difference across the fan blades
Advantages
Increases the turbo-fan efficiency
Less noise is produced
The shroud suppress some of the noise from the fan
Low jet speed
->turbo-fan engine can be extremely quiet
Disadvantage
Increases the diameter of the lowest pressure stage,
hence the fan diameter
the engine size increases
For large transatlantic aircraft
Four wing mounted and ducted engines must be used
for cruising at high subsonic Mach number
For twin-engined transports and for cruise Mach numbers
up to 0.86
Higher-efficiencyunducted designs are preferable
Reheat or afterburning
Burning more fuel in an extended tailpipe section
Gives a significant boost in thrust
Advantages
Gives additional thrust with a relatively small increase in
weight
High-efficiency for supersonic flight
Disadvantages
Extremely inefficient in low speed flight
Normally only used for takeoff
The extra pipe length produces extra drag when not in
use
Thrust reversal
Thrust reversers deflect the exhaust jet forward
and provide additional breaking action
Used for shorten the landing run for jet propulsion aircraft
with no propeller
Same effect in propeller engines with pitch reversal
Can be operated safely only on he ground, inhibited in
flight.
Turbo-props
A propeller is driven by the gas-turbine
Designed for low flight speed
Higher efficiency than pure turbo-jet
Most of the energy available in the exhaust gases is extracted by
the turbine, and fed to the propeller
Gearbox to reduce rpmbefore attachment to the propeller
Nearly all thrust comes fromthe propeller (85-90%), rather than
directly fromthe engine as jet propulsion
Propeller has higher propulsion efficiency than jet
Advantages
High power-to-weight ratio as turbo-jet propulsion
A power output that rises with flight speed
Disadvantages
When used with a conventional propeller, it is limited to
use at Mach numbers of less than about 0.7
Large heavy and complex gearbox
Because of the high rotational speed of the turbine,
turbo-props normally use a reduction gearbox to
connect the propeller shaft to that of the turbine
->for large engines, the gearbox becomes a very large,
heavy and complex item, reducing some of the
theoretical advantages of the system
Supercharging and turbocharging
At high altitude, less parasite drag
due to lower air density, but engine
performance is also worse
Supercharger
Consist of centrifugal compressor
driven fromthe crankshaft
Increases the power-to-weight ratio
Bypressurizing the air being
fed into the cylinders, a larger
mass of air is used in each
working stroke
Advantages
Enables an engine to operate
at higher altitude than it could
in unsupercharged form
Enables an aircraft to take off
heavilyladen fromhigh
altitude airfields on hot days
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Turbocharger
Similar to supercharger
The compressor is driven by turbine, which is powered
by the residue energy in the exhaust gases
Advantages
More efficient than a plain supercharger since it
makes use of wasted heat
Disadvantages
For small aircraft flying at low altitude
->increases of cost and complication of the engine, the
pilot has to monitor or control the boost pressure
Performance comparisons Performance comparisons
Low speeds (<400 mph) most efficient
propeller, followed by turbofan and turbo
jet
Medium speeds (400-900 mph) turbofan
High speeds turbojet
Fuel consumption of same engine the
lowest for turboprop, then turbofan, then
turbojet.
Performance parameters Performance parameters
Level flight performance cruising speed
Climb performance rate of climb
Multiple engines main function to provide more
power, safety factors are additional benefit. In
twin engine craft, performance is severely limited
when flying one one engine.
Range important parameter, since more fuel
cannot be added without affecting performance.
Takeoff performance takeoff distance
Takeoff performance Takeoff performance
Takeoff performance Takeoff performance
STOL short take-off and landing: ability to
clear 15 m obstacle within 450 m from start (or
to land within 450 m from 15 m obstacle).
Mostly bush planes, with large wings with a
number of aerodynamic devices (flaps, slots
etc.)
STOVL-military
A Zenair CH701 STOL light aircraft ;
Photo:Wkipedia
STOL STOL
and and
VTOL VTOL
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Takeoff performance Takeoff performance
VTOL vertical take-
off and landing; first
patent in 1928 to
Nicola Tesla,
prototypes in 1950s
Directional thrust
Tiltrotor (example V-22
Osprey)
Directed jet thrust
(example Harrier II)
Landing performance Landing performance
Landing distance depends on approach and
touchdown speed, rapidity of braking
Braking action depends on local conditions;
friction coefficients- dry concrete 0.7, light rain
0.5; heavy rain 0.3; snow or ice 0.1-0.2
Flaps increase drag but also increase lift; result-
slower touchdown speed
Also affected by wind, but not by touchdown
mas
Supersonic Flight Supersonic Flight
Supersonic flow
Aircraft designs are totally different in flight with high
speed and low speed
Different designs of engines, wing shapes and fuselages
Most aircraft have to land and take off and must therefore
be capable of satisfactory operation at both subsonic and
supersonic speed
Speed of sound
Sound transmission- pressure disturbances in the air.
Same speed of transmission for disturbances created
by airplane flying.
Depends upon the absolute air temperature
At low altitudes, where the temperature is relatively high, the
speed of sound is higher than it is at high altitudes where the
temperature is lower
High speed flow
The flow is undisturbed until it crosses the shock
wave where speed is suddenly reduced, and air
pressure temperature and density, suddenly increase
Shock wave
The along which the abrupt change in speed,
temperature and pressure take place
Mach number
Flight Mach number =aircraft speed
speed of sound
M<0.8 subsonic
0.8<M<1.2 sonic or transonic
M>1.2 supersonic
M>5 hypersonic
Local supersonic and subsonic
flow
Flight Mach <1 (subsonic flight)
Supersonic patch appears on the
top of the wing
Air flow is speeded upby the
bound vortex
Flight Mach >1 (supersonic flight)
Subsonic patch appears near the
nose of the aircraft
Flow speed decreases and
temperature increases beyond
the shock wave near the nose,
the increasing of temperature
also increasing the sound of
speed
Local Mach number
Change in density
The density of air reduces as the speed is increased in the large
pressure differences region
Compressible flow ->the density of the flow can be changed
Compressible flow becomes significant when Mach number is larger
than one
Strength of shock wave depends on the normal component
of the oncoming flow velocity which is perpendicular to the
shock wave curve
Stronger the shock wave, greater the change of velocity, pressure
and density
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Drag in supersonic flight Drag in supersonic flight Some aircraft characteristics Some aircraft characteristics
Swept wings smaller component of forward
velocity relevant to wings airfoil; lower
performance at low speeds; improved lateral
stability
Sharp leading edges ideal for supersonic flight,
but have poor low-speed performance
Control problems vortex generators used, with
conventional control surfaces shock waves can
form at junction between fixed and movable
parts.
Propulsion for Supersonic Flight Propulsion for Supersonic Flight
Intake design
Turbo-jet and turbo-fan designs do not accept
supersonic flow at inlet
By placing the engine in a suitably-shaped duct, it
is possible to slow the air down to subsonic speeds
before entry
The duct is designed for compressing the flow through a
series of oblique shock waves, a region of shockless
compression and a weak normal shock
Part of the compression is provided by the shock wave
produced by the wing, this shows the importance of
integrating the design of the engine intake with that of the
wing
Exhaust nozzle
Variable geometry nozzle is required for
supersonic aircrafts
Variable geometry nozzle can be adjusted to
produce a convergent-divergent configuration for
high-speed flight
In a convergent-divergent nozzle, the jet can be
accelerated to Mach numbers greater than 1
For subsonic aircraft the jet is normally accelerated by
means of a simple fixed converging nozzle, the jet
maximum Mach number can be obtained is 1
Supersonic aircraft invariably use reheat, which also
requires the use of a variable geometry nozzle
The designs involving a large number of moving
parts, all of which have to stand up to very high
temperatures
The complexity of the nozzle mechanism may be
reduced if a two-dimensional design is used
instead of the conventional axi-symmetric
arrangement
The variable-geometry slot can be arranged
to produce thrust vectoring for control
purposes, and short take-off and landing
(STOL)
Ramjet propulsion
The simplest form of jet-propulsion
Only consist of a suitably shaped duct with a
combustion chamber
When air enters the intake of a jet engine, its
speed is reduced, and the pressure rises
correspondingly
Ram compression effect means that as the aircraft
speed rises, the compressor become less and less
necessary
At Mach number in excess of about 3, efficient propulsion
can be obtained with no compressor at all
Elimination of the compressor means that the turbine
is also unnecessary
11
The thrust force is produced mainly by a high
pressure acting on the interior walls of the
intake
For efficient operation at high Mach numbers, a
more complicated intake geometry is required,
which is similar to the types used for the
supersonic turbo-jet propulsion
Scramjet propulsion
Operate at very high Mach numbers
Supersonic flow in the combustion chamber
Reactive chemicals or gases must be used as its fuels
Advantage
Eliminated the energy degradation in the turbine and
compressor resulting in high efficiency at high Mach numbers
Kinetic heating effects in such a high speed render
conventional aluminium alloys and construction
techniques unsuitable
Disadvantage
Inefficient below a Mach number of about 3
Other form of propulsion is required to provide the initial
acceleration to high speed
Initial booster rocket is normally used in missiles
Flight-launched from a mother aircraft is required for
ramjet-propelled aircrafts
Dual-mode turbo-ramjet
Use a turbo-jet engine inside a ramjet duct
At low speed
The engine performs as a conventional turbo-jet
At high Mach numbers
Some or all of the air may be by-passed around
the main core engine and used in an afterburner to
produce ramjet propulsion
Take-off or landing require a reasonable
subsonic performance
The wing with acceptable low speed and high
speed performance and which does not have any
violent change in flow characteristics as the aircraft
accelerates through its speed range should be
employed
Supersonic flight- mainly military aircraft
Civil supersonic aircraft Concorde no longer
in service
The Concorde The Concorde
UK and France started
working separately in
1956, jointly in 1962.
First flight in 1969, Mach
2 achieved in 1970.
Tupolev Tu-144 the first
flight two months before
Concorde, but never
entered commercial
service. Crashed in 1973
Paris airshow.
P. R. March, The Concorde Story, Sutton
Publishing Limited, 2005.
The Concorde The Concorde
Only supersonic passenger
aircraft
New York-London flight
typically 3-3.5 hours. Record:
2 h 55 min 15 s.
Droop-nose for visibility
during take-off and landing.
Commercial flights 1976
(BA London-Bahrain, Air
France Paris-Rio de
J aneiro.
Total of 20 Concordes were
built.
P. R. March, The Concorde Story, Sutton
Publishing Limited, 2005.
12
The Concorde The Concorde
Accident in 2000, crash on
take-off in Paris
Flights resumed in 2001 after
upgrades and recertification.
Last flight Oct. 2003.
Commercial reasons, no
technical support from Airbus,
successor of joint Anglo-
French manufacturers.
P. R. March, The Concorde Story, Sutton
Publishing Limited, 2005.
The Concorde The Concorde
Range 6880 km
Fuel consumption 25629 l/h
Cruising speed Mach 2
Fuselage width 2.5 m
108 passengers
2 pilots, one flight engineer, 8
cabin crew
Flew around the world in 29h
59 min.
Tupolev Tu-144LL flying
laboratory, joint research by
NASA and Russian
aerospace industries, 1996-
1999.
Development of USA-built
supersonic jetliner currently
on hold.
P. R. March, The Concorde Story, Sutton
Publishing Limited, 2005.
Aircraft Shapes Aircraft Shapes
Aircraft shapes
The overall shape of the aircraft strongly
depends on its purpose
Required cruising speed and altitude
Required stability and maneuverability
Required capacity
Aircraft parts Aircraft parts
The mainplane or wing
Most important part, generates lift. Can also carry fuel, support
undercariage or weapons loads.
Flying wing only for some special purpose aircraft, remote
control aircraft, B2 bomber; low radar cross-section
The fuselage or body
Forms the body, housing the crew, payload, aircraft systems,
forms structural link between wing and tail unit. May carry the
engines, and typically has environmental control, pressurized
environment (2.4 km for civil, 7.6 km for military) which
generates tensile loads.
The tail unit (foreplanes for canard-type)
Typically vertical fin with a movable rudder and horizontal
tailplane with movable elevators, or an all-moving horizontal
tailplane. Canard-type horizontal tail surface replaced or
supplemented with a moving control surface at the nose.
Mountings for other systems (undercarriage, engines,
etc.)
Aircraft parts Aircraft parts
Aircraft Shapes Aircraft Shapes
R. Wilkinson, Aircraft Structures and Systems, Addison Wesley Longman Limited, 1996
13
Wings Wings
Biplanes
Monoplanes
Most of modern aircraft, needs stiff, strong wing, but
lower drag is obtained
Braced monoplanes diagonal bracing strut between
the wing and fuselage, lighter structure of the wing
but extra drag.
Cantilever wing (at different positions)
Low wing (jet transport, light aircraft)
High-wing (turbo-prop transport)
Low-wing or mid-wing (combat aircraft)
Speed : high speed, smaller wing span, low wing
area, high wing loading.
Wing Wing planform planform
Elliptical ideal shape, the lowest drag,
expensive
Tapered similar aerodynamics to
elliptical
Rectangular- most economical, but
heavier than necessary.
Combination of rectangular and tapered
planform.
Wingtip shape Wingtip shape
effects effects
Tip shape affects tip
vortex induced drag
Drooped wingtip
Upswept wingtip
Hoerner wingtip
Winglets Winglets
Increased effective aspect ratio
Creates lift perpendicular to the
airstream
As a result, there is a forward
component, negative drag or
thrust
However, increases parasite
drag and interference drag
Effective where vortex action is
strong, i.e. low speeds or high
altitudes, also in STOL aircraft
Can also be used on propeller
tips, resulting in higher efficiency
due to lower propeller drag
Sweep Sweep- -back, swing wings, delta wings back, swing wings, delta wings
Swept wings reduce local Mach number, shift
aerodynamic centre closer to the centre of gravity.
Problems reduced lift-to-drag ratio, increased
likelihood of tip stalling
Swing wings changing sweep back in flight
Delta wings for fighter aircraft, high speed +ability for
tight turns
Swing wings Swing wings
14
Flaps, slats, spoilers, lift dumpers Flaps, slats, spoilers, lift dumpers
Flaps are fitted at trailing edges, reduce landing
speed by increasing lift and drag
Slats extend forward from the leading edge,
increase the lift by increasing camber. Slot gap
between the slat and leading edge, reduces
tendency to stall.
Spoilers on top surface of aircraft with good
glide and low speed performance, increase drag
but reduce lift.
Lift dumpers on top surface of larger aircraft,
instant reduction of lift
Tail Tail
Purpose stability and control
Vertical fin+horizontal stabilizer
Twin fins+horizontal stabilizer smaller fins
T-tail horizontal surface near the top of the tail:
improved spin recovery, also horizontal surface
placed outside downwash; problems: additional
weight, being immersed in the wake of stalled
wing
V-tail single surface on either side of center line
canted upward; vertical projection provides
longitudinal stability, horizontal projection
provides directional stability. Problem
complicated control.
Canards Canards
Advantage
additional lift, outside
downwash
Disadvantage-
destabilization at
large angle of attack
Aircraft design Aircraft design
Conceptual design, preliminary design (mainly aerodynamic),
detail design (mainly structural)
Very complex, compromises necessary, depending on priority of
desired design properties
Computer aided design
Aerodynamic testing Aerodynamic testing
Wind tunnels
Force tests, pressure
tests, flow patterns
Flight testing
Some different designs Some different designs
Lear Fan prototype,
1981, entirely
graphite-epoxy
composite, terminated
development when
funds exhausted
Beech starship, first
composite aircraft to
be certified