SECTION 5

Hydraulics - General
Introduction: The development of this section is based on the assumption
that users will have available, as a working tool, a copy of the "Handbook
of Hydraulics", Third Edition, by Horace W. King, McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Those engineers whose work includes an appreciable amount of hydraulic com-
putations will find time-saving, tabulated material in "Hydraulic Tables"
by the War Department, Corps of Engineers, U. S. Government Printing Office.
For brevity these two books are subsequently referred to as "King's Hand-
book" and "Hydraulic Tables ."
A partial list of other widely used publications dealing with the
practical phases of hydraulics and hydraulic structures is given below.
The need for and the usefulness of these or other handbooks not listed will
depend on the amount and type of work encountered in different work unit
areas. Inclusion in this list is not a recommendation for the books listed
nor a recommendation against any book not listed.
Handbook of Water Control - published by the R. Hardesty Mfg . Co.
Handbook of Culvert and Drainage Practice - published by Armco
Culvert Mfg. Assn.
Handbook of Welded Steel Pipe - published by Armco Drainage and
Metal Products, Inc., successors to R. Hardesty Mfg. Co.
Concrete Pipe Lines - published by American Concrete Pipe Assn.
Low Dams - by a Subcommittee of the National Resources Committee,
U. S . Governmen-t Printing Off ice.
Hydraulic and Excavation Tables - Bureau of Reclamation, Department
of Interior, U. S . Government Printing Off ice.
1. Symbols and Units
1.1 Symbols. The symbols used and their definitions are:
cross-sectional area.
bottom width of channel.
coefficient of discharge for weirs and orifices;
constant in Hazen-Williams formula.
diameter of circular section.
depth of flow normal to channel bottom;
diameter of pipe in feet.
average depth of flow in a channel reach.
critical depth of flow perpendicular to channg bottom.
diameter of pipe in inches.
mean depth of flow at a section.
depth of normal flow; that is, depth of uniform flow.
force .
g = accel er at i on of gr avi t y.
H = t o t a l head.
W = s peci f i c energy head.
e
h = f r i c t i o n head.
f
h = pressure head.
P
h = vel oci t y head.
v
I = volume of inflow t o a r eser voi r .
i = r a t e of inflow t o a r eser voi r .
K and K' = f act or s used i n cer t ai n arrangements of Manning's formula and
which vary with t he r a t i os of speci f i ed l i near dimensions of cross
sect i ons.
K = head l os s coef f i ci ent . I n most cases t h i s symbol i s used with a
subscr i pt t o make it s peci f i c and where so used it i s cl ear l y defined.
L = l engt h of channel or closed conduit; l engt h of rect angul ar weir c r e s t .
k = l engt h of a port i on of a channel or cl osed conduit.
M = mass
n = coef f i ci ent of roughness i n Manning's formula; an exponent.
0 = volume of outflow from a r eser voi r .
o = r a t e of outflow from a r eser voi r .
P = t o t a l pressure force; a symbol used i n a cer t ai n arrangement of
Manning's formula, t he value of which i s
n2
2.2082 x4l3
P = hor i zont al component of pressure f or ce.
H
P = r es ul t ant pressure f or ce.
R
P = ve r t i c a l component of pressure f or ce.
v
p = i nt ens i t y of pressure per uni t of area; wetted perimeter.
Q = t o t a l discharge; t ha t i s, volume of flow per uni t of time.
Qc = c r i t i c a l discharge.
Q = normal discharge.
n
q = discharge per uni t of width.
c
= c r i t i c a l discharge per uni t of width.
9, = normal discharge per uni t of width.
R = Reynold's number
r = hydraulic radius.
rm = mean hydraulic radi us i n channel reach.
S = volume of temporary r eser voi r st orage.
s = slope; t hat is, t he tangent of t he angle a l i n e makes
with t he hori zont al ; t he slope of t he energy gradi ent
i n Manning's formula.
s = c r i t i c a l slope.
C
sf
= f r i c t i on slope.
s = slope of channel bottom.
0
T = width of flow at t he water surface;
a conversion-time i nt er val .
t = time.
V = volume.
v = mean vel oci t y of flow.
v = vel oci t y of approach.
a
v = c r i t i c a l vel oci t y.
C
v = normal velocity; t ha t is, vel oci t y of uniform flow.
n
W = weight.
w = uni t weight.
x = a hor i zont al di st ance or abscissa; an exponent;
a variable; a time-conversion f act or .
y = a ve r t i c a l di st ance or ordinate; a var i abl e.
- -
x, y = coordinates of t he center of gr avi t y of an area.
z = t he el evat i on of a speci fi ed poi nt above datum; t he
sl ope of t he si des of t r apezoi dal sect i ons expressed
as a r a t i o of hor i zont al t o ve r t i c a l .
U (Greek alpha) = a ki net i c energy correct i on f act or .
p (Greek bet a) = an angle defined s peci f i cal l y where used.
8 r reek t het a) = an angle defined speci f i cal l y where used.
v r reek nu) = kinematic vi scosi t y.
1. 2 Units of t he foot-pound-second system ar e used unless ot hers ar e
speci fi ed. Factors t o be used i n making conversions between various uni t s
and dimensions ar e avai l abl e i n Tables 1 t o 11, "King' s Handbook."
I n many cases t he conversion of uni t s and dimensions i s looked upon
as a simple, unimportant process. The f a c t i s t ha t conversions a r e a fre-
quent source of er r or i n engineering computations. Valid equations must
be e qr e s s e d i n corresponding uni t s; t ha t is, i n a t r ue equation t her e must
be equal i t y between both uni t s and numbers. Engineers can mat er i al l y r e-
duce t he chance of conversion er r or s by forming t he habi t of t hi nki ng i n
terms of equal i t y of u n i t s as wel l as equal i t y of numbers.
Problems of t en a r i s e i n which t he cor r ect r el at i onshi p between uni t s
and dimensions i s not r eadi l y visualized and becomes cl ear only by analy-
s i s . I n t hese si t uat i ons t he quick sel ect i on of one or a s er i es of con-
version f act or s not
expressed i n equation form and t e s t e d f or val i di t y, may
r e s ul t i n cost l y, systematic er r or s . As examples of t he use of sound pri n-
c i pl e s i n t he conversion process, consider t he following:
Example 1:
1 cubic meter = Y gal l ons
Basi cal l y t h i s intends t o express an equal i t y between t wo volumes;
t ha t i s , two di f f er ent l i near dimensions r ai s ed t o t he t hi r d power. Since
cubic meters can no more be equated t o gal l ons than f r ei ght car s can be
equated t o bi cycl es, it i s evident t ha t some f act or having dimensional a s
well as numerical value must be introduced i f t he expression i s t o be made
a val i d equation. Analysis shows t ha t :
gal .
264.17 gal .
Note t hat a l l dimensions on t he l e f t cancel, l eavi ng t he uni t , gallon;
t ha t i s , corresponding uni t s, on each side of t he equation. The anal ysi s
r e s ul t s i n a general equation f or conversions between cubic meters and
gal l ons :
ga l
X m3 x 264.17 - = Y gal .
m3
Example 2:
1 acre-foot per hour = Y gal l ons per minute
Step by st ep anal ysi s r e s ul t s i n a val i d conversion equation consi st -
ent i n both uni t s and dimensions:
a c . - f t . 43560 f t . 2
x-- X
1 hr.
hr . 55 &.
X
1 ac.
gal .
ac. - f t . min .
hs. 5431 ac . -ft .
Example 3:
1 cubic f oot per second-day = Y acr e
7.4805 gal .
- - gal.
ft. 3
+ 5431 min.
ga l .
= y -
min .
f e e t
Analysis r e s ul t s i n:
ft.3-day 1 ac.
X
24 x 3600 sec.
- -
sec . X43560z 1 day - 1.9835 a c . f t .
Engineers who w i l l approach conversion problems by t he use of t he
pr i nci pl es i l l us t r a t e d above should secure t he following benef i t s:
(1) freedom from conversion errors; ( 2 ) savings i n time required f or both
or i gi nal and "check" computations; and ( 7) accuracy of conversion f act or
sel ect i on from standard t abl es or other sources.
2 Hydrostatics
2 Unit hydrost at i c pressure var i es di r e c t l y with t he depth and
t he uni t weight of water and i s expressed by t he equation:
p = i nt ens i t y of pressure per uni t of ar ea.
w = uni t weight of water.
h = depth of submergence, or head.
Useful working equations ar e:
p, i n p. s . i . = 0.433 h, i n f t .
p, i n ~ b . / f t . ~ = 62.4 h, i n f t .
I n a body of water with f r e e surface, t he t o t a l uni t pressure i s t he
sum of t he l i qui d pressure and t he atmospheric pressure. The majority of
hydraulic st r uct ur es ar e b u i l t and operate under conditions such t ha t at-
mospheric pressures ar e balancing forces which may be neglected.' However,
when si gni f i cant , atmospheric pressure should be f ul l y considered and i t s
ef f ect upon hydraulic operation and s t r uct ur al s t a bi l i t y determined. Ex-
amples of st r uct ur es whose operation or s t a b i l i t y may be af f ect ed by a t -
mospheric pressure ar e pipe l i ne s having a port i on of t he i r l engt h above
t he hydraulic grade l i ne; weirs with nonadhering nappe which do not have
t he under s i de of t he nappe f r e e t o t he atmosphere.
2. 2 Pressure loadings. The anal ysi s of st r uct ur es ucder pressure
loads w i l l , i n most cases, be f a c i l i t a t e d by t he use of pressure diagrsz,:
Since uni t pressure var i es di r e c t l y with head, diagrams showing t he var i -
at i on of uni t pressure i n any plane t ake t he form of t r i angl es, trapezoids,
or rect angl es. Typical pressure diagrams and ai des t o working with such
diagrams ar e shown on drawing ES-31.
2. 3 Buoyancy. A submerged body i s act ed on by a ver t i cal , buoyant
force equal t o t he weight of t he displaced water.
F = Vw
B
F = buoyant force.
B
V = volume of t he body.
w = uni t weight of water.
I f t he uni t weight of t he body i s gr eat er than t hat of water, t her e i s
an unbalanced, downward force equal t o t he di fference between t he weight of
t he body and of an equal volume of water, and t he body w i l l si nk. If t he
body has a uni t weight l e s s t han t ha t of water, t he body w i l l f l oa t with
par t of i t s volume below and par t above t he water surface i n a posi t i on
such t hat :
W = weight of t he body.
V = volume of t he body below t he water surface, i . e .
t he volume of t he displaced water.
w = uni t weight of water.
Close examination should be made of t he s t a b i l i t y of hydraulic st r uc-
t ur es as it w i l l be af f ect ed by: (1) whether t he st r uct ur e will be sub-
merged; ( 2) whether wide var i at i ons i n buoyant f or ces and net or ef f ect i ve
weights ar e possi bl e.
Porous mat eri al s, when submerged, are subj ect t o di f f er ent net weights
and are act ed on by di f f er ent buoyant forces depending upon whether t he
voids ar e f i l l e d with a i r or water. Note t he wide var i at i on i n t he possi-
bl e net weight of one cubic f oot of t r eat ed s t r uc t ur a l timber weighing
55 l bs . under average atmospheric moisture conditions and having 30 percent
voids :
1 f t .3 of s t r uct ur al t i m -
Before Sat ur at i on After Sat ur at i on
ber, 30 percent voids
W = weight i n a i r , l bs . 53. 35 + ( O. 3 O x 62.4) = 73.72
FB = buoyant force when
submerged, l bs . 62.4
W-F = weight when sub-
merged i n water
( net weight), l bs . 55 - 62.4 = - 7.4 75-72 - 62.4 = 11.32
The degree t o which t he f act or s discussed above ar e capable of af f ect -
ing t he net or s t abi l i zi ng weight of a st r uct ur e i s i l l us t r a t e d by t he f ol -
lowing example :
Assume a timber cr l b di versi on dam subj ect t o complete submergence
under normal fl ood flows. Materials, weights, and volumes are:
Percent of Volume Unit Weights
Mat eri al of t he Dam l bs /f t3
Timber
Timber
Loose stone, 30
percent voids
55 i n ai r
73 sat urat ed
150 s ol i d stone
Determine t he net weight of one cubic yard of t he dam when (1) not sub-
merged; ( 2) submerged but timber not saturated; ( 3 ) submerged with timber
sat urat ed:
1. Compute cubic f e e t of timber, s ol i d stone, and voids per cubic
yard of dam:
a . Timber:
b. Sol i d stone: 0.7 x
c. Voids: 0.3 x
2. Compute the net weights
Material
Not Submerged
of one cubic yard of dam:
Timber
S t one
I of Materials i n l bs . /cu. yd. of Dam
3.24 x 55 = 178
16.63 x 1% = 2494
-
Submerged
Ef f ect i ve or st abi -
l i z i ng weight of
dam per cu. yd. = 2672
u
Timber not Sat urat ed Timber Sat urat ed
I
HYD ?AULICS: ELEMENTS OF
CHANNEL SECTIONS
to-
Ic, o
\ &
k
S TANDARD DWC. NO.
ES- 3 3
I
S H E E T 1 OF
DATE 6- 6 - 5 0
YCE
U. S. DEPARTMENT OF AGRICULTURE
SOIL CONSERVATION SERVICE
R. H. Bennett, Chief
ENGINEERING STANDARDS UNIT
3. Fundamentals of Water Flow
3.1 Laminar and Turbulent Flow. Water flows with two di s t i nct l y di f -
ferent types of motlon; laminar and turbulent.
When laminar flow occurs, t he individual par t i cl es of water move along
st rai ght or orderly path l i nes. I n st rai ght conduits t he path l i nes are
st rai ght and paral l el ; i n i rregul ar conduits or i n passing obstacles they
are orderly l i nes which do not i nt ersect . With laminar motion, t he mean
velocity of flow varies di r ect l y with t he slope of t he hydraulic gradient.
I n t he case of turbulent flow, t he water par t i cl es follow winding, ir-
regular paths t hat are generally s pi r al i n form. I n addition t o t he main
velocity i n t he di rect i on of flow, there are transverse components of velo-
ci t y. The mean velocity of flow vari es with t he square root of t he slope
of the hydrauLic gradient.
The change from laminar t o turbulent flow occurs a t a velocity which i s
determined by t he dimensions of t he conduit and t he vi scosi t y of the water.
I n engineering pract i ce t he decision as t o whether laminar or turbulent fluw
w i l l occur i n a given case i s based on t he Reynold's number value.
R = Reynold's number..
L = a l i near dimension of t he conduit such as
diameter of pipe or depth of flow.
v = mean velocity of flow.
v r reek nu) = kinematic vi scosi t y.
Reynold's number i s dimensionless; t hat is, it has t he same value re-
gardless of t he system of consistent uni t s used. The reports of various
investigators indicate t hat i n pipe flow Reynold's number values of 2000 or
l es s characterize laminar motion, and 3000 or more turbulent motion with a
t ransi t i on range between these values. There me fewer report s of experi-
ments with open flow, but It appears t hat Reynold's number values comparable
t o t he above f or open flow ar e about 500 t o 1500 respectively. Reynoldf s
number is t he r a t i o of i ner t i a force t o viscous force and has broader s i g-
nificance than serving only as a cr i t er i on t o di st i ngui sh between laminar
and turbulent flow.
The type of motion with which water flows under di fferent conditions
has pract i cal significance. Laminar flow is important t o t he hydraulic
engineer because it i s t he type of motion with which percolation occurs.
Problems dealing with t he passage of water through soi l s, sands, gravels,
or porous sol i ds are solved by t he application of t he mechanics of laminar
flow. Turbulent motion characterizes t he flow i n f i e l d hydraulic st ruc-
t ures.
3.2
Continuity of Flow, When t he discharge at a given cross sect i on
of a channel or pi pe i s constant with respect t o time, t he flow i s steady.
I f st eaay flow o c w s a t a l l sect i ons i n a reach, t he flow i s continuous
and
Q = discharge.
a = cross-sect i onal area.
v = mean vel oci t y 0.f flow.
1,2,3 = subscr i pt s denoting di f f er ent cross sect i ons.
Equation (5.3-2) i s known as t he equation of cont i nui t y. The major-
i t y of our hydraul i c problems deal wi t h cases of continuous flow.
7.3 Energy and Head. Three forms of energy a r e normally considered
i n t he anal ysi s of problems in. water flow: ki net i c energy, pot ent i al en-
ergy, and pressure energy.
Ki net i c energy e xi s t s by vi r t ue of t he vel oci t y of motion and amounts
t o ~ 3 / 2 , where M i s any mass and v i s vel oci t y. Since M = W g t he ki -
ne t i c energy i s W$ / zg, and when W = 1 ib . it has t he value A/'&. Note
t ha t v2/2g being conposed of t he following uni t s expresses vel oci t y head
only:
ft2/sec2 = f t Z see2
X - - - ft.
ft / sec2 sec2 f t
However, it i s di r e c t l y proport i onal t o t he ki net i c energy of t he flow-
i ng water and i s derived by assuming a weight of 1 l b; t herefore, It i s
an expression of t he ki net i c energy i n f oot pounds per pound. I f time i s
considered, t he vel oci t y head is a l s o an expression of f oot pounds per
pound per second.
Pot ent i al energy i s t he a b i l i t y t o do work because of t he el evat i on
of a mass of water wi t h respect t o some datum. A mass of weight, W, a t
an el evat i on z f e e t , has pot ent i al energy amounting t o Wz f oot pounds with
r espect t o t he datum. The el evat i on head, z, expresses not only a l i ne a r
quant i t y i n f eet , but al s o energy i n f oot pounds per pound.
A mass of water as such does not have pressure energy. Pressure
energy i s acquired by contact with ot her masses and is, t herefore, t r ans -
mi t t ed t o or through t he mass under consi derat i on. The pressure head,
p/w, l i k e t he vel oci t y and el evat i on heads, al s o expresses energy i n f out
pounds per pound.
The r el at i onshi p between t he t hr ee forms of energy i n pi pe flaw and
i n channel flow i s shown by f i g. 5.3-1. On t he r i ght i n each case i s shown
t he vel oci t y head, pressure head, and el evat i on head f or a stream tube a t
point A i n sect i on 1. On t he l e f t i s shown t he t o t a l head and t he t hr ee
separat e energy heads f or t he sect i on containing A. The di st ance from any
stream t ube t o i t s energy l i n e i s t he sum of pressure and vel oci t y heads.
I f all stream tubes composing flow have equal energy a t a given sect i on,
var i at i ons i n t he vel oci t y heads of stream tubes must be balanced by equal
and opposite changes i n t he pressure heads. Therefore, i f a l l stream tubes
a r e t o have a common energy l i n e a t a sect i on, two conditions must be sat -
i s f i ed: (1) pressure i nt ens i t y must vary a s a s t r ai ght l i n e i n accordance
with t he hydr ost at i c law; ( 2) t he flow must be pa r a l l e l and t he vel oci t i es
of a l l stream tubes must be equal .
I n pi pe flow a change i n pressure head causes a uniform change i n pres-
sure i nt ens i t y throughout a given cross sect i on. Therefore, changing hydro-
s t a t i c head on a pipe system does not a l t e r t he pat t er n of motion, and t he
var i at i on i n t he energy of t he i ndi vi dual stream t ubes composing flow a t any
cross sect i on under a given hydr ost at i c head r e s ul t s only from t he unequal
vel oci t i es of t he stream t ubes. This i s i l l us t r a t e d by f i g . 5. 3- 2. The
pressure diagram on t he ve r t i c a l diameter of a pipe i s shown by ABCR. The
complete pressure diagram i s a t runcat ed cyl i nder f or which each ve r t i c a l
sect i on i s si mi l ar t o ABCE. Vari at i on of t he pressure head, kp, would
change only t he ABCD port i on of t he pressure diagram f or which t he uni t
pressure i s uniform. Furthermore, pot ent i al energy, t he sum of pressure
and el evat i on heads, with r espect t o any datum i s constant over t he cross
sect i on, si nce var i at i on i n pressure head i s balanced by an equal and oppo-
s i t e var i at i on i n el evat i on head. Vari at i on i n t he vel oci t i es of t he di f -
f er ent stream tubes accounts f o r t he var i at i on i n the energy of flow of t he
stream t ubes a t a given sect i on.
1- ve/o c ; / y
Dis f ri bu f i on
Energy in Pipe f / ow of CY Cross Sec f i on
FIG. 5.3-2
I n open flow, pressure at t he surface i s atmospheric, and i nt er nal
pressure cannot be changed without al t er i ng t he pat t er n of flow. Curvi-
l i ne a r flow changes t he i nt er nal pressure di st r i but i on through dynamic
ef f ect and, t her ef or e, chaages t he flow pat t er n.
If open flow i s par al l el , t he pot ent i al energy head i s constant over
any cross sect i on and onl y t he vel oci t y head var i es from one stream tube
t o mot her . This i s i l l us t r a t e d by f i g. 5.3-3.
FIG. 5.3-3
The above shows t ha t i n order t o obt ai n a t o t a l head accurat el y rep-
resent i ng t he mean energy of flow, it i s necessmy t o compute a weighted
mem vel oci t y head f or addi t i on t o t he constant pot ent i al head a t a cross
sect i on. The equation expressing t he weighted mean vel oci t y head i s:
hv = weighted mean vel oci t y head of flow a t a cross sect i on.
v = mean vel oci t y of flow.
g = accel erat i on of gr avi t y.
a r reek alpha) = a ki net i c energy correct i on f act or , t he
value of which depends upon t he di s t r i but i on of vel oci t y
i n t he cross sect i on of flow.
A method of determining a i s given on page 260 of "King's Handbook."
The value of a f or r el at i vel y uniform vel oci t y di st r i but i on i s 1. 05 t o
1.10. Wide var i at i ons i n vel oci t y such as a r e found i n obstructed flow
or i r r egul ar alignment may produce values of a of 2.0 or gr eat er . Prob-
lems may be encountered, t herefore, i n which a ki net i c energy correct i on
must be applied t o vel oci t y head i f computations within reasonable l i m i t s
f accuracy ar e t o be made. I n the majority of cases $/ 2g i s accepted
a s uf f i ci ent l y accurate expression of vel oci t y head.
I n pipe flow problems it i s comon pr act i ce t o measure el evat i on
head from t he datum t o t he cent er l i ne of t he pipe, t he pressure head
from t he cent er l i ne t o t he piezometric surface, and t he vel oci t y head
from t he el evat i on est abl i shed by t he pressure head. I n open channel
flow t he el evat i on head i s measured from t he datum t o t he bottom of t he
channel, pressure head i s t he depth of f l o w, and vel oci t y head i s mea-
sured from t he water surface.
3.4 Bernoulli Theorem. Thi s theorem i s t he appl i cat i on of t he
l a w of conservation of energy t o f l ui d flow. It may be s t a t e d as f ol -
lows: I n f r i c t i onl e s s f l o w t he sum of t he ki net i c energy, pressure
energy, and el evat i on energy i s equal a t a l l sect i ons along a stream.
I n pr act i ce, f r i c t i on and al l other energy l osses must be considered
and t he energy equation becomes:
v = mean vel oci t y of flow.
p = uni t pressure.
w = uni t weight of water.
g = accel erat i on of gr avi t y.
z = el evat i on head.
hk = al l l osses i n head other t han by f r i c t i on between
sect i ons 1 and 2.
hf = head l os t by f r i c t i on between sect i ons 1 and 2.
1 and 2 denote upstream and downstream sect i ons r espect i vel y.
The energy equation and t he equation of cont i nui t y a r e t he two
basi c, simultaneous equations used i n solving problems i n water flow.