ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I wish to predict the deep sense of great fullness and gratitude to the Lt General Shujaat
Hussain, Chairman, Pakistan Ordinance Factories !ithout whose permission, I would not "e a"le to
spend such a memora"le time at Pakistan Ordinance Factories, !ah Cantt
I was gi#en the opportunit$ to learn and get the technical knowledge a"out the happenings of
industr$, making me familiar with the processes "eing carried out, difficulties of practical life and
commitments to the fulfill ness of targets
I am reall$ thankful to all the Heads of the Plants, the trainers, technical officers and operators
for their help, guidance, #alua"le and precious suggestions and constructi#e criticism that ena"led me
to get the knowledge and complete this report according to the chemist%s point of #iew
&hough all the persons, during the internship, were #er$ much cooperati#e "ut it will "e injustice
not to mention the names of the persons who made me feel this Ordinance Factor$ as m$ homeland I
would reall$ like to pa$ m$ Special &hanks to the following persons'(
)r Safer *hmed Sahi", +*F),C-
)r Iftikhar Sahi" +&&C-
.ngr /asir ) 0aloch Sahi", +*!), *cid(1-
)r )uhammad I2"al +*) Fire Fighting-
I wish all the workers, including those whose names ha#e "een left unintentiall$, to do their jo"s
with the same sense of responsi"ilit$, commitment and carefulness in future also
1
PREFACE
It is and will alwa$s remain as a #alua"le asset for me to ha#e internship training at Pakistan
ordnance Factories In this process of learning and assimilating, I not onl$ went through process
in#ol#ing Chemical technolog$, "ut also got an understanding of infect are making it work like a modern
industrial plant, speciall$ more so in the case of a newl$ de#eloping countr$ like Pakistan &he
tremendous head wa$ in this field is lia"le to faster all round de#elopments id lie spheres of Socio(
.conomic 3e#elopment in the present area, where we ha#e just entered the of 41
st
Centur$
&his 5ital opportunit$ was "eneficial regarding the facts that it ga#e me a chance to get know(
how of the professional Field(ena"led me to accelerate towards Professional e6perts, allowing me to
engage on jo" terining, for which we are highl$ inde"ted
&his report is "ased on the #isits are different plants of POF, pro#iding necessar$ knowledge for
carr$ing out #arious kinds of processes especiall$ regarding chemical processes
&he o"jecti#e in writing this project is not onl$ to let the authorities of POF know a"out what I
ha#e learnt here, "ut also to suppl$ them a meaningful materials as well as to help the future trainees of
the plants &he report deals with different departments at .LPLOSO75. F*C&O8I.S, POF
It was an unforgetta"le e6perience of #ast dimensions, "ringing me more closel$ to people
"elonging pro#inces of Pakistan, de#eloping national cohesion and solidarit$ It shall alwa$s "e
cherishing, illuminating a radiation and a particular glo#e of happiness and "rilliance the nostalgia of the
same shall "e e#er encompassing for all times to come in not too far distant future
2
PAKISTAN ORDINANCE FACTORIES (POF)
BRIEF DESCRIPTION
&$pe ' 3efense
Founded ' !ah, Pakistan +19:1-
Head2uarters ' !ah Cantt, Pakistan
;e$ People ' Lt General Shujaat Hussain, Chairman of 0oard of 3irectors
Industr$ ' *rms and *mmunitions )anufacturer
.mplo$ees ' 4:,<<<
HISTORY
*t the time of creation of Pakistan in 19=>, all si6teen ordnance factories fell to Indian share
"ecause of their locations Pakistan, as a newl$ "orn state had to therefore raise its own defense
industr$ In this conte6t, "eginning was made in co(operation with 0ritish 8o$al Ordnance
*fter the partition, the newl$ created state of Pakistan needed to create an arms manufacturer
for the defense of nation !ithin four months of its creation, Lia2uat *li ;han issued a directi#e to
create a factor$ for weapon manufacturing in Pakistan Following Lia2uat *li ;han%s association, the
second Prime()ister of Pakistan, ;hawaj /a?imuddin esta"lish the first four factories of the POF in
3ecem"er 19:1
INTRODUCTION
Pakistan Ordinance Factories are the premier defense industries in Pakistan producing a wide
range of con#entional defensi#e ammunitions to international standards 8ecogni?ed for 2ualit$,
relia"ilit$ and competiti#e POF products are internationall$ accepted
&he nucleus of POF has grown in to a large modern engineering and chemical group of
factories, producing large range of munitions s$stems of ground, air and na#al forces in additions to
meeting the domestic demands of the defense forces, POF products are in ser#ice with o#er @<
countries, conforming to the highest international standards of 2ualit$ and relia"ilit$
POF is speciali?ed in the manufacture of a #erit$ of commercial e6plosi#es, detonators, "rass
and ferrous compounds
3
*n international mane in 2ualit$ and relia"ilit$, all manufacturing units of POF are ISO(9<<1 A
ISO(1=<<1 certifies Its metallurgical testing la"s and "allistic proof ranges ha#e the word%s class
recognition of ISO(1><4:
Pakistan Ordnance Factories is also speciali?ed in the manufacture of commercial e6plosi#eB
hunting ammunition possesses e6tensi#e facilities for the manufacture of "rass, copper and aluminum
ingots, e6trusion and section for non(militar$ application
* garments factor$, which has the state of the art cloth cutting facilities and most modern
stitching units, manufactures militar$ uniforms and can also cater for the needs of ci#il sector
POF also pro#ides speciali?ed training in courses related to armament production in its institute
of &echnolog$ e2uipped with some of the latest simulation and training aids
MAINSTREAM INDUSTRIES
!eapon Factor$
)achine Gun Factor$
Small *rms *mmunition Factor$
0om"s and Grenades Factor$
.6plosi#e Factor$
Filling Factor$
Propellants Factor$
&ungsten *llo$ Factor$
Steel Foundr$
0rass )ills
Garments Factor$
SUBSIDIARIES
!ah Industries Ltd
!ah /o"el +P5&- Ltd
!ah /o"el Chemical Ltd
!ah 3etonators Ltd
!ah /o"el *cetate Ltd
*ttock Chemical
Hi(&ech Plastic +P5&- Ltd
4
POF is =: km from Islama"ad, the capital cit$ of Pakistan POF has its main manufacturing
facilities at !ah Cantt * Cit$ with some of the "est ci#il communities in the count$
INTERNATIONAL STANDARDS
,C has alwa$s "een the hall marks of POF products &his is in the nature of the manufacturing
processes POF products arms and ammo of German 7S, 0ritish and Chinese origin strictl$ to
international standards of acceptance in 1999, )CS )odd$ international of 7; awarded the ISO 9<<1
certificate to the entire 1= major industries and D departments of POF work on ISO 1=<<< certification
in progress and POF is aiming to o"tain ISO 1=<<< certification in )a$ 4<<4
POF has "een awarded standards "$ the international standards organi?ation &hese include
for 2ualit$ management, ISO 1=<<1 for, and ISO 1><4: for meeting the general re2uirements for
competence of &est and Cali"ration La"oratories
TECHNOLOGY AND EQUIPMENT
POF uses technolog$ and e2uipment that has "een ac2uired from the 7nited States of *merica,
7nited ;ingdom, France, German$ A China, the factories in POF emplo$ some of the latest state of the
art processes, including computeri?ed numerical controlled machines and fle6i"le manufacturing
s$stems for the production of precision components
PRODUCTS
&he wide range of products include a #ariet$ of /*&O cali"er infantr$ weapons and their ammo,
thank ammo, *ir creaft andante, air craft ammo, *rtiller$ ammo, 8ockets, *ir craft "om"s p$rotechnics,
)ortar "om"s and Hand Grenade and a num"er of ordinance and commercial products
CONTROVERSY
POF heads stamped @<@); 5II S** ammunition had an incredi"l$ poor reputation amongst
militar$ surplus riffle shooters, as well as "eing highl$ corrosi#e and difficult, if not impossi"le to reload
all undesira"le 2ualities in militar$ ammunition It is thought that poor storage condition ma$ "e a major
contri"utor to the generall$ inferior 2ualit$ of this ammunition' a projectile themsel#es are well made
and accurate
EXPORTS
5
In addition to meeting the demands of Pakistan 3efense Forces, POF products are in ser#ice
with o#er @< countries in .urope, *sia &he )iddle .ast and the *mericas, *mmunitions and rifles ha#e
"een e6ported to countries like Ira2 and *fghanistan for their respecti#e militar$ esta"lishment POF
speciali?es in the manufacturing of commercial e6plosi#es, hunting ammunition and possesses
e6tensi#e facilities for the manufacture of "rass, copper and aluminum ingots * state of the art
garments factor$ manufactures militar$ uniforms and can also cater for the needs of the ci#il sector
6
POFITS VISIT
7
3uring the two da$s #isit of POFI& +POF Institute of &echnolog$-, I ha#e gi#en the general
introduction a"out POF, its importance as "ack"one of our countr$, and also a"out its aims and
o"jecti#es, &hen I ha#e #isited the Chemical La" I ha#e also #isited the mechanical Shop It was #er$
learnt and unforgetta"le e6perience for me at POFI& *ll the staff was #er$ cooperati#e with all the
students, including us as trainee during internship, and the$ were also #er$ dedicated to their work I
would I would like to thanks all the staff at POFIT, for their cooperation during internship.
!e ha#e also gi#en the "riefings a"out and e6periment, that is, Flow )easurement through
5enturimeter &he details of the e6periment are as follow
Experiment: Flow measurement through 5enturimeter
Construction: &he 5enturimeter tu"es a de#ice which has "een used o#er man$ $ears of
measuring the rates of flow along with the pipe It consist a essentiall$ of a tapering construction
section, along which the fluid accelerate toward a short c$lindricall$ through followed "$ a section which
di#erges gentl$ "ack to the original diameter *s the #elocit$ measures from the inlet section to the
thought &here is fall in the pressure &he magnitude of which depends upon the rate of flow the flow
rate ma$ therefore infer from the difference in the pressure, as measured "$ the pedometers Place up
steam and at the thought such a unit is refereed to as 5enturimeter
*nother wa$ of measuring the flow would "e to insert a sharp edge orifice into the pipe the
differential pressure produced "$ the flow through the orifice ma$ similarl$ "e used to entered the flow
rate Such an orifice meter has the ad#antage of simplicit$ and cheapness
In comparison with the 5enturimeter tu"e howe#er it causes a great loss of total head, than
does a corresponding 5enturimeter this is "ecause much of the #elocit$ head at the through reco#ered
as decelerated in the di#erges section Indeed the differential ple?ometers Head from inlet to the
thought can "e se#eral times as great as the loss of total head across the whole de#ice
Formula: !C"# #g $h% & h#' ( % ) $"# ( "%' #
Hear C is known as the discharge co(efficient or simpl$ the co(efficient of 5enturimeter
Its #alue which usuall$ "etween <99 m4 and <99 m4 is esta"lished "$ e6periment It
#alues from I m to another and e#en for a gi#en meter it ma$ #er$ slightl$ with the flow rate
8
, E 5olumetric Flow 8ate
*1E*rea of the through at P1
CEco(efficient of 5enturimeter
*4E*rea of the throught at P4
H1EPie?ometer head of point 1
H4EPie?ometer head of point 4
GEGra#itational *ccelerate
9
VISIT OF EXPLOSIVE FACTORY AT (POF)
3uring the #isit of e6plosi#e factor$ at POF, I ha#e #isited different plants related to formation of
e6plosi#es and also the different la"s of e6plosi#e factor$ !e ha#e also gi#en the safet$ Lectures
Safet$ Lectures
Plants 5isit
La" 5isit
&he 3etails are as follows
Plants *isited: From these plants, I ha#e #isited the following plants, listed "elow
1 *cid F 1
a Oleum Plant
" Pressure O6$gen Plant
c 3en C /*C Plant
d Co# Plant
4 *cid F II
a /C/* Plant
@ *cid F III
a /*C C S*C Plant
10
SAFETY
+efinition: In simple words, safet$ can "e defined as a method to protect human "eings and
materials from injur$, risk, damage etc "$ creating an en#ironment and sense of responsi"ilit$ amongst
#arious people in#ol#ed in that work Safet$ is supposed to "e "usiness of e#er$"od$ and cooperation
of all concerned is re2uired to accomplish this thank
Importance of ,afet-: Safet$ pla$s an important role in the industries and places where human
li#es and materials are in#ol#ed For e6ample in .6plosi#es and Filling Factories, where human li#es
and materials are e6posed to potential ha?ards, Similarl$ on roads and e#en in domestic life,
importance of safet$ can neither "e ignored nor "e underestimated &o sa#e the mankind from the
undesira"le effects of accidents, it is imperati#e to o"ser#e safet$ rules and regulations prescri"ed in
our life
GENERAL SAFETY PROVISION
First "id: *de2uate first aid facilities with competent persons in attendance must "e a#aila"le at all
times Suita"le pro#isions for carr$ing injured personnel to treatment area must "e a#aila"le
Protecti.e /ear: Certain manufacturing processes, operations, etc, will re2uire protecti#e clothing
and e2uipment, which ma$ included'(
Safet$ O#eralls
Safet$ Footwear
Helmets
Glo#es
*pron
.$e Protectors
.ar Protectors
8espirator$ )asks
0andling Protecti.e +e.ices
1 0ead Protection: For chemical operations, speciall$ in facilities with e6tensi#e piping,
thanks, column and other e2uipment, which occasionall$ leaks, or ruptures, hardhat for head protection
must "e used
4 E-e Protection: .$es are undou"tedl$ the most #alua"le part of our "od$ and an injur$ to
can ha#e the most terri"le results !ithout our sight we would ne#er see the things we enjo$ so much
our famil$, the countr$side, the sporting occasions, etc !e must wear the goggles or e$e shield to
protect our e$es for dust, fl$ing particles, molted material, fumes or, injurious light and heat ra$s, make
sure $ou ha#e the correct e$e protection for the work and wear it properl$ F goggles placed in pocket or
11
hanged are no protection *ll the emplo$ees are issued safet$ goggles and are worn while working in
operating areas
@ Protecti.e Clothing: Since man$ chemicals are corrosi#e to the skin and C or to6ic "$
skin a"sorption, an effecti#e "arrier "etween the skin and the chemical introduces a highl$ desira"le
second line of protection /ot all ru""er or plastic used in glo#es, aprons, or other clothing are suita"le
to the e6posure from the specific chemicals which ma$ "e encountered !e should use the
recommended and most suita"le protecti#e clothing%s eg glo#es, aprons and other clothing%s for
specific jo"s a#aila"le at the identified location
= Foot Protection: Safet$ shoes and safet$ "oots ha#e "ecome an accepted part of man$
chemical operations Shoes are the one item of safet$ clothing which ma$ "e worn "$ e#er$one
*de2uate lifting and handling facilities must "e pro#ided where necessar$ to handle safet$ all materials
su"stances and articles It is important that all apparatus is correctl$ identified and suita"l$ marked to
show safe working loads, thread t$pe and si?e and last date of testing 8egular inspection and rele#ant
tests of all apparatus must "e carried out and all necessar$ action taken to remed$ defects A maintain
the apparatus in good order
: Chemical and Flamma1le 2i3uids: Great care should "e taken in the storage of all
chemicals and flamma"le li2uids !here possi"le onl$ limited 2uantities of acids and chemicals should
"e kept in stock, the$ should "e suita"le and the accommodation and #essels clearl$ marked *ll sores
and containers of highl$ flamma"le li2uids should "e marked HIGHLG FL*))*0L. Oil should "e
stored separatel$, clearl$ identified and marked 3rums should "e stacked in metal tra$s or "$ other
suita"le means to contain the contents to the drum should it leak 3rums fitter with taps should "e
placed on rack with a drip tra$ underneath * 45O ,6O7I589 notice should "e displa$ed
D Information : Training: *de2uate training and instruction must "e pro#ided to permit sate
working to "e carried out For e6ample'(
Fire Protection(.#acuation of Premises
Lifting and Handling(Cranes, Slings(3angerous Su"stances
7se of Safet$ *pparel(.$e Protection
General Housekeeping F Personal H$giene
Safe use of &ools F Power &ools F Hand &ools
.lectrical Safet$
12
FIRE FIGHTING
Firefighting is the act of e6tinguishing destructi#e fires * Firefighter these fires to pre#ent
destruction of life, propert$ and the en#ironment Firefighting is a highl$ technical profession which
re2uires $ears of training and education in order to "ecome proficient
*n Important facture of the pre#ention of workplace accidents and damage is the control of the
start and "usiness whether a major industrial compan$ or a small to medium "usiness
CO66O5 C";,E, OF FI<E
1 Electricit-: /eglect and misuse of electrical wiring, fittings and e2uipment can easil$ cause
fires in the workplace
O#erheating of electrical circuits
Poor wiring connections
7se of unauthori?ed electrical appliances
)ulti point adaptors
Pro"lems with the use of e6tension leads
*re all ha?ards that fre2uentl$ result in fires starting &herefore ensure that all electrical
circuits and e2uipment in the workplace are inspected and tested on a regular "asis
&here is a re2uirement to do this under the electricit$ at work 8egulations
Ha#e an$ faults in wiring or fittings repaired promptl$ "$ a 2ualified electrician switch off
electrical e2uipment when it is not in use particularl$ at the end of the da$%s work
#. ,moking:
Smoking is still a major cause of fires in "uildings Gou should
Consider ha#ing a H/o SmokingI Polic$ in $our workplace
Prohi"it smoking in storage areas
If the pu"lic #isit $our premises and $ou allow them to smoke "e e6tra #igilant
Check rooms at the end of the working da$ to ensure that no smoking material has "een
lift "urning
@ Cooking:
)an$ small "usinesses ha#e kitchens where staff ma$ prepare food themsel#es &hese
facilities are similar to domestic kitchens and cooking ha?ards ma$ still arise
*#oid undertaking deep fat fr$ing unless a thermostaticall$ controlled pan is pro#ided
e#en then it would "e wise not to lea#e the pan unattended
13
.nsure that com"usti"le materials such as cloths, towels and loose fitting clothing
especiall$ slee#es are kept well clear of ho"s
&oasters and microwa#e o#ens should not "e sited in office areas, the$ should onl$ "e
a#aila"le in kitchens
= 0eating "ppliances
Porta"le heathers can often "e ha?ardous in the work en#ironment especiall$ if placed
too close to com"usti"le furniture, fittings or materials Con#ector heaters are safer than
radiant fires If $ou do need to use heathers
.nsure that the$ are securel$ hoarded and properl$ fi6ed to pre#ent them from "eing
knocked o#er
Place them well awa$ from an$ materials that could easil$ ignite
.#er stand papers or "ooks on them or drape clothing o#er them
3o not allow #entilation grilles to "ecome o"structed clean porta"le heather on a regular
"asis
=. 0a>ardous 6aterials
Paints, Sol#ents, *dhesi#es, Chemicals or gas c$linder, keep them in separate
storage areas and well awa$ from an$ sources of ignition
8emem"er gas c$linders, e#en when empt$, can e6plode when e6plode to heat
&he Highl$ Flamma"le Li2uids and Li2uefied Petroleum Gases 8egulations ma$
appl$ to $our operations
Fire "larms: &here are four elements needed to start and sustain a fire and C or flame &hese
elements are classified in the HFire &etrahedronI &hese four elements of the HFire &etrahedronI are
8educing *gent +Furl-
Heat
Self F sustained chemical reaction
O6idi?ing *gent +O6$gen-
Fire "larms: If people are to escape from a fire then the$ must "e warned of the danger at the earliest
possi"le time .#er$ workplace must therefore "e pro#ided with a suita"le fire alarm
In #er$ small "usinesses all that ma$ "e re2uired is a manual gong or a simple "reak F glass
electric fire alarm
14
In larger premises or workplaces with fire ha?ards which pose a more serious threat to life and
the smooth running of the "usiness a more ela"orate installation ma$ "e necessar$
;se of Fire Extinguisher
1 Pull the Pin at the top of the e6tinguisher &he pin releases a locking mechanism and will allow
$ou to discharge the e6tinguisher
4 "im at the 1ase of the Fire, not the flames &his is important in order to put out the fore, $ou
must e6tinguish the fuel
@ ,3uee>e the le.er slowl-. &his will release the e6tinguishing agent in the e6tinguisher If the
handle is release, the discharge will stop
= ,weep form side to side. 7sing a sweeping motion, mo#e the fore e6tinguisher "ack and forth
until the fire is completel$ out Operate the e6tinguisher from a safe distance, se#eral feet awa$ and
then mo#e towards the fire once it starts to diminish 0e sure to read the instructions on $our fire
15
e6tinguisher different fire e6tinguishers recommend operating them from different distances
8emem"er' *im at the "ase of the fire not at the flamesJJJJ
ACID II
NEW CNA PLANT
&his plant is designed to make C/* of strength 9K:L and !/* ha#ing strength :4L process
"ased on pressure o6idation of mi6ture of li2uid /4O=, water and !/* with elementar$ dr$ O4 in an
autocla#e
<"/ 6"TE<I"2,
Li2uid ammonia
Purified O6$gen
!ater
";?I2I"<@ 6"TE<I"2,
0rine Coolant
Catal$st Pt(8h gau?es
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
/itric acid is produced "$ 4 methods &he first method utili?es o6idation, condensation and
a"sorption to produce a weak nitric acid !eak nitric acid can ha#e concentrations ranging from @< to
>< percent nitric acid &he second method com"ines deh$drating, "leaching, condensing and
a"sorption to produce a high strength nitric acid from a weak nitric acid High strength nitric acid
generall$ contains more than 9< percent nitric acid &he following te6t pro#ides more specific details for
each of these processes
/eak 5itric "cid Production: &his process t$picall$ consists of @ steps'(
1 *mmonia O6idation
4 /itric O6ide O6idation
@ *"sorption .ach step corresponds to a distinct chemical reaction
1 "mmonia Oxidation: First, a 1'9 ammonia C air mi6ture is o6idi?ed as it passes through
a catal$tic con#erter, according to the following reaction'(
=05A B CO# ! ! ! ! =5O B D0#O
16
&he most commonl$ used catal$st is made of 9< percent platinum and 1< percent rhodium
gau?e constructed from s2uares of fine wire 7nder these conditions the o6idation of ammonia to nitric
o6ide +/O- proceeds in an e6othermic reaction with a range of 9@ to 9K percent $ields Higher catal$st
temperatures increases reaction
Flow ,heet +iagram of T-pical 5itric "cid Plant ;sing ,ingle Pressure Process
Selecti#it$ toward /O production Lower catal$st temperatures tend to "e more selecti#e toward
less useful products' nitrogen +/4- and nitrous o6ide +/4O- /itric o6ide is considered to "e a criteria
pollutant and nitrous o6ide is known to "e a glo"al warming gas &he nitrogen dio6ide C dimmer mi6ture
then passes a waste heat "oiler and a platinum filter
4 5itric Oxide Oxidation: &he nitric o6ide formed during the ammonia o6idation must "e
o6idi?ed &he process stream is passed through a cooler C condenser &he nitric o6ide reacts non
catal$ticall$ with residual o6$gen to form nitrogen dio6ide +/O4- and its li2uid dimmer, nitrogen
tero6ide' 2NO + 2NO2 6 2NO2 = N2O4
&his slow, homogeneous reaction is highl$ temperature and pressure dependent Operating at
low temperatures and high pressures promotes ma6imum production of /O4 within a minimum reaction
time
@ "1sorption &he final step introduce the nitrogen dio6ide C dimmer mi6ture into an a"sorption
process after "eing cooled &he mi6ture is pumped into the "ottom of the a"sorption tower, while li2uid
dinitrogen tetro6ide is added at a higher point 3eioni?er process water enters the top of the column
0oth li2uids flow countercurrent to the nitrogen dio6ide C dimmer gas mi6ture O6idation takes place in
the free space "etween the tra$s, while a"sorption occurs on the tra$s &he a"sorption tra$s are usuall$
sie#e or "u""le cap tra$s &he e6othermic reaction occurs as follow'
A6O# B 0#O #05oA B 5O
* secondar$ air stream is introduced into the column to re(o6idi?e the /O that is formed in
8eaction &he secondar$ air also temo#es /O4 from the product acid *n a2ueous solution of :: to D:
percent +t$picall$- nitric acid is withdrawn from the "ottom of the tower &he acid concentration can #ar$
from @< to >< percent nitric acid &he acid concentration depends upon the temperature, pressure,
num"er of a"sorption stages and concentration of nitrogen o6ides entering the a"sor"er &here are 4
"asic t$pes of s$stems used to produce weak nitric acid'
a Single stage= pressure process A
" 3ual stage pressure process In the past nitric acid plants ha#e "een operated at a
single Pressure ranging from atmospheric pressure to 1=> to 4<@ psi
17
Howe#er since reaction 1 is fa#ored "$ low pressure and 8eaction 4 and @ are fa#ored "$
ingher pressures, newer plants tend to operate a dual stage pressure s$stem, incorporating a
compressor "etween the ammonia o6idi?er and the condenser &he o6idation reaction is carried out at
pressures from shghtl$ negati#e to a"out :K psia and the a"sorption reactions are carried out at 11D to
4<@ psi In the dual stage pressure s$stem the nitric acid formed in the a"sor"er +"ottoms- is usuall$
sent to an e6ternal "leacher where air is used to remo#e +"leach- an$ dissol#ed o6ides of nitrogen &he
"leacher gases are then compressed and passed through the a"sor"er &he a"sor"er tail gas
+distillate- is sent to an entrainment separator for acid mist remo#al /e6t the tail gas is reheated in the
ammonia o6idation heat e6changer &he final step e6pands the gas in the power(reco#er$ tur"ine &he
thermal energ$ produced in this tur"ine can "e used to dri#e the compressor
/4O= formed "$ pol$meri?ing /O4 is autocla#ed with purified o6$gen to form cone /itric acid
ha#ing strength 9K:L
NITROGEN OXIDE EMISSION FROM NITRIC ACID PLANTS
EMISSION FACTOR RATING E
,ource Control Efficienc- 5Ox 21(Toh 5itric
"cid Produce
5#O 21(Ton 5itric
"cid Produced
!eak acid plant tail gas
7ncontrolled < :> 11><
Catal$tic 8eduction
/atural Gas 991 <= /3
H$drogen 9>(9K: <K /3
/atural GasCH$drogen +4:L C >:L- 9K(9K: <9 /3
.6tended *"sorption
Single Stage Process 9:K 19 /3
3ual Stage Process 41 /3
Chilled *"sorption and caustic
Scru""er /3 44 /3
High Strength acid plant /3 1< /3
Properties: Pure anh$drous nitric acid +1<<L- is a colorless li2uid with a densit$ of 1:44 gCm@
which solidifies at (=4 centi grade to form white cr$stals and "oils at K@ c !hen "oiling in light, e#en at
room temperature there is a partial decomposition with the formation of nitrogen dio6ide following
reaction
18
= 05OA #0#O B 5O# B O# $E# C'
!hich means that anh$drous nitric acid should "e stored "elow < C to a#oid decomposition
&he nitrogen dio6ide +/O4- remains dissol#ed in the nitric acid coloring it $ellow or red at higher
temperatures !hile the pure acid tends to gi#e off white fumes when e6posed to air, acid with
dissol#ed nitrogen dio6ide gi#es off reddish "rown #apors, leading to the common name Hred fuming
acidI or Hfuming nitric acidI Fuming nitric acid is also referred to as 1D molar nitric acid as the most
concentrated form of nitric acid at Standard &emperature and pressure +S&P-
,afet-: /itric acid is powerful o6idi?ing agent *nd the reactions of nitric acid with compounds
suchas c$anides, car"ides and metallic powders can "e e6plosi#e 8eactions of nitric acid with man$
organic compounds such as turpentine are #iolent and h$pergolic +ie, self(igniting-
Concentrated nitric acid d$es human skin $ellow due to a reaction with the keratin &hese $ellow
stains turn orange when neutrali?ed
;ses: * Solution of nitric acid and alcohol, /ital is used for etching of metals to re#eal the
microstructure
Commerciall$ a#aila"le a2ueous "lends of :(@<L nitric acid and 1:(=< L phosphoric acid are
commonl$ used for cleaning food and dair$ e2uipment primaril$ to remo#e precipitated calcium and
magnesium compounds +either deposited from the process stream or resulting from the use of hard
water during production and cleaning-
/itric acid is also used in e6plosi#es, and is ke$ to the manufacture of 5itrogl-cerin and <+?.
19
ACID-1
OLEUM PLANT
I5T<O+;CTIO5'
Contact Process: &he contact process is the current method of producing sulfuric acid in the high
concentrations needed for industrial processes +5anadium pent o6ide- is the catal$st emplo$ed &he
process was patented in 1K@1 "$ the 0ritish #inegar merchant Peregrine Phillips In addition to "eing a
far more economical process for producing concentrated sulfuric acid than the pre#ious lead cham"er
process, the contact process also produces sulfur trio6ide and oleum
Process +escription: &he Process can "e di#ided into three stages'
1 Preparation and Purification of sulfur dio6ide
4 Catal$tic o6idation +using #anadium pent o6ide catal$st- of sulfur dio6ide to sulfur trio6ide
@ Con#ersion of sulfur trio6ide to sulfuric acid
Purification of air and SO4 is necessar$ to a#oid catal$st poisoning +ie remo#ing catal$tic
acti#ities- &he gas is then washed with water and dried "$ H4SO= &o conser#e energ$, the mi6ture is
heated "$ e6haust gases from the catal$tic con#erter "$ heat e6changers
Sulfur dio6ide and o6$gen then react in the manner as follows'
4SO4+g- MO4 +g- 4SO@+@- E (19>kjCmol
Catal-st used : <eaction: &o increase the reaction rate, high temperatures +=:< C-, medium
pressures +1(4 atm-, and #anadium pent o6ide +54O:- are, used to ensure a 99: L con#ersion
Platinum would "e a more effecti#e catal$st, "ut is #er$ costl$ and easil$ poisoned &he catal$st onl$
ser#es to increase the rate of reaction it has no effect on how much SO@ is produced
Hot sulfur trio6ide passes through the heat e6changer and is dissol#ed in concentrated H4SO=
in the a"sorption tower to form oleum'
0#,O= $2' B ,OA $g' 0#,#FE $2'
/ote that directl$ dissol#ing SO@ in water is impractical due to the highl$ e6othermic nature of
the reaction *cidic #apor or mists are formed instead of li2uid
Oleum is reacted with water to form concentrated HSO=
&he a#erage percentage $ield of this reaction is around @< L
20
0#,#OE $2' B 0#O $2' #0#,O= $2'
+C+": &he ne6t step to the contact process is 3C3* or dou"le a"sorption In this process the product
gases +SO4- and +SO@- are passed through a"sorption towers twice to achie#e further a"sorption and con#ersion
of SO4 to SO@ and production of higher grade sulfuric acid
SO4 rich gases enter the catal$tic con#erter, usuall$ a tower with multiple catal$sts "eds and get
con#erted to SO@, achie#ing the first stage of con#ersion &he ei6t gases from this stage contain "oth SO@ which
are passed through intermediate a"sorption towers where sulfuric acid is trickled down packed columns and SO@
reacts with water increasing the sulfuric acid is trickled down packed columns and SO@ reacts with water
increasing the sulfuric acid concentration &hough SO4 too passes through the tower it is uncreati#e and comes
out of the a"sorption tower
&his stream of gas containing SO4, after necessar$ cooling is passed through the catal$tic con#erter and
column again achie#ing up to 99KL con#ersion of SO4 to SO@ and the gases are again passed through the final
a"sorption column thus resulting not onl$ achie#ing high con#ersion efficienc$ for SO4 "ut also ena"ling
production of higher concentration of sulfuric acid H4SO= the industrial production of sulfuric acid in#ol#es proper
control of temperatures and flow rates of the gases as "oth the con#ersion efficienc$ and a"sorption are
dependent on these
<"/ 6"TE<I"2,
Sulphur
*ir
6aterial of Construction
Co.
CO5 for cold o#er >>L E )S pipes and thanks
CO5 for hot a"o#e 9@L E Chemical cast iron
+Care should "e taken to a#oid thermal shock-
Hot CO5 +>> F 9@ L- E Si Fe composition +1= F 1: L Si, <KL C, <@: L )g-
+O*
3O5 >>L E P" pipe lines are used
Storage tankes for 3O5 E !ooden with P" lining
Small 3O5 ser#ice tankes E P" lined# )S
3O5 pumps and #al#es E 8egular metal containing D (1: L *ntimon$
Cooling 0#O
a *ll cooling pipe lines A pumps E )S or Cast Iron
" 8u""er joints are used for connecting pipes and pumps
Oils
a &he Oil storage tanks, pipes lines, and pumps are made of )S
" 5al#es are made of 0rass
21
,team
Steam pipe lines E )S
Steam &rapes E Cast Fe 0rass
C.O.V P!"#
Introduction: In the nitric acid concentration and waste acid denitration plants the sulfuric acid
fed into the still is remo#ed as D:(><L sulfuric acid +3O5- &his acid has to "e concentrated "efore it
can "e reused in the preparation of mi6ed acids for the nitration process and as acid for the
concentration of nitric acid, for these purpose sulfuric acid is re2uired at 9:(9DL strength +CO5-
+esign of the Plant: It is "ased on the restriction that such material should "e used which can
restrict the corrosi#e action of the acid at different concentrations and temperatures o"tained in passing
from cold D:(>< : acid to "oiling 9:(9DL acid again
6aterial of Construction
C.O.*
For cold CO5 mild steel is used
For hot CO5 cast iron is used *nd attempts are made to a#oid thermal shock
Sulphesto joints are used for pipe%s connections
+.O.*
Pipe lines are made up of lead
Storage tans are of wood lined with lead
Small 3O5 ser#ice tanks are lined with mild steel
Sulphesto joints are used for pipe%s connections
Cooling /ater
Cast iron or mild steel is used
8u""er joints are used for pipe%s connections
OI2
&ank and pipelines are made up of mild steel
,team
&anks and pipelines are made up of mild steel
8eneral Guilding ,tructural /ork
22
For all "uilding and furnace structure mild steel is
used
Outer furnace wall is of simple "ricks
Inside furnace pot cham"er and com"ustion
cham"er wall is of simple "ricks
0uilding floor is lined of acid resisting tiles
Furnace setting at top and "ottom has insulation
"rick lining
Capacit- of Plant: &he plant consist of K stills each still is designed to gi#e an output of 4: short
tons per da$ per unit of 9::L CO5 it can gi#e a slightl$ higher or lower output depending upon the
plant working condition
<.6 Feed: 8ecei#ed from concentration and denigration plant +Propellant C$cle- contain D>(>< L
sulfuric acid up to <:L nitro "od$ and <<1 L nitric acid France oil 4
nd
2ualit$ Oil shall "e petroleum
crude or residual petroleum distillate or shall distillate &he raw material re2uire for the a"o#e
production for each still pot are'(
CO5 ' 1@ ton C pot for initial start up
3O5 ' @D ton C da$ at D>L sulfuric acid
Furnace Oil ' =K< Gallons C da$
Colling !ater ' @D<,<<< gallons C da$ for the whole plant
Steam
Plant +escription: &he concentration process of 3O5 is descri"ed "elow'(
3O5 from the tank fed into the upper part of the dephlagometer along with CO5 #ia
rotameter or the piano "o6
From here the solution is transferred to the still where the heating takes place, the
solution is heated up to @4<(@=<C, at this point water e#aporates as a steam *"out
9:L of the sulfuric acid is remo#ed in the still
Continuous stirring +mechanicall$ dri#en- takes place to enhance the e#aporation
&he heat is pro#ided "$ the furnace "elow the still
&he sulfuric acid "ecomes concentrated as the water e#aporates and is collected in the
primar$ cooler +water cooled shell t$pe cooler-B her some of the heat is remo#ed from
hot sulfuric acid &he steam is remo#ed "$ steam ejectors
23
&he sulfuric acid will contain some impurities Some of the impurities will settle down at
the "ottom of the primar$ cooler in the slug "o6 from where the impurities are remo#ed
Pre(cooked sulfuric acid is transferred to secondar$ cooler +lead coil cooler- Here the
sulfuric acid is cooled to a"out is cooled to a"out @:C the remaining impurities will
settle down at the "ottom of the secondar$ cooler in the slug "o6 from where the
impurities are remo#ed &he sulfuric acid is 9>L pure
&he final product is then sent to storage tanks
Product ,pecification: CO5 make for mi6ed acid and concentration of nitric acid is 9:(9D: L
H4SO=, light in color and free from organic mater
DENITRATION $ CAN PLANT
C*/ stands for Concentrated /itric *cid
Introduction: In C*/ plant we use the !/* of concentration a"out :4L and impro#e up to
99L therefore, we can sa$ that this is the reco#er$ of C*/
<"/ 6aterial
Here separate feeding is done from /C/* plant !/* :4L is coming
CO5 9DL coming from waste of /itro Gl$cerin use as a feed and water is also used
Process +isciption: Steam M Feed 5apors 3istillation Condenser Cooler
+istillation: First of all feed is send to distillation column Here we use packed column Inside the
column there is a shell made of silicon &he remaining space "etween the inside and outside shell filled
with acid resistance material to a#oid the leakage &here is a packing material called 2uart? of different
si?es &he feed is con#erted into the #apors "$ means of steam and the distillation takes place &hen it
goes to the condenser and then to the cooler Here we get 99L C*/ after treatment in the column and
><L of 3O5 after the process then the "leaching of C*/ takes place "$ the air 7ncondensed #apors
of C*/ are sent to the a"sorption tower with the help of "lower after passing through the cooler From
uncondensed #apors after a"sorption we get !/* which is rec$cled *"sorption tower are in series
Condenser : Shell and tu"e condenser is used here Inside tu"e contains water and the outside
consist of acid &he efficienc$ of these towers a"out 9:L
24
Capacit-: &his plant production is 1< )etric ton C da$
ACID III
NAC-SAC PLANT
&he word /*C(S*C stands for /itric *cid Concentration and Sulphuric and Concentration
Introduction: In this plant, C*/ is reco#ered from !/* "$ using CO5 as a deh$drating agent
In this mechanism CO5 e6tracts some water present in !/* and "ecomes 3O5 &his plant in#ol#es
"asicall$ the unit operation not the unit process "ecause no chemical reaction is in#ol#ed in this plant
onl$ ph$sicall$ changes are in#ol#ed
Plant +esign: &his plant was designed "$ an .ngland compan$ of designers named ,0F &his
plant was esta"lished in 19K@(K=
O1Hecti.es: )ajor o"jecti#es of this plant is to reco#er 99L of higher concentration if /itric acid from
!/* :1 to :@L o"tained from C*/ plant

Capacit-: &his plant has a capacit$ for production @< metric ton C da$
<"/ 6aterial
1 !/*
4 4CO5
@ Steam
Famil- of Instruments: Following instrument are used in this process'(
0oiler
25
Heat .6changer
3istillation Column
Condenser
Preheated
0leacher
PROCESS DESCRIPTION
<ec-cling of CO*: In this process a fed containing :1L of !/* is stored into a tank *t start 9KL of
CO5 is taken which is circulated and water is mi6ed to get DKL of CO5 &hen this product is passed
through the heat e6changer in which temperature of CO5 is raised &his heated CO5 is used to heat up
the feed of !/*
Goiler : 0eat Exchanger: CO5 is passed through the "oiler which is at a temperature of 1D: F
1><C in heat e6changer Concentration of a CO5 "ecomes a"o#e ><L CO5 is then carried to the
"oiler "$ #acuum 5acuum is created to lower the "oiling point of water CO5 is then passed the heat
e6changer where its concentration is raised and we o"tain up to KKL of CO5
+istillation Column: &hen this heated CO5 is showered from the top of the distillation column
along with each /itric acid Steam is also introduced from the "ottom !/* is con#erted to the #apors
from which mo#e upward and send to the C4
Condenser and Preheater: From C4 we o"tain 9K(99L of our re2uired product &o o"tain this
re2uired product, li2uid !/* is showered form the o"oe ie in C4 and from the "ottom #apors of !/*
are introduced
Gleacher: *fter getting the final product, this product is sent to the "leacher where "leaching of
product is done "$ passing the air through the "leacher &he 2ualit$ of product depends upon the flow
rate of air &he air or steam used for "leaching purpose must "e supplied according to the presence of
the nitrogen dio6ide group
26
">oetrope T-pe +istillation: In this t$pe of process, a?oetrope t$pe distillation is used In this
process CO5 used as an third component Packed column distillation tower is used in this plant
containing K(9 segments and packing is of rashing rings &his t$pe of distillation is preferred "ecause in
this distillation contact time "etween the components increase
2a1orator- "nal-sis: Color of /itric acid is due to the presence of /O and /itor Group if there
is no /itor Group, there will "e no color Heat of solution is also produced in this process "ecause /itric
acid eliminates water "$ a"sor"ing heat on the other hand Sulphuric acid a"sor"s water "$ releasing
heat so the net effect is ?ero
G.C (GUN COTTON)
<aw 6aterial
Cotton
Chemicals
Caustic soda
/itric *cid
!ater
Process
&he raw cotton is inter in the industr$ with the help of #ehicles In the industr$ there are stages
for manufacturing of pure 8un Cotton.
/ashing: In the washing process there are four stages in#ol#e
!ashing "$ caustic soda
!ashing "$ kin
!ashing "$ Cooled !ater
!ashing "$ Hot !ater
In the first stage the cotton is washed in the 0lower In the 0lower, the solution of caustic soda
and /itric *cid the cotton is washed in "lower section some impurities is remo#ed
*fter then the cotton is send to kin in the cotton is washed with the help of steam *nd some
part of impurities is remo#ing &his process is for : hrs
27
&hen with the help of cool water the cotton is washed and then sent to another tank in this the
cooled water is rotting the cotton is send into this tank &he other some part of impurities will "e washed
or remo#ed
+r-ing ,ection: In the dr$ing section the two stages is in#ol#ed
3r$ing in rotator
3r$ing with the help of air
In the rotator the storage cotton is rotate and the one side the slop the water is mo#e to slop
side and the water is send to reco#er$ section and cotton is send to air section
In the second stage dr$er the cotton send to the storage and with the help of air the moisture
will "e remo#ed and send to nitration section
5itration: In nitration section the cotton is dipped in /itric acid for @< second *fter @< second the
cotton is remo#ed form nitric acid and send to mi6ed acid e6tractor &he acid is e6tract and then sends
to cool water mi6er
/ater 6ixer: &hen send to cooled water mi6er in cooled water mi6er the cooed water is mi6ed in the
cotton *fter mi6ed with water the cotton is con#erting into small pieces and send into rotator with the
help of #er$ small pipe of cast iron
<otator: In the rotator the small pieces are rotating for =K hrs when the mi6ed acid is good 2ualit$
otherwise the$ are rotate for D>(9K hrs *fter this section the small pieces is send to cooker
Cutting: In the cutting section the small pieces of the cotton is cutting more small pieces and then
add in the cutting section cooled water *fter this the$ are send to power section
Power ,ection: *fter cutting section the addition of water the cotton is con#erting into en?$me
form and then th$ are con#erting into power form *fter this the$ are send to storage room and then
the$ are send to re2uired plant 0efore the sending plant the some amount is send to li"rator$ for
anal$ses for checking the 2ualit$
,olution ;sed for *arious T-pe 5C:
0#,O= 50OA 50O# B 5#O
28
50C DF I #D I %% I
25C CJ I #D I %D I
8C D% I #D I %A I
258&0 CJ I #D I %D I
Temperature of 6ixed "cid:
05C #FC&#CC
25C #CC
25C&0 %DC
8C #FC ) ##C
5itration Time
05C AF min
25C =C min
25C&0 =C min
8C =F min
"cid to Cellulose <atio:
11<<kg of acid ' 4@kg of Cellulose
=< ' 1
29
CHEMICAL LAB
&here are si6 t$pes of la"s
1 Standard La"
4 8aw )aterial La"
@ Propellant La"
= High .6plosi#e La"
: Instrumental La"
1 ,tandard 2a1: In the standard la" gra#imetric anal$ses not instrumental anal$ses Some
t$pes of solution will "e made like /*OH 1 C 1<, /*OH 4C1< etc
4 <aw 6aterial 2a1: In the raw material la" different t$pes of raw material are appear in this
la" and these raw material are anal$ses in this la"
@ Propellant 2a1: In this la" different simple of the GC +Gun Power- and in this la" the$ are
anal$ses For e6ample'(
G>, G14, G4<, G=< etc
= 0igh Explosi.e 2a1: In this la" different test of the raw .6plosi#e sample For .6ample'
Oil L age
7psetting test
)oisture Content
Humid Storage test
3etonation &est
3rop hammer test
: Instrumental 2a1: &here are different t$pes of instrument are a#aila"le in instrumental la" of
e6plosi#e factor$ !ith the help of these instrument different test are doing Some instrument name are
listed
High pressure li2uid chromatograph
Call firer titration
Gas chromatograph
Spec to Photometer
Sta"ilit$ 0athe
0aum Calorimeter
*tomic *"sorption flame spectro photometer
30
Flam Photometer
)elting point apparatus
31