C. O.

Brawner, President, and

P. F. Stacey, Senior Engineer,
Golder Brawner & Associates Ltd.,
Vancouver, 8.C., and
8. Stark, Senior Mining Engineer,
Steep Rock lron Mines Ltd.,
Atikokan, Ontario
A Successful Application of
C. O. Brawner obtained a B.Sc. in
civil engineering from the University
of Manitoba in 1953 and an M.Sc.
from the Nova Scotia Technical Col-
lege in 1956, where he specialized in
soil rnechanics, foundations and geo-
logy. He spent 10 years with the B.C.
Department of Highways before go-
ing into consulting. In 1965, he be-
came a principal in Golder Brawner &
Associates.
Mr. Brawner has had extensive ex-
OPEN] Pitt M:N:NG
perience locally, nationally and internationally in land-
slides and stability, in mining, having been involved on
some 500 such problems. He is a former vice-chairman of
the Canadian Advisory Committee on Rock Mechanics, a
member of the National Research Council Associate Com-
mittee for Geotechnical Research and author of more
than 40 technical papers. He was selected as a supple-
mentary reporter at the Recent International Rock Mech-
anics Conference in Denver. He is co-editor of
"Stability
in Open Pit Mining" and "Geotechnical Practice for
Stability in Open Pit Mining."
Golder Brawner and Associates Ltd. were awarded, in
1973, an Award of Merit by the Association of Consult-
ing Engineers of Canada for their work in the stabiliza-
tion of the 35-million-ton slide at Asbestos,
Quebec,
one
of the largest landslides ever stabilized.
Abstract
The northutest wall of the Hogarth Pit ct Steep Roak
Iron M,ines Ltd. d.eoeloped signs of instabilitg. Follouing
a site
,inspection,
alternotioes of disconlinuing tnining in
the a,rea,
flatteruing
th,e pit slope or tnanitoring the rnooe-
ment during mirting were eualua,ted. Steep Rock ilecid,ed
to adopt a "mine-andtmonitor"
yrograrn. Tlvis paper out-
lines the monitori,ng that uas adopted and, describes the
succeas and. appli.coti,on of seoerol methoda. Mooements
are d.esc;ribecl and, operationol d,etaik are reoiewed.
Mining usas successfully completed in Morch 1975, utith
rnore dre than ontitipated being recooered. In early May
ol 7975, mouements commenced to accelerota. The
failure
which was preilictad to occur by a toppling mode occumed
on June 28 and was recorded on
film.
Finally, the poper descrtbee tlw program
lrom
the
mining aspect. Reasons
for
choosing the moruitoring ap-
proach are giaen and the effects of the reoised. mining
procedures are d,iscussed. The com,pony policy of continuaL
communication roith its emplogees played a large part in.
the success of the program, and the choica of pit creut
members to form the oisual guards had seaero'l ed,aan-
tages.
PART A
-
GEOTECHNICAL ASPECTS
By C. O. Brawner and P. F. Stacey
lntroduction
Tlus
p.lprR
describes the monitoring program de-
veloped to study movements in the highwall of the
Hogarth No. 1 Zone of the Steep Rock Mine at Atiko-
kan, Ontario. It forms a case history of a successful
monitoring program which permitted removal of the
recoverable ore reserves from that area of the mine,
while at the same time providing control of safety for
the operating crews.
The suceess of the program was enhanced by the
effective communication between the stability con-
sultant and the company, and the company and its em-
ployees, and the use, where possible, of all levels of
company personnel in the program. The aim through-
out was to provide a workable program for the prac-
tical problem of the safety of the mine crews.
Hogarth No. 1 Zone
The Steep Rock ore zone is composed of a goethitic,
soft iron ore horizon, which dips steeply to the west.
It is overlain by ash rock and underlain by paint rock
and carbonate. The total Steep Rock Complex is divided
by regional faults into three major sections, each of
which originally outcropped under an arm of Steep
Rock Lake.
The section of the orebody currently mined by Steep
Rock Iron Mines Ltd. is termed the Middle Arm Ore-
body, referring to its respective arm of the lake. This
orebody is separated into several sections by faulting
and folding. The major divisions, from south to north,
are termed the Errington Zone, the Roberts Zone and.
Peter F. Stacey received his B.Sc.
degree in geology from the Univer-
sity of Exeter, England, and a D.I.C.
in mineral exploration from the Royal
School of Mines. London.
From 1964-1968, he was a geologist
with the Swedish Geological Survey.
In 1968, he joined
the Iron Ore Com-
pany of Canada as a geologist and
later became supervisor of geotech-
nical engineering. In 1974, he
joined
Golder Brawner & Associates, Van-
couver, as a mine geotechnical
and stability engineer.
During t!9
nast
two years, Mr. Stacey has beLn involved
on co-Ilsulting-assrgnnrents on over 50 projects locally, na-
tionally and internationally.
Robert O. Stark was born and raised
in Eastern Canada in the Ottawa
valley area. He worked as a nrining
engineer at the Hilton Mine, Shaw-
ville,
Quebec,
and the Griffith Mine,
Red Lake, Ontario, before
joining
Steep Rock Iron Mines Limited in
1969.
He is currently senior mining en-
gineer at Steep Rock and is respon-
sible for all aspects of pit design, con-
trol and wall stability.
Mr. Stark is a member of the CIM and the Association
of Professional Engineers of the Province of Ontario.
Keywords: Open-pit mining, Pitwall movement, Steep
Rock Iron Mines, Hogarth Pit, Monitoring, Slope stabiliza-
tion, Rock mechanics.
the Hogarth Zone. At the north end of the Hogarth
Zone the ore terminates against the Bartley Fault,
which strikes northeast and dips to the southeast at
85 degrees. Northwest of the fault, the original lake
shore was formed by a steep 300-ft-high wall com-
prised of a hornblende-biotite metadiorite.
The diorite contains sheared basic dykes which
parallel the fault. It also contains two well-developed
vertical
joint sets which strike, respectively,
parallel
to and perpendicular to the major fault direction. It
was these
joint sets whieh controlled the development
of the pre-mining lake shore, and which also controlled
the failure to be described. The eniire failure was re-
strictcd to the diorite highwall, although the monitor-
ing program covered the possibility of the onset of
fsilurc in the iron formation below.
The cresL of the pit in the area of movement was
covered by loose blocks from the excavation of a cut
for the railway line to the pellet plant. This line runs
approximately 150 ft behind the movement area. The
loose blocks caused initial problems in locating cracks,
and subsequently added to the difficulty of traversing
the area.
A plan of the Hogarth No. I Zone is shown in Figure
1 and an air photo of the highwall is shou'n in
Figure 2.
Onset of Failure
A crack behind the crest of the diorite highwall was
first noticed in October 1973 and became the subject
of weekly observation. Further signs of instability
developed in April 19?4, when an attempt was made
to access the foot of the diorite wall at the 975 level
on a berm containing the Bartley Fault outcrop. This
level approximates the ore outcrop below the original
lake floor. A small blast on the hanging-wall side of
the berm resultecl in the failure of a small wedge of
rliorite bounded by vertical
joints. Talus spilled over
the ore berm and down the iron formation face below.
As a result of the crack on the crest opening and
extending, the eompany installed a simple monitoring
pin system, which was read on a daily basis-
In mid-August of 1974, a second crack was noticed,
approximately 150 ft behind the crest, when craters
appeared in the debris from the rock cut' At this point,
ihe pin monitors were supplemented by triangulation
stati<lns and three elementary wire extensometers con-
structed of drill steel and clothes line. On August 20,
movements increased after a period of heavy rain. At
this point, the advice of Golder Brawner & Associates,
consulting mine stability engineers, was sought.
Review of Alternatives
It was apparent that a serious slope instability situa-
tion was developing. Aecordingly, a temporary halt
lvas called to mining operations in the No. 1 Zone
while the movements were reviewed. To reduce vib-
ration forces due to the trains, a 5-mph'SIow Order
was ordered on the track behind the highwall.
The review indicated movement involving between
200,000 and 250,000 cu.yds of diorite. The safest
pro-
cedure rvould have been to discontinue mining in the
area. Horvever, because the Hogarth No. 1 Zone was
the only major short-term source of ore, two altern-
atives which would allow ore production were eonsi-
deted. Attempts
could be made to fail the slope by
flooding the cracks,
or blasting, after which the ore
CIM Bulletin. APril. 1976

FIGUBE
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-
Schematic Plan of the Hogarth No. 1 Zone.
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FIGURE 2
-
Air
photo
of the Hogarth No. 1 zone. highwall
*tieiu-rorement'developed.
Photb taken S-eptember 1974.
The dashed line shows the general outline ot the movement
iiine, *iit tte railway behint. The arrow
points to the guard
observation shack.
could be mined following a delay for clean-up of the
debris; or a ecmprehensive monitoring system could
be installed to provide sufficient warning of potentia!
failure to the pit crews vrorking below for them to be
removed
prior to major failure. The former course
carried .ritt it the risk of only
partial failure, possibly
r:esulting in a less stable slope which would terminate
all mining activities. The latter course was felt to be
a safe afproach, because geologic evidence, existing
movemenl data and the author's
past experience
(Brag,ner, 1968, 19?0(a), 19?0(b), 1971, 1974) indi-
cated that a "toppling"
mode of movement would be
expected which would
give ample warning of failure in
the form of ravelling and an increasing rate of move-
ment. This, combined with the requirement to main-
tain committed
pellet shipments, influenced the com-
pany's decision.
09
HOCARTH
PIT
To assess whether cleft water pressures may be con-
tributing to instability, a
piezometer was installed in
a hole drilled from behind the crest. This indicated
that there was no water in the diorite behind the toe
at the 975-ft level. This hole remained dry until the
standpipe was finally sheared by movenient along the
back crack.
Monitoring System
When the decision was made to go ahead with a
mining and monitoring approach, the monitoring sys-
tem established by Steep Rock staff was expanded to
include 7 additional pin monitors (Fig. 3), 7 additional
wire extensometers mounted on tripods
(Fig. 4) and
an increased number of triangulation stations. The
wire extensometers were tensioned with 40lb weights
so that wind, contact u'ith bushes, etc. urculd not in-
fluence readings.
The results of the monitoring of the 14 triangula-
tion stations aonfirmed a "toppling" mode of failure,
with essentially horizontal movement of the crest
toward the east-northeast, and negligible movement at
the diorite or iron formation toes. Daily triangulation
by the pit survey crew proved to be both slow and
impractical as a long-term program. Therefore, it was
decided to use a laser Electronic Distance Measuring
device (EDM) (Fig. 5), sighting across the pit along
the approximate line of movement. It should be noted
that even if the line of sight is off line of the direc-
tion of movement by as much as 45 degrees, the scale
of the time-movement graph is only reduced by about
30 per cent an,il warning of impending instability is
still readily available. Initially, 10 EDM reflector
prisms were installed on the crest, on the 975-ft berm
and on the iron formation face. Figure 6 shorvs typical
EDM data, which confirmed the toppling mechanism.
This general system remained in operation until the
completion of mining, with three more prisms being
added on the 712 bench. The EDM monitoring u'as
supplemented by periodic triangular surveys to obtain
3-dimensional vectors of movement.
In addition to the over-all "remote" EDM-triangula-
tion monitoring system, the movement of major in-
dividual blocks within the mass was monitored on a
daily basis by the network of extensometers. Limit
switches connected to a warning system involving
sirens and flashing lights were attached to strategic
lines. A light on the tripod indicated that power was
on and that the switch had not been operated-
Throughout the mining operation the limit switches
were set for a predetermined movement and were ad-
justed
daily. Prior to the onset of winter conditions
this tolerance was
7e
inch.
At a later date, at the request of second-opinion
consultants employed by the Ontario Department of
Mines; 12 extensometers equipped with limit switches
and a micro seismograph were added.
During the initial stages of the monitoring program,
the movements on the two major cracks were raoni-
tored at 7 individual points using a 3-pin system.
However, by mid-winter the movement at several
points had made this operation too dangerous to con-
tinue.
An extremely important element of the monitoring
system was a 24-hour visual guard by pit crew mem-
bers. A heated shack was installed on the 1050 bench
of the hanging wall. Two
guards per stift had a com-
prehensive vierv of the face of the highwall as well as
the warning lights and sirens. Radio and visual contact
was maintained with the crews working in the pit
belou'. This included an hourly radio check with each
drill and shovel in the area. All events noted by the
guards were recorded in a logbook, which was initialled
daily by the mine superintendent and by the Golder
Brawner representative. Based on past experience, it
was envisioned that any major failure would be pre-
ceded by the ravelling of rock blocks too small to be
detected by the monitoring system, and the guards
were intended as the first line of warning to the pit
FIGURE 3
-
Pin monitor points used to
measure horizontal and vertical compo-
nents of movement across the cracks.
FIGURE 4-Tripod movement gauges.
The wires were connected to tripods
beyond the cracks. Limit switches were
incorporated in the system and set to
trigger flashing lights and sirens if the
movement exceeded pre-set limits.
Ihe wires were tensioned with 40-lb
weights.
FIGURE 5-Electronic direct distance
measuring unit measuring the distance
to mirror reflection points placed on
the rock face. This unit has an accuracy
of about 0.5 cm, which is sufficient for
mine stability monitoring purposes.
crervs. The rate of ravelling of a slope usually in-
creases as failure aPProaches.
A Kinemetrics VRl/SSl seismograph system was
ordered by the Department of Mines. This was iu-
stalled in December. The seismograph head was in-
stalled in the center of the failure area, and the remote
drum recorder was located in the guard shack.
The daily monitor reading and compilation were
performed by a Golder Brawner field engineer, who
ieported the results to the Steep Rock senior engineer
and to Vancouver by Telex. Movement plots were
posted daily in the Mine DrY room.
In summary, the system installed covered ell levels
of monitoring from the EDM direct measurement
gys-
tem anC triangulation vectorial system, through the
extensomeiers, which monitored major blocks within
the mass, down to the visual watch for the failure of
small pieces. Operational characteristics of each of
the monitoring systems and the selection and psy-
chological effect rf the guards are discussed later.
Mining Sequence
The monitoring system was complemented by a
planned mining sequence. At the toe of the highwall,
a 40-ft-wide berm with a rock pile was left on the
?12 level. This berm was intended to catch ravelling
rock. A more desirable wider berm would have greatly
reduced ore reserves in the zone. Below the 750 level'
over-all slopes in the iron formation were designed at
40 degrees instead of the usual 4212 degrees.
Prior to the mining of each bench, a l00-ft-wide slot
rras drilled, blasted and mined along the foot- or
hanging-wall contact of the ore up to the ploposed
highwall toe. At the same time, a l00-ft-wide zone was
drilled off along the base of the highwall'
perpen-
dicular to the slot. The holes in the zone had a maxi-
mum loading of 1,200 lbs of explosive
per delay and
were fired into the slot. This approach was aimed
at reducing the exposure of men and machines by re-
lieving any stress in the toe and/or initiating any un-
heraided failure while the operating equipment was
still rvell back from the highwall. For want of a better
rvord, the procedure rvas termed "de-stressing".
At the same time, a "green line" was defined 300 ft
from the highwall toe on each bench. This line, which
was indicated in the field, became highly revered by
the mining crews. It formed an inner boundary for
all night-time and bad-weather operations. Further,
no operations were permitted within the green line
for 48 hours after a de-stressing blast and for 12
hours after a production blast. It is interesting to note
that when the slope failed, little, if any, material
passed this line.
It was recognized that time was an important factor.
Accordingly, a series of six high-pewt-ed lights a'ere
instaiie,l to illuminate the entire face, therebl' provid-
ing conditions under which the initial daytime opera-
tions could be safely extended to a Z4-hour basis. This
move was not accepted by the union, even though they
were advised that the longer mining period resulting
from single-shift operation increased the danger.
Movements in the
September
- January Period
The "toppling" movement pattern established in
early Sellternber t'ontinued until early January. Move-
Cllr,| Bullctin Anril 1976
Bortlcy
Fouli
FIGUBE 6: Schematic drawing showing much greater
l,oiiiontal-movement at the top-of the slope than at the
bottom, confirming the toppling mechanism.
ment rvas restricted to the diorite above the ore berm,
with the two sets of vertical cracks opening up and
propagating downward. A small "wedge"
on the east
side of the main mass showed more rapid movement,
and on several occasions loose material was scaled
from this area by Steep Rock scaling crews.
The extensometer and EDIVI data showed that there
rvere periods of constant movement separated by
periocli of more accelerated movement. The accelera-
lion of movement appeared to correlate with heavy
rairtfall, with a time lag in the order of 1 day. It is
not certain u'hat influence blasting had as a contri-
buting effect.
The triangulation surveys showed an interesting
vectorial
picture. The material between the face and
the original "front" crack showed a horizontal:ver-
tical movement ratio in excess of 3:1, with no appre-
ciable movement at the toe, indicating toppling of
this block. The bloek between the front and back
cracks showed a. horizontal:vertical movement ratio of
nppioxrmately 1:1, indicating an outward slumping
Ulfrina the front block. Monitoring of survey stations
on the 9?5 ore berm and iron formation face belorv
indicated only minor rnovement.
All major movement continued to be on an east-
northeasterly azimuth, i.e. in the
general direction of
the EDM unit.
Winter Monitoring
On January 9, prolonged sub-freezing winter condi-
tions commeneed with a blizzatd. These conditions
generally persisted until aftel March 10, when mining
was completed.


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Formotion
Schemolic Only
The sub-freezing conditions required variations in
the monitoring techniques. Rapid temperature fluc-
tuations from *30oF
to
-20'F
over a few hours
would result in rapid contraction of the extensometer
wires by as much as
/6
inch, with resultant tripping
of the alarm system. The maximum daily
permissible
movement on an extensometer limit switch was there-
fore increased to 1 inch to accommodate this phenom-
enon.
During extremely cold conditions, the EDM readings
across the pit were affected by the temperature
gra-
dients developed in the air. As a result, there could be
a difference of 2 cm between a reading made in the
early morning and one taken in the late afternoon,
particularly on still, clear days. This problem was
overcome
partially by referencing measurements to a
stable station on the crest of the railway cui.
Blizzards or poor visibility resulted in the tem-
porary cessation of operations, and later the onset
of thawing conditions resulted in a mandatory with-
drawal behind the "green line"'
Snow made negotiation of the boulders and cracks
on top of the movement area a treacherous operation.
Accordingly, the cross-crack
pin measurements were
halted. By the time the snow had melted, many of the
cracks were too wide to measure safely.
Contemporaneously with the onset of permanent
sub-freezing conditions, major movement essentially
ceased. Failure was still restricted to the area in front
of the original back crack, and the main mass was now
divided into a series of slabs by the opening of ver-
tical fractures.
Although daily movement detectable by the exten-
someters and EDM
generally ceased, and variations in
the triangulation survey data were
generally within
the limits of accuracy, there was evidence that the
slope was still active. Water vapour was emitted from
the major cracks, particularly in cold weather. During
the night shift, when no equipment was operating in
the zone, occasional small movement signatures ap-
peared on the seismograph trace. In the daytime, how-
ever, seismic indications of this type were masked
by mine equipment signatures, so that warning was
not available from the seismic instrumentation. This
confirms the experience of Kennedy
(L972) on the
practical limitations of the seismic monitoring tech-
nique.
Much of the movement in this period was restricted
to a slight opening of the forward cracks on the face,
and later to the occasional loosening of debris on the
slope by freeze-thaw action.
Conrpletion of Mining
The planned ultimate depth of the No. I Zone at
the 600 level was reached in late February. With move-
ment on the highwall negligible, and horizontal drain
holes drilled into the face indicating no water within 50
ft, timit equilibrium analyses were performed on the
iron formation to assess the effect of taking an addi-
tional lift. The analyses showed only a minor influence
on the Factor of Safety. Accordingly, an additional 20-
ft bench was mined. At the completion of this level,
there was
just
suffieient width of ore exposed in the
floor to make an additional 2O-ft-deep scram or rob
cut feasible.
With continuous monitoring, the scram was drilled
up to the toe of the previous bench and fired in one
blast using a maximum loading of 1,200 lbs/delay.
72
FIGURE 7-Hogarth No. 1 Zone-"J" monitors total dis'
placement history.
An intensified monitoring system involving daily
triangulation of four critical stations, twice-daily ex-
tensometer readings and three daily EDM surveys
was instituted, and, after a delay of 48 hours during
which no movement was detected, mining recom-
menced.
It was
planned to drill a series of exploration holes
from the floor of the Hogarth Zone on the footwall
side. The original plan to mine in at 40-degree llopes
on all sides and double-bench on the way out for maxi-
mum ore recovery was modified to include double-
benching on the hanging-wall and highwall faces only.
Mining of the scram cut to the 560 level was com-
pleted on March 10. In total, 970,000 tons of ore were
iecovered from the Hogarth No. 1 Zone, compared
with an original estimate of 933,000 tons, in spite of
an ore loss on the footwall side. Part of this gain was
due to the mining of the two additional 20-ft benches.
Movements in March
-
Failure
Two programs of highwall monitoring were estab-
lished after completion of mining
-
one to cover drill-
ing in the No. 1 Zone and a second aimed at monitor-
ing for movements which could affect the safety of
the railway.
Drilling started immediately after completion of
mining operations, but shortly thereafter the onset of

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FIGUBE
B-Sequence
photographs of failure-June 23' 1975.
(a) 9:00
p.m.
-
Blcck has commenced toppling, with over (Q).9:t5
p.m.
-
Horizontal movement has reached about
30 feet of horizontal movement and 4 feet of ve[tical move-
75 teet.
ment.
(c) Seconds after photo (b)
'"vas
taken, the block toppled.
permanent thawing conditions, with resuitant ravel-
Iing and small failurcs in the ash rock, led to the tem-
porary removal of the drill to a safer location.
B]' early May, weekly readings of the extensometers
and monthly triangulation of 12 selected survey points
bt' Steep Rock personnel indica.ted a marked increase
in movement on the highwall. This coincided rvith a
heavy rainfall. Increased aetivity was also noted on
the seismograph. The movement followed the original
pattern, with the vertical fractures opening from the
top in a toppling mode and the back b)ock slumping
behind the front block.
On May 21, a slab from the front of the main mass,
about 100 cu. yds in size, failed. Most of the material
from this failure rvas caught on the 975 ore berm,
none of it reaching the pit floor. This failure was pre-
ceded by minor ravelling, and it u'as followed by ac-
celerating movement, accompanied by increased seismic
activity and constant ravelling, particulariy from the
wedge area.
On June 10, the wedge failed, involving several hun-
dred cu. yds; this'was follou,ed on June 11 by another
section flom the front of the main mass. By this time,
both the 975 ore berm and the catch berm at the TtZ
level rvere choked with debris, and large amounts of
material started to leach the pit floor.
As movement continued, both sets of
joints
opened
to divide the mass into a series of vertical columns.
The over'-all
pattern still remained in that the front
columns tof,pled foru,ai'd while the back columns tipped
forward and slumped. Most of the extensometers and
EDM targets were destroyed in the periotl fiom June
CIM Bulletin, APril, 1976
(dl The face as exposed the morning aFteF the faa ure.
10 to ll, but immediately prior to this date extenso\
meters and laser targets in the center of the mass
were recording movements in excess of l ft/day(Fig.
7).Onv une 23,5 hours before failure,a triangulation
point on the front of the old front crackA vas measured
and revealed a cumulative movement of 30.5 feet hori\
zontany and 4.8 feet vertically since August 1974.
Heavy rainfan on June 20 induced reneA ved activity,
and by June 23 the faceA vas showing signs of major
distress.The remaining mass was keyed in by a block
on the west side. This was seen to be cracking badly,
and ravening Avas generally over the whole face. At
9:00 p.m., the back mass slumped, pushing out the
front coltlmnE s. Finany, at 9115 p.m., the remaining
material failed in three portions conllnencing in the
east. The largest, Avesternmost colullnn failed in a ty\
pical toppling mode, Avhereas the remainder broke up
and ravenedB (see Figure 8 for failure\
sequence pho\
tos.)
'rhe reslllts during the final days prior to failure
indicated that even if failure had occurredA vhile the
mining operatiOns were still in progress,the monitor\
ing systems A vould have given ample R varning. Thus,
the decision to proceed A vith the lrnining under a
controlled monitOring system was justified.Also,the
instrumentation initially installed during August
proved totaHy adequate and the time delay and mine
shutdoA vn period required for additional instrumenta\
t,on installation proved to be unA varranted.
Finally,the choice of a 300-ft``green line"was con\
firmed,because little,if any,material extended beyond
tlle marks remaining on the benches in the iron for\
mation.
PART B-MINING ASPECTS
By R. Stork
The decision to strip and mine the No. 1 Zone of
the Hogarth Pit was not made until August, 1973.
An expansion into the No. 7 Zone was not included
in the original planning, because the stripping ratio
was fairly high and the ore zone was not as well ex-
plored as the other three zones of the pit. In addition'
a hanging-wall failure immediately adjacent to the
hishwall had terminated mining 14 years previously,
thereby making stripping much more difficult.
However, because of a shortfall in net excavation in
1972, the decision was made to strip and mine the area
as part of the Hogarth pit design. Stripping in the
No. 1 Zone began in September, 1973.
A crack had been detected as early as October, 1973
along the north wall of the No. 1 Zone of the Hogarth
Pit, outside the planned pit limits. Movement along
the crack was not detected, however, until April of
19?4. Movement was of a minor nature and was not
expected to have any adverse effects on the stripping
and mining operation. In early August, when the
stripping program was almost completed and the
mining program was
just
beginning, movement ac-
celerated. The ore obtained from the mining program
was required within two months to maintain a conti-
nual supply of ore to the pellet plant. In achieving this
goal, the safety of men and equipment working in the
area had to be assured.
Steep Rock Iron Mines personnel have had consi-
derable experience in dealing with wall stability prob-
Iems, mainly associated with the hanging-wall ashrock
and footwall paint rock. However, because of inex-
perience in the diorite, and the tight mining schedule
at that time, the decision was made to consult an en-
gineering group who had experience in this type of
stability problem. Golder Brawner & Associates were
approached becattse of their diversified mine stability
experience and professional reputation throughout
the world.
Golder Brawner personnel suggested two ways of
dealing with the problem. These were:
(a) to induce a failure, clean it up and resume mining;
(b) to conti-nue to mine, after instituting a detailed
movement monitoring system.
Two methods of inducing failure were considered.
The first rvas to drill a series of diagonal holes under
the area and blast them, thereby unloading the slope.
The second was to flood the cracks with water.
The system of drilling diagonal holes would be dif-
ficult. The holes would be expensive to drill and con-
siderable time would be required to complete the
l)rogram.
Of
greater importance was the fact that
the cracks were opening continuously, and it would be
extremely difficult, in the short time available, to
complete the holes.
If the alternate method of flooding the area was
used, approximately one month would be required
to remove the failed material from the pit bottom.
Costs over and above the extra cost to remove the
failed material would be incurred in handling the large
blocks of rock normally associated with wall failure,
and in cleaning up the water afterwards.
If the failure did not occur when the area was
flooded, it was reasonable to assume that the wall
would be stable and would probably not fail for some
time. However, if only a partial failure oceurred, the
situation would be worsened rather than solved.
Because of the unknown factors associated with
74
failure induction; and the assurance that advance
warning of any impending failure could be obtained,
the decision was made to 'monitor and mine.' There
were limitations on this solution, as mining would be
governed on the basis of monitoring results and day-
light hours only. It was estimated that mining in this
manner would still provide adequate ore to assure a
continual supply of ore to the pellet plant. Should
movement increase and a failure occur, it was anti-
cipated that the clean-up could be completed and min-
ing resumed witfi l,ittle or no disruption in the pellet-
plant operation.
The decision to monitor and mine was made on the
basis that it was the most reliable system which could
be adopted to achieve a continual ore supply to the
plant.
Considering the economics involved, the decision was
also the best alternative. The actual cost of monitoring
the wall, including a resident Golder representative
and two guards full time, was
$163,300.
The breakdown
of this total is
$23,700
for diamond drilling,
$63,300
for consultant fees and
$76,300
for operating costs,
including the cost of monitor installations, guards, etc.
This cost was well below the estimated cost of the
other alternatives.
Restriction of Mining Sequence
The mining sequence, as recommended by Golder
Brawner, had some adverse effects on the mining
program in one zone.
First of all, the slot-type approach limited mining
to one shovel earlier in the program than was anti-
cipated. Because of the confined area, a two-shovel
operation was not very effective under normal eir-
cumstances.
The de-stressing blast limit of 1,200 lbs per delay
necessitated a very low powder factor for the material
against the wall. As a result, the material was not lvell
broken and tough digging conditions were experienced.
The 48-hour waiting period after the de-stressing
blast delayed the mining program to some extent, par-
ticularly near the end. On the wider benches, sufficient
material could be left outside the 300-ft limit to ac-
commodate the shovel during these periods. When the
benches became narrotver, however, this flexibility
was lost.
It was obvious, after the program was completed,
that the mining sequences recommended by Golder
Brawner were not only
justified,
but well thought out.
Although it delayed the mining
program to some
extent, it is felt that it was a major factor contribtr-
ting to the successful completion of the program.
Restriction on Night-Time Operation
The restriction to daylight operation only was in-
itiated originally because the visual monitoring could
not be carried out at night time. It was recognized,
horvever, that we vrere dealing with a moving mass
and that failure rvould occur with time. It was the
opinion of all the consultants that we should complete
the mining as quickly as possible so that we would be
out of the area in the shortest possible time. The day-
light-only restriction would result in lengthening the
time involved in completing the program and also
result in many lost equipment hours and an over-all
inefficient mining operation. Steep Rock personnel
installed a system of metal Hilite lamps to illuminate
the rvall so that mining could be carried out on a 24-
hour basis. Six 1500-watt lamps were used and were
positioned so that the entire wall would be illuminated.
Golder personnel inspected the area after installation
and agreed that the lighting was adequate to monitor
the wall visually and to operate on a 24-hour basis.
The plan was explained to a delegation from the
union, who visited the wall at night to inspect the
lishting. They decided to take the request back to the
members, and the majority of the membership voted
not to work in the area at night time. As a result, min-
ing inside the "green line" (300-foot limit) was car-
ried out during daylight hours only to the end of the
program.
Of all the restrictions imposed, this decision had the
greatest economic impact. An estimate of 600,000 cubic
yards of net excavation was lost throughout the opera-
tion because of the inefficient use of equipment re-
sulting from the restricted operation in the Zone. It
was necessary to use the largest shovel on the property
in the No. 1 Zone because of its dependability and its
elevated cab. Consequently, the shovel could not be'
used elsewhere and was idle during the night time,
i.e. for 15 hours per day. In terms of direct cost
dollars, it is diffieult to put a value on it. Indirect
costs resulting from the 600,000-cu.yd shortfall would
be significantly higher than the direct costs, when the
long-term ore supply outlook is considered.
Union lnvolvement
Steep Rock Iron Mines Limited have established a
policy
over the years of keeping all employees informed
continually of any changes or decisions which affect
them directly or indirectly. This information is pre-
sented to them on the
job
by supervisors, b1' technical
people and through their union.
Because of the seriousness of the situation, an
even greater emphasis vi,as placed on following this
policy in all aspects of the No. I Zone problem. When
the wall movement initialll' accelerated in August
1974, and mining in the al'ea was temporarily sus-
pended, the union representatives wel'e notified and
the situation was explained to them.
Golder Brau'ner & Associates completed their evalua-
tion and the monitoring system was installed. When
the recommendations were all met, the union executive
attended a briefing session with the company and
Golder Brawner's representatives. Subsequently, all
open-pit employees on each shift were briefed on the
monitorirlg and mining systent. One union member
s'as selected daily as a guald to visually inspect the
rvall. At the request of the union, a second guard was
added to each shift to reduce the monotony and to
improve the visual inspection by allowing the guards
to spcll each other off after various time periods.
To further infcrm the employees, the motritor results
rvere posted daily on the bulletin board in the Mine
Dr-v area. Comnrents were also added to explain any
abnormal movement recorded. The top of the wall
rvas also inspected daily by the scalers, and their com-
ments were posted on a blackboard in the Dry area.
Considering all aspects of the No. I Zone problem
and subsequent solutions, we are convinced that the
policy of keeping all employees informed is *'ell worth-
u,hile. We feel that our emphasis on communications
has paid off with better employee relations, better
union-management relations and a greater desire on
the part of mosl em;rloyees to complete the
job
success-
f ully.
CIM Bulletin, April, 1976
Ghoice of Personnel as Wall Guards
The decision to use hourly rated employees as guards
on the wall had an interesting psychological
effect on
those working in the area.
As mentioned previously, two guards were selected
from each shift. However, the guard
duties were ro-
tated so that most employees working in the area took
their turn. Only one guard was changed each day, so
that at least one of the guards had experience at all
times.
There were three advantages in using hourly rated
personnel and rotating them. First of all, monotony
was not a problem, because of the rotation. Secondly,
we created a situation whereby hourly employees were
taking responsibility, to some extent, for the safety
of their fellow lvorkers. Thirdly, most employees had
the opportunity to experience the difficulties and re-
sponsibilities of those guarding. This gave each of
them a better appreciation of what was going on.
Steep Rock management was concerned about factors
which could affect the efficiency of the guards. Most
of the guarding was reguired in winter weather, and
there was a tendency to keep the window closed,
thereby eliminating sound as a monitoring tool. A
light was required in the shack, but it had a tendency
to cut down on the effectiveness of visual monitoring.
It also allowed the guards to read, which had an ad-
verse affect because their eyes had to adjust to the
distance change. The installation in the guard shack
of the seismograph recorder had both positive and
negative effects on the guards. The fact that it was
located there gave the men more confidence that any
indication of movement would be noticed immediately.
I'Iovyever, there was a tendency for the guards to
lvatch the recorder rather than the wall, thus reducing
the visual monitoling. The seismograph rvas not meant
to replace, in any rvay, the visual monitoring system.
Acknowledgments
The authols wish to thank the management of Steep
Rock Iron Mines Ltd., both for their support and read-
iness to assist throughout the program and for their
permission to publish this paper.
The advice and assistance of many members of the
Golder Brawner organization is also acknowledged. In
particular', the perseverance of the engineers who acted
as field men is gratefully appreciated.
Finall-v. thanks are due to many members of the
Steep Rock staff for their cooperation and assistance.
References
Brawner, C. O., (1968): The Three Major Problems
in Rock Slope Stability in Canada. Second Intana-
tional Conference on Surface Mining, Minneapolis.
Brawner, C. O., and Gilchrist, H. G., (19?0a) : Case
Studies of Rock Slope Stability on Mining Projects.
Eighth Annual Syrnposiunr on Engineering Geology
and Soil Engineering, Pocatello, Idaho.
Brawner, C. O.,
(1970b): Stability Investigations of
Rock Slopes in Canadian Mining Projects. Second
International Rock Mechanics Conference, Belgrade,
Yugoslavia.
Brawner, C. O., (1971): Case Studies of Stability on
Mining Projects. Stability in Open Pit Mining, AIME,
New York.
Bralner, C. O., (1974) : Rock Mechanics in Open Pit
Mining. Supplementary Report, Theme Three
-
Sur-
face Workings, Proc. 3rd Int. Conf. on Rock Mechan-
ics, Denver.
Kennedy, B. A., (19?l): Methods of MonitorinB Open
Pit Slopes. Fr,:,:eedir.r',;,'lhirteenth Symposium on
Rock Mechanlcs, IJrl.urra, lilinois.
Open-Pit
Dewatering at Pine Point
Some Practical Aspects of
Blchard l. J. Vogwill, Hydrogeologist,
Groundwater Division,
Alberta Research Councll,
Edmonton, Alberta
Abstract
Oocn-dt d.euaterins at Pine Point Mines Limited has
proireaied. satisfactoiila to date, but it utill be a
fairly
iomplex
problem anil major erpense in th.e
fuhtre
due to
oarfiing grotmil-water conditions and the'increasa in d,eeper
dew otertn g r e qui:r ements.
A ganoial d.escription anil historg of all
facets 9t
opery-
pit iliutatering is incluiled., and possible
futttt'a
problems in
icheilding d.ebatering, deep deiatering design and' mining
are d,iscu,ssed,.
Th.e economics of open-pit deuatering are d,iscu,ssed and
it is'conclud,eiL that ihe wstem
now used will cont'i,nue to
be satisfactorA if : (1) gloups of prorimal orebodi.es are
rnbwa and d,eiatered, simultaneously; and (2) the optional
use of sump
pumps continues,
Beiause
-of
high dewo'tering costs and. luryttgd poyey
supplg, it i.s conciuded that, in-fukre year.s, mining sched.-
ulii ,iid.
forecasts
mag be deteimined entirelg by open-pit
d etn aterin g r e quir ements.
lntroduction
LOCAT]ON AND HISTORY
PrNn PoINr MINrs Llttlttpo is located in the North-
west Territories of Canada, approximately 700 road
miles north of Edmonton, Alberta, 6 miles south of
Great Slave Lake and 60 miles east of Hay River.
Ore production began in 1964. Due to the fact that
several projected and operating
pits had ore occur-
rences beneath the water table, perimeter dewatering
systems were initiated by Pine Point Mines Limited
on the advice of Leggette, Brashears and Graham of
New York. Perimeter dewatering systems have proved
to be successful at all ore occurrences mined to date.
TOPOGRAPHY
The land is flat and swampy, with a gentle north-
westerly slope toward the southern shore of Great
Slave Lake. The elevation at the townsite is approxim-
ately ?00 feet above mean sea level (amsl) and Great
Richard t. J. Vogwill received a B.Sc. in geology from the
University of Biitish Columbia in 1967 and an M.Sc. in
hydrogeology from University College, University of
London, England, in 1968,
After three years with Cominco Ltd. as geologist in
charge of open-pit dewatering at Pine Point Mines,- he
worked for three years in Western Australia on various
groundwater projects with the State Government and a
hydrogeological consulting firm.
-iVtr.-Vogwilt
has been alydrogeologist with the Ground-
water Division of the Alberta Research Council since May
of 1974.
Keywords: Open-pit mining, Dewatering, Pine Point Mines,
Drawdown contours, Purnping, Transmissivity, Storage
coefficients, Caliper logs, Neutron logs.
Slave Lake is :t515 feet amsl. This vertical drop takes
place over approximately 6 miles.
Swamp, muskeg and low gravel ridges (represent-
ing old lake beaches) are the main topographic fea-
tures,
General Geology and Hydrogeology
GENERAL GEOLOGY
The ore deposits of the Pine Point area are closely
associated with a Devonian barrier complex. The main
rock types are medium to coarse-grained recrystallized
dolomites, but they also include limestones, shales,
clays, and mud and sand seams. "Due to a gently
southwest-dipping strata, the barrier continues at
depth west of the Buffalo River and can be followed
southwestward into northern British Columbia"tt".
The barrier complex consists of various facies, re-
presenting the following environments: immediate
forereef; reef core; lagoonal; and tidal flat. In
lithology, the barrier varies from a coarse crystalline
dolomite which transcends the above facies to a me-
dium-grained, sandy-textured dolomite. The occasion-
al limestone "window"
permits an environmental in-
terpretation. The associated forereef and basinal facies
vary lithologically from argillaceous, sandy-textured
dolomites, fine-grained limestone and dolomites to
shales. The facies behind the barrier are fine- to
medium-grained dolomites and evaporites.
The main geological structures, other than the gentle
western dip of the strata, are the minor folds and
major amounts of fracturing that have occurred. Fold-
ing is generally associated with differential compac-
tion, gentle flexing and differences in rates of sub-
sidence in the original sediments. Faulting and frac-
turing in the Devonian are related to tectonic move-
ments in the basement and follow two main direc-
tions
-
northeast to southwest and east to rvest.
Large, sand-filled slump and solution sinkholes are
prominent throughout the area, and are considered to
be of two distinct ages: Devonian and Pleistocene.
Devonian sinkholes were formed as part of a karstic
environment when the barrier lithologies were exposed.
They are generally filled with a fine, spherical silica
sand. Pleistocene sinkholes are thought to be a result
of solution and erosion of limestones and dolomites by
glacial outwash, and are generally filled with granite,
limestone and dolomite boulders in sand, gravel and
clay.
A detailed description of the geology of the Pine
Point district is given by Skall
(1975)"u).
GENERAL HYDROGEOLOGY
The varied lithology of the Pine Point complex
makes the distinguishing of separate aquifers very
difficult. It is felt that, in specific areas, most satur-
ated rock units contribute to ground-water withdraw-
als, but one or two units can be distinguished as the
major aquifers. Linked porosity is very low, with the
result that ground water flows mainly through frac-
tures, faults and other secondary structures. Fractur-
ing is so extensive in most rock units that they re-
spond as isotropic aquifers to ground-water with-
drawals.
Prior to pit dewatering,
ground-water movement
was to the northeast toward Great Slave Lake. Since
pumping began, elongated troughs have been formed
in the water table of the central
portion of the area,
as shorryn in Figure 1.
Table i is a summary of drawdowns to daie, wiih
average withdrawal rates.
Precipitation is very low !n the arca (13 in. annual-
ly at Fort Smiih) and, due to the thick overburden
covering the glacial till, less than 25Vo of the preci-
pitation is thought to recharge the aquifers'a'5). Most
of the recharge probably takes place during spring
thaws and summer storms. The presence of numerous
sinkholes in the southern portion of the property
probably represents one major area of recharge.
Aquifer conditions range from unconfined (water-
table conditions) to confined (flowing artesian condi-
tions) (Fig. 1). In the central and southern portions,
aquifer coefficients and water-level data indicate the
presence
of unconfined conditions. To the north,
ground water becomes confined and many areas of
artesian flow are present. Leaky artesian conditions
also exist in Iarge areas of the northern portion of
the property, mainly because of the presence of inter-
fingering clay, shale and mud units (Watt Mountain
and Buffalo River shales). Water is contained in and
above these low-permeability units, and when pump-
ing begins water slowly leaks into the main aquifer,
influencing projected
drawdowns. Confined conditions
appear to be a result of:
(1) drop in elevation of land surfaces;
(2)
confining effect of thick, frozen, clayey over-
burden and increased shale units in the northern half
of the property;
(3) higher-elevation recharge area (i.e. southern half
of property).
Transmissivities
(transmissivity, T, is defined as
flow in gallons per day through a vertical strip of
aquifer 1 foot wide, extending the full saturated height
of the aquifer, under a hydraulic gradient of 1 foot
per foot) are generally wtihin the range of 30,000-
70,000 USgpd/ft, but notable exceptions are the town-
site (1?,000), the millsite area (90,000-100,000) and
the K-62 pit (90,000). Coefficients of storaCe (S)
(defined as the volume of water an aquifer will release
from or take into storage per unit surface area of
aquifer per unit change in head perpendicular to the
aquifer surface) confirm varying aquifer conditions
in the areas mentioned above. Ground-water condi-
tions, aquifer characteristics, and values of T and S
are given for several pits in Table 2.
FIGUBE 1
-
A regional drawdown contour map (ft).
I] /~I
TABLE I
-Summary
of Dewatering Results
(Decernber
1975)
Transmissivity
(USepd/ft)
60,000
72,l100
35,000
41,000
65,000
69,000
69,000
37,000
Average
Pumping
Rate
(usgpm)
6,280
3,880
3,780
5,300
1,000
14,270
4,830
1,220
1,220
Approximate
Total Days
Pumping
1,370
1:370
1,980
2,190
45
1,217
150
305
180
Max:mum
Drawdown
at Pit
Center
152 ft
19 ft
176 ft
H5ft
45 ft
65 ft
Remarks
Completed
Completed
No pumping at present; 27 ft regional
drawdown from W-17
Completed
Regional drawdown from K-62
27 ft regional drawdown from X-15
80 ft regional drawdown from K'57
6 ft regional drawdown
No pumping at
present
J]44
c c
0]42
X]15
K]57
A]70
W]17
K-62
R-61
M]40
U

11 1O

ug
C:M Bulletin,April.1976
/
Open-Pit Dewatering
AOUIFER TEST ANALYSIS
General methods of aquifer test analysis and the
scheduling of the dewatering of open pits at Pine
Point have previously been described by Calver(') and
Brashears and Slayback('). They will be dealt with
very briefly here.
Methods used for analysis have involved the
"straightJine method of Cooper and Jacob"(t) (a modi-
fication of the non-equilibrium formula by Theis(rt)),
the distance drawdown method originated by Thiem("),
the method of matching to modified Theis-type
curves('o), and the Leaky Artesian method of Jacob(rt),
and Hantush and Jacob(").
[1) Cooper and Jacob
To apply this method, drawdown in specific test
holes is plotted against time (logarithmic
scale) on
semi-logarithmic paper (Fig. 2). After a certain time,
the plotted data will form a straighLline trend. This
trend is classified as a "storage depletion" trend, and
can be used to predict long-term drawdowns at varying
distances from the pumping well, and thus at pit cen-
ters. The general equations used are:
TABLf 2
-
Summary of General Hydrogeology, Pine Point, Alberta
T
(USgpd/ft)
042.c
c

ccccc c
c c c c
N] 42 0.016
A] 70
c
c c c
c
65,000 0002
Main Aquifer
Coarse, well-fractured dolomite (Presqu'ile)
Fine-med., porous fractured dolomite
(Pine Point Formation)
Ground-Water
Conditions
Water tab!e tonined iocJ!y
Water table
Semi-confined
Fine to med.-grained, porous fractured
dolomite (Pine Point Formation)
Well-fractured limestone & dolomite
(Presqu'i le)
Leak artesian (confined)
Water table Fine to med., fractured dolomite
(Pine Point Formation)
Coarse, well
-fractured
dolomite (Presqu'ile)
Fine to med., fractured dolomite
(Pine Point Formation)
69,000
69,000
\ \
\


\
q J\
\
Water table
HinseZone...........__.__________-l
go,ooo
l-
o.oa
R.61 .
-
|
3?poo
l-orot
Lro- --l ?opoo
-l-
oro,
lt
Fine-med., well-fractured, porous dolomite
TE

2E

=4Qooo uscPoo
v
:l
fT and S btdBed for WH3] K57 duttng
78
FIGURE 3-\ Values of T and S obtained from the distance\
]
w lfttrtta
hdeS in the X15 p mp test fter
M
]

R
[
u
u
d

@
@
@

_

\
\
C

\
@
\
]
]
]
\

P
@
N
\
]
]

]
]
\

\
\
v
Pit
35,000 0.006
60,000 0025
72,000 0.035
541000
41,000
005
Water table
Semi -confined
Semi-confined
\ \ \ \ \ \
\
l
a2'X/x=g
l
where
T
Q
S =
(2) Thiem
A method used concurrentlY with
the cooper and Jacob method is
the distance-drawdown method of
Thiem. After the beginning of a
storage depletion trend, simulta-
neous drawdown measurements are
coefficient of transmissivitY in
U.S.
galtons per day Per
foot.
total discharge
(U.S. gallons/
min.) of
pumping well(s).
slope of straightline trend over
on6 log cycle of time.
coefficient of storage, as a decimal
fraction.
intersection of straight-line slope
with zero drawdown axis, in min-
utes.
distance of observation hole to
pumping well in feet.
T=
Q X Wlul
r11
-x
3,51.U
=
ao,zoo 6p.0,/Fr (u.s)
S=:

=

=B
B e
FIGURE 4
-
Field data from the K-57 pump test
(TH45) matched to a modified
Theis type curve.
\
\
\

taken in all test holes available and drawdown verstls
distance from pumping well
(logarithmic scale) is
plotted on semi-logarithmic
paper (Fig. 3). If the
aquifer is ideal, these points should form a straight
line and the following equations can be applied:
*
--
fl! .. ......
(8)
'
-
2TNrz
where t
:
tinre in minutes.
Walton
plotted W(u) versus l/u and obtained a
type curve which was a mirror image of the Theis
type curve. Field values of s and t can be plotte! d!
t'ectly on log-log paper and a match point obtained'
From the match-point values of W(u), 1,/u, s and t
can be inserted in equations
(7) and
(8) and values
of T and S obtained. Figure 4 shows values obtained
for a test hole during the K-57 pump test.
(4) Leaky Artesian Conditions
An aquifer test, conducted in pit A-70 in September
of 1970, indicated that, in the confined area of the
property, possible leaky artesian conditions do exist,
probably related to the large number of semi-per-
meable shale, clay and mud units in the north
(Fig. 5).
The methocl consists of
plotting drawdown vs time
on logarithmic
paper. After a certain time, the field
data plot will deviate from the type curve. Walton
drew a set of curves indicating varying amounts of
leakage.
Hantush and Jacob derived the following equations
to calculate aquifer constants:
_114.6Q
Av (u,
2700r2s
Tt ~
T=Q
S=M
t
where'
t
:
time of srmultaneous measurements
(after pump started)
in days.
ro
:
intersection of straight line with zero drawdown axis (in
feet).
All other symbols are as
previously described.
(3) Modified Theis Curve
In this method, drawdown is plotted against time
for each test hole on log-log paper and is matched to
a theoretical type curve. This is a modification of the
original Theis type curve derived from the Theis
equation of:
e-" du
where'
c
:
base of the NaPerian logarithm
and W(u) is the integral expression in equation (5) and is known
as the weil function
(fables
are available).
The original Theis type curve was a plot of W(u)
vs u.
Using time in minutes and U.S. unit notation' equa-
tions
(5) and
(6) reduce to:

)=
mg
c
b R
=


R:E nd.

J leakyF
=: : B ninhgUrata).
S=
/
R
A

^

a
(6)


s



\



a
S =
f9)
(10)


S s

where:
w
(,,
a
j
@

s=
0
CiM Bu!!etin,April,1976
VERT. SCALE l"
=
IOOFT.
GURE 5- mOaphc g::
oq
11
l and hyttOgedodCJ desg
c
ons brs eL 70t ttea\ a aky me\ an
area. Dewatering is required l
Matching the plotted field data as closely as possible
to one of the type curves, a match point is chosen
which will give values of s and t (from the field data
coordinates) and W(u, r,/B) and 1/u (from the type
curve coordinates).
These values are then inserted into equations (9),
(10) and (11)
and values for T, S, K', and K'lb'
(leakage
coefficient) can be obtained.
Figure 6 shows a typical calculation from the A-70
pump test.
SCHEDULING DEWATERING
A dewatering schedule must be drawn up in close
conjunction with the mining schedule and possible pit
planning changes. Calver, and Brashears and Slayback
have described general methods used at Pine Point.
80
A brief review will be presented here.
At present, all the wells required to dewater a pit
are drilled at one time; this dervaters the top benches
far in advance of their mining. As the rate of draw-
down decreases, due to a greater volume in the cone
of depression in the water table around the pit, the
mining rate increases relative to the dewatering rate
and ideally the bottom pit bench rvill be mined shortly
after it is dewatered. Originally, wells were added
every year (i.e. the maximum number required were
not drilled initially) to maintain a dewatering lead
over the mining schedule.
Two basic types of methods can be used for calcu-
lating the number of pumps required to dewater cer-
tain benches of a pit:
(a) graphical (using Thiem and Cooper and Jacob);
and
FIGUBE 6
-
Fietd data for the TH52-A70
pump test matched to leaky artesian type curves.
(b) bv desk compr-rter
(using the basic Jacob modifica-
tion for steady-state conditions).
(a)
Graphical Methods
A combination of the Thiem
(distance-drawdown)
and the "storage
depletion trend" time-drawdown of
Cooper and Jacob is used.
The storage depletion trend
graph shows drawdown
versus time; however, a certain length of time is re-
quired after pumping begins to'establish a straight-
line relationship. At Pine Point, a steady-state con-
dition is assumed to exist after 10-14 days. The dis-
tance drarvdown method will therefore
give amounts
of drawdown at varying distances from the pumping
rvell(s) after a
given length of time. Rather than cal-
culate the drawdown for each length of time required,
the data are transferred to the drawdown-time
graph,
and the drawdown at any time can be read directly.
The first step is to calculate a family of straight
lines representing different values of discharge
(Fie.
7).
By rearranging equations
=
=
\
where t
:
elapsed time since pumping began in days and all other
symbols are as
previously described.
If we then choose three points in the pit center that
represent the level of deepest dewatering required,
the total drawdown at each point can be calculated by
totalling the individual drawdowns from each well
after the same length of time (at least 10 days).
Each of the drawdown values (either total or in-
dividual) can then be transferred to a time drawdown
graph, all points being plotted on the same time line.
CIM Bulletin. Aoril 1976
F!GURE 7
1 ~~~~~
-
Distance-drawdown
graph at variable discharge.
u
P
P
P
]

graph at the
Pit
center for
~
| ~ l ~
(3) and
(4),
rve see that:
(12)
(13)
4u
3m
R
FIGUBE 8
-
Time-drawdown
variable discharge.
T=35.000 usCPO/F
rm
Q
h

]
E
c
E
g
P
N
B
N
d

C
E E E
Drowdown 33.5 ft. ol pil cntre
ofier furlhcr 14 doys. lf hod
uscd S:O.OOt opporcnl
would hove givcn much
greoler volue loding to
exlreme underdcsign .
CONF:NED CONO:T:ONS
T=4:,000 uSCPD
S3000:(from pump test)
0 !!00 USCPM(for first :4 6oys)
r

r.= !3,:20f,
as_fv
|:11;:L
;L
2
0rowdowa = 19 5 ft of presstlre releose
Conversion ,oirl' from confilled ,o
unconfined conditions hos reoched pi,
centre ofter :4 doys o, :,00 uScPM
There hos been 710 0Ctu ! dewol ring
ol pit centre up to this point

O

O

g
O
@

O
O
v
O

-


Z


@

Z
O
v

b

O



I

80
90
20
88R | 1
F I
IIIIN S |
FIGUBE 9
-
Distancedrawdown calculation for estimating
fined conditions when the unconfined coefficient of storaae
plot for long-term predictions.
From equation (1):
=
c(14)
and therefore the slope of the time-drawdown lines
can be calculated (it is
1/z
the slope of the distanec-
drawdown lines). Each line representing a different
FIGURE 10
-
Theoretical storage-depletion trend for the
K-57 pit veisus actual drawdown at the pit center.
82
theoretical drawdown in transition from confined to uncon-
is not known. Values are transferred to the time-drawdown
Q
is then drawn and values of drawdown after any
given length of time can be read (Fig. 8).
A certain amount of trial and error is involved
before the correct discharge (i.e. number of pumps)
is calculated to meet all mining schedule requirements.
(b)
Computer Method
A computer program has been developed using the
Jacob equation:
s=
q 0 (15)
where:
a
:
discharge in USgpm.
T
:
transmissivity in USgpd/ft.
t
:
elapsed pumping time in days.
r
:
distance from pumping well in feet.
The program has proved invaluable for economic
studies concerning dewatering, and it is used in open-
pit dewatering scheduling where long laborious graph-
ical work has been involved. The method is accurate
only for calculating drawdowns after at least 10-14
days of pumping.
THEORETICAL AND ACTUAL RESULTS
In applying aquifer analysis methods, certain as-
sumptions have to be made concerning the hydraulic
| _ 9
E

pE
LE _? _v

9
L
~P
~

~u
]
I
40m
M
A I AC AL ORAWOOW"A15000 SCPg ~
M
M
A
u
|
lT

\


T :
FlIc
@
c
l
m_2640
E
-

_

c c c
N


M
M
R

:l
IFM
:V
`401 -\
\
_ 1 _______v _____\ \ -1-_ _____
|
TABLE 3
-
Comparison of Well Drilling Rates and Costs
Method used
Hole
Diameter
121/4
Average
Drilling Rate
(time on bottom)
1969 _
121/4
9 5 ft/hr
14 ft/hr
7,755 ft 16.80 21 ft/hr
17.10
17.50
6,790 ft 17 ft/hr
6,055 ft 19.5 ft/hr
Approx. $25
12 ft/hr
14 ft/hr
NA.
N.A
N.A.
:
not available.
and geologic properties of the aquifer
(i.e. the aquifer
is of infinite extent, homogeneous, isotropic, etc.).
These properties do not entirely apply in most cases,
but, as faulting and fracturing are very extensive,
ground-water movement and drawdowns can be es-
iimated using the previously described methods. Varia-
tions in these assumptions, together with the more
real problems of power failures, pump failures, blast
damage and
general maintenance, have led to a safety
design of one or two additional pumps ovel' normal
requirements.
An example is shown of the K-57 open pit (an
originally semi-confined aquifer) in Figures 9 and 10.
After pumping for one year, actual dravi'dorvns were
approximately 20 feet less than predicted drawdowns.
This was mainly due to power failures, pump repairs
and general "down" time for pit electrical work, and
also to the variation of the storage coefficient from
the assumed value of 0.1
(the K-57 pump test did not
manage to lower water levels below the confining
layer). Two additional pumps would have increased
drawdowns closer to theoretical values, and thus al-
lowed both for pump "down" time and variations with-
in the
groundr,'ater regime.
Two methods will be mentioned later in this report
which allow a more accurate calculation of a water
table storage coefficient.
GENERAL MONITORING OF PIT DEWATERING
A continuous dewatering record is kept for each
area with pump installations. The record consists of
weekly observation-well water levels, pumping rates
and pump performance data. Evaluation of the records
provides a check on dewatering progress, and a basis
for changes in capacity and design.
Numerous test holes located rvithin and around the
pits can be used to compile rvater-contour maps in the
immediate area of the pit. The maps show the status
of dervatering levels and serve as guides for planning
and design. Regional contour maps, as shown in Fig-
ure 1, are used to predict water levels in areas where
no test holes exist and also show regional effects be-
tween areas that at'e being dewatered.
CIM Bullctin, APril, 1976
Well Drilling
Two main sizes of wells have been drilled at Pine
Point
-
LZL/4-in. and 15-in. The 15-in. wells have been
drilled as a result of increased
problems with pumps
in crooked wells, and also to allow for the installation
of larger-capacity
pumps. Table 3 summarizes driUing:
costs, rates and methods.
There have been four main methods used in drilling:
wells, each being an improvement over the previous
method.
1. Drilling with Mud
This was the original method used at Pine Point'
but it has many disadvantages in water-well drilling'
Drilling mud can penetrate and thus seal many water-
bearing fractures and channels. This type of drilling
can produce wells of poor yields, and damage to the
water-bearing zones of the well may be permanent'
Well development is usually costly in this case.
2. Drilling with Mud, Air and Ground Water
Mud is used to drill the well into the water table'
The mud line is then connected to a source of com-
pressed air, and a mixture of air and ground water is
used to bring up the cuttings.
Drilling rates for this method average the same as
with straight mud, but it has the advantage that the
well is cleaned as it is drilled.
Originally, three 100-psi, 600-cfm compressors were
used to drill with air. It was found that 100 psi had
limitations to a depth of approximately 400 feet
(de-
pending on depth to water table). In the 1970 well
drilling program, a 250-psi, 1200-cfm trailer-mounted
compressor was used and the over-all footage cost was
reduced
(Table 3).
3. Drilling with Surface Water
(from
a drilling sump)
lnitially and Then Using Air and Ground Water
Near the end of the 19?0 drilling program' it was
discovered that i:i most cases
(except sinkloles, un-
consolidaterl formations, etc.), mud was not needed to
Year
Total Footage
in Program

E
Mud
10,895 ft 19.40
Mud, air &
ground water
10,200 ft 19.15
Surface water, air
& ground water
121/4
Surface water
& air
12
1/4
15
15
(17
at top)
Surface water
& air + foam
7,350 ft
8,165 ft
drill the upper section of the well. At most locations,
the overburden will mix with straight water from the
sump and form a very thin mud. In the bedrock part
of the upper section of the well, the contractor's pump
(360 gpm) had enough velocity to lift the drill cut-
tings from depths below the water table. Compressed
air and ground water were used to complete the well.
The economic advantages of this method are as fol-
lows: no expense for mud materials; and little devel-
opment time is required, as the well is reasonably
clean.
4. Drilling with Surface Water and Then Using Sur-
face Water and Air to the Total Depth of the Well
This method was developed in the 1971 well drilling
program. Surface water (from the sump) is used to
drill approximately 150-200 feet, and then air and
surface water are used at the same time. Drilling into
the water table before switching on the air prevents
a continuous loss of sump water volume. When the
water table is reached, the eompressor is put into
operation.
Generally, faster drilling rates exist with this meth-
od, as cuttings are removed from the face of the bit
faster using air and water rather than straight air.
Using conventional air drilling, it is probable that air
is removing the cuttings with little water to aid in
the lifting until the cuttings are forced above the bit.
Using air and surface water, there is always some
water (200 gpm when the pump is idling) mixed with
the air; this increases the rate and volume of cuttings
removed. A further development in this method is the
injection of drilling foam to further enhance cuttings
removal.
After reaching the chosen depth (usually 150 feet),
the drill-mud pump is reduced to idling (200 gpm)
and the air compressor is operated at full capacity
(250 psi, 1200 cfm). The valve connecting the two
lines is left fully open. The mud pump cannot be
operated at full volume (350 gpm), as this causes the
compressor to overheat. On completion of the hole,
the pump is turned off and the well is surged until
clean water is being produced.
WELL HOLE DEVELOPMENT
Other than using primary development methods,
such as airlifting
("blowing") wells after compleiion,
very little secondary development to increase well
yields has been attempted. The secondary methods at-
tempted include:
(1) polyphosphate treatment to remove drilling mud;
(2) explosive development; and
(3) scouring by acidization.
Scouring by acidization has been successful in one
well in the X-15 pit (increasing the well yield from
50 to 200 USgpm).
Explosive fracturing development increased the yield
from 50 to 400 USgpm in a W-17 pit well. The charge
used involved 100 lbs of slurry explosive and two
strings of detonating cord.
Deep Well Pump Problems
Experimentation with 15-in. well drilling developed
mainly as a result of deep well pump maintenance prob-
lems. Originally, well surveying was used to determine
the type of pump (submergible
or lineshaft) to be
installed in a well. Lineshaft pumps were used in the
84
straighter wells; submergible pumps were used in
wens that Fere very crooked.
The initial type of pump used for dewatering was
the 3600-rpnl lineshaft. These pumps have had
moderate success and are now being phased out of
operation. Any misalignment problems are magnified
at this high speed and cOnsiderable maintenance prob]
lems have been encountered with bearing, oil] column
and lineshaft COmponents.
In an attempt to overcome these problems, sub\
mergible pumps were used. Submergible pump usage
has varied greatly since 1969, but it has generany
decreased in the last three years. Applications in
crooked holes have not been entirely successful,mainly
because the wells are completed
g
open hole" and
damage to the electric power cable is frequent. Sub]
mergible pumps are susceptible to water\ level surging
and cavitation, causing leaking seals(beCause of un\
even thrust conditions)and damaged motors.In wells
where the majority of the flow is entering above the
pump,the motor may not be properly cooled and over]
heating problems can developo Submergible pump
motors are also sensitive to power fluctuations, and
expensive to repair.At present,3600] rpm submergible
pumps are being phased out of operation at Pine Point
because of high maintenance costs.
In 1971-1972, two important events Overcame the
majority of the above\ mentioned problems. The drill\
ing of 15-ino wells was very successful and 1800] rpm
lineshaft pumps were introduced in the dewatering
system. With increasing drilling experience, it has
been possible to dri11 15-ino wells at footage rates and
prices nearly comparable to those of the 121/4] in.Well
holes(Table 3).In addition, a shoctabsorbing de ce
(g
ShOCk Sub")installed in the drilling pipe string has
eliminated crooked A vells. The 1800-rpm lineshaft
pumps seem very suitable for pit deA vatering, as they
are heavier duty,slower speed and able to pump larger
volumes of water than a 3600-rpm pump of equivalent
horsepower.
The major types of pumps being used in open] pit
dewatering are:
(1) 1800-rpm lineshaft\
\ oil lubricated (125,150 and
200 hp

[ [ 63, of total;
(2)3600-rpm lineshaft
\ \ oil lubricated (60 and
100 hp) -239
of total;
(3)3600]
rpm submergible (75 and 100 hp) - 14%
of total.
Reducing the use of 3600-rpm lineshaft pumps has
been an important step in lowering pump maintenance
costs. This, together with successful 1800-rpm Hne\
shaft use, has reduced pump problems. For deep de\
A vatering requirements(greater than 150 ft of draw\
doAvn), experimenting with larger\ capacity pumps
(200 hp,2000 USgpm)haS been only moderately suc\
cessful. Pumps of this size represent such a large
proportion of groundwater M ithdrawals in a pit area
that pump failure causes a major reduction in de\
A vatering rates.An optimum pump size fOr Pine Point
requirements is in the range of 100-125 hp, because
most wellsA vill efficiently yield 1000-1200 USgpm.
Due to freight cOSts and high repair costs for sub\
mergible and lineShaft pumps, rebuilding of pump
components and motors has been attempted at Pine
Point. For lineShaft pumps, a gOod technology has
been developed and most repairs(including re vinding
motors)are COmpleted on site. Submergible pumps
which have more specialized components are impossible
to repair on site, and repair costs continue to be ex\
cessive
l"
=
125 FT.

@
t

RS

TS
P
VR
l

v
]
\
K
k
\ \
u

FIGURE 11
-
ComParison between
north).
CIM Bulletin, April, 1976
the caliper and neutron log for WH5-W17 and the geological log of DDH 1920
(1000 ft
85
C
~


CAS
2k
b `s
E
D
@
@
e
z
@
D
L
R

-

v
N
@
E
@
N
@


E

@
C
E
@
@
@

-
O
m


-

-
D
@
e
@
D

T

a
E

@
v
R
-
A
L

g
@
D
D
@
@
L
R
E
E
@
E
E
v
L

R
@
@
@
N
@
-
@
@

D
g

I
q

O

R

A
-

-


-
x
R

h
T
@
T

g
Miscellaneous Probletre
LOW-YIELD AREAS
Generally,
pump size selection for individual wells
has not posed a problem, mainly because 80Vo of the
wells at Pine Point will yield 800 USgpm or greater.
The remainins 20% of low-yield wells, however, tend
to group together in specific pit areas (e.g. X-15 and
K-62), and thus threaten effective dewatering because
of low withdrawal rates. Figure 11, a caliper and
neutron log of the WH5-W-17 pit, shows an interest-
ing comparison in a region of fairly homogeneous fine-
grained dolomite (where it is particularly difficult to
pick out water-bearing zones while drilling). In areas
of low neutron activity, high amounts of caving are
indicated on the caliper log and, from a diamond drill
hole nearby, areas of low core recovery are indicated
in these same areas. As this caving is directly related
to the amount of fracturing and friability, these zones
are probably large-volume flow zones. The neutron log
also indicates increased porosity in these areas. In
orrier to maintain the most continuous flow to the
intake of the pump (particularly
important in the case
of submerg:ible pumps), it can be sited next to one of
these zones. The choice of the zone depends on depth
dewatering requirements.
In low-yield areas, therefore, these logs show areas
of possible yield and favourable intervals for develop-
ment attempts where little geological data is available
because of sinkhole areas, etc. Also, caliper-neutron
logs will show wells with no major aquifer zones and,
therefore, lead to the installation of a small-capacity
pump.
AREAS OF DEEP DEWATEHING
Open pits that require deep dewatering (as mueh
as 350 ft of drawdorvn) pose special problems. It is
especially important in these areas that the dewater-
ing system be as efficient as possible to keep sub-
stantial operating and maintenance costs within eco-
nomic limits. In a small but very deep pit (carrot-
shaped), for example, an overcrowding of wells around
the pit perimeter may cause excessive drawdown inter-
ference between wells and reduce the effectiveness
of the system.
Two important solutions here are:
(l)
the drilling of wells closer to the pit center; and
(2)
the use of sump pumps.
As is obvious from the preceding graphs, the closer
the wells are to the pit center the more drawdown they
produce at that point. Drilling wells on the berms of
either the first or second bench of an open pit will:
(1)
slow drilling rates as bedrock is encountered at
surface
-
in order to install well casing in a reason-
able time, a blasthole drill is used to complete the top
section of the well;
(2)
require a continuous supply of water (because
of lost circulation) until the depressed water table is
reached;
(3) possibly lead to a change in standard pit design
to allow wider berms for drilling-rig access.
Pumps installed rvithin the pit perimeter require:
(l
t extensive protection from blasts;
(2) power from the perimeter power line; and
(3) pump dischalge lines which drain quickly in win-
ter.
A sump pump was used to successfully dewater the
bottom bench of the K-57 open pit. The lowest ore
level of this pit rvas becoming uneconomic due to ex-
86
cessive dewatering costs, and the use of a sump pump
allowed approximately half of the perimeter pumps
to be removed.
In an area with such severe climate and highly
transmissive rock, a sump pump must be used with
caution. Extensive power outages can be disastrous,
especially in winter, and safety factors such as wall
stability and pit flooding must be considered. These
problems
are minimized by:
(l) Iimiting the dewatering use of a sump pump to the
lowest bench of an open pit; and
(2)
operating a few perimeter pumps simultaneously
to reduce recharge rates in the event of power outages.
Assuming that the perimeter of an open pit is not
large enough to accommodate enough wells io efficient-
ly dewater to the depth required, a deep dewatering
sequence is outlined below:
(1)
drill as many perimeter wells as is feasible;
(2)
depending on the amount of dewatering still re-
quired,
either drill enough well holes inside the pit
to complete the dewatering or install a sump pump to
dewater the bottom bench.
ECONOMICS OF DEWATEBING
Three basic methods of dewatering exist.
1. Start dervatering up to a year in advance of mining
requirements. The mining level will gradually gain on
the achieved dewatering and, theoretically, dewatering
and mining levels should coincide for the last bench.
2. Drill new wells each year and keep the dewatering
only one bench ahead of the mining schedule.
3. Install a relatively large number of pumps (the
pumps should be able to dewater each bench in a two-
month period). Turn all pumps on two months before
the bench is require<i; when dewatered, turn most of
the pumps off and maintain the water-table elevation.
All three methods have been used at Pine Point, al-
though method (3)
has only been partially attempted
at the K-57 pit.
Method (
1
):
Method (1)
offers limited flexibility, high oper-
ating costs and lcnv capital eosts. Dewatering is oc-
curring so slowly for the bottom benches (because
of
the large amount of time involved) that, if mining
rates are increased, limited flexibility is available to
increase dewatering rates. To allow for variations
in mining schedules and pump down time, moderate
overdesign and the use of sump pumps is recom-
mended. The method does have a number of very im-
portant
advantages. Initial capital costs are low and
water-level recovery rates are slow because of the well-
developed cone of depression. Regional effects are
maximized using this method and produce dewatering
cost savings in surrounding pits.
Method
[2:
This method was approximated at pit X-15 (where
pumping has now ceased due to favourable regional
dewatering effects from the W-17 pit). Well yields in
this pit were extremely low and six pumps produced
only approximately 2,000 USgpm. Each year, problems
were encountered rvith well drilling in unconsolidated
formations and dewatering was far behind schedule.
The regional effect from the W-17 pit has lowered
the rvater table at the X-15 pit an additional 27 feet
and illustrates one advantage of Method
(1).
Method
(2)
is very costly because of the large number of dif-
ferent well drilling sessions involved. Flexibility is
limited, especially if flow rates in new wells do not
meet withdrawal requirements for the next bench.
Method
(3):
This method has the most potential for cost savings
in pit dewatering, but it has practical limitations. It
utilizes the concept that the pumping rate for a par-
ticular pit should greatly exceed the dewatering rate
required to dewater the benches in the time required
(i.e.
according to the mining schedule), plus the inflow
or recharge into the pit area as the cone of depression
develops. When the dewatering of a particular bench
has been completed, pumping rates can be reduced to
mateh the inflow and, therefore, hold the water-table
elevation. As dewatering proceeds, higher eontinuous
purnping rates will be needed to maintain dewatered
ground. By keeping the cone of depression in the irn-
mediate area of the pit to a minimum size, the total
volume of water pumped is less. The procedure applies
to each bench, with more and more pumps being left
operating to maintain the inflow from the larger cone
of depression for the lower benches. Although capital
costs are high, operating costs can be reduced, de-
pendent on power demand.
H. G. Barker"', of Cominco Ltd., completed an
economic study of this method. An important finding
of this study was the most economical pre-production
length of time to operate all pumps iu order to de-
water a particular beuch. He concluded that, for many
applications, this pre-production period is approxim-
ately two rnonths. Therefore, the required maximum
pumping capaeity is that which can dewater any bench
in two months. In shallower dewatering applications
(less than 100 feet), this method will require only 71/a
to L7/2 times the pumping capacity of Method
(1), but
in deeper applications up to twice the number of
pumps could be required.
There are a number of disadvantages associated
with this method.
(a)
Fast mining rates in pits are necessary to fully
realize the economic advantages of this method. If the
mining time is allorved to lag, the economics of Meth-
od (3) will apprcach those of Method (1), because
the over-all extent of the cone of depresslon is de-
pendent on time, transmissivity and the coefficient of
storage, and not on withdrawal rates.
Mining at this projected raie in one particular pit is
not often feasible because of ore-grade problems. One
possible solution is to stockpile ore near the pit after
mining in order to keep pumping time to a minimttm.
(b)
If regional drawdown is kept to a minimum by
short dewatering times, the dewatering economics of
surrounding pits could be affected. Method
(1) more
fully utilizes time to produce regional effects and, in
areas where there is a large number of projected
pits Method
(3) may prove unfavourable.
(c)
It is possible that this method will have disad-
vantages in areas rvhere leaky artesian conditions
exist. If the cone of depression is not fully developed
in the leaky beds and the head reservoir suppiying
t.his leakage is not drained, problems could exist with
unstable walls, and rvet stripping and mining.
Power demand using Method (3) may exceed power
supply. Given two or three open pits dervatering sim-
ultaneously in the artesian area of the property, not
enough power cotrld be supplied from present-day
sources.
In trying to reach a realistic conclusion as to the
most economical method of dervatering, the practical and
CIM Bulletin. APril. 1976
physical limitations of the area must be considered.
The influence of dewatering on the mining schedule
has been minimal in the past, but costs are now major
and power supply is limited. In extreme cases in the
future, therefore, the mining schedule could be deter-
mined wholly by the amount of dewatering required
in certain areas. Proximal orebodies may have to be
mined and dewatered simultaneously to maximize
regional drawdown effects.
It is coneluded that, with slight overdesign and the
optional use of sump pumps, Method (1) will be the
most practical and economical dewatering procedure
in future
years.
DEWATERING IN THE SEMI-CONFINED
AND CONFINED WATER TABLE AREAS
These areas present a unique problem for pit de-
rvatering. Before any actual dewatering takes place in
these aquifers (i.e. the rock becomes unsaturated), a
water or artesian pressure must be released. Because
the actual aquifer remains fully saturated while the
pressure drop is occurring, the volume of water being
released from the aquifer is attributed to a slight
compression of the aquifer skeleton and a corres-
ponding slight expansion of the water. The aquifer
will remain fully saturated until the pressure head is
entirely removed and actual dewatering of the aquifer
(as
versus
pressure dewatering of the aquifer) will
then take place. The pressure drop is directly related
to the amount of water released from storage
per
unit drop in head per unit area, which, in turn, is
indicated by the storage coefficient. For water-table
(unconfined) aquifers, however, the coefficient of
storage approximates the specific yield of the rock
type of the aquifer. (Specific yield is the amount of
water, expressed as a percentage of the fully saturated
volume of rvater, that will drain frcm the rock under
the influence of gravity.) It is easy to imagine, then,
that the amount of water released from storage in an
unconfined aquifer is much larger than that released
from a confined aquifer. Therefore, when the transi-
tion from "pressure dewatering" to aetual dewatering
takes place, there will be a change in the coefficient
of storage, within the range of 0.0001
(confined) to
0.3 (unconfined). This is very important, as the
storage coefficient is a measure of the volume of
water that has to be withdrawn to achieve specific
drawdowns. In calculating drawdorvns in originally
confined rvater table areas, it is very important to use
the water-table coefficient of storage, if drawdowns
below the top of the confined aquifer are required
(Fis. 9). The "pressure dewatering" will occur much
faster than the actual desaturation of the aquifer and,
tusing the confined coefficient of storage, will lead to
extreme underdesign.
There are trvo methods which describe the transi-
tion from confined to unconfined conditions. They
may have limited use during single pump aquifer tests,
because they require that the water level drops below
the bottom of the confining layer, but they could per-
haps be applied rvhen the first four or five pumps are
operating.
The first method has been devised by Boulton"'"
and put into useful type curve form by Prickett"". It
involves matching early and late field-drawdown data
to different type curves. The time from the start of
pumping after which true unconfined conditions exist
can be calculated, and the data after this time are
used to obtain an unconfined value for the coefficient
of storage.
The second method, by Moench and Prickettt'o', also
involves matching field data to type curves. Time-
drawdown data from observation wells, which have
already undergone storage{oefficient conversion dur-
ing the period of pumping, may also be analysed if the
pumping well has undergone conversion.
The reader is referred to the above articles for
complete step-by-step details.
Separate from the above problem, two other pos-
aible
problems may be associated with dewatering
in artesian areas:
(a) the water pressure beneath the pit floor during
initial stripping and mining;
([) wet stripping and mining conditions caused by
slow ground-water drainage from confining beds.
Confined aquifers have a hydrostatic pressure. This
pressure is equal to the height of the pressure sur-
face
(i.e. the height to which the water will rise)
above the top of the aquifer. Unless
pit dewatering
commences well before stripping and mining,
ground
water at pressure may exist below the pit floor.
Brealey(") discusses the consequences of such condi-
tions.
Slow drainage of confining beds and minor aquifer
zones may result in wet stripping and mining condi-
tions.
If the confining beds have a very slow drainage rate,
the upper section of the main aquifer may be dry
rvhile the confining beds are still draining. The rate
of drain of the confining bed is a function of its
transmissivity. It will be important, therefore, to start
rlewatering considerably in advance of mining in order
to ensure dry confining beds in the pit walls. Test
holes may have to be drilled in the confining beds to
follou' the development of the cone of depression and
also to determine its aquifer coefficients.
Conclusions
As dewatering requirements become deeper and
general ground-water conditions become more com-
plex, pit dewatering will continue to be a major ex-
pense in the mining budget of Pine Point Mines Lim-
ited. As such, the system warrants a continuing study
of methods of improvement and subsequent lowering
of over-all unit costs.
As mining of orebodies progresses more into the
confined and semi-confined ground-water areas of the
property, more extensive aquifer tests will be needed
to accurately predict long-term drawdowns. This may
necessitate withdrawals of up to 5000 USgpm over a
30-day period to obtain realistic values of the coef-
ficient of storage.
Method
(1)
appears to represent the most economic-
al and practical dewatering design, especially if
proximal orebodies are mined and dewatered simultan-
eously to ensure efficient regional drawdown effects.
Because of increasing dewatering costs and lim-
ited power supply, it is entirely possible that future
mining schedules and forecasts will be determined
entirely by open-pit d.ewatering requirements.
Acknowledgments
The author gratefully acknow'ledges the support
and cooperation of the Alberta Research Council dur-
ing the revision and updating of this paper.
The author also gratefullr, 'rcknowledges the sup-
88
port and cooperation of Pine Point Mines Limited and
Cominco Ltd. and wishes to thank, in particular, the
following people: G. S. Wolstenholme and J. F. Dadd
for gatherinet of field data; T. Macan for draughting
of figures; J. A. B. Rae for originating the scope of
the report; H. G. Barker and S. Hodgson for valuable
discussion; R. Slayback and J. Forth for advice and
proof-reading; S. Hoffman for discussions during up-
dating of this paper; O. Affleck and D. Borneuf for
the typing of the manuscript.
References
(1) Barker, H. G., 19?1, Economics of dewatering at Pine
Point, N.\[.T., unpublished Cominco Ltd. report.
(2) Boulton, N. S., 1963, Analysis of data from non-
equilibrium pumping tests allowing for delayed yield
frbm storage, Proc., Institution of Civil Engineers,
V. 26, No. 6693.
(3) Boulton, N. S., 1964, Discussions on the analysis of
data frbm noir-equilibrium pumping test allowing
for delayed yield from storage, Proc., Institution of
Civil Engineers, V. 28, Aug.
(4) Brashears, M. L., 1968, Ground water conditions and
dewatering of ore pits at Pine Point, N.W.T., Can-
ada, Leggette, Brashears & Graham report to
Cominco Ltd.
(5) Brashears, M. L., and Slayback, R. G., 1971' Pump-
ing test methods applied to dewatering investieations
at-Pine Point Mines, N.W.T., Canada, AIME Ann.
Mtg., New York, Mareh.
(6) Brealey, S. C.. 1964, Ground water control in oFren-
cast mining, Paper 18, Proc., Symposium, In-titu'
tion of Mining and Metallurgy, Nov. 19.
(?) Calver, 8., and Farnsworth, D. J. M., 1969, Open-pit
dewatering at Pine Point Mines, CIM Bulletin, V.
62, No. 692; CIM Trans., V. 72.
(8) Cooper, H. H., and Jacob, C. E., 1946, A generalized
graphical method for evaluating formation constants
and- summarizing well-field history, Am. Geophys.
Union Trans., V. 27, No. 4.
(9) Davis, S. N., and DeWiest, 1966, Hydrogeology,
John Wiley and Sons Inc.
(10) Ferris, J. G., et al.. 1962, Theory of aquifer tests,
U.S. Geol. Survey Water Supply Paper 1536-E.
(ll)
Hantush, M. S., and Jacob, C. E., 1955, Non-steady
radial flow in an infinite leaky aquifer, Trans. Am.
Geophys. Union, V. 35, No. 6.
(12) Jacob, C. E., 1946, Radial flow in a leaky artesian
aquifer, Trans. Am. Geophys. Union, V. 2?, No. 2.
(13)
Jacob, C. 8., 1947, Drawdorvn test to determine the
effective radius of an artesian well, American Soc.
of Civil Engineers.
(14) Moench and Prickett, 1972, Radial flow in an infinite
aquifer undergoing conversion from artesian to
water table conditions, Water Resources Research,
V. 8, No. 2, April.
(15) Prickett, T. A., 1965, Type-curve solution to aquifer
tests under rvater table conditions, Ground Water.
March-April.
(16) Skall, H., 1975, The Paleoenvironment of the Pine
Point lead-zinc district, Econ. Geol., V. ?0.
(17) Theim, G., 1906, Hvdrologische methoden, (see
Wenzel, L. K., 1936, The Theim method for deter-
mining permeability of water-bearing materials,
U.S.G.S. Water Supply Paper 679-A).
(18) Theis, C. V., 1935, The relation between the lower-
ine of the
piezometric surface and the rate and
du:iation of discharge of a well using ground water
storage, Am. Geophys. Union Trans., V. 16, Pt. 2.
(19) Todd, D. K.. 1959, Ground Water Hydrology, John
Wiley and Sons, Inc.
(20) Walton, W. C., 1960a, Application and limitation of
methods used to analyze pumping test data, Water
Well Journal, Feb.-March.
(21) Walton, W. C., 1960b, Leaky artesian aquifer con-
ditions in Illinois, Illinois State Water Survey Rep.
of Invest. No. 39.
(22) Walton, W. C., 1962a, Selected
4nalytical
methods
for well anrl arrrifer evaluation, Illinois State Water
Survey Bu1l. 49.
ANew Generation of Rock Drill Oils:
Field Perspectives and Cost Savings
E. W. Weaver, Product Application Supervisor, Lubricants,
Gulf tJil Canada Limited,
Tororrto, Ontario
Abstract
This paper describes the resultx of
field.
tests and d.e'
tailed pbrforma,nce analysis of o li.ne ol high'performance;
hig lL- f ilm- s tr eng t h lubric ant s. deo eloped tht o u g h th e
-
us e o
I
o, sulphurized sperm oil. substitute. It emphasizes the pr9-
<luctioity improaements and cost sauings effected by th'e
neut htbriconts.
lntroduction
A
pApER
entitled "New Rock Drill Lubricants for the
Seventies
-
From Laboratory to l\{ine", written by
A. D. Markin and the present author, both of Gulf
Oil Canada Limited, was published in the July 1974
issue of the CIM BULLETIN. This paper outlined
the background of research in the formulation of a
new series of rock drill oils, based on the development
of a sulphurized sperm oil substitute additive follow-
ing government ban on the use of the natural product.
It described the laboratory testing of the new lubricant
and an initial field test program undertaken in one of
the largest hardrock uranium orebodies of its kind in
the world.
The basic requirements of the new oil were: to
improve the anti-wear, extreme pressure and frictional
properties of rock drill lubricants; to provide high
film strength; and to exhibit on-the-job performance
improvements that would increase productivity, de-
crease downtime and effect substantial cost sa'rings.
Results of Test Program
-
Phase I
Laboratory tests at Gulf's Research Centre in To-
ronto and by drill manufacturers demonstrated that
the new product
-
based on a sulphurized sperm oil
substitute additive
-
met or exceeded all manufac-
tu rers' specifications.
EQUIPMENT MAINTENANCE
A stoper drill in operation. Note the falling
particles of dirt
and r6ck chips, wliich can easily foul the ilriil mechanism il
not held in suspension by the lubricant.
E. W. Weaver served with the
R.C.A.F. in World War II and then
entered the University of Toronto,
graduating with a B.Sc. in metallurgy.
He is now product application advisor,
lubricants, for Gulf Oil Canada Lim-
ited. Mr. Weaver is a member of The
Canadian Institute of Mining and
Metallurgy, the Society of Autonlo-
tive Engineers, the OnLario Associa-
tion of Professional Engineers and
the American Society of Lubrication
Engineers.
Ke-vwords: Lubrication, Mining, Rock drills, Maintenance,
Cost savings.
The controlled mine field test, comparing the new
oil with an established product on eight new Joy
AI-47
jackleg
drills, clearly indicated the superiority
of the new oil over the established
product.
Quickly
summarized, these test results were as
follows:
1. Visual examination showed little or no wear on
rvorking parts, such as rifle bars, rifle nuts, pawls
anC pawl plungers, in contrast to an observable wear
pattern when the established oil was used.
2. Statistical analysis confirmed the superiority of
the new product in terms of:
c less dou,ntime
(1zl that of established oil);
o increased footage drilled per gallon of oil con-
sumed (an additional 308 feet per Imperial
gallon);
c fewer major overhauls
(a reduction of more than
80ok in repair costs);
o lower maintenance costs
(a consistent saving of
more than 0.5 cent per foot drilled);
o lower over-all oil consumption
(a decrease of. 42%).
It is pertinent to note that the mine where the test
program took place converted immediately afterward
to l0O% usage of the new lubricant in all its rock
drills. This mine uses various models and types of
jackleg
and stoper drills manufactured by Canadian
Ingersoll-Rand Co. Ltd., Joy Manufacturing Company
(Canada i Limited and Gardner-Denver Co.
(Canada)
Linrited.
CIM Bulletin,April,1976
FIGURE I
-
Computer print{ut of the rock drill maintenance
report.
Analysis of Lubricant
Performance in Full-Mine Use
Following the completion of controlled tests, two
total-mine programs have been undertaken and evalu-
ated. Each analysis covered a continuous l2-month
period and involved approximately 5. million feet of
hard-rock drilling. The mine's computer-processed
data enabled accurate assessments to be made of cost-
reduction factors in capital investment, parts, labour,
downtime and lubricant usage. Monthly computer
analysis covered total mine usage of all drills for both
the established and the new oil over
(each) 12-month
period.
Records for the established oil covered the l2-month
period from January 1 through December 31, L972.
The records for the new oil ran from July 1, 1973
through June 30, 1974.
Figure 1 illustrates the information contained in a
typical monthly computer print-out, showing mine
usage for each drill (by manufacturer, type and
model), and includes monthly footage drilled, monthly
parts and labour costs, accumulated footage and
monthly unit cost per foot drilled.
Increases in the cost of components for each manu-
facturer's type and model of drill were taken into ac-
count, so that L972 rock drill costs could be related
directly to the cost of drill parts during the test
period with the new oil. A similar adjustment was
TABLE l\ \Average Number of Dria s Used Oaa y Dur:ng Each 12] Month Period\ \Also Average Accumulated Footage
on[ach Type of Drill At the Start of the Tests
Drill Type
Number of Drills ln Service (Daily Average).
Average Accum. Footage per Type At Start of Test
TABLE 2-Repair Costs and Footage Drilled During Each 12-Month Period 0n Jacklegs and Stopers
JACKLECS
STOPERS
Manufacturer Footage Drilled Tota:Cost Unit Cost S/Ft
Estabashed Oli New Oa Estab:ished Oa
Company "A".
Company "B".
Company "A". . .
Company "B". . .
Company "C"
005851
005041
007297
$0_05385
2,995,055
923,082
3,918,137 ft
($)
85,161.59
41,70290
(S)
69,35461
19,44625
(S)
002843
004518
New Oi:
(S)
002336
003068
s126,86449 $88,80086 S003238
TOTAL
1
r
E
1
,
1
Q
1

1 "1
,
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E Ig .k '`l.:`1"i`,

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b I:('1:: !:::1, 11lt tt:: `11M
1:k 11E






w
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g


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g







g
g

h
h

h
h

g
@
g

o
g
O
h
h
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g
g
Estabashed Lubricant"
v an.1-\ Dec.31,1972
"New Lubricant"
July l, 1973
-
June 30, 1974
Estaba shed Oi! New Oi:
2,969,207
663,793
3,603,000 ft $002465
O X
O W
O X
S55,39581 $008664
made in calculating labour costs, to reflect the escala-
tion which took place in this sector.
Table 1 lists the total number and types of drills
used by the mine
-
averaged on a daily basis. It also
indicates the average footage of each drill type, ar-
rived at by dividing the total accumulated footage by
the number of drills in use.
The ratio of drills scrapped to those replaced by new
drills was the same for both test periods; however,
because of the sharp decrease in downtime when the
new oil was used, the mine was able to fulfill its daiiy
drilling quotas with an average of seven fewer drills
per day.
Table 2 shows footage drilled, total drill cost and
unit cost per foot drilled for each make and type of
drill used in the mine (manufacturers
are designated
as "A", "B" and "C"). It will be seen from this table
that, without exception, the new oil outperformed the
established lubricant, the major improvement being
the decrease in unit cost per foot drilled.
Figure 2 illustrates the results, in terms of cost
savings per foot drilled, effected by the use of the
new oil in the following categolies:
(a) bv drill type and manufacturer;
(b) average of each drill type
(jackleg and stoper);
(c) average of all rock drills.
Table 3 indicates the superior performance of the
netv oil in terms of savings in parts and labour.
ESTABL:SHED LUBR:CANT\ DATA COMPILED FROM
M!NE'S MAINTENANCE RECORDS.
CULF ARDEE 30 ROCK DR:LL OIL
DATA FROM
OBSERVED TESTS OVER 12] M- )NTH PERKDD.
FIGUBE 2-Performance analysis of Gulf Ardee oil vs an
established lubricant.
FIGURE 3
-
Oil consumption vs feet drilled
-
new
established rock drill oils.
:l~||::::|:::::::::::::::::::::lll
3.5\
\ \
3.0s
\
\
\
\
\

P
P

|
and
n
Y
S


O
z
j
n

v
n
m
O
O
v



m

n
l
m
Q


U

]
R
]



P
R

Q
]
]
TABLE 3-Test Mine's Total Savings ln Parts and Labour During the Pei'iod
(July 1, 1973'June 30, 1974)
When New Oil Was Used
Unit coSt S/ft
[jl:hie OiT
u
g
[x
~
i l biffertn
Unit Cost
Maintenance Calculation
(footage X difference)
2,969,207~ $0.00507
633,793~ 001450
50,586~ 003522
839,547~ 003227
138,563~ 001938

O 1
lP
Savlngs
using
New Oa
Manufacturer & Drill Types
A
-
Jacklegs.
B
-
Jacklegs .
A
-
Stopen.
B
-
Stopers.
C
-
Stopers. .
6 268 1 0_05041 1 003227
0.|)9235lo.ozzs:10.01938
S15,05388
9,19000
1,781.64
27,09218
2,685.35
Total Mine Savings rn Drrll Repair Costs
$55,80305
C!M Bu!letin,Apri!,1976


STOPER OR t
Results
Surface Downtime
(jackleg drills only)
lncreased FtlGal.
Costof Maior Overhauls
Lower Maintenance Cost
Lower 0il Consumption
Contro:led] Mine
Test
% improvement
308ft/lmp. gal.
Reduction of 82fi
Savings of 0.51/ft
drilled
Decrease42fi
Full-Mine
Analysis
l/5 improvement
235 ftllmp. gal.
Reduction of 60ft
Savings of l.2tlt
drilled
Decrease24fi
l{ote: The difference between these comparisons is due to the use of
stoper drills, which have a higher oil consumption than the
jackleg drills
used exclusively in the controlled test.
The mine experienced a substantial decrease in
downtime, resulting in an over-all drill-maintenance
saving of
$55,803.05
over the one-year test period.
This saving with the new lubricant amounts to L.ZQ,
per foot drilled ($55,803.05 -:- 4,631,696
:
$0.01205).
Table 4 and Figure 3 indicate that the established
oil was used at a rate of one Imperial gallon per 764
feet of drilling. If this oil had been used during the
1973/74 test period, when 4,631,696 feet were drilled,
consumption would have amounted to 6,062 Imperial
gallons. Usage of the new oil, however, was only
4,635 Imperial gallons
-
a saving of 1,427 gallons.
Table 4 also shows that, calculating footage drilled
per gallon of oil used, the new oil afforded an increase
of 235 feet per gallon
-
a 24% increase in productiv-
ity over all types and makes of drill.
Table 5 shows a comparison of results observed in
the controlled-mine field test and the full-mine analy-
sis. Although
jacklegs
only were used in the controlled
test, and both
jacklegs
and stopers of various ma,kes
and types were used in the full-mine analysis, the
results were comparable.
Summary
o Less downtime experienced with the new lubricant
enabled daily drilling
quotas to be met using seven
fewer drills per day (255 vs 262), representing a
decrease in capital costs of approximately
$1,600
for
each
jackleg
with airleg.
o The average footage
per drill accumulated on both
jacklegs
and stopers using the new oil was proved to
be considerably higher; and both types demonstrated
consistently better drilling
performance (see Table 1).
o The unit cost
per foot drilled \ilas lower for every
type and make of drill using the new oil (Table 2 and
Fig. 2).
o The service life of the drill components was also
extended through superior lubrication and wear pro-
tection; the new product brought about a saving of
$55,803.05
in maintenance costs alone in this particu-
lar mine.
o A saving of. L.2(, per foot drilled was realized using
the new lubricant.
. Footage drilled per gallon of oil was increased 31%.
o Oil consumption was lowered bv 24%
-
a decrease
of 1,427 Imperial gallons over a period of 12 months.
Conclusions
The new rock drill oil
-
based on a sulphurized
sperm oil substitute
-
reduced downtime and de-
creased capital outlay for new equipment. It increased
average accumulated footage per drill and kept equip-
ment in service longer. It effected a very substantial
saving in maintenance costs by extending service life
and provided an increase in footage drilled
per gallon
of lubricant used.
The broad parameters of the test programs
-
five
million feet of hard rock drilled by
jacklegs
and
stopers of different types and manufacture
-
offer
convincing evidence as to the superiority of the new
rock drill oil over the established lubricant, in terms
that have real meaning for today's cost-conscious mine
operators.
The manufacturers of this new-generation rock drill
oil are currently carrying out further comparisons
against other established oils, and preliminary results
already indicate definite improvement in performance
and cost savings.
7 th International Coal Preparation Congress
May 23-28, 1976,
Sydney, Australia
THn ssvpNtg International Coal
Preparation Congress will take
place in Australia in May of 1976.
The venue u'ill be the S1'dney Hil-
ton Hotel.
During the week, approximately
30 papers rvill be presented and
92
visits will be arranged to coal pro-
ducing areas in New South Wales.
Post-Congress tours of coal pro-
ducing areas in
Queensland
will
also form an integral part of the
Congress.
In the week preceding the Coal
Congress, the Annual Conference
of the Australasian Institute of
l\{ining and Metallurgy will be held
in Wollongong
(near
Sydney),
which is a coal mining and steel-
making area. Delegates to the Coal
Congress will be invited to attend
this Conference as well.
Further enqiries should be di-
rected to: Congress Secretary, 7th
International Coal Preparation
Congress, Box 3842, G.P.O., Syd-
ney, N.S.W. 2001, Australia.
Deformation of aContact- Metamorphic
Rock Mass atLost River, Alaska
M. L. Jeremic, Associate Professor of
Departrnent cf Mineral Engineering,
The UniverslW of Alberta,
Edmonton, Alberta
Abstract
The generally accepted principles
of rock mechanics are used, to erplain
the
failure
mechnnism of a contact-
metamot'phic rock mass complen un-
dergoing ellipse stress d,ef ormation.
The inoestigation 1oo,s based on
structural data collected in the
finld
and obtained
from
old mining ond
erploration repotts and studies. The
o,pproach used. analllzes the rock-mass
mechanics resdting
from
a Creta-
ceous geological eaent. It
follows
a
sfress ell'ipse mod,el based on tha
tectonic
forces,
the geometry of the
rock structure and natural stress i'tt-
duced. bg the structural clilation.
The role of geological structure
and. ind.uced, stress 'in detar.rnining the
mechanism and nature of deforma-
tion bears on open-pit mini.ng opera-
tions. Their influence on the stability
of the possible open-pit mine deserues
carefttl attention.
Location
Lost Rwen is located in the Seward
Peninsula, Alaska, 80 miles south
of the Arctic Circle, about 90 miles
northwest of Nome (a principal
distributirrg center of the Seward
Peninsula) and approximately 6
miles inland from the Bering Sea
(Fie.
1). The area is isolated and
climatic conditions are severe.
Summary of Geology
The geology of the Lost River
area has been described in detail
Mining,
by Sainsburyt''
".
A sumrnary of
the principal geological features is
given below.
GENEHAL GEOLOCY
The geological and structural de-
velopment of the Lost River area
is a product of the Alaskan oro-
geny(').
The oldest rocks may range from
Precambrian to Cambrian in age.
They are unfossiliferous shales and
graywackes that gradually change
to thin-bedded argillaceous lime-
stones. These sediments are mostly
folded and metamorphosed. They
are intruded by rocks of gabbroic
composition of nnknown age.
The early limestone series is suc-
ceeded by marine limestones and
sediments, all dated as Ordovician.
The lower Ordovician limestone
(Fig.
2) was initially deposited in
a shallorv geosyncline. but during
subsidence the sedimentation con-
tinued in a deep marine basin. The
stibsidence was follo'wed by deep
fracturing, basic magmatic intru-
sions and submarine volcanic ex-
halations rich in fluorine. Con-
formable Middle Ordovician sedi-
mentary rocks overlie the lower
Ordovician rock unit and underlie
the Upper Ordovician limestone.
A long time after the close of
sedimentation, and probably in the
Post Ordovician and pre-Upper
FIGURE 1
-
Location of Lost Biver,
Alaska.
Cretaceous period, the entire se-
qLlence of earlier rocks was folded
and broken by thrust faulting.
Granites and related acidic dykes
rvere intruded in the Upper Cre-
taceous. Granite intrusion took
place in structures marked by re-
current deep fracturing(n). The ex-
tensive metamorphism and mineral
deposition date from this period.
Rock-mass deformation is con-
trolled by two intersecting fracture
systems
-
one northeast and the
other northwest.
In Tertiary time, the last phase
of significant igneous activity was
marked by intrusions of lampro-
phyre dykes and by hydrothermal
ing, exploration
(1953-1956). He
M. L. Jeremic obtained Dipl. IVIin. Eng.
(1950), Dipl. Geol. Eng. (1957) and
Dr. Sc. (1961) desrees from Belgrade
University and a Habil. Post-doctoral
degree (1962) from Sarajevo Univer-
sity in Yugoslavia. He holcis a State
Exam for an artthorized mining engi-
neer (1953).
Dr. Jeremic held underground man-
agerial posts with the Zenica Coal
Mine in Yugoslavia, (1950-1953) and
with the Mining Group for the open-
and development of mineral deposits
served the Federal and Provincial Gov-
of l\Iining, Tuzla (1962-1967).
He was visiting Professor in Rock Mechanics at Imperial
College, London, U.K. (1968). Later, he went to Central
Africa (1968-1969). He
joined Lost River Mining Corpora-
tion as chief geologist and chief engineer (1.970-1972). He
was a consultant in Toronto, working for various mining
companies in northwestern Ontario and Nova Scotia
(L972-1974). In 1974, Dr. Jeremic was appointed as Asso-
ciate Professor of Mining at the Department of Mineral
Engineering, University of Alberta.
He is the author of 55 papers on economic geology, tnin-
eral economics, mining and rock mechanics, and is a
member of CIM, APEO and APEGGA.
Keywords: Rock mechanics, Open-pit mining, Lost River
Mining Corporation, Contact-metamorphic rocks, Stress
ellipse, Structural geology.
ernment Departments, and he was head of Geology and
Mining (1956-1962). He
joined
the University
(Saraje-
vo and Belgrade) and was Professor of Geoiogy and l\{in-
ing; he was later Associate Dean and Dean of the Facuity
CIM Bulletin, April, 1976
FIGURE 2-Lower Ordovician limestone at the
along the fractures and fault zone.
Lost River Valley, deeply eroded
mineral deposition controlled by
the rejuvenated fractures.
Block faulting post-dates min-
eral deposition, but is older than
the Pleistocene uplifts. This fault-
ing significantly displaced the Or-
dovieian sedimentary rocks. For
example, the Lost River fault
caused a horizontal displacement of
almost 2 miles (Fig. 3). Normal
faulting later obseured the older
structural features.
The Pleistocene period is marked
by glacial and alluvial deposition.
Weathering and erosion of surface
material has been intensive along
the fractured zones, Ieading to the
development of river and creek
valleys.
MINERAL DEPOSITS
The fracture systems which in-
fluenced emplacement of the
granite have acted as conduits for
solution transport as well as for the
magma which formed the dykes.
Differential pressure during the
Iate intrusion stages caused activa-
tion of individual conduits over an
extended time interval. The result
was preferential emplacement of
individual mineral deposits. A spa-
tial and temporal relatlonship in-
volving the intersecting granfte
cupola, the fracture zones and the
mineralization of the host lime-
stone is illustrated in Figure 4.
The intensity of mineralization is
inversely proportional to the dis-
tance from the structural foci.
The fracture sets in the north-
east direction were available as
channelways for pneumatolitic solu-
tions rich in tin. Tin ore shoots are
surrounded by a quartz-cassiterite
stockwork with a radius of about
1000 feet.
Locally, a halo of greisen was
produced from the border phase of
the granite itself. Greisen is a hard
rock, rich in cassiterite and poor
in fluorite. This probably repre-
sents the final sequence of the first
phase of mineralization.
The fracture sets in the north-
west direction were available as
channelways for the second phase
of mineralization, which was rich
in fluorine and tungsten. Fluorite
skarn orebodies could be considered
as a rock alteration following em-
placement of irregular tungsten
veins, steeply dipping to the west.
At intersections of both fracture
sets, chimney-like fluorite bodies
occur. They probably belong to the
third phase of mineralization,
rvhich was rich in fluorine. The
grade of ore depends on the inten-
FIGURE 3
-
Geological-structural map of the Lost
94
GEOLOCICAL W AP OF THE
LOST RIVER AREA
ALASKA
U.S.A.
(Composed by Data of
Dr. C.L. Sainsburv &
Dr. M. Jeremic)
B 1/2 : F m.
1 1 1 1
-
__
_ _

RAPID RIVER
THRUST FAULT
TANGENTIAL FAULT
LOST RIVER FAULT
HIGH ANGLE FAULT
STRIKE AND DIP OF
LIMESTONE
|E

:}u

w
A 20C
M
A
15
1
A
20
R
R
Tin
C reek
] PLEISTOCENE
E=] ORDOVICIAN LIMESTONE
EI] CONTACT METAMORPHYC
ROCK
j ] RHYOLITE DIKE
EO] GRANITE
River area
20

|
l

oB R
lQxL 0
:?0(
}l"ggtr rs'

B

_
10
R
U

]
]
22
R W
o
R
A
sity of metasomatic replacement of
the carbonate mass bY fluorite. A
halo
(fluorite stockwork) is formed
around the orebody, with a radius
of at least 3000 feet. Fluorite min-
eralization is disseminated, filling
small fractures and cracks.
As a final sequence of this third
nrineral
phase, mineral solutions
moved outward from the contact-
metamorphic complex, forming me-
sothermal fluorite and polymetallic
veins at an appreciable distance
from the
granite cuPola.
Rock-Mass Mechanics
The present structural features
rvere caused by an elliptically di-
rected stress of the contact-meta-
morphic rock mass comPlex at Lost
River, during a Cretaceous tectonic
event. This deformation has signif-
icance when considering ore control
and structural stabilitY of any
proposed mine.
TECTONIC STRESS FIELDS
Tectonic stress fields which
caused an ellipse stress deforma-
tion in the limestone were formed
by natural stress phenomena.
Kinetic
f
orces were
generated
by the crustal movement which
caused the intrusion of granite
magma. Magma flow took place in
country rock of the Lower Ordo-
vician limestone and was controlled
by recurrent deep fractures. These
deep fractures were responsible for
forming a narrotv east-west belt of
granite intrusions and extrusions
in the continental phase of the
Alaskan orogenesis. Analyzing the
relation between roofing sediments
and granite cupolas, it is
Possible
to assume the direction of action
of the magma flow and the kinetic
stress field orientation
(Fig. 5)'
It is suggested that these forces
caused a compressive and tensile
stress field in the longitudinal and
horizontal planes, and a confining
pressure in cross section.
From further analysis of how
this stress development affected
the limestone country rock, it can
be assumed that two kinds of stress
patterns were formed locally. First,
radial pressure around
granite in-
trusions in the country rock in-
duced a stress field which exceeded
the strength of the rocks and was
released by radial fracturing
(Fig.
6). Second, compressive and" ten-
sile pressure above the granite cu-
pola in the country rock formed an
ellipse stress field which exceeded
the strength of the limestone and
CIM Bulletin, April, 1976
FIGURE 4-The model of the contact-metasomatic rock mass at Lost River, with
accompanying mineral distribution.
|
|
[
FIGURE 5
-
Model of the regional tectonic stress field
was released by intersecting frac-
turing and tangential faulting
(Fig. 6). In both cases, the lime-
stone fracturing
probably occurred
under a plastic, or at least elasto-
plastic, condition of the rock media.
This theory.is supported bY the re-
sults of a uniaxial teat.
Radial stress deformations are
of local sigrificance and are located
only around
granite intrusions.
Radial fractures do not control
mineral deposition and are of lim-
ited extent. For this reason, a de-
taiieLl explanation of radial frac-
ture is not necessarY. HorveYer,
//v
/
ERODED
/ //
/
/tf
(m
/
/
M
-__
/\
m
m


Z Co92 5-lOt
||!llllll
Limestmc
Tensional
Flow Force
Upiifting
F:ow Force
u

/
O ronit. - Koolinited
being a dominant feature in both
controlling
mineral deposition and
in the control of the strength and
stability of the rock mass("), the
ellipse stress deformation will be
explained in detail.
AN ELLIPSE STRESS FIELD
An ellipse stress analysis is usu-
ally represented in analytical terms
by the vector and tensor mag-
nitudes. The total tangential stress
r p.) on the surface of an ellipse
stress at the point n is composed
of normal stress (o") and shear
stress
(2"), given by
o"
:
t/{74-
rvhere the half-ellipse axes are
principal stresses, given that
6o
:
6r cos2
6 * oy sin'$
".
: (o,
-
o") sing cosg
From these equations, failure
eonditions can be determined. The
criterion of the ellipse of deforma-
tion at Lost River, determined from
the reconstructed
geometrY of the
stnrcture network, is suggested be-
Lr\\'i
x:2y c:2oy
6:20'
oo
:
3oy (cos'z6
1 s1nr6;
o'
:
3oy
I
^.
o"
:
T
oy Sln irq)
t"
:
0.33 o"
Under this stress criterion, the
quality and quantity of the failure
network in the Lost River rock
mass was possibly formed.
Rock Mass Failure
By analysis of the ellipse stress,
it is possible to visualize the geo-
metry of the structure and from it
to reconstruct a rock failure me-
chanism'"). This is shown in Fig-
ure 7, in which a model of the
ellipse deformation has been as-
sumed, reconstructed on the basis
of the present structural features
at Lost River Valley. At present,
the structural features of the el-
lipse deformation are displaced
along a younger normal fault (Lost
River fault).
The two-dimensional elliptical de-
formation, represented by frac-
tures and faults, is related to the
stresses acting on the rock masstt'.
BUPTUHE SETS
Rupture sets are formed within
the elliptically strained rock mass,
and they are as described below.
(i)
Rupture set N 60o
-
80oE
represents a rosette of fracturing
developed along the maximal nor-
mal stress. Its maximum is in the
direction N 70oE, at an angle of
20 degrees with the major ellipse
axis. The breccia fracture develop-
ment suggests that it was formed
under a shear stress field. Open
fractures are brecciated from the
granite through the limestone, with
alteration due to oxidation. The
breccia cement is mostly limonite
and calcite, recemented during later
movement. This main fracture con-
trols the Ida Bell dyke, which has
a thickness of up to nearly 50 feet
and a near vertical dip. Parallel or
approximately parallel to it, numer-
ous echelonned shorter fractures
have developed, partially injected
by dyke material and highly brec-
ciated, ranging from several milli-
meters to 1 foot thick. A further
extension is the development of in-
numerable cracks which are filled
by mineral material. This struc-
tural unit represents a widely frac-
tured and brecciated zone. This
zone controls the metamorphosed
limestone, rvhich has been replaced
in part or wholly by tactite and
fluorite, and highly kaolinized and
mineralized granite.
(ii) Rupture Set N 10o-30oW.
This fracture rosette set was also
caused by a shear stress field, in
the direction N 20"W. For this
fracture set, the characteristic de-
formation is by limited faulting
and sliding with shear displace-
ment. The extent of the fracture
opening is one-third of the brec-
ciated shear structure. The rupture
set N 10"
-
30'W primarily con-
trols the Cassiterite dyke, which
has a thickness of up to 20 feet
and dips very steeply to the south.
This fracture set caused small dis-
placements of the rock mass, and
a large number of slickensides are
developed locally. The slickensides
are either vertical or dip to the
south with an angle of 60 to 90
degrees. This set also controls grei-
sen mineralization and tin mineral-
ization (pipe and stockwork). The
fluorite occurs with wide dissemin-
ation in numerous small veinlets.
From analysis of the fluorite min-
eralization of the zone of deforma-
tion, it could be concluded that the
fracture system surrounding the
Cassiterite dyke is of a larger ex-
tent than the brecciated set sur-
rounding the Ida Bella dyke.
FIGURE 6-Model of induced radial stress and an ellipse stress field-(a) cross
section and plan of development of radial and compressive stress: (b) development
of tensile stress: (c) development of an ellipse stress.
96
(iii)
The Intersected RuPture
Pattern is the main
junction be-
tween the two fracture sets de-
scribed above in the Cassiterite
Creek valley below the old tin mine.
The intruded fractures of both
dykes
'continue
unbroken and prove
conclusively that injection of the
dykes took place after fracturing.
The angle of intersection betweer'
the general trend of the two frac-
ture systems is about 40 degrees,
but locally it can be in the range
of 20 to 60' degrees. The
junction
between the fracture sets caused a
fairly broken rock mass, therebY
decreasing its strength. This inter-
sected zone of the fracture system
represents the location of economic-
al mineralization as well as the
possible site of a future oPen-Pit
mine.
TANGENTIAL FRACTURES
Tangential fractures are de-
veloped on the boundary of the el-
Iiptically strained rock mass. The
fault mechanics are related to the
tangential stress acting on the cur-
vature of defcrmation. This defor-
mation is mainly limited to vertical
displacement of the rock mass.
These fault structures are injected
by dykes of moderate thickness or
filled in by gouge material rich in
fluorite derived from the fluor-
itized limestone under pressure and
temperature due to kinematic pro-
cesses.
In relation to the geometry of
an ellipse stress, two seis of tan-
gential faults were developed as
follows:
(i)
The tangential fracture set in
the direction N 55o
-
85oE is
delineated in the field by the Bon-
ton dyke swarm at Tin Creek and
the Bassie Maple fault zone. The
rock displacement along these
faults is unknown.
(ii)
The tangential fracture set
in the direction N 5o
-
35oW is
partially a northern fault zone ex-
posed in the upper valley of Cas-
siterite Creek. This fault divided,
and vertically displaced, two meta-
morphic complexes, one at Lost
River and another at Dalcoath
dyke. The southern tangential fault
zone is marked by the exposure of
discontinuous dykes with a thiek-
ness of up to 1 foot.
Both sets of tangential frac-
tures are barren and do not eontrol
mineral deposition. These fault sets
frame the rock mass containing the
contact-metamorphic complex in a
tectonic unit which has been ver-
tically displaced perhaps by several
hundred feet.
CIM Bulletin, April, 1976
Natural Stress
of the Rock Mass
The natural stress of the contact-
metamorphic rock mass above the
granite cupola at Lost }liver is
cornposed of several mecharlical
phenornena, rvhich acted in various
geological events. The stress is
probably controlled by the general
deformation network and behaviour
of the various rock tlpes. This fact
suggests that laws of rock mechan-
ics have to be used in their relative
order of importance in the design
of a future open-pit mine. For this
reason, an analysis of the rock me-
chanics phenomena has been con-
FIGURE 7-Model of an ellipse deformation:
(a) geometry of an ellipse deforma-
tion;
(b) reconstructed structural
pattgrl before displacement;
(c) horizontally
displaied structure pattern of ellipse deformation.
C
@
@


A

oif"
Tin creek
97
S

@


t
FIGUBE 8-The model of the residual and induced stress develooment in the
rock mass which might be subject to excavation by open-pit minini.
ducted as a function of the struc-
ture of the rock mass, which also
delineates open-pit geometry and
slope stability. The main outline of
this research is presented below.
RESIDUAL STRESS
It is evident that tectonic forces
stored very high energy in the
form of an ellipse strain within the
rock mass. In addition, the rock
mass was restrained a great deal
by fracturing. Due to its granular
nature, however, the rock had to
have stored residual strain energy,
s'hich has a tendency to be concen-
trated within the network of slips
(tensile
fracturing) on the local
FIGURE 9
-
The rock structure ex-
posing intersected and echelonned
fracture and cracks.
(Bank
of Cassi-
terite Creek.)
98
curvilinear surfaces. These sur-
faces are called planes of preferred
shear, as they are planes along
rvhich the rock will crack prefer-
entially. This phenomenon has been
tested in core samples, and from
the results it could be concluded
that the rock mass stability does
not quite relate to the physical
strength of the rock, due to the re-
sidual stress existing in fractured
blocks of rock ranging from hand
specimens to blocks several feet
across.
The residual shear zone could be
determined from the visual evi-
dence of the failure set tvith the
northwest strike. This structure
represents the planes
in which
the shear stress has been relieved
to some extent by fracturing. The
failed material is not, however, the
most critical region in the rock
mass. This might occur at some
less relieved rock sections. where
new failure could more likely occur.
This phenomenon has been ob-
served on a macro scale on the
road constructed for access to the
diamond-drill-hole site in the lime-
stone, which appears to be "compe-
tent".
The only safe way to obtain de-
sign data for the open pit is to
measure the stored shear strain
energy in the area of the observed
shear zone.
INDUCED STBESS
At Lost River, the induced stress
f ield has two developments. The
first, on a large scale, is the in-
duced stress in the Ordovician rock
mass formed by the intersecting
shear ruptures (Cassiterite
and Ida
Bell dyke) and tangential faults.
This induced stress field differs
from rock type to rock type and
from point to point within the
same rock mass. The stress mag-
nitude and its direction change de-
pending
on the nature of the frac-
ture network of the rock rnass. The
stress field is distorted locally by
the ore plugs,
which create new
local stress patterns. The second
induced stress field, caused by an
orebody, is on a smaller scale with
only local development. Ttre shape
of the orebody controls the induced
force, because there is a relation-
ship between the morphology of the
opening and the stress pattern
around it. It would be desirable to
mine only the orebody, so that the
adverse consequences of the stress
field induced by the mineral de-
posits
would be avoided. This is
not possible,
however, and the final
geometry
of the open-pit mine
would depend on the cut-off grade,
the ore-to-waste ratio, the strength
of the rock mass, the intensity and
extent of induced stress fields, and
the transitional stress formed by
mining operations.
For example, if the orebody at
Lost River is delineated on the
basis of a cut-off grade of 20/6
CaFr, including internal waste of
fluoritized limestone (Fig.
8), it is
possible
to avoid much of the dam-
aging influence of the stress field
induced by the orebody. On the
other hand, a large open pit with
a very low average fluorite gtade
would be fully exposed to the stress
field induced by the orebody and
by the dyke in the surrounding
rock mass, which would also be
subject to excavation.
OPEN.PIT ROCK MECHANICS
The natural stress field is con-
sidered to be the inherent strain of
the rock mass prior
to any excava-
tion. Usually the natural stress
field is a very complex problem.
At this point, it will be analyzed
in simplified terms as much as
possible.
In addition, the descrip-
tion of the principal
stress field
will be very brief, because this is
well documented elsewhere in the
literature. The influence of the
stress complex on open-pit stability
is briefly described as follows.
(a) Residual tectonic stress, in our
opinion, would have no direct in-
fluence on the pit
stability, but
would indirectly influence the di-
rection, distribution
and perhaps
the magnitude
of the shear stress
created around the open pit by ex-
\
cavation of the rock mass. A newlY
developed shear stress will tend to
align itself with the residual shear
stress, which could cause an ac-
celerating shear strain, producing
cracks and displacement along
planes of preferred sheart'). In this
case, the development of vertical or
steeply dipping shear failures
along the north and south sides Pf
the longitudinal
pit sloPes could
be expected. This fact maY be wor-
sened by fracturing, where the in-
tersected and echelonned fracture
network would be more or less
elongated with the pit sloPes in
the east-wes[ directiou
(Fig. 9).
(b)
The in<iuced stress field at
Lost River is mainly related to the
orebody plug. Whatever the rela-
tionship among orebody shaPe, in-
duced stress field and
Pit
geome-
try, it is obvious that rock excava-
tion will be done in the induced
stress field, thereby affecting the
pit slope stability. During excava-
tion, relaxation of the strained rock
mass will occur toward the
Pit.
These outward-acting forces would
cause bending-moment stresses
and ultimately deflection will occur
into the pit rvhen these forces are
no longer in equilibrium. Thus, as
the pit develops the tendencY for
slope failure would become
great-
er"). It would probablY be neces-
.sary, therefore, to reduce the
Pit
slope as depth increases to avoid
slope instability. In anY case, in-
situ stress measurements would
.show the validitl' of this assump-
t ionte).
(
cr) The lateral stress field de-
veloped from erosion effects which
formed Cassiterite Creek valleY,
rvhich would pass through a future
open pit. The effect of lateral
stress ntay be increased by the fact
that the bottom of the Pit
is a gen-
erally slightly to moderately kaolin-
ized granite mass, rvith some areas
highly kaolinized. The east and
rvest pit wall would be particularly
affected
(Fig. 10). In this case, it
would be expected that the
Pit
wall
rvould tend to deflect down the diP
and slide on the
granite base. The
slope should therefore be flattened
tr: obtain a stable Pit
wall,
Partic-
rilarly at depth.
Finally, it should be mentioned
that the rock mass rePresents a
fairly broken comPlex, which is ce-
mented by metamorPhic Processes
and mineral deposition. The
strength of this cement, however,
is below that of the cemented
rock blocks, and the rock mass
rvill be sheared aiong these
joint
planes. Due to the arctic con-
CIM Bulletin, APril, 1976
FIGURE 10-Model of the section of the lateral pressure (L.P') on the proiected
pit wall.
ditions, the whole rock mass is
Per-
manently frozen. This factor has
strengthened the rock mass as a
whole to some extent, which is an
advantageous
parameter for event-
ual pit design. In the summer' a
thin surface layer melts and will
slide along the sloPe of the oPen
pit.
Conclusions
Considering tectonic stress as a
cause, and
geometry of structure
features as an effect, it has been
possible to determine the mechan-
ism of the rock-mass deformation.
Structural feaittres are of funda-
mental significance not only for
exploration and delineation of the
mineral deposits, but also for the
determination of induced natural
stress in the rock mass, which di-
rectly relates to the stability of the
open pit.
The design of an oPen
Pit
can be
more rational if the mechanics of
structure formation and the me-
chauics of natural stress within
the rock mass are eonsidered. In-
sittt measurements made during ex-
cavation could result in a reason-
able estimation of the transient
stress, thus
permitting the control
and tnaintenance of a stable sloPe
in both the
Pit
and individual
benches.
It would not be exPected that an
eventual oPen Pit
would have the
same slope angle all around, as well
as at the different
levels, because
the rock-mass structure and the
natural stress
pattern are change-
able.
On the basis of the knorvledge of
the rock mechanies ot' the open pit'
it rvould be possible to establish a
set of optimal slopes around the pit
and also to avoid over-sloPing the
pit, thereby avoiding the excava-
tion of larger amounts of waste
than neeessary.
Acknowledgments
The author is grateful to Dr.
N. R. Morgenstern, Professor of
Civil Engineering, and to Dr. R. E.
Folinsbee, Professor of GeologY,
University of Alberta, for their
suggestions and advice.
References
(1) Sainsbury, C. L., GeologY of
[,oqt '
River Mlne Area, Alaska, U.S.
Geological Survey Bulletin 7129
( 1964
).
( 2 t Sainsbury, C. L., GeoIogY and
Ore Deposits of the Central York
Mountains, Western Seward Pe-
ninsula, Alaska, U.S. Geolog:ical
Survey' Bulletin 1287 (1968).-
tg) Harriid. G.. Tectonics and Cre
'
Depositd in-Alaska, AIME Con-
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