Guide to writing a psychology lab report

School of Psychology, University of Western Australia

Clare Mein, Shannon Byrne, Chiara Horlin and Romola Bucks
for the undergraduate unit PSYC1101 Mind and Brain (2012, 4
th
ed.). Revised by
Andrew Page and Adelln Sng


CONTENTS

APA style . 3
The research report ... 4
Title ... 5
Coversheet ................................................................................................ 5
Abstract . 6
Introduction . 7
Method . 10
Results . 11
Discussion . 15
Referencing . 18
Formatting . 22
Writing style . 27
Bibliography . 29

3


APA STYLE (6
th
Edition)
APA style is the format and style requirements outlined in the Publication Manual of the
American Psychological Association (APA). It is simply a set of standardised guidelines for
setting out your written work. It covers format, structure, punctuation, spelling,
abbreviations and referencing. APA style is accepted worldwide as the standard for writing
in the discipline of psychology.
Standardising the writing style across the discipline of psychology means consistency
between papers. When everyone uses the same style conventions it makes it easy for a
reader to understand what has been written and compare one set of findings with other
findings.
As a student of psychology, APA style guidelines also apply to you. At this introductory
level, you are expected to apply at least the key elements of APA style.


4


THE RESEARCH REPORT
What is a research report?
The aim of a research report is to explain a study that you have conducted. It tells a reader
why you did the experiment, how you did it, what you found and what the results mean.
Structure of a research report
A research report has a set structure that must be followed. You are disseminating to others
the results of an original experiment; you are contributing to psychological knowledge. Your
report therefore needs to adhere to the same conventions that all other researchers use
when reporting their results.
Your research report will have these main sections:
Title
Outline the relationship between the key variables or highlight the main issue
Abstract
Give a very concise overview of the contents of your report
Introduction
Critically evaluate past research
Explain why you conducted the study
Describe what you expected to find
Method
Describe how you conducted the study
Results
Report what you found
Discussion
Suggest some conclusions that one might draw from your findings
Reference list
Provide a list of the sources you have cited in your report.


RULE OF THUMB
Your Introduction and Discussion sections should each make up about a
third of the word count. Your Method and Results sections, combined,
should make up the remaining third.
5


TITLE
Your title should be no more than 10-15 words long. Aim to summarise the main idea so
your reader can quickly comprehend what your report is about.
A good title should either outline the relationship between the key variables or highlight the
main issue.
Some examples of good titles from UWA researchers:
The Relationship between motor coordination, executive functioning
and attention in school aged children.
From brief gaps to very long pauses: Temporal isolation does not benefit serial recall.
The effects of diazepam on cognitive processing.
The influence of phoneme position overlap on the
phonemic similarity effect in nonword recall.
Intelligence and development: A cognitive theory
Attractiveness in men does not provide cues to semen quality
Effects of a red background on magnocellular functioning
in average and specifically disabled readers
Anxiety and the allocation of attention to threat
Automatic and controlled activation of stereotypes:
Individual differences associated with prejudice
COVERSHEET
Your lab report must include a coversheet that contains the following information;
a. Your full name
b. Your student number
c. The title of your lab report
d. An EXACT word count
e. A signed (initialled) declaration of originality
A coversheet template is available on LMS for you to copy and paste into the front page of
your lab report.


RULE OF THUMB
Avoid unnecessary words like "A Report on a Study of . . ."
or "An Experiment to Examine . . ."

6


ABSTRACT
An abstract is a very concise overview of the contents of your report. It should be no longer
than 120 words. A good abstract should:
a. Define the research problem
b. Outline your method
c. Describe key findings
d. Discuss key implications
You may notice that these key points correspond to information from/a summary of each
section of the report.
Some examples of good abstracts:

Abstract
The emphasis on greater intra and inter-disciplinary collaboration in Australian
universities has stimulated research in to strategies of facilitation success in cooperative
endeavours in the research sector. Sixty-six academics, making up 33 collaborative
dyads, were jointly exposed to humorous or bland audio-visual material over a period of
eight weeks. Those jointly exposed to the humorous material reported significantly
higher ratings of enjoyment and productivity in the collaboration, but no significant
difference in perceived satisfaction. Implications for further research are discussed,
particularly the need for the development and implementation of an objective,
standardized measure of productivity.

Abstract
This study examined the effects of short-term food deprivation on two cognitive
abilities: concentration and perseverance. Undergraduate students (N = 51) were tested
on a concentration task and a perseverance task after one of three levels of food
deprivation: none, 12 hours, or 24 hours. It was predicted that food deprivation would
impair both concentration scores and perseverance time. Food deprivation had no
significant effect on concentration scores. Participants in the 12-hour deprivation group
spent significantly less time on the perseverance task than those in both the control and
24-hour deprivation groups, suggesting that short-term deprivation may affect some
aspects of cognition and not others.

TIP
You may find it easier to come back and write the Abstract after you have
written the report, when your experiment and its results and
implications are clear in your mind.

YOUR ABSTRACT WILL BE GIVEN A MARK OUT OF 5
Have you concisely summarised your studys rationale, method,
findings and implications? Have you stuck to the 120 word limit?


7


INTRODUCTION
Think of your introduction as a funnel into your experiment. You start relatively broad and
general, by introducing your topic and mentioning relevant background information. Then
narrow down to explain theories and empirical findings especially relevant to your
experiment. Then narrow down further to point out gaps in the exisiting research literature
and establish the rationale for conducting your particular experiment. Then finish by very
specifically stating your aims and hypotheses.


















Provide background information
Introduce the topic your study addresses and the theoretical framework that underlies your
study. Define any key terms you will be using.
Review relevant literature
Outline previous studies done in the area, their findings and conclusions. Only go into detail
about those studies that are central to understanding why you did your experiment.
Avoid providing a shopping list of studies (e.g. Study A did this. Study B did that. Then
Study C did this). Instead, try and identify common themes/findings from the studies (e.g.
Studies A and B found this... However Study C found the opposite).
Start general

Finish specific


Specific
8


Establish your rationale
Based on your review of the literature, you need to state how your study will add to the
current body of knowledge. State what is already known from previous research. Then,
state the questions that remain unanswered and how you research will contribute beyond
what is already known.
State your aims
Tell your reader exactly what you are investigating. What are you interested in finding out?
For example:
This study aimed to determine whether same-sex friends are more similar than same-sex
strangers in their attitudes.
State your hypotheses
A hypothesis is an (informed) guess about how the world is. Hypotheses are often expressed
in a form such as It was hypothesised that .... Before you conducted the experiment, what
did you think the answer to your research question was?
It was hypothesised that same-sex friends would have more similar attitudes to the
environment, abortion, multiculturalism, and law and order than would same-sex strangers.








REMEMBER
Everything about the participants and what you did in the experimental session
belongs in your Method section, not in the Introduction.

YOUR INTRODUCTION WILL BE GIVEN A MARK OUT OF 20
Have you clearly introduced the motivation for the experiment? Does
your introduction culminate in a statement of the hypotheses?
REMEMBER
Your lab report title is the heading for your Introduction section.
There is no heading Introduction

9


WHATS IN AN AIM?
When writing your introduction, its easy to get confused between
your aim, your hypothesis and your experimental predictions. Heres a
rough guide to distinguishing these concepts.

Aim
Your aim is what you are interested in finding out. Youll often use the
word whether when writing your aim.
This study aimed to determine whether anxiety is associated with an
attentional bias to threat.
Hypothesis
Your hypothesis is your informed guess about how the world is.
It was hypothesised that social trait anxiety is characterised by
enhanced attentional engagement with threat.
Prediction
Your prediction (or expectation) is what you expect to happen in your
experiment if your hypothesis was true/correct.
It was expected that people with high trait anxiety would react faster
to images of angry faces than would those with low trait anxiety.
10


METHOD
The purpose of the method is to explain how you conducted your study. The Method
usually contains three sections: Participants, Materials and Procedure.
Participants
Who participated in your study? How many people completed the experiment?
Include information that demonstrates the degree to which your sample is generalisable to
the wider population; such as age, gender ratios, level of education, nationality. Some of
this information will not be relevant to the variables that you are investigating in your study,
and do not have to be reported. Do not include guesses about the demographic
characteristics of your sample if these characteristics were not measured.
Mention how your participants came to be involved in the study (e.g., were they volunteers
recruited from nursing homes via an advertisement, undergraduate students who took part
as a course requirement, inpatients from a particular hospital who were referred by their
doctor?)
Were there any selection criteria? (e.g., were participants screened for anxiety level? Did
they have to meet criteria for a particular disorder? Did they have to be a particular gender,
age or ethnicity?)
Materials
What materials did you use in the study? Describe any standardised tasks or questionnaires
your participants completed.
Include information about any unusual items or specialist equipment you used (e.g., audio
recording equipment). Theres no need to provide details about common items such as
pens, pencils, chairs For example, it may be important to mention that participants
completed a task at a computer, but only include details about the computers brand,
speed, screen resolution and size if it is relevant.
Procedure
What did the participants do? In what order? Include information such as how participants
were divided into groups, the instructions they were given, the tasks they performed.
REMEMBER
Your Method section is concerned only with what you and the participants did
during the experimental session. Any mention of your results should be saved
for the Results section.

YOUR METHOD SECTION WILL BE GIVEN A MARK OUT OF 20
Is your method divided into appropriate sections? Could someone
replicate this experiment, based on what you have written here?
RULE OF THUMB
There should be sufficient detail in your Method section that the reader could
replicate your experiment. BUT do not include every detail only what is relevant.
co9in

11


RESULTS
The purpose of the Results section is to present, but not yet discuss, the outcome of your
experiment. What did you find?
Present descriptive statistics
Present the means, standard deviations and standard error for the major variables.
To do this, either write the results in the text OR use a table OR a figure, but remember to
report the actual data only once. You must choose which format presents the data to the
reader in the most accessible way. Think about which you would find easier to interpret.
Pictures are often quicker to process, so it may be best to choose a figure over a table
whenever possible. Tables and figures are usually better than giving lots of numbers in the
text.
However, all figures and tables must be introduced and discussed in the text. Point out the
important patterns in the data, but do not repeat the specific numbers in your text (as they
are already in your table or figure).
For example:
Figure 1 shows that participants with Obsessive Compulsive Disorder scored more highly
on the BDI than participants with Generalised Anxiety Disorder.


REMEMBER
You dont need to present every participants score. When you present
descriptive statistics (means and standard deviations etc.) you are
summarising the raw data for your reader.
REMEMBER
In your Results section, you are concerned only with numbers and
patterns in your data. Do not say here what you think the data mean
about people and the world. This goes in your Discussion.


12


Report inferential statistics
There are different types of inferential statistics that you may have to report when
presenting your findings in the results section. The inferential statistic(s) that we choose
depends on the research question.

Reporting group differences.
You may wish to use a figure or a table here to illustrate group differences. In addition,
you should describe in the text:
a. Which group mean (or average) is bigger? By how many units?
b. State whether it is likely to be a real difference between the two groups scores
(consider the degree of overlap between the separate distributions of scores).

Reporting associations between variables
You may wish to use a figure or a table here to present correlations. In addition, you
should describe in the text:
a. What you are correlating with and why.
b. Whether there is an association between these two variables. In which
direction?
c. How strong is the association? State how much of the variance in scores on
your second variable is explained by scores on your first variable.



TIP.
If you are confused about standard deviation, standard error or other statistics,
dont worry, you will learn how to analyse your data in your Week 4 tutorial.

TIP.
For more information about correlations, go to the Bernstein link on LMS, select
Chapter 2 and then select Connect the Dots.

13


Formatting tables
Tables are a clear way to present lots of data. Your table should help to illustrate your
narrative it shouldnt repeat what is said in the text. Avoid using a table if your data could
be presented more succinctly in a couple of sentences.
For tables, APA format stipulates you:
- Use Times New Roman font, size 12pt
- Double space your whole table, including the title.
- Put a label and number above your table (e.g., Table 1 )
- Give your table a title. This should be a concise description of the data it presents.
Use italics.
- Put an unbroken horizontal cell border under the title, under the row headers, and
under the last row of the table.
- If you present means, include standard deviation

Table 1
Means (SD) for the distracted and control groups on two working memory tasks.
Distracted group Control group
Task A 37.3 (4.9) 60.7 (5.2)
Task B 40.5 (6.7) 78.0 (9.2)














RULE OF THUMB
Place your table or figure close to (preferably immediately after) the text that refers to it.
TIP
Check your table: Is the table necessary? Have you introduced and discussed the table in the text?
Are all the tables in your report presented consistently? Are all abbreviations explained?
Are the table and title of the table together on the same page?
TIP
Use the Insert Table command in Windows (or download
this table from LMS to use as a template).
YOUR RESULTS SECTION WILL BE GIVEN A MARK OUT OF 20
Have you reported your descriptive and inferential statistics clearly? If
you presented your results in a table OR figure, did you explain them in
text without repeating the results? Did you make sure NOT to interpret
or discuss the findings in this section?
14


Formatting figures

For figures, APA format stipulates you:
- Use Times New Roman 12pt for the title.
- Use Helvetica or Arial font within the figure ( e.g. for the legends and axis titles).
- Put a label and number below your figure. Use italics.
- Give your figure a title. This should be a concise description of the data it presents.
- Join the x and y axes to form a box around the data
- Label each axis. Include units in parentheses
- Use the horizontal (x) axis for the independent variable, and the vertical (y) axis for
the dependent variable.
- Use only black and white. Use various shading patterns (in greyscale) to differentiate
groups.
- Mark standard error bars above and below the mean.
- Include a legend if necessary.


Figure 1. Mean working memory scores for participants in distracted and control
conditions. Error bars represent standard error of the mean.

0.0
5.0
10.0
15.0
20.0
25.0
30.0
35.0
Control Distracted
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Condition
TIP
Check your figure: Have you mentioned the figure in the text?
Are all figures in your report presented consistently? Are all abbreviations explained?
Are the figure and the title of the figure together on the same page?
15


DISCUSSION
The purpose of the discussion is to review your findings and consider their implications.
Think about the structure of your Discussion as the reverse of your funnel Introduction:
you start more specifically and gradually get broader in scope.




















Summarise your findings
What did you find? Start by restating your aims and then summarise the important results
and comment on whether they supported the hypotheses. Do not repeat actual values;
these are already in your Results section. Instead, talk about trends (e.g., Group A scored
more highly than Group B on measure X.)
This first paragraph should be understood by a reader who is unfamiliar with your study.
Restating your aim(s) and hypotheses at the beginning of the Discussion is also helpful
because some readers may have forgotten what they were!


Start specific

Finish general


Specific
16


Discuss the meaning of the findings
For each separate hypothesis discuss the meaning of your findings.
Consider the main similarities and differences between your findings and comparable
previous studies (i.e., the studies you mentioned in your Introduction). Have you replicated
any previous findings? Do your findings contradict previous findings? If so, what differences
in the method could explain these differences in results?
Summarise the theories each finding supports. How do your results contribute to the body
of research on this topic? Do they support/contradict a theory?
Consider alternative explanations that that could accommodate your findings. (e.g., could
methodological problems also explain your results?)
Consider the implications of your findings
Now, if you have not already done this above and considering all your findings, discuss the
broader theoretical implications and practical applications of your results.
What is important about the findings of your study? Have your findings contributed to our
theoretical understanding of the topic? In particular, do your findings have a practical
application? (e.g., could they be useful to society and how, or do they demonstrate a need
for future research?)
Dont just repeat information you have already discussed. At this point, dont introduce
new findings that you have not previously mentioned.

Consider limitations of your study and suggest directions for future research
Are there any methodological flaws that may have impacted on your results?
Mention limitations, but remain positive (e.g., you could cite previous research that
suggests this limitation is unlikely to have influenced your results OR offer suggestions for
future researchers to follow to overcome the limitations).
It is not enough to just say future research is necessary your ideas need to be concrete
and specific. Remember this is one of the last things your marker reads so dazzle them with
your brilliance.

Conclude
In a few sentences, summarise the theories your study has supported, and the implications
of your findings. Your conclusion should leave the reader with a concise understanding of
the main theoretical consequences of the results.
Note that your conclusion is not a separate section, but a paragraph within your Discussion.

TIP
Your Discussion section is an opportunity to be original! Your marker will reward
you for creative ideas, as long as they are not unreasonable or fanciful.

17


YOU PROVE NOTHING!

Avoid altogether the word prove. Contrary to popular belief, science
does not prove things. Science investigates, explores, describes
phenomena and produces evidence that is consistent or inconsistent
with a theory.
Even when you find a difference in scores between groups or a
correlation between two variables, there is still a slim possibility that
those results turned out the way they did, just by chance alone. Thus,
you have not proven a phenomenon exists, you have just found some
evidence that is consistent with that phenomenon existing.
So, while anti-wrinkle creams and hair replacement treatments on TV
advertisements might claim to have proven results, the closest thing
a good scientist will come to proving anything is concluding that it
is the most likely explanation, given what we know so far.

Some alternate phrases:
results were consistent/inconsistent with the hypothesis that...
as expected/contrary to expectation...
results indicate support for/failed to support the hypothesis that...


15 MARKS WILL GO TOWARDS OVERALL QUALITY
Does your report flow logically and fluently?
Have you found references beyond those we have given you?
YOUR DISCUSSION SECTION WILL BE GIVEN A MARK OUT OF 20
Have you made a statement about your results in relation to your original hypotheses?
Have you discussed what the results mean in relation to the broader theoretical issues raised in
the introduction? Have you considered directions for future research?

18


REFERENCING
Why reference?
In academic writing, you use references to support your argument. The general process is:
1. Read the literature
Consider:
- theoretical models of the phenomenon you are investigating
- the results of previous empirical studies.
2. Decide your argument, based on what you have read.
Consider:
- Which of the arguments you have read is most convincing?
- Which conclusions are flawed (and how)?
- Which hypotheses have the most logical theoretical support?
- Which hypotheses have the most valid and reliable empirical support?
3. Use the evidence you have collected from your reading to support your argument;
referencing is critical to justifying the reasonableness of your position.
How to reference
Your reader must be able to find the source to which you are referring.
A citation must appear in two places in your essay:
1. in the body of your text (abbreviated citation)
2. in your References section at the at the end of your paper (full reference with all
publication details).
In text citation
After referring to someone elses idea or to someone elses research, reference! APA style
stipulates two main ways of doing this:
1. Insert the authors(s) surname or surnames and the year of publication in
parenthesis at the end of your sentence. Note that the citation comes BEFORE the
full stop because the citation forms part of your statement:
A recent study demonstrated links between these two factors (Jones & Smith, 2008).
2. If the surname of the author makes up part of your narrative, put only the year in
parentheses. This goes immediately after the authors surname:
Whiteman (2008) compared smokers and nonsmokers
19


Two or more authors
If you cite a paper with two or more authors, use the ampersand (&) symbol if the authors
surnames are in parentheses
A recent study examined whether introspective reports predict performance (Black &
Richardson, 2008).
Use the word and if the authors surnames make up part of your narrative
Kelson and Smith (1991) found that children with autism
Three to five authors
If you cite a paper with three to five authors, list ALL the authors surnames the first time
the work is cited (Note the comma before the word and):
Crabbs, Thatcher, Collins, and Gibson (1999) examined
On second and subsequent citings, abbreviate the citation by using only the first authors
surname and the words et al. A full stop must be used after et al. as et al. stands for et alia
(and all) in Latin.
Crabbs et al. (1999) argued that
Six or more authors
If you cite a paper with six or more authors, abbreviate the citation by using only the first
authors surname and the words et al. even on the first citation.
Karver et al. (2008) proposed
Direct quotes
If you use direct quotes, use quotation marks, and include the associated page number(s) in
your citation. Use p. if it the quotation is on one page, pp. if it spans two pages.
Jeffers et al. (2000) hypothesised that direct quotation (p. 24).
Jeffers et al. (2000) reported that direct quotation (pp. 34-35)
RULE OF THUMB
Try to avoid direct quotations. If it is possible to put something into your own words then do so. The
overuse of quotations breaks the flow of your writing and comes across as lazy.
Aim for no more than two per assignment.
20


REFERENCE LIST
Your Reference list should begin on a new page after your Discussion, and be titled
References. APA style references should be formatted with a hanging indent. They should
not be bullet pointed or numbered.
Here is how to format references for the main kinds of texts you will encounter. Pay close
attention to which parts are italicised and to the exact placement of full stops, parenthesis
and commas.
Journal article
Author, initial. (Year). Article title. Italicised Journal Title, Volume (Issue), page-page.
Erceg-Hurn, D. M. (2008). Drugs, money, and graphic ads: A critical review of the
Montana Meth Project. Prevention Science, 9(4), 256-263.
Authored book
Author, initial. (Year). Italicised book title. Place of publication: Publisher.
Rhodes, G. (1996). Superportraits: Caricatures and recognition. Hove: Psychology
Press.
Edited book
Editor, initial. (Ed.). (Year). Italicised book title. Place of publication: Publisher.
Anderson, M. (Ed). (1999). The development of intelligence. East Sussex, UK:
Psychology Press
Chapter in an edited book
Author, initial. (Year). Chapter title. In Initial. Editor (Ed.). Italicised book title (pp. page-
page). Place of publication: Publisher.
MacLeod, C. (1998). Implicit perception: Perceptual processing without
awareness. In K. Kirsner & C. Speelman (Eds.), Implicit and explicit mental
processes (pp. 57-78). Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Locke, V., & Johnston, L. (2001). Stereotyping and prejudice: A social cognitive
approach. In M. Augoustinos & K. J. Reynolds (Eds.). Understanding
prejudice, racism, and social conflict (pp 107-125). London: Sage.
You will find more information on referencing at http://libguides.is.uwa.edu.au/apa.

REMEMBER
Only reference papers that you have cited in text. Papers you
read but didnt refer directly to in your report are left out.
21

















RULE OF THUMB
There is no rule about how many references you should have. But reading beyond the literature provided
to you is highly encouraged. Extra reading is likely to result in a well- informed Introduction and
Discussion and so increases your chance of getting a good mark!


RULE OF THUMB
Dont ever reference Wikipedia, Dolly Doctor, The West Australian, your friends blog or anonymous
websites. Unless your topic specifically calls for you to mention whats in the popular media, stick to
articles in genuine scholarly journals and textbooks these are peer-reviewed by other psychologists
and therefore carry more credibility.
22


FORMATTING
Layout
APA format stipulates you:
- Use Times New Roman font, size 12pt
- Use double spacing (24pt line spacing) for your whole report
- Set your margins at: 2.54cm (i.e. 1 inch) at the top, bottom, left and right.
Lab report layout.
Your Abstract is on its own page. Your four main sections (Introduction, Method, Results, and
Discussion) flow on from one another; do not start a new page for each section. Your References
start on a new page.
23


Headings
Use headings to divide your work into sections. APA format uses levels of headings; use the
same level of heading for topics of similar importance. Do not number your headings.
APA style requires particular formatting for each level of heading. The levels you are likely to
use at this stage are:
Level 1: Centred, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
Level 2: Flush to Left Margin, Boldface, Uppercase and Lowercase Heading
Level 3: Indented, boldface, lowercase paragraph heading ending with a full stop.

Method
Participants
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Materials
Anxiety questionnaires.--------------------------------------------------------------------
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Video clips.---------------------------------------- -------------------------------------------
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Level 1 Heading
Level 2 Heading
Level 3 Heading
24


Header and page numbers
The top right corner of each page should have the page number while the top left corner
should contain a 2-5 word header (also known as running head). The header is the topic of
your report (i.e., an abbreviated version of your title) and is presented in uppercase. Use
Times New Roman font, size 12pt, as for the rest of your report.

For example:
MIRTH IN THE WORKPLACE 3

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Body text
Your text should be left aligned (not justified). Indent each paragraph by 1.25cm on the first
line. Double space your lines.
For example:
The current study aimed to examine whether increased mirth would facilitate
collaborative relationships and lead to greater productivity by recruiting pairs of academics
from a large metropolitan university who were about to embark on new collaborations.
Given the findings by Python (1954), it was hypothesised that the dyads jointly
exposed to regular comedy would report greater perceived cooperation and personal
satisfaction with the collaboration. It was also hypothesised that the self-judged productivity
of the collaboration would be significantly greater in the dyads exposed to regular comedy
compared to the control condition.
25


Abbreviations
Do not use abbreviations or acronyms in the main body text. The only exceptions are:
a. If you explicitly introduce your abbreviation when it first appears.
This study measured reaction time (RT). Results showed that RT differed across
conditions
b. For units of measurement, you may abbreviate.



c. Within parentheses you may use standard Latin abbreviations. Do not use these in
the main text.
(e.g., ) (i.e., ) (c.f., )

Word Abbreviation
minute min
hour hr
second s
metre m

Standard deviation SD
Standard error SE
Mean M
Number N
Correlation coefficient r
26


Numbers
Write numbers between zero and nine in words. Use numerals for all other numbers.
There were six conditions...
Participants pressed each key 18 times.
There are three exceptions:
If the number is a measurement it is always in numerals.
4 min
If the number begins a sentence, it is always in words.
Sixty eight volunteers were selected...
If you are directly comparing a single digit number to a larger number, use numerals.
In the control condition, 3 of 19 participants withheld their data.


Italics
Use italics only for foreign words or for the first use of a technical term or a term with a
specific meaning within your study.
ipso facto
Bavelas also acknowledges a functional role for generic responses - those acts like
nodding or generic vocalisations (e.g., mhm, u-huh or yeah). These generic
responses do not convey narrative content, but

27


WRITING STYLE
Dont be pompous
If theres a simpler word, use it.


Dont be flowery
Avoid all unnecessary words.
Too flowery Better
owing to the fact that because
at this point in time now
give consideration to consider
the majority of most
on a daily basis daily
until such time as until
three different groups three groups
Use the active voice
Say: Someone did something, rather than: something was done by someone.
The active voice is clear, direct, and easy to read and understand; the passive voice is more
obscure and difficult to read.
Information processing speed has been linked by researchers to scores on IQ tests.
Researchers have linked information processing speed to scores on IQ tests.

Too pompous Better
ascertain examine, test
commencement start
termination end
utilise use
concerning about
TIP
Remove unnecessary information from your report. Try writing your topic down
and sticking it next to your computer; refer to it often and ask Does this sentence
help answer my question/topic?. If the answer is no, dont include it.

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Avoid jargon.
Dont be tempted to use fancy, specialist terminology just to sound competent, especially if
youre not sure of the exact meaning of the word. This will backfire.
Be non-discriminatory
Cite attributes such as age, gender, religion, race, sexual preference, marital status only if
they are relevant to your analysis.
Avoid labelling people
People shouldnt be defined by one aspect of their personality, situation or lifestyle.
Labelling Better
at-risk students students who are at risk of.
depressed people people with depression
autistic children children with autism
schizophrenics people with schizophrenia

Psychologists test participants, not subjects
Acknowledge your human participants consensual participation by replacing the term
subjects with a more descriptive term:
Participants
Volunteers
Students
Children
Respondents
Individuals with







RULE OF THUMB
Be direct, clear, precise and concise. In psychology report writing,
wordiness is not valued.

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RECCOMENDED READING
OShea, R., Moss, S., & McKenzie, W. (2006). Writing for Psychology. Melbourne, Australia:
Thomson Learning.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
American Psychological Association. (2009). Publication manual for the American
Psychological Association (6th ed.). Washington, DC: Author.
Curtis, G., Palermo, R., & Lewandowsky, S. (2004). Psychology 101 guide to writing a lab
report. (Available from the School of Psychology, University of Western Australia, 35
Stirling Hwy, Crawley, WA 6009).
OShea, R., Moss, S., & McKenzie, W. (2006). Writing for Psychology. Melbourne, Australia:
Thomson Learning.
Owens, R., Bucks, R., Bogdanovs, J., Farrant, B., Horlin, C. Lampard, A. & Webster, K. (2008)
Lab report checklist. (Available from the School of Psychology, University of Western
Australia, 35 Stirling Hwy, Crawley, WA 6009).

USEFUL STUFF ON LMS

Follow the link from LMS to the Downloadable eBook version of your
textbook: Bernstein, D.A., Penner, L.A., Clarke-Stewart, A., & Roy, E.J.
(2008). Psychology (9
th
.ed.). Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.

If you have any queries about how to write your lab report, you can ask
your tutor
.

See your Psychology 1101 Handbook for information about how many
marks your lab report is worth, how to apply for an extension and
plagiarism.


Dont forget to go to LMS and do the Online quiz on how to write a lab
report. The marks for this quiz will contribute towards your participation
mark. Good luck!