Salient features of Indian Society, Diversity of India

Indianisavastcountryandhasalonghistory.Itssocietyhasevolvedthroughtheagesandhas
alsobeenaffectedbyforeigninfluencesgivingitextremediversityandmadeunityamidst
diversityacharacteristicoftheIndiansociety.However,tounderstandtheprocess,weneedto
understandthemeaningofdiversity,unityandpluralismaswellastheirrelevancetotheIndian
society
Diversity
Inliteraryterms,diversitymeansdifferences.Howeverinsocialcontextthemeaningismore
specificitmeanscollectivedifferencesamongpeople,thatis,thosedifferenceswhichmarkoff
onegroupofpeoplefromanother.Thesedifferencesmaybeofanysort:biological,religious,
linguisticetc.Onthebasisofbiologicaldifferences,forexample,wehaveracialdiversity.Onthe
basisofreligiousdifferences,similarly,wehavereligiousdiversity.Thepointtonoteisthat
diversityreferstocollectivedifferences.
Thetermdiversityisoppositeofuniformity.Uniformitymeanssimilarityofsomesortthat
characterizesapeople.Unireferstooneformreferstothecommonways.Sowhenthereis
somethingcommontoallthepeople,wesaytheyshowuniformity.Whenstudentsofaschool,
membersofthepoliceorthearmywearthesametypeofdress,wesaytheyareinuniform.
Likediversity,thus,uniformityisalsoacollectiveconcept.Whenagroupofpeoplesharea
similarcharacteristic,beitlanguageorreligionoranythingelse,itshowsuniformityinthat
respect.Butwhenwehavegroupsofpeoplehailingfromdifferentraces,religionsandcultures,
theyrepresentdiversity.Thus,diversitymeansvariety.
However,diversityneedstobedifferentiatedfromfragmentation.Diversitymeansexistenceof
differencesinawhole.Itdoesnotmeanseparateparts.Fragmentationdoesnotmean
differences,itmeansdifferentpartsandinthatsituationeachpartwouldbeawholeinitself.For
allpracticalpurposesitmeansvarietyofgroupsandcultures.Wehavesuchavarietyin
abundanceinIndia.Wehavehereavarietyofraces,ofreligions,oflanguages,ofcastesandof
cultures.ForthesamereasonIndiaisknownforitssocioculturaldiversity.
Unity
Unitymeansintegration.Itisasocialpsychologicalcondition.Itconnotesasenseofoneness,a
senseofweness.Itstandsforthebonds,whichholdthemembersofasocietytogether.There
isadifferencebetweenunityanduniformity.Uniformitypresupposessimilarity,unitydoesnot.
Unityisoftwotypes,firstwhichmaybebornoutofuniformity,andsecondwhichmayarise
despitedifferences.Frenchsociologisthastermedthesetwotypesasmechanicalandorganic
solidarityrespectively.
Mechanicalsolidarityisgenerallyfoundinlessadvancedsocietiesandcharacterizedbybeing
basedonresemblance,segmentation(clanorterritorialtype),rulingwithrepressivesanctions
andprevalenceofpenallaw,highlyreligiousandtranscendentalandattachingsupremevalueto
thesocietyandinterestsofthesocietyasawhole.Ontheotherorganicsolidarityisgenerally
foundinmoreadvancedsocietiesandisbasedondivisionoflabour,characterizedbythefusion
ofmarketsandgrowthofcities,ruleswithrestitutivesanctionsandprevalenceofcooperative
law,isincreasinglysecular,humanorientedandattachessupremevaluetotheindividualdignity,
equalityofopportunityandsocialjustice.
Pluralism
Incontextofasociety,pluralismcanbeseeninvariousaspects.Itcouldbereligiouspluralism,
culturalpluralism,linguisticpluralismorethicpluralismorcouldbeacombinationofmorethan
onekind.Pluralismrecognizesdiversegroupsandseekstoprovideamechanisminwhichno
onegroupdominatesthestateandinwhichinterestsofallgroupsarereasonablytakencareof.
Thuspluralismcanbesaidtobeadiffusionofpoweramongmanyspecialinterestgroups,
preventsanyonegroupfromgainingcontrolofthegovernmentandusingittooppressthe
people.Ourpluralistsocietyhasmanygroupssuchaswomen,men,racial,ethnicgroupsas
wellasbroadcategoriesastherich,middleclassandpoor.Insuchascenariodominationof
politicalpowerbyonegroupcouldleadtoneglectoftheothersresultinginsocialtensionswhich
mayheharmfultosocietyaswellasthestate.
Autocraticregimesdidnothavemuchscopeforpoliticalpluralismthoughgoodrulerstriedto
maintainabalanceamongvarioussocialgroups.InademocraticformofGovernment,political
powerdependsonthenumberofvotes.Insuchacase,biggestgroupcouldusurppolitical
poweranduseittomuchdisadvantageagainstminoritygroups.Suchasituationexistsin
countrieswheredominationisbasedonreligion.Insuchcountries,minoritieshavebeen
sufferingfromvariousdisabilities.Pluralism,duetobeinginclusive,iscapableofavoidingsuch
situations.Whenpluralismprevailsinasociety,nogroupdominates.Ratheraseachgroup
pursuesitsowninterests,othergroupsthatarepursuingtheirs,balancesit.Toattaintheirgoals,
groupsmustnegotiatewithoneanotherandmakecompromises.Thisminimizesconflict.These
groupshavepoliticalmuscletoflexatthepollspoliticianstrytodesignpoliciesthatpleaseas
manygroupsastheycan.Thismakesthepoliticalsystemresponsivetothepeopleandno
onegrouprules.
Thusunityanddiversityarethetwostatesofthesocietyandpluralismisthemechanism
throughwhichunityamidstdiversityisachieved.
Unity amidst Diversity
Inspiteofdiversities,Indiancommunitysharescertainbondsofunity.Thefirstbondofunityof
Indiaisfoundinitsgeopoliticalintegration.Indiaisknownforitsgeographicalunitymarkedby
theHimalayasinthenorthandtheoceansontheothersides.PoliticallyIndiaisnowasovereign
state.Thesameconstitutionandsameparliamentgoverneverypartofit.Wesharethesame
politicalculturemarkedbythenormsofdemocracyandsecularism.Thegeopoliticalunityof
Indiawasalwaysvisualizedbyourseersandrulers.Theexpressionsofthisconsciousnessof
thegeopoliticalunityofIndiaarefoundinRigVeda,inSanskritliterature,intheedictsofAsoka,
inBuddhistmonumentsandinvariousothersources.TheidealofgeopoliticalunityofIndiais
alsoreflectedintheconceptsofBharatvarsha(theoldindigenousclassicnameforIndia),
Chakravarti(emperor),andEkchhatradhipatya(underonerule).
AnothersourceofunityofIndialiesinwhatisknownastempleculture,whichisreflectedinthe
networkofshrinesandsacredplaces.FromBadrinathandKedarnathinthenorthto
Rameshwaraminthesouth,JagannathPuriintheeasttoDwarakainthewestthereligious
shrinesandholyriversarespreadthroughoutthelengthandbreadthofthecountry.Closely
relatedtothemistheageoldcultureofpilgrimage,whichhasalwaysmovedpeopletovarious
partsofthecountryandfosteredinthemasenseofgeoculturalunity.Aswellasbeingan
expressionofreligioussentiment,pilgrimageisalsoanexpressionofloveforthemotherland,a
sortofmodeofworshipofthecountry.Ithasactedasanantithesistotheregionaldiversityand
hasplayedasignificantpartinpromotinginteractionandculturalaffinityamongthepeopleliving
indifferentpartsofIndia.
Indianculture,hasaremarkablequalityofaccommodationandtolerance.Thereisample
evidenceofit.ThefirstevidenceofitliesintheelasticcharacterofHinduism,themajority
religionofIndia.ItiscommonknowledgethatHinduismisnotahomogeneousreligion,thatis,a
religionhavingoneGod,oneBookandoneTemple.Indeed,itcanbebestdescribedasa
federationoffaiths.Polytheistic(havingmultipledeities)incharacter,itgoestotheextentof
accommodatingvillageleveldeitiesandtribalfaiths.Forthesamereason,sociologistshave
distinguishedtwobroadformsofHinduism:sanskriticandpopular.Sanskriticisthatwhichis
foundinthetexts(religiousbookslikeVedas,etc.)andpopularisthatwhichisfoundinthe
actuallifesituationofthevastmasses.RobertRedfieldhascalledthesetwoformsasgreat
traditionofRamayanaandMahabharataandthelittletraditionofworshipofthevillagedeity.And
everythingpassesforHinduism.WhatitshowsisthatHinduismhasbeenanopenreligion,a
receptiveandabsorbingreligion,anencompassingreligion.Itisknownforitsqualityofopenness
andaccommodation.Anotherevidenceofitliesinitsapathytoconversion.Hinduismisnota
proselytisingreligion.Thatis,itdoesnotseekconverts.Norhasitordinarilyresistedother
religionstoseekconvertsfromwithinitsfold.Thisqualityofaccommodationandtolerancehas
pavedthewaytothecoexistenceofseveralfaithsinIndia.
Indiansocietywasorganizedinsuchawaythatvarioussocialgroupswereindependentofeach
other.OnemanifestationofitisfoundintheformofJajmanisystem,i.e.,asystemoffunctional
interdependenceofcastes.Thetermjajmanrefersgenerallytothepatronorrecipientof
specialisedservices.Therelationsweretraditionallybetweenafoodproducingfamilyandthe
familiesthatsupportedthemwithgoodsandservices.Thesecametobecalledthejajmani
relations.Jajmanirelationswereconspicuousinvillagelife,astheyentailedritualmatters,social
supportaswellaseconomicexchange.Thewholeofalocalsocialorderwasinvolved(the
peopleandtheirvalues)insuchjajmanilinks.Apatronhadjajmanirelationswithmembersofa
highcaste(likeaBrahminpriestwhoseservicesheneededforrituals).Healsorequiredthe
servicesofspecialistsfromthelowerjatitoperformthosenecessarytaskslikewashingofdirty
clothes,cuttingofhair,cleaningtheroomsandtoilets,deliveryofthechildetc.Thoseassociated
intheseinterdependentrelationswereexpectedtobeandwerebroadlysupportiveofeachother
withqualitiesofreadyhelpthatgenerallyclosekinsmenwereexpectedtoshow.
SociologistM.N.Srinivashascalledthisverticalunityofcastes.Thejajmanirelationsusually
involvedmultiplekindsofpaymentandobligationsaswellasmultiplefunctions.Nocastewas
selfsufficient.Ifanything,itdependedformanythingsonothercastes.Inasense,eachcaste
wasafunctionalgroupinthatitrenderedaspecifiedservicetoothercastegroups.Jajmani
systemisthatmechanismwhichhasformalisedandregulatedthisfunctionalinterdependence.
Furthermore,castescutacrosstheboundariesofreligiouscommunities.Wehaveearlier
mentionedthatnotionsofcastearefoundinallthereligiouscommunitiesinIndia.Initsactual
practice,thus,theinstitutionofjajmaniprovidesforinterlinkagesbetweenpeopleofdifferent
religiousgroups.ThusaHindumaybedependentforthewashingofhisclothesonaMuslim
washerman.Similarly,aMuslimmaybedependentforthestitchingofhisclothesonaHindu
tailor,andviceversa.
Effortshavebeenmadefromtimetotimebysensitiveandsensibleleadersofboththe
communitiestosynthesiseHinduandMuslimtraditionssoastobringthetwomajor
communitiesclosertoeachother.Akbar,forexample,foundedanewreligion,DineIlahi,
combiningbestofboththereligions.SomebhaktisaintslikeKabir,EknathandGuruNanak,as
wellassomesufisaintsmadeimportantcontributionsinforgingunityamongtocommunities.At
thetimeofindependencestruggle,MahatamaGandhilaidextremeemphasisonHinduMuslim
unitywhichwasinstrumentalinIndiabecomingasecularstateandmovingonthepathof
progress.
Allthesefactorshavehelpedindevelopingacompositecultureinthecountrywhichprovideda
modelforthepreservationandgrowthofpluralityofcultureswithintheframeworkofan
integratednation.TheaboveaccountoftheunityofIndiashouldnotbetakentomeanthatwe
havealwayshadasmoothsailinginmattersofnationalunity,withnoincidentsofcaste,
communalorlinguisticriots.Norshoulditbetakentomeanthatthedivisiveandsecessionist
tendencieshavebeenaltogetherabsent.Thesetendencieswereatfullforceattimeof
independencewhenthepartitiontookplace.Therehavebeenoccasionalriots,attimesserious
riotslikethoseafterBabriMasjiddemolitionandinGujaratin2002.Incidentsofoppressionand
violenceagainstmembersofscheduledcastestakeplaceformtimetotimeandregionalism
hasexpresseditselfinextremeinseparatistmovementsintheNorthEastandinalittleless
extremeformintheviolenceagainstnorthIndiansinMumbai.Theredeemingfeature,however,
isthatthebondsofunityhavealwaysemergedstrongerthantheforcesofdisintegration.

Diversity:IndianContext
Indiaisalargecountrywithdifferentgeopoliticalconditionsindifferentpartsofthecountry.This
hasbroughtdifferencesinsocialevolutionofthegroupslivingindifferentpartsofthecountry.
Apartfromthegeopoliticaldiversity,interactionswithforeignersduetoinvasions,tradeand
missionaryactivitieshavealsoledtoforeigninfluencesandsocialgroupscomingtoIndia.All
thesehaveimpactedtheIndiansocietyinonewayortheother.Alargenumberofforeigninvader
communitiesliketheGreeks,Kushans,SakasandHunassettledinIndiaandwereindue
courseassimilatedinHinduism,whileretainedsomeoftheircharactersticsandhenceformed
differentsocialgroups.Muslimsmaintainedtheirseparatereligiousidentitybutadapted
themselvestoIndianconditionscreatingyetanothercategoryofsocialgroups.Presently,Indian
societyishighlydiverse.AlmosteverymajorreligionisrepresentedinIndia.Institutionofcaste
hasaddedonemoredimensiontothediversityandeverygeographicalregionhasdevelopedits
ownlanguageandculture.Someofthetraitsofdiversityareasunder:
Caste Diversity
CasteisthemostimportantsocialconceptintheIndiansociety.Ithascontinuedsince
thousandsofyearsandhasnotconfineditselftoHinduismandhaspercolateditselftoother
moreegalitarianreligionslikeIslam,ChristianityandSikhism.Wecanfindcastesamongthe
Muslim,Christian,Sikhaswellasothercommunities.MuslimsaredividedintoclassesofAshraf
andAjlaf.AshrafareinturndividedintoShaikh,Saiyed,Mughal,PathanwhileAjlafconsistof
variousothercastesliketeli(oilpressure),dhobi(washerman),darjee(tailor),etc.amongthe
Muslim.Similarly,casteconsciousnessamongtheChristianinIndiaisnotunknown.Sincea
vastmajorityofChristiansinIndiaareconvertedfromHindufold,theconvertshavecarriedthe
castesystemintoChristianity.AmongtheSikhagainwecanhearofanumberofcastes
includingJatSikhandMajahabiSikh.Castesystemisaclosedsystem.Entryinacasteisonly
throughbirthinthesystemwhileexitisimpossible.Thesystemisdiscriminatoryasitallows
certainprivilegestothehighcasteswhilethelowercastesfacedisabilities.Itismaintainedby
enforcingthenotionsofpollutionandpuritywhichareenforcedthroughelaboraterulesgoverning
touch,diningandmarriage.
Casteasaregionalrealitycanbeseeninthedifferentpatternsofcasteranking,customsand
behaviors,marriagerulesandcastedominancefoundinvariouspartsofIndia.Castestructure
andkinshipcastestructureandoccupationandcastestructureandpowerarethreeimportant
aspectswhicharediscussedasunder:
1. Caste Structure and Kinship
CastestructureisintimatelyrelatedtothekinshipsystemamongsttheHindusinIndia.Thesole
reasonforthisrelationshipliesintheendogamousnatureofcastesystem.Casteisbasicallya
closedsystemofstratification,sincemembersarerecruitedonthecriteriaofascribedstatus.
Kinshipisamethodorasystembywhichindividualsasmembersofsocietyrelatethemselves
withotherindividualsofthatsociety.Therearetwotypesofkinshipbonds.Oneisconsanguine
andtheotherisaffine.Consanguinetiesaretiesofbloodsuchas,betweenmotherdaughter,
motherson,fatherdaughter,etc.Affinaltiesaretiesthroughmarriage,suchas,between
husbandandwife,manandhiswifesbrother,etc.
KinshipinIndiaislargelyananalysisoftheinternalstructureofthecasteanditssubcastethe
gotra.KinshipsystemfoundinvariouspartsofIndiadiffersfromeachotherinmanyrespects.
However,generallyspeaking,wecandistinguishbetweenthekinshipsystemintheNorthern
region,theCentralregionandtheSouthernregion.NorthIndiaisinitselfaverylargeregion,
havinginnumerabletypesofkinshipsystems.Thisregionincludestheregionbetweenthe
HimalayasintheNorthandtheVindhyasintheSouth.Inthisregionapersonmarriesoutsidethe
villagesinceallthemembersofonescasteinavillageareconsideredtobebrothersand
sisters,orunclesandaunts.Marriagewithapersoninsidethevillageisforbidden.Infact,an
exogamouscircleofafewvillagesaroundamansvillageisdrawn.Hypergamyispractisedin
thisregionaccordingtowhichamantakesawifefromaclanwhichislowerinstatustohisown
clan.Thatis,agirlgoesinmarriagefromalowerstatusgrouptoahigherstatusgroup.The
effectofthishypergamyandvillageexogamyisthatitspatiallywidenstherangeofties.Several
villagesbecomelinkedtoeachotherthroughaffinalandmatrilaterallinks.Theclans,lineages,
andkutumbsareallpartoftheinternalstructureofthecasteatthesametimebeingpartofthe
kinshiporganization.Thesegroupsareallthetimeincreasingandbranchingoffwithtime.The
organizationoffamilyinthenorthernregionismainlypatriarchalandpatrilocal.Thelineageis
tracedthroughthemale,i.e.patrilinealsystemisfollowedinthisregion.Itispatriarchalbecause
authoritylieswiththemaleheadofthefamilyanditispatrilocalbecauseaftermarriagethebride
isbroughttoresideinthehouseofthebridegroomsfather.
Generally,inmostofthecastesinthenorthsuchastheJats,anagriculturalcasteofSouth
Punjab,DelhiandHaryanathefourclanruleofmarriageisfollowed.Accordingtothisrule,i)a
mancannotmarryintheclantowhichhisfather(andhehimself)belongsii)towhichhis
motherbelongsiii)towhichhisfathersmotherbelongsandiv)towhichhismothersmother
belongs.Inthisregionapersonavoidsmarriagewithkinswhicharerelatedtohimorherfive
generationsonthemotherssideandsevengenerationsonthefatherssideideally.However,in
realitytheserulescanbebrokeninsomecases.Inthenorthernregion,therefore,marriagewith
cousins,removedevenbytwoorthreedegreesisviewedasanincestuousunion.Inmostparts
ofthisregion,asmentionedearlier,villageexogamyispractisedbymostofthecastes,
especiallytheBrahman,KshatriyaandVaishyacastes.ThisruleisknowninDelhi,Haryanaand
Punjab,astheruleofSassan.InCentralIndiawhichincludesRajputana,theVindhyas,Gujarat,
MaharashtraandOrissawefindthegeneralpracticeofcasteendogamy.Hypergamyismost
characteristicoftheRajputsofthisregionandvillageexogamyisalsofoundinthisregion.
However,inthisregionespeciallyinGujaratandMaharashtraamongstsomecastecommunities
wefindcrosscousinmarriagesbeingpractised.Herethereisatendencyforamantomarryhis
mothersbrothersdaughter.Butmarriagewiththefatherssistersdaughteristaboo.The
preferenceforasingletypeofcrosscousinmarriageseemstomoveawayfromthetabooof
marryingcousinsofanyclassinthenorthernregion.Thus,inmanywaysthispreference
suggestsaclosercontactwiththepracticesofthesouthernregion.
TheSouthernregioncomprisesthestatesofKarnataka,AndhraPradesh,TamilNaduand
KeralawheretheDravidianlanguagesarespoken.Thisregionisdistinctfromthenorthernand
centralregionsofIndiainthesensethatherewefindbasicallypreferentialrulesofmarriage.
Hereamanknowswhomhehastomarrywhileinmostareasinthenorthamanknowswhom
hecannotmarry.MostofthepartsoftheSouthernregionexceptsome,liketheMalabar,follow
thepatrilinealfamilysystem.Herealsowefindexogamoussocialgroupscalledgotras.The
differencebetweentheexogamousclansinthenorthisthatacasteinavillageisheldtobeof
onepatricianandtherefore,nomarriageisallowedwithinavillage.Sometimesevenagroupof
villagesaresupposedtobesettledbyonepatrilineageandmarriagebetweenthemisprohibited.
IntheSouth,thereisnoidentificationofagotrawithonevillageorterritory.Morethanone
intermarryingclansmayliveinonevillageterritoryandpracticeintermarriageforgenerations.
Thus,thesocialgroups,whichareformedduetothiskindofmarriagepatternintheSouth
showsacentripetaltendency(ofmovingtowardsacentre)asagainstthecentrifugal(ofmoving
awayfromthecentre)centre)tendencyofsocialgroupsfoundinnorthIndianvillages.Inthe
South,acasteisdividedintoanumberofgotras.Thefirstmarriagecreatesobligationsabout
givingandreceivingdaughters.Hence,withinexogamousclans,smallendogamouscirclesare
foundtomeetinterfamilyobligationsandanumberofreciprocalalliancesarefoundinSouth
Indianvillages.Apartfromcastes,whicharepatrilinealinthesouthernregion,wealsofindsome
castes,suchastheNayarsofMalabardistrictwhofollowmatrilinealsystemofkinship.Atypical
Nayarhouseholdismadeupofawoman,hersistersandbrothers,herdaughtersandsonsand
herdaughtersdaughtersandsons.AmongsttheNayars,propertypassesfromthemotherto
thedaughter.Buttheauthorityeveninthissystemlieswiththebrother,whomanagesthe
propertyandtakescareofhissisterschildren.Husbandsonlyvisittheirwivesinthissystem.
Therelationshipbetweenthecastestructureandthekinshipsystemissointertwinedthatwe
cannotunderstandonewithoutunderstandingthedetailsoftheother.
2. Caste Structure and Occupation
Thehereditaryassociationofcastewithanoccupationusedtobeaverystrikingfeatureofthe
castesystem.Acasteisconsideredtobehighifitscharacteristicwayoflifeishighandpure
anditisconsideredtobelowifitswayoflifeislowandpolluting.Bythetermwayoflifewe
meanwhetheritstraditionaloccupationisrituallypureorpolluting.Intheassociationofcaste
structurewithahereditaryoccupationthejajmanisystemformstheframework.Thejajmani
systemisasystemofeconomic,socialandritualtiesbetweendifferentcastegroupsinthe
villages.Underthissystemsomecastesarepatronsandothersareservicecastes.Theservice
castesoffertheirservicestothelandowningupperandintermediatecastesandinturnarepaid
bothincashandkind.Thepatroncastesdifferfromoneregiontoanotherdependingonthe
socioeconomicandpoliticalstatusofthecastes.Forexample,theRajput,BhumiharandJat
arethepatroncastesintheNorthandKamma,ReddiandLingayatintheSouth.Theservice
castescompriseBrahman(Priest),Barber,Carpenter,Blacksmith,Watercarrier,
Leatherworker,etc.Thus,tounderstandregionalvariationswehavetoknowsomethingabout
theownershipofland,thelandtenurestatusandadherencetothejajmanisystem.These
economicorganizationsdependalotonthecastestructureandregionaltopographyandvice
versa.
Thereiscongruencebetweenhighcastestatusandlandownership.Atthetopofoccupational
hierarchystandsagroupoffamilies,whichcontrolandownmostlandrightsinthevillage/region.
Theyalsobelongtothecasteoccupyingthehighestrank.Nextinthehierarchywouldbeestate
managers,landownersofrelativelysmallersizewhoaredrawnfromthecasteswhooccupya
positionnexttothehighestrankingcastes.Smallertenantsandsubtenantsoccupythemiddle
rankingcastegroups.Finally,laborersaredrawnfromthelowestrankingcaste.Thetendency
oflandownershipbythehighcastesservestomaintainandreimposetheexistingcaste
hierarchy.However,withthechangingtimes,impactofcolonialruleandtheconsequent
introductionofwesterneducation,thisgeneralassociationofhighercastewithhigherclass(in
termsofownershipofland,wealthandpower)hasbeendisturbed.However,inspiteofthese
changestheritualcriteriaofcasterankingremainimportant.Althoughevenintheancienttimesit
wasnotallimportant,assecularcriteriaofwealthandpowerofwhichlandownershipisan
importantaspectdiddeterminethestatusofacaste.Theearlynineteenthcenturyaccountof
AbbeDubois,afamousFrenchphilosopher,whotravelledextensivelyinSouthIndia,exemplifies
thisaspectveryclearlywhenDuboisstated,thusthecastetowhichtherulerofacountry
belongs,howeverlowitmaybeconsideredelsewhere,ranksamongstthehighestintherulers
owndominions,andeverymemberofitderivessomereflectionofdignityfromitschief.When
weobservetheregionalpatterns,wefindthatintheplainsofUttarPradesh,twoormore
cultivatingcastescoexist.Thereisalsothepresenceofalargenumberofscheduledcaste
groups,whichhaveanumericalpreponderanceinthepopulation.Theygenerallyconstitutethe
laborforceinthisregion.Castegroupsaremanyandareheterogeneousinnature.Thereisa
lackofuniformityinrankingandtherefore,thecastestructureisnotwelldefinedasisfoundin
thesouthernregions.
TraditionalBengalhadfivecategoriesofBrahmansSaptasati,Madhyadeshi,Rarhi,Barendra,
andBaidik.Ofthesethelastthreehavehadarecognizableandsignificantidentityandan
eminentpositioninthesocialhierarchyofBengal.Attheotherendofthecasteladderl)werethe
sudras.Sudraswerealsointurndividedintocleananduncleancastesbasedontheir
hereditaryoccupation.InOrissa,theWarriorcastesownedmostofthelandandcombined
soldieringwithfarmmanagement.Theoutcastes,referredtoaspraja,weretheirservants.The
othercastes,includingtheBrahminswereinapositionofeconomicdependenceandpolitical
subordinationtothem.
Turningourattentiontoregionsthatareclearlydominatedbythepresenceofoneagricultural
castewefindthecaseofHaryanaandPunjab.Inthesestateswefindthedominanceofasingle
agriculturalcastereferredtoastheJats.Ascomparedtothenorth,inthedistrictofTanjore,we
findaclearcuthierarchyexistinginthecastesystemwithBrahmansaslandowners.TheHindu
socialstructureisclearlydemarcatedbetweentheBrahmans,thenonBrahmansandthe
AdiDravidas.TheBrahmansarethelandownersthenonBrahmansarethetenants,
subtenantsservicegivingcasteswhiletheAdiDravidasgenerallyconstitutethecategoryof
landlessagriculturallaborers.
3. Caste Structure and Power
Centraltocastesystemarecastepanchayatsandleadership.Thesepowerstructuresare
highlyformalizedincertaincastegroupsandinformalinothers.Thepanchayatliterallymeansa
grouporcounciloffive.Inavillageitreferstoagroupthatpresidesover,andresolvesconflict,
punishespeopletransgressingcustomsandlaunchesgroupenterprises.Itmustbe
rememberedthatthevillagepanchayatisquitedifferentfromthelegislativeuseoftheterm
panchayat.Theusage,aftertheConstitution(73rdAmendment)Act1922,referstoastatutory
localbody,formedthroughelections,vestedwithlegalpowersandchargedwithcertain
governmentalresponsibilities.Incertainvillagestraditionalcastepanchayatsandleadersarestill
apowerfulmeansofcontrol.Thedemocraticpanchayatwithlegislativepowersandtraditional
panchayatmayoverlapincertainregions.
Regionalcastestructures,inpart,accountforvariationsintheirrespectivepowerstructure.Itis
importanttoknowwhatqualifiescasteforregionaldominance.AccordingtoSrinivas(1966),a
casteissaidtobedominantwhenitisnumericallythestrongestinthevillageorlocalareaand
economicallyandpoliticallyexercisesapreponderatinginfluence.Thestatusofadominant
casteappearstorestonsuchcriteriaas:
1. thecontroloflandandeconomicresources
2. numericalstrength
3. arelativelyhighritualstatusinthecastehierarchyand
4. Educationalstatusofitsmembers.Theabovefactorscombinetoplaceaparticular
castegroupinapositionofpoliticaldominance.
Anearmonopolyofmanagementrightsinlocalresources(usuallyagriculturalland)andcontrol
ofthesamegivesthegroupanabilitytocontrolthelivesoftheothers.Numericalstrengthalone
maynotplaceagroupinabargainingposition.Itneedsaneconomicpowerbasetobackupits
strength.Onceeconomicrightsareinpossession,howeverthesizeofagroupdoesbecome
important.Thecontrolofresourcesbymembersofadominantcasteleadsinturn,tomaking
decisionsforothers,whichconstitutesrealdominance.Regionalvariationsthataccountfor
dominantcastecanbeexplainedbyi)thedegreetowhichasinglelargelandholdingcaste
controlsasetofdependentcastes,ii)rigidityofcasteranking,iii)theexistenceoftwoormore
dominantcastegroupsinaregion.StudiesfromvariouspartsofIndiasuggestthatdominant
castesdonotexisteverywhere.Areaswherealandowninggrouphasbeenabletoestablish
itselfinproportionallylargenumbers,andyetmaintaindistinctivecharacter(bystrictlyregulating
marriageanddescent)thatdominancehasbeenpossible.
Localpowerflowsmainlyfromland,whichisthemainsourceofwealth.Powerissafeguardedif
itisconfinedtoaunifiedandnumericallypreponderantcastegroup.Numbersalonedonot
guaranteepower.Castegroupsnumericallypreponderant,butwithdividedloyalties,creating
disunity,maynotwieldpower.Itisonlywhenacastegroupbecomespoliticallyunitedthatit
becomesapoliticalforce.Thisisveryimportantbecauseinthenewdemocraticpoliticalsystem
whereeveryvotecountsthenumericalpreponderanceofacastegroupgainsanadditional
meaning.Powermayalsoaccruetoajati,whenitsmembershaveeffectiveconnectionswith
thepowerofthevillagepanchayats.Inregionswherereligiousgroupsandtribalsareintermixed
andnosinglecastepossessesenoughland,powerornumericalstrength,insuchacondition,
thereisboundtobedualormultipledominationinaregion.
Karve(1953),inherstudyoftheMalabarCoasthaspointedoutcertaindistinctfeaturespresent
inaregion.Theorderofdominanceamongcastesparallelstheorderofcasterank.The
exclusivenatureofhighrankingcastesisfurtherreinforcedbyritualnotionsofpurityand
pollution.HighrankingBrahmancastesofthisregionpossesslandedwealth,powerandcontrol,
besidesthetraditionalrighttoperformritualstheyalsohaverighttoreligiouslearningand
worshipattemples.Subordinatecastesareobligedtoworshipaccordingtotheirritual
prescriptionsandtheydonothavetherighttoreligioustextslike,theVeda,Upanishad,etc.Their
economicandpoliticalsubordinationfurtherenhancesthedominantpositionofhighranking
castes.
Organizationofritualandtempleservices,concentrationoflandholdingscorrelatescasterank
withsecularpowerandpromotesconsistencyinthetotalhierarchyofintercasterelations.In
regionswherecasteandpowerhierarchyoverlapthereisadefiniteconcentrationofpower,
wealthandlandinvestedwithhighrankingcastegroups.Correspondinglyritualsanctions
reinforcedthesuperordinatestatusofuppercastegroupsandsubordinatestatusofthelower
castegroups.Thus,thiscorrelationleadstotheminimizingofdisputes.Regions,whichdonot
revealamajorcorrelationbetweencasteandpowerstructures,arecharacterizedbycertain
featuresverydifferentfromtheearlierexample.Casterankingmaynotbeclearcutandmay
promotedisputesaboutcasterankingandstatuswithinthehierarchy.Castegroupsofequal
rankmaybeconstantlydisputingovertheirmutualpositionsinthehierarchy,resultingindissent
anddisputeoverranking.Suchconflictsgetconsolidatedoveraperiodoftimeresultingin
formalizedfactionswithinthecastegroups.Factionsmaypromotedisputesbetweenthem.
Lackofclarityincasterankingresultsinadiffusedpowerstructure,withnosinglecastegroup
wieldingeconomic,politicalandritualclout
InthedistrictsofPunjab,HaryanaandpartsofU.P.,especiallyintheupperGangesdistricts,
middlerankingcastessuchastheJat,Ahir,Kurmi,etc.wieldsubstantialamountofpowerand
holdpositionsofdominance.Theagriculturalcasteswieldsubstantialpower,andare
numericallypreponderantinsomeoftheseregions.Politicalandeconomicinteractionamong
castesinthisregion,however,formsasomewhatimperfecthierarchyaspoliticalandeconomic
powerisdiffused.Ritualandsecularpowermaynotcoincideeverywhere.Theregionismarked
byalackofrigidstratificationofcastes,lackofconcentrationofpoliticalandeconomicpowerin
asinglecastegroup,resultinginthediffusionofpoliticalpower.
Tribe
Tribeshavebeendefinedasagroupofindigenouspeoplewithshallowhistory,havingcommon
name,languageandterritory,tiedbystrongkinshipbonds,practicingendogamy,havingdistinct
customs,ritualsandbeliefs,simplesocialrankandpoliticalorganization,commonownershipof
resourcesandtechnology.However,inIndiamanyofthesecharacteristicsaresharedby
castes.Thisraisestheproblemastohowtodistinguishthemfromcastes.Therehavebeen
otherconceptualattemptstodefinetribes.Theyhavebeenconsideredasastageinthesocial
andculturalevolution.Someothershaveconsideredthattheproductionandconsumption
amongthetribesarehouseholdbasedandunlikepeasantstheyarenotpartofawider
economic,politicalandsocialnetwork.Bailey(1960)hassuggestedthattheonlysolutiontothe
problemofdefinitionoftribesinIndiaistoconceiveofacontinuumofwhichatoneendaretribes
andattheotherarecastes.Thetribeshavesegmentary,egalitariansystemandarenotmutually
interdependent,asarecastesinasystemoforganicsolidarity.Theyhavedirectaccesstoland
andnointermediaryisinvolvedbetweenthemandland.
Geographically,thetribesareconcentratedinfiveregionsnamely,Himalayanregion(withtribes
liketheGaddi,theJaunsari,theNagaetc.),MiddleIndia(withtribesliketheMunda,theSantal
etc.),WesternIndia(withtribesliketheBhil,theGrasia),SouthIndianRegion(withtribeslikethe
Toda,theChenchuetc,)andtheIslandsRegion(withtribesliketheOngeinBayofBengal,the
MinicoyansinArabianSea).
Onthebasisofracialfeatures,Guha(1935)considersthattheybelongtothefollowingthree
races.
1. TheProtoAustraloidsTheyarecharacterisedbydarkskincolour,sunkennoseand
lowerforehead.ThesefeaturesarefoundamongtheGond(MadhyaPradesh),the
Munda(Chotanagpur),theHo(Bihar)etc.
2. TheMongoloidsThisgroupischaracterisedbylightskincolourheadandfaceare
broadthenosebridgeisverylowandtheireyesareslantingwithafoldontheuppereye
lid.ThesefeaturesarefoundamongtheBhotiya(CentralHimalayas),theWanchu
(ArunachalPradesh),theNaga(Nagaland),theKhasi(Meghalaya),etc.
3. TheNegritoThisgroupischaracterisedbydarkskincolour(tendingtolooklikeblue),
roundhead,broadnoseandfrizzlehair.ThesefeaturesarefoundamongtheKadar
(Kerala),theOnge(LittleAndaman),theJarwa(AndamanIslands),etc.
Linguistically,thereisgreatdiversityamongthesetribes.Accordingtoestimatetribalsspeak105
differentlanguagesand225subsidiarylanguages.Theselanguagesbelongto
1. AustroAsiaticfamilywithtwosubgroupsnamely,MonKhmerbranchandMundabranch
whicharespokenbyKhasi,Nicobari,GondsandSanthals,
2. TibetoChinesefamily:Therearetwosubfamiliesofthistype,namelySiameseChinese
subfamilyandTibetoBurmansubfamily.InextremeNorthEasternfrontierofIndia
KhamtiisonespecimenoftheSiameseChinesesubfamily.TheTibetoBurman
subfamilyisfurthersubdividedintoseveralbranches.TribalsofNagalandandLepcha
ofDarjeelingspeakvariantsofTibetoBurmanlanguages.
3. IndoEuropeanfamily:TriballanguagessuchasHajongandBhiliareincludedinthis
group
4. Dravidianfamily:LanguagesofDravidianfamilyare,forexample,spokenbyYeruvaof
Mysore,OraonofChotanagpur.
Theselanguagesareabroadclassificationshowingextremediversityamongthem.For
example,amongtheNagathereareatleast50differentgroups,eachoneofthemhasaspeech
ofitsownandquiteoftenthespeakersofonespeechdonotunderstandthespeechofothers.
Numericalstrengthoftribesalsoshowsgreatvariation.BigtribeslikeGondsandBhilsnumber
inmillionswhilesomelikeGreatAndamanesenumberlessthanhundred.Thesetribesalso
showgreatvarietyintheireconomicpursuits.SometribeslikeCholanaickendependedonfood
collectionandhuntingotherslikeKhasiofMeghalayapracticedshilfingcultivation.Mostofthe
tribesofmiddle,westernandsouthernregionsofthecountrypracticedsettledagriculturewhile
someliketheKotaoftheNilgirisliveoncrafts.Thecraftworkisdoneatthefamilylevelbutraw
materialmaybecollectedatthecommunitylevel.Forexample,thebasketmakersmaygo
collectivelyforobtainingbamboosbutbasketmakingmaybeafamilyenterprise.Sometribes
liketheTodaintheNilgiriandtheGujjar,theBakarwalandGaddiinHimachalPradeshare
pastoral.
Theeconomicsceneinthetribalregionshasbeenchanging.Theeconomicchangesmaybe
listedasfollows:
1. Forestresourceshavedwindledandforestshavebeenincreasinglybroughtunder
reservation.Theyarenomoreunderthecontrolofthetribalpeopleexceptincertain
areasofNorthEastIndia.
2. Tribalpeoplehavelostalotoflandtomoreexperiencedagriculturists,toindustries,and
forbigprojectslikehydroelectricreservoirs
3. Anumberofbigindustrieslikesteelplantshavebeenestablishedintheirareas.So,on
theonehand,theyhavebeendisplacedbysuchprojectsand,ontheother,theyhave
beengivenemploymentaswagelabourers.
4. Penetrationofmarketeconomyresultedinthetribalsproducingformarketratherthan
formeetingtheirownneeds.
5. Religion
6. Indiaisalandofmultiplereligions.Almostallofthemajorreligionsoftheworldhavetheir
presenceinthecountry.HinduismisthedominantreligionofIndia,followedbyIslam,
Christianity,Sikhism,BuddhismandJainism.Thereligionswithlesserfollowingare
Judaism,ZoroastrianismandBahaism.Howeverthesearenottheonlyreligions
7. Religion 8. Percentage
9. Allreligiouscommunities 10. 100.0
11. Hindus 12. 80.5
13. Muslims 14. 13.4
15. Christians 16. 2.3
17. Sikhs 18. 1.9
19. Buddhists 20. 0.8
21. Jains 22. 0.4
23. Others 24. 0.6
25. Religionnotstated 26. 0.1
27.
28. AsperthedataofCensus,2001,Hinduismisprofessedbythemajorityofpopulationin
India.TheHindusaremostnumerousin27states/UtsexceptinManipur,Arunachal
Pradesh,Mizoram,Lakshadweep,Nagaland,Meghalaya,Jammu&KashmirandPunjab.
TheMuslimsprofessingIslamareinmajorityinLakshadweepandJammu&Kashmir.
ThepercentageofMuslimsissizeableinAssam(30.9%),WestBengal(25.2%),Kerala
(24.7%),UttarPradesh(18.5%)andBihar(16.5%).
29. ChristianityhasemergedasthemajorreligioninthreeNortheasternstates,namely,
Nagaland,Mizoram,andMeghalaya.Amongotherstates/Uts,Manipur(34.0%),Goa
(26.7%),Andaman&NicobarIslands(21.7%),Kerala(19.0%),andArunachalPradesh
(18.7%)haveconsiderablepercentageofChristianpopulationtothetotalpopulationof
theState/UT. PunjabisthestrongholdofSikhism.TheSikhpopulationofPunjab
accountsformorethan75%ofthetotalSikhpopulationinthecountry.Chandigarh
(16.1%),Haryana(5.5%),Delhi(4.0%),Uttaranchal(2.5%)andJammu&Kashmir
(2.0%)areotherimportantStates/UtshavingSikhpopulation.Thesesixstates/UTs
togetheraccountfornearly90percentSikhpopulationinthecountry.
30. ThelargestconcentrationofBuddhismisinMaharashtra(58.3%),where(73.4%)ofthe
totalBuddhistsinIndiareside.Karnataka(3.9lakh),UttarPradesh(3.0lakh),west
Bengal(2.4lakh)andMadhyaPradesh(2.0lakh)areotherstateshavinglargeBuddhist
population.Sikkim(28.1%),ArunachalPradesh(13.0%)andMizoram(7.9%)have
emergedastopthreestatesintermsofhavingmaximumpercentageofBuddhist
population.Maharashtra,Rajsthan,MadhyaPradesh,Gujrat,Karnataka,UttarPradesh
andDelhihavereportedmajorJainpopulation.Thesestates/UTstogetheraccountfor
nearly90percentofthetotalJainpopulationinthecountry,thepercentageofJain
populationtothetotalpopulationismaximuminMaharastra(1.3%),Rajsthan(1.2%),
Delhi(1.1%)andGujrat(1.0%).Elsewhereinthecountrytheirproportioninnegligible.
31. TheabovefigureswouldindicatethattheIndiansocietyisalsodiverseinreligiousterms.
Whilethegeneralpopulacehasbeenlargelytolerantofothercommunities,therehave
beensomeinstancesofreligioustension.WhiletheMuslimsfeeluneasyonaccountof
theBabriMasjidandGujaratriotsandChristiansfeeldisturbedaboutactionsofsome
sectionsagainstthemissionaries,theSikhshavetimeandagainpointedout1984anti
Sikhriots.However,creditmustgotheresilienceofthecommonpeoplethattheyhave
successfullydealtwiththesechallengestosocialfabricofthecountryandhave
maintainedcommunalharmony.
32. Region
33. Indiaisalargecountrywithhugegeographicalvariations.Wehavethesnowclad
Himalayas,fertileplainsoftheNorth,aridlandofWesternIndia,Deccanplateauandthe
coastalplainsoftheSouth.SomeareasliketheplainsofNorthhavebeenhistorically
prosperousduetogoodagriculturewhilesomelikeRajasthandonothavethesame
position.SomeareaslikeU.P.andPunjabwereseatsofpowerandhadcontinuous
interactionwiththeoutsideworld,someliketheHimalayanstatesofthenorthandtribal
areasinthenortheastwereuntouchedbytheoutsideworld.Theseareasdeveloped
theirownpocketsinwhichtheylivedinaccordancewiththeircultureandtraditions.Apart
fromthis,feudalismhasbeenanimportantpartofIndianpolityaftertheMauryanperiod
andhasvirtuallycontrolledthepoliticalsystemsince8thcenturyonwards.Itensuredthat
wheneverthecentralauthorityweakenedthelocallordwouldstrivetobecome
independent.AnumberoflocalkingdomslikeAwadh,BengalandHyderabadaroseafter
thedeclineofMughalempire.Supportofsuchrulershelpedindevelopinglocaldialects
andculturehelpingtheregiontogrowintoaseparateandlinguisticidentity.
34. Regionalidentitythusisacombinationofgeographicalandculturalidentitiesand
regionalconsciousnessinvariablyevolvesfromeitherorbothofthesecharacteristics.
Whenthisregionalconsciousnessiscoupledwitheconomicdisparitiesitbringsina
contradictionbetweenthecommunityandthestate,andthecommunitystarts
demandingaseparateadministrativesetupintheformofstateorautonomouscouncils
wheretheycanpreservetheirsocioculturalidentityandlookafterwellbeingoftheir
people,whichaccordingtothemareneglected.Whilesomesuchmovementshaveled
tosuccessfulcreationofstates,otherslikeTelenganahavenotbeensosuccessful.
35. Language
36. LikeallotheraspectsIndiahaslinguisticdiversity.Although,Hindiistheofficiallanguage
ofthecountrytheConstitutionrecognizes22languages.TheseareAssamese,Bengali,
Bodo,Dogri,Gujarati,Hindi,Kannada,Kashmiri,Konkani,Maithili,Malayalam,Manipuri,
Marathi,Nepali,Odia,Punjabi,Sanskrit,Santhali,Sindhi,Tamil,TeluguandUrdu.
However,numberoflanguagesismuchhigherandCensus,2001recognized122
languagesbelongingtofivefamiliesofIndoEuropean,Dravidian,AustroAsiatic,
TibetoBurmeseandSemitoHamitic.
37.
38. AsperCensus,2001,strengthofthespeakersofthe22
scheduledlanguagesisasunder.
39. RANKINGOFSCHEDULEDLANGUAGESINDESCENDING
ORDEROFSPEAKERSSTRENGTH2001
40.
41.S.
N
o
42.Languag
e
43.% age of population
44. 1 45. Hindi 46. 41.03
47. 2 48. Bengali 49. 8.11
50. 3 51. Telugu 52. 7.19
53. 4 54. Marathi 55. 6.99
56. 5 57. Tamil 58. 5.91
59. 6 60. Urdu 61. 5.01
62. 7 63. Gujarati 64. 4.48
65. 8 66. Kannada 67. 3.69
68. 9
69. Malayala
m
70. 3.21
71. 10 72. Oriya 73. 3.21
74. 11 75. Punjabi 76. 2.83
77. 12
78. Assames
e
79. 1.28
80. 13 81. Maithili 82. 1.18
83. 14 84. Santali 85. 0.63
86. 15 87. Kashmiri 88. 0.54
89. 16 90. Nepali 91. 0.28
92. 17 93. Sindhi 94. 0.25
95. 18 96. Konkani 97. 0.24
98. 19 99. Dogri 100. 0.22
101. 2
0
102. Manip
uri
103. 0.14
104. 2
1
105. Bodo 106. 0.13
107. 2
2
108. Sansk
rit
109. 0.00
110.
111. Apartfromthistherearethousandsofdialectswhichare
spokeninthecountry.Forexample,Hindiwhichisspokenin
anumberofstateshasvariousdialectsinuseinvarious
areasofthecountry,likeAwadhiineasternU.P.andBrijin
anotherareaofthesamestate.Theselanguageshave
developedandareconcentratedinparticulargeographical
areasandplaycrucialrolesinframingregionalidentities.
Therehavebeensuccessfulmovementsforcreationof
statesonlinguisticbasisandAndhraPradeshwasthefirst
statetobeorganizedonthisbasis.Presently,Telugu
speakingpeopleofAndhraPradesh,concentratedinthe
Terengganuregionaredemandingaseparatestate.