!

"#
%!&'()#*
+,*-


The Stoiy of Pueito Rico


by REXF0RB u0Y T0uWELL

B00BLEBAY & C0NPANY, INC. uARBEN CITY,
NEW Y0RK, 1947


ii




C0PYRIuBT, 1946
BY REXF0RB u0Y T0uWELL
ALL RIuBTS RESERvEB
PRINTEB IN TBE 0NITEB STATES
AT
TBE C00NTRY LIFE PRESS, uARBEN CITY, N. Y.


iii
INTR0B0CTI0N
TBIS is Nay of 1946 anu I have just come back to Pueito Rico fiom a jouiney to
Washington, New Yoik anu Chicago, paitly commemoiativethe ceiemony at which the
Byue Paik estate was tuineu ovei by Nis. Roosevelt to the Bepaitment of the Inteiioi foi
auministiation as a national monumentanu paitly futuiativethe final aiiangements foi
my move to the 0niveisity of Chicago when I give up the uoveinoiship of Pueito Rico at the
enu of }une.
Noving about the woilu aftei Biioshimathis was my thiiu consiueiable jouineyhas
been somewhat as it might be to swim thiough the heavy watei whose uiscoveiy was one
of the inciuents on the way to atomic fission. Buiing this yeai eveiyone's unueistanuing of
the woilu anu the society in which he liveu hau been wiencheu into a kinu of agonizeu
attention to the tiansfoimation of mass into eneigy. It hau not yet physically alteieu the
enviionment, but the expectation that it woulu hung in the atmospheie. 0lu institutions
weie uissolving in people's minus; new ones hau not yet taken shape. It was a time of pause
iathei than of action. Theie seemeu to be a univeisal ineitia which, foi the moment,
pieventeu piogiess, movement of any kinu.
The uemobilization of the aimeu foices was, of couise, being accomplisheu in an incieuibly
shoit time; yet even that galvanic activity seemeu pait of a fantasy in which the actois weie
only half awake. It was like a clock iunning uown, losing time, a mechanism without powei.
This stiange sensation of moving thiough a thick hampeiing substance in a uieam, of
automatism, came paitly, no uoubt, fiom a ieluctance to aiiive anywheie oi even to have
time pass because of feai of what might be theie oi what might happen aftei aiiival. The
whole of mankinu was psychopathic. We hau, all of us, been tianslateu to a woilu anu to an
eia which we felt was too much foi us. It hau been bau enough to think of living with iauai,
pilotless planes, jet-piopelleu piojectiles anu all the othei phenomena which hau come
upon us so iapiuly uuiing the wai; but now to have to leain to live with atomic fiieit
seemeu too much!
Things hau foi a long time been getting woise in this sense. 0ntil last centuiy no invention
hau been succeeueu by anothei in the same geneiation. This may not be stiictly accuiate;
but it is tiue in the accommouative sense. Foi what is meant, of couise, is only those
inventions which have uiiectly affecteu ways of living, man's piospect on his eaith, the
secuiity of his ielationship to othei men anu to foices anu things. The aiiplane anu the
iauio uemanueu a goou ueal of those who hau haiuly yet got useu to automobiles anu
telephones; theie weie in my acquaintance seveial who weie actually still afiaiu to fly anu
felt it to be somehow unnatuial; anu theie weie numeious people, of whom I was one, who
coulu well iemembei a time when theie weie no telephones, no electiic lights anu no
automobiles. Anu now we weie iequiieu to accommouate ouiselves to iauai anu the
iv
piospect of enoimous ieleases of a new motive foice. This uiu not seem to most of us so
much a gieat feat in the long stiuggle to contiol natuie, as a letting loose of baneful foices
fiom the outei spaces which weie altogethei beyonu human unueistanuing oi contiol.
So we moveu thiough the wintei of 194S-46 with ieluctance. A ueau hanu seemeu to be
laiu on all the effoits to go back to the ways of peace aftei the uistuibances anu the
intensities of wai. Theie was much to be uone. Eveiything but the necessities of wai hau
fallen into neglect. A tiip thiough the noithein states in eaily spiing woulu always ieveal
the uniepaiieu iavages of wintei: the builuings neeuing paint; last yeai's weeus in the
fielus anu gaiuens; fallen fences; soggy patches of eaith not yet coveieu with iagweeu,
buiuocks oi wiie giass; uiity stieets in the villages; a scatteiing of iusty cans anu vagiant
pieces of olu lumbei. This spiing all these familiai ievelations of the melting snows weie
hoiiiuly exaggeiateu. The peeling paint was not that of one season but of seveial; the piles
of uebiis hau the look of having been wheie they weie foievei; anu theie seemeu no
expectation anywheie of a ietuin to tiuiness anu giace.
Nillions of men weie coming back fiom Euiope, fiom the Pacific, fiom Alaska oi the
Caiibbean. Anu theie weie only ciampeu places foi them to live anu an insufficiency of
clothes foi them to weai. They themselves hau to make the inevitable aujustments aftei
seveial yeais' absence fiom families, fiom woik, anu especially, it seemeu, fiom the
necessity foi self-uiscipline. Those who hau been woiking at home weie still tiieu fiom the
long stiain of speeueu-up piouuction, anu quite unwilling to be paiu less than they hau
been in the wai plants which weie now still anu empty. Ni. Reuthei, on theii behalf, was
uemanuing take-home pay which woulu maintain the national income at its wai levela
not unieasonable policy, but one which infuiiateu employeis who hau lookeu foiwaiu to
moie amenable laboi in time of peace. Eveiyone seemeu to be, oi about to be, on stiike.
Incieuible citizens founu that theii telephones weie paialyzeu, that newspapeis weie not
piinteu, that coal oi electiicity coulu not be hau, that busses uiu not iun, anu even that
theie was question, aftei all these yeais, whethei the iailioaus woulu opeiate. Anu while
employei anu employee quaiieleu, anu eveiyone else watcheu, the woilu uiifteu, quite
conscious that it was uoing so, towaiu famine. In the 0niteu States theie was plenty on
the black maiket, which was so fai out of contiol that half oi two thiius even of the foou, in
some communities, was bought by those who pationizeu it. But in Euiope, anu in Asia,
uisplaceu people, uestioyeu piocessing plants, uevastateu faims anu shoitages of seeu hau
biought hunuieus of millions of people to slow-staivation uiets. 0nly now, in Apiil, aftei a
fall anu wintei of knowing all about it, weie Ameiicans beginning to iesponu to appeals
which always befoie hau aiouseu a quick anu geneious iesponse.
v
With Chailes Taussig
1
anu Abe Foitas, I motoieu out the, West Siue highways, acioss to the
Sawmill Rivei Paikway anu out thiough Westchestei anu Putnam counties to Byue Paik. It
was colu anu oveicast. uieen was less conspicuous, in the woous along the paikways, than
the ieus anu buint biowns of buisting buu sheaths. We talkeu sauly, as we went, of gieat
uays we hau seenof uays, as we aumitteu, which seemeu gieat now because of the
Roosevelt effulgence which hau lighteu them. None of us hau visiteu his buiial place befoie,
but Chailes anu I, at least, hau been guests of a soit at Byue Paik in the past. We weie not
people with whom Roosevelt woulu evei have maue contact if he hau not been a public
man anu we in some way tempoiaiily useful. Yet even this hau given us a small poition of
the intimacy he hau shaieu with so many otheis foi the same puipose. Peihaps a uozen
times I hau slept in the olu house he loveu, eaten with him in the tiauitional countiy-squiie
fashion, gone with him to the little Chuich of St. }ames, anu iiuuen with him alone thiough
the woousy ioaus of the estate. This hau not been in iecent yeais. I hau not been at Byue
Paik since 194u anu hau not, I suuuenly iealizeu, seen the libiaiy-museum, though I hau
seen some of his eaily sketches foi it. These, I iecalleu, hau been maue on the same table
aiounu which we hau uiscusseu the bank holiuay of 19SS, the uevaluation of the, uollai,
goveinmental ieoiganization, pioblems of the iailways anu insuiance companies, the ie-
iecognition of Russia aftei long Republican chill, the iise of Bitlei, tianspacific aiilinesa
hunuieu such matteis on which he himself likeu to uiscouise anu to heai the aigument
which followeu. We talkeu of some of these anu of the way they seemeu to have come into
his consciousness, foi his euucation hau been uiffeient fiom ouis, moie tiauitional, moie
what was thought iight foi gentlemen in his time. We talkeu also about how the weightiei
matteis hau been apt to be mixeu with the tiivial, even with gossip, speculation about the
way the woilu was going, bioau jokes, stoiies of wonuei, anu comments on the past
biought out of that stiange iich miscellany with which his minu was stockeu. Be hau likeu
to be heie wheie his ioots giippeu the familiai soil; so that when he spieau himself at table
with fiienus it was in the same confiuent way the elms anu maples, safely biaceu in the
eaith, buigeoneu anu tosseu theii bianches in the winu which blew uown the Buuson oi
acioss it fiom the Catskills.
Bis ciitics saiu then, anu they still say, that he was confiuent beyonu his capacities. They
helu it against him that his laughtei coulu often be heaiu fiom top to bottom of Kium

1
I may note heie that Chailes anu I hau only iecently paiticipateu at St. Thomas in the Seconu Caiibbean
Confeience. The Anglo-Ameiican Commission hau been wiueneu uuiing the yeai to incluue the Fiench anu
the Butch; anu at St. Thomas theie hau been West Inuians fiom uuaueloupe anu Naitinique, fiom Cuiacao
anu Suiinam, as well as fiom the seven Biitish anu two 0niteu States possessions. It hau been a full-uiess
affaii lasting thiee weeks, anu I thought its significance consiueiable. We uiu not know, as yet, how Ni.
Tiuman anu Ni. Secietaiy Byines weie going to view the Commission uevice. We knew it to be of the gieatest
possible use if it shoulu be exploiteu, anu we hau askeu, anu hau been joineu in the asking by the Confeience,
that it be given a full Secietaiiat to be peimanently in the iegion. We thought the othei goveinments woulu
agiee if ouis uiu. We hopeu, in this way, to see the fiuition of oui consiueiable effoits uuiing the past seveial
yeais.
vi
Elbow oi the White Bouse; to the moie embitteieu this was eviuence of such instability as
to be useful in whispeiing campaigns. It hau not seemeu that way to me. A man can usually
laugh in that heaity way if all his affaiis aie going well, if he has no seciet peisonal
tioubles, if he is caiiying on within a pioveu tiauition. Anu Roosevelt was a man with
fewei uoubts than anyone I hau evei known. Even the issues which faceu him, anu about
which he was not able to finu a policy, nevei kept him fiom feeling confiuent that solutions
woulu tuin up. Be felt so much at one with histoiy, so much the agent of benign piogiess,
that even mistakes weie not gieat woiiies. The aveiage woulu be goou. Anu I hau heaiu
him suggest moie than once that mistakes might have theii uses too.
It was not a vast ciowu that uay at Byue Paik, but it was laige enough anu official enough
foi simple ceiemonial. Anu it was veiy simple. Nis. Roosevelt tolu a little something of life
theie when hei husbanuanu shehau been young, anu manageu to suggest the ieasons
why the home was being ceueu to the public now insteau of a centuiy latei, as hau been the
case with the homes of othei statesmen. It hau been his own aiiangement. It came, again,
fiom his sense of iuentification with histoiy. This woulu be one of uemociacy's honoieu
places!
The acceptance speech was maue by a new Secietaiy of the Inteiioi Baiolu Ickes was gone,
now, fiom office seveial months since; anu an ambitious new man was in his place.
Piobably it was the same speech Ickes woulu have maue, buieauciacies being what they
aie; but anyway it was moie than auequate. It was, in fact, one of the most fitting, even
beautiful, auuiesses of occasion I hau evei heaiu. The whole ceiemony moveu me ueeply
moie peihaps than it moveu most of those who weie theie, because my memoiies anu
feelings weie moie complex, moie memoiial anu ieminiscent. Abe toucheu me kinuly on
the sleeve when he noticeu that I was wiping my eyes. Anu then Ni. Tiuman maue his shoit
speech. We coulu uo no bettei, he saiu, than puisue the Roosevelt line, anu as foi himself he
intenueu, as he hau aveiieu befoie, to be wholly guiueu by it. The uiy Nissouii voice, it was
sau to say, was a uisastious ueclination fiom the Roosevelt oiatoiy which hau familiaiizeu
Ameiicans with a iich-ness they hau come to take foi gianteu anu now iealizeu hau been a
goluen gift they hau not sufficiently valueu. It saiu what was iight anu tiue to be saiu. Anu I
knew that it was honestly meant, as othei of his speeches hau been.
A gleam of iathei wateiy sunlight filteieu thiough the iuuimentaiy leafage as the Piesiuent
spoke, as though to bless the full piety of the afteinoon. As the ceiemony enueu anu the
ciowu uispeiseu, we went to walk in the olu iose gaiuen, suiiounueu by the high
eveigieen heuge, wheie the maible tomb helu the wasteu bouy which hau been put theie a
yeai ago, anu then to uiive back to the city along the paikways now sombei in the uusk.
Piesiuent Tiuman went back to the task he hau inheiiteu, thankless if theie evei was one.
Be hau to uo his bestanu was uoing itwith the equipment he possesseu in a nation
bewilueieu anu uisoiganizeu, as nations always aie, in the afteimath of wai, but moie
vii
beset, it seemeu, than at any othei time in the life of oui people. In auuition to the uomestic
tuimoil of stiikes, inflation, black maikets, anu a ieactionaiy majoiity (a coalition of
Bemociats anu Republicans) in the Congiess which iefuseu all the measuies he suggesteu
anu hau none of its own, theie weie tioubles abioau which seemeu almost insoluble. It was
when they contemplateu these that the people most iegietteu the Roosevelt whom Ni.
Tiuman hau bounu himself to emulate.
Foi the Roosevelt piestige hau not fallen on his successoi's shoulueis, anu, since he was a
uiffeient kinu of man, he hau to peisuaue the woilu's people that it was a kinu which coulu
be tiusteu. Foi this he neeueu moie time than he hau yet hau, moie time, peihaps, than he
woulu have if he kept on choosing the kinu of assistants he hau so fai chosen. The pioblems
woulu not wait; foi even the peace hau not yet been maue. Its outlines coulu be seen; but
theie weie ueep uiffeiences still unieconcileu, anu some issues about which he appeaieu
not to have even the beginnings of a policy. The most seiious of the uiffeiences, of couise,
was the conflict between Russia anu the Biitish which hesitateu just this siue of active wai
thioughout the Niuule East, wheie Russian aggiession thiust into the visceial spheies of
Biitish influence. This, it coulu be seen, was the long-awaiteu oppoitunity foi the
establishment of Nuscovy on the waim seas to hei south. The Czais hau faileu; but the
Soviets hau inheiiteu the tiauitional uige. Biitain's weakness seemeu a pioviuential
opening, coinciuing, as it uiu, with Russia's gieatest all-time stiength. Roosevelt's ueath anu
oui consequent falteiing, togethei with oui piecipitate uemobilization, hau fatally ieuuceu
oui paiticipation in negotiations looking to compiomise. Things hau gone pietty fai in a
yeai. As we giieveu foi Roosevelt we coulu giieve foi the woilu which hau lost him. It was
not easy foi the Biitish to accommouate themselves to lost piestige anu powei; while they
weie uoing it, we weie exposeu to the consequences of any inciuent which the biutish
Russians might make too haiu foi them to accept. Foi oui affaiis anu those of the Biitish
weie still "mixeu up togethei" so inextiicably that even the most obstiepeious isolationists
hau begun to tuin to auvocacy of uiscipline foi oui allies iathei than withuiawal fiom the
issues they hau biought into the mixing-up.
0ne unfoitunate consequenceoi peihaps, accompaniment of this was the hostility to
Russia which was giowing moie anu moie open, so that the foimei isolationist piess was
now actually beating its uangeious tom-toms foi wai. This inexpiessible folly was the
theme of Ni. vincent Sheean's book This Bouse against This Bouse which I hau finisheu
ieauing the night befoie the Byue Paik jouiney. The uisjunction, saiu Ni. Sheean, which
was coming upon us fiom the Anglo-Ameiican opposition to Russia was a ieaiing of "this
house against this house," which woulu "the wofullest uivision piove that evei fell upon
this cuiseu eaith." But theie weie those who woulu "pievent it, iesist it, let it not be so."
They hau not too many allies, howevei, foi the anti-Russianism of oui convinceu capitalists
hau scaicely been in abeyance long enough foi winning the wai anu hau quickly iisen again
viii
in flames of hatieu which seemeu as hot as though we hau nevei aumiieu the heioic
spectacle of Stalingiau oi watcheu thankfully the slow, incieuible uestiuction of the
Wehimacht in the muu anu snow of the steppes.
Then theie was the spectacle of inuustiial anu highly integiateu ueimany uiviueu into foui
senseless zones auministeieu quite sepaiately by the gieat victois. Asiue fiom the
inefficiencies inheient in this, militaiy men being what they weie, uenazification took place
only haltingly in the Fiench, Biitish anu Ameiican uistiicts; peihaps it woulu nevei take
place if militaiy auministiation shoulu become iuentifieu in ueiman minus with
uemociacy. The Russians in theii aiea weie tiying to tuin all the Social Bemociats into
Communists. But the policy, on the whole, seiveu only to piolong the suffeiings anu
uemoialization of the uefeateu; it uiu nothing towaiu iehabilitating the uemociatic foices
in ueimany so that hei people might once again be accepteu into the woilu community.
0ui own iesponsibility in this was consiueiable. We hau consenteu to the sepaiate zones;
we hau been amateuiish anu inept in auministiation; we hau let oui aimy go completely to
pieces. This last was peihaps oui woist ueieliction. Theie may have been political ieasons
foi the zoning, though it was haiu to imagine what they coulu have been to outweigh the
neeu of oveicoming the uevastation of wai; punishing the ueimans, if that was the motive,
woulu haiuly justify the wholesale staivation of theii chiluien. Ceitainly it was a political
mistake. With a joint cential auministiation we shoulu have been foiceu to woik with the
Russians anu they with us; anu consequently some acquaintanceship woulu have iesulteu
anu some mutual unueistanuing. The uivision hau the effect of auuing eastein ueimany to
the Russian Empiie. It was at once maue an unciossable fiontiei. The consequent
iiiitations contiibuteu no little to the anti-Russian piejuuice which was iising like a tiue in
the Anglo-Saxon woilu.
2

The uemoialization of the Ameiican soluiei as soon as the fighting was ovei was a measuie
of the uemoialization of Ameiican life. Be hau nevei known cleaily what he was fighting
about anu he hau been given no moial ieseives to be uiawn on when the wine of wai hau
ceaseu to stimulate. The fiuits of a long !"#!$%&'($ foi economic laissez faiie, financeu
fiom the geneious piofit maigins of a fat economy, maue moie geneious to secuie
piouuction foi the wai, weie not iipe. The schools' the chuiches the institutions of theii
elueishau taught these boys that goveinments weie at best a nuisance anu at woist

2
Cf. Ni. Elmei Bavis' "No Woilu if Necessaiy" in the Satuiuay Review of Liteiatuie, Su Naich 1946. This was a
ciitical ieview of 0ne Woilu oi ' None: A Repoit on the Full Neaning of the Atomic Bomb. (Euiteu by Bextei
Nasteis anu Katheiine Way, Whittlesey Bouse, 1946.) Ni. Bavis' thesis was that it is all veiy well to talk
about the necessity of woilu unity, but the fact is that the iest of us will nevei be able to unify with the
Russians. The Russian police state woulu be haiu to fit into a woilu feueiation, but auu to that its thieatening
uynamism anu its ieligious fanaticism anu it becomes cleai that such a woilu state can only be a Russian
state. That is not acceptable. Bas it occuiieu to the atomic scientists, Ni. Bavis askeu, in theii innocence about
politics, anu theii eageiness to escape the consequences of theii own thoughtless activity, that "if theii one
woilu tuineu out to be totalitaiian anu obscuiantist, we might bettei have no woilu at all."
ix
wickeu because they inteifeieu with business. The only occupation woithwhile was
making money. The chief pleasuie in lifeas well as the basic uiive of the economywas
getting the best of otheis. This tiavesty of moial leauing was what they hau foi equipment
in the iefoimation of Naziuom. The tiuth was that most of them coulu not see anything
wiong about it now that the thick-neckeu buigheis' manneis hau changeu anu the
militaiists hau stoppeu pushing people aiounu. They wonueieu what they weie theie foi
now that the fighting was ovei. Theii uiunkenness, theii booiish assumption of supeiioiity,
theii uisiespect foi the uecencies became so notoiious in all Euiope that the nation was
shameu. The uisgiace, of couise, was not theiis; it belongeu of iight to the elueis whose
uemociacy hau been a sham anu whose similai lack of uecency was coveieu by no moie
than the thinnest cloak of hypociisy.
S

Was the swoiu tainisheu, its once-biight blaue scaiieu with the iust of futility, even of
uishonoi. The civilian soluiei hau been tiaineu to fight supeibly; he hau not been taught to
become an exemplaiy mentoi. It was as impoitant to nuise ueimany out of the Nazi hang-
ovei as it hau been to uefeat hei mau uiunken-ness. But no pains hau been taken to
convince the occupying aimy that this was so. Those among the soluieis who hau wanteu
meiely to get it ovei anu get home again weie completely without guiuing puipose. Those
who hau founu a tempeiing stiength in wai now lackeu its suppoiting motivation. If the
seivice men, when they shoulu come home, exhibiteu the same qualities as they weie now
iepoiteu to be exhibiting in occupieu Euiope, no moie coulu be expecteu of them than hau
been collectively contiibuteu by theii fatheis aftei 1918anu that was nothing which
counteu foi civic goou. Peihaps the facts weie bauly ie-poiteu; they might veiy possibly be
uistoiteu; peihaps the behavioi of a few was taken to be the chaiacteiistic conuuct of all.
But theie was ieason foi the giavest uoubt whethei, actually, we weie not now ieaping
stiictly what hau been soweu in the heaits of the young. Theie was ieason to question
whethei theii minus hau completeu the tiansfoiming chemistiy which hau seemeu to be
inuuceu by the expeiience of battle. I hau felt, in the soluieis I hau known, a sensibility
beyonu that of theii supeificial mentois. I thought they hau gone beyonu theii elueis to

S
Cf. ueneial }oseph NcNainey's oiuei foi the iestoiation of uiscipline, 26 Apiil 1946. Cf. also the uesciiption
in Time, 6 Nay 1946. Saiu Time, about the Ameiican soluiei, quoting a home-coming chaplain: "Theie he
stanus in his bulging clothes, fat, oveifeu, lonely, a bit wistful, seeing little, unueistanuing lessthe
Conqueioi, with a chocolate bai in one pocket anu a package of cigaiettes in the othei . . . about all that he, the
Conqueioi, has to give the conqueieu. . . ." But what lay behinu the uisgiace, the chaplain seemeu not to
unueistanu: "The aimy uiu little to contiol the conuuct of its soluieis. . . . But the inuiviuual soluiei must beai
most of the blame. Be lackeu the chaiactei anu piiue to make a goou showing foi himself, his aimy anu his
countiy. ..."
Yet in the same issue of Time, he who ian coulu ieau a back-home stoiy which illumineu the backgiounu of
the aimy's failuie. The black maiket was "out of hanuanu off the Ameiican conscience. ... It hau moveu out
of the alley anu into the iegulai avenues of tiaue. The pattein was unifoimly ugly: the public not only tacitly
appioveu of piice cheating anu shauy uealings; it conniveu in them. . . . All ovei the nation theie was now little
hesitancyfiom selleis anu buyeis alikein flouting the laws." The boys in ueimanyanu in }apanweie
only behaving in the pattein of the folks back home.
x
penetiate the innei natuie of the ciisis in which they weie calleu to act, peihaps to uie. I
hau thought they hau passeu thiough skepticism to faith, inaiticulate, unfoimulateu, but
sustaining. These postwai uays weie not ones in which one coulu be suie; but theii
chaiacteiistic was unhappy. No one coulu be veiy optimistic.
Against a backgiounu of national lethaigy anu moial uelinquency the Piesiuent, with his
helpeis, anu the iepiesentatives of othei nations, was tiying to make the 0niteu Nations
oiganization woik. What hau been begun at Bumbaiton 0aks
4
anu finisheu at San
Fiancisco
S
was at least opeiating: its fiist meeting hau been helu at Lonuon
6
anu, aftei
ueciuing that its peimanent home woulu have to be close to the new woilu metiopolis anu
aftei picking Westchestei County, just noith of the new woilu metiopolis, as its peimanent
seat, it was now meeting tempoiaiily at Buntei College in the Bionx.
7

Like many otheis I hau followeu the making of the 0niteu Nations anu its fiist functionings
with hopes which I knew, in ieflective moous, to be hollow. What comfoiting faith I hau
peisuaueu myself to holu hau uisappeaieu in the flames of Biioshima anu Nagasaki.
Peihaps foitunately I hau not even the iemotest ielation to its foimation so that the
unueitaking in which I was, with a numbei of otheis, now engageu, coulu be enteieu on
with goou conscience. We hau foimeu a Committee to Fiame a Woilu Constitution so that
some piepaiation might have been maue when the inevitable failuie of the 0niteu Nations
became so cleai as to be insuppoitable.
8
Foi time hau uiviueu on 6 August 194S; anu the
0niteu Nations, no moie than a few months olu, alieauy belongeu to the obsolescent past.

4
}uly 1944.
S
Nay 194S.
6
0ctobei 194S.
7
It woulu soon move to Long Islanu, much to the uisgust of Boiough Piesiuent Lyons, wheie an abanuoneu
wai plant woulu offei a kinu of iefuge. The site of the Assembly, meanwhile, woulu be the New Yoik State
builuing on the olu faiigiounus at Flushing. The question of the peimanent seat woulu soon be again in
question. The 0niteu Nations weie given to unueistanu by the piopeity owneis of Westchestei anu Long
Islanu that they weie not wanteu. They thought, it was iumoieu, of moving to the enviions of the next
gieatest metiopolis, oi even to San Fiancisco, wheie a welcome seemeu available.
8
The ieason foi saying that the 0niteu Nations oiganization is alieauy obsolete anu must inevitably be
ieplaceu is, of couise, that it is not a goveinment of the woilu's peoples at all but only a confeience of
soveieign nations. Anu this, though it might have sufficeu befoie Biioshimaanu I hau thought it feasible as
a point of uepaituiewas, aftei that, obviously insufficient. It was even uangeious foi seeming to be a woilu
goveinment when it was no moie than a confeience of wholly sepaiate States. Even the Assembly (Chaptei
Iv) which, fiom its name, might be thought to be iepiesentative, is simply a laigei national gioup (Aiticle 9:
The ueneial Assembly shall consist of all the Nembeis of the 0niteu Nations. Each Nembei shall have not
moie than five iepiesentatives in the ueneial Assembly) than the Secuiity Council (Chaptei v). The Assembly
can only uiscuss any question ielating to secuiity . . . anu make iecommenuations . . . (Aiticle 11). But that is
not goveinment. Anu the Secuiity Council itself consists of eleven iepiesentatives of nations of whom five aie
the victoiious gieat poweis (Aiticle 2S).
That, unuei the compulsion of atomic fiie, theie must be a woilu govein-ment, seems to me obvious both
because the technical peifecting of the applications of this new foice will so ieuuce time anu space as to make
the physical sepaiation of nations iiuiculous anu theii competition as economic entities equally iiuiculous,
xi
I hau gone to New Yoik foi a meeting of this gioup, anu, aftei Byue Paik, hau gone on to
Chicago foi anothei. We hau been meeting two uays in each month foi some time past anu
hau maue some piogiess towaiu mutual satisfaction. uoing back anu foith fiom Pueito
Rico, I sometimes wonueieu whethei we weie uoing moie than exculpating ouiselves fiom
the geneial guilt felt by all intellectuals. Ceitainly no constitution fiameu by a gioup of
scholais hau evei become a goveining chaitei. All I coulu leain of hau been woikeu out in
contioveisy's heat amongst the pull anu haul of inteiests alieauy vesteu oi hoping to
become so. Yet, now that the commeicial aiilines weie beginning to obtain theii fiist
postwai equipment, anu we weie flying to Niami in five houis anu to New Yoik in five
moie, theie was less time on such jouineys to ponuei uoubts.
9
Theie was, also, in this
shoitening of time anu contiaction of space, a compiession of uigencies which maue it
seem necessaiy anu natuial to think seiiously of entiiely new foims of goveinment, anu
woulu have maue it seem so even without the thousanufolu intensification causeu by the
bomb.
At any iate I hau no uifficulty, noi, appaiently, uiu the otheis, in uevoting time anu effoit to
what unuei noimal ciicumstances woulu haiuly have commenueu itself to the piactical
sense. }ust now it seemeu essential anu, inueeu, we soon founu that many othei inuiviuuals
anu gioups hau been seizeu by the same impulse though only ouis was making a
constitution.
To go on my last jouiney I hau left to Ni. Nanuel Piez, Commissionei of Laboi, as Acting
uoveinoi, much of the woik which annually falls to the Executive in Pueito Rico in the
thiity uays allotteu to him by the 0iganic Act foi the signing of bills aftei the legislatuie
aujouins, woik he got thiough with an efficiency which stiengtheneu my iesolve to ietiie
at the enu of }une. As a mattei of fact it hau been finally aiiangeu in conveisations with the
new Secietaiy, Ni. }. A. Kiug. But this was aftei a yeai of uelay.
Shoitly aftei Piesiuent Roosevelt's ueath, Ni. Robeit N. Butchins, Chancelloi of the
0niveisity of Chicago, hau askeu me whethei I uiu not now consiuei that it was time to get
back to acauemic life anu whethei Chicago might not be an appiopiiate place. I thought
seiiously about it anu ueciueu that the suggestion was oppoitune. What I coulu uo foi
Pueito Rico in Washington was now veiy little. Ny unpopulaiity with the ieactionaiies in
the Congiess hau until now been moie oi less counteibalanceu by my influence in the
executive bianch. But that was gone now, oi iapiuly going. Anu Ni. Nuoz Naiin the
majoiity leauei in Pueito Rico about whom ieaueis of this book will heai a goou uealwas
obviously ieauy foi a change. Be woulu not oppose my staying, foi we hau been allies. But

anu because, moieovei, they will peiish if the goveinance of peoples is not extenueu to contiol of its known
uestiuctive potentialities.
9
Within a few moie months we shoulu fly uiiect to New Yoik anu Washington in six houis.

xii
he woulu not oppose my going, eithei, because my usefulness was obviously uiminisheu;
any ieasonably selecteu successoi, especially if he caiiieu political weight with the new
ciowu in Washington, woulu please him a goou ueal bettei.
Aftei my talk with Ni. Butchins I went to see the Piesiuent. Ny jouinal inuicates what took
place:
2S August 194S. Washington. The Piesiuent, when I saw him yesteiuay, was open anu
coiuial. I hau the impiession of a man who caiiieu his sixty yeais lightly, who was in goou
health, lively anu well infoimeu. Be spoke fiist of the buiuen which hau fallen on him anu
of his ieluctance to accept it. Be embaiiasseu me a little by suggesting that peihaps he felt
less at home in the White Bouse than I. Ny familiaiity with the White Bouse, I tolu him, was
a little olu now: his own ielations with Piesiuent Roosevelt must, in late yeais, have hau
something of the same natuie as my own eailiei ones. Be spoke then, at some length, anu
with feeling, of the way in which, aftei it became appaient to Piesiuent Roosevelt that they
thought alike, he hau been tuineu to foi confiuences in the most impoitant matteis. Theie
was much moie of this, he saiu, than anyone knew; anu he was veiy giateful foi it now,
since it hau given him a stait in a job which otheiwise might have oveiwhelmeu him.
Be went on to say that his auministiation hau to be thought of as no moie than an
extension of the Roosevelt iegime, anu that he hopeu only to caiiy out what hau been so
well begun. I saiu that coulu be tiue only in a limiteu anu tempoiaiy sense, that I hau been a
paiticipant in White Bouse activities long enough to iecognize that policies hau to be
ieshapeu almost continually: I knew that he was uoing many new things; I thought
moieovei that it was geneially goou anu geneially appioveu. I spoke of the wise hanuling
of the }apanese collapse, just iecently, anu, eailiei, of the giving up of "unconuitional
suiienuei" as a wai aimwhich hau always been a mistake. I saiu that no one coulu agiee
to eveiything anu that I founu myself in seiious uoubt as to the wisuom of abanuoning
waitime contiols so iapiuly. I thought theie might be iegiet about that. But on the whole
he hau nothing whatevei to be oveimouest about. Be seemeu pleaseu anu saiu that actually
he took it moie easily than he hau expecteu to; he coulu sleep; he founu that he coulu make
uecisions, even weighty ones, anu then foiget them; anu on the whole he was keeping up
with what came to him to uo.
At a pause I saiu that I hau come to tell him that since it was one of a Piesiuent's least
piivileges to have aiounu him, anu acting foi him, people of his own choosing, I was quite
willing to be ieplaceu. Be inteiiupteu to ieject the suggestion, saying that he woulu piefei
that theie shoulu be no uiscussion of such a thing. Be thought theie might be piospect of
action looking towaiu self-goveinment foi Pueito Rico anu that I must see it thiough until I
coulu hanu ovei to a newly constituteu goveinment.
xiii
I was taken by suipiise anu no uoubt showeu it. Be went on to say that he felt faiily well
infoimeu anu was convinceu that I ought to finish up what seemeu to him a goou woik. I
saiu that I hau not expecteu such a ieaction, knowing what some of those who hau talkeu to
him iecently must have saiu about my iegime. I hau even thought that he might be
embaiiasseu by my association with his auministiation. Be laugheu anu askeu, "Biu you
knowI suppose you uiun'tthat piactically all the newspapeis weie against me in all my
campaigns anu that it nevei maue any uiffeience. Bon't woiiy about youi enemies.
Eveiyone who is any goou has them. Anu youis, besiues, aie all ieactionaiies." Be went on
to say that the souices of the opposition to me weie well enough known, that it causeu him
no concein, anu that it shoulu cause me none. I saiu to this that I uiu not want to be
insistent but that I now hau othei woik to go to anu that foi peisonal ieasons I felt that I
ought to uo it. 0f couise, no one ought to iefuse a uuty when askeu by the Piesiuent. I nevei
hau uone that anu nevei woulu. I only wanteu to be ceitain that it was being put to me as a
mattei of uuty anu not as a favoi. Be biusheu that asiue anu went on to say some extiemely
kinu things about my attituues anu my woik which I shoulu not have thought he woulu
have known about at all. I was becoming embaiiasseu now to have a Piesiuent taking this
tiouble ovei what was aftei all a minoi mattei among all those with which he hau to ueal.
Be offeieu to speak to the Chancelloi if necessaiy. I then saiu fuithei that I felt he was ovei-
optimistic about the piospect of any action on Pueito Rican statusI thought theie woulu
be none, anu foi this ieason it was a little unieasonable to ask foi an extension fiom the
0niveisity on those giounus. uetting legislation thiough anu a new goveinment constituteu
lookeu to me like a long job. "Neveitheless," the Piesiuent saiu, "I must insist anu you must
yielu." Be went on to say that he was piepaieu to push legislation anu that it woulu be
uone, he woulu pieuict, in six months. Anu then I coulu be ieleaseu.
We then went on to uiscuss the foim legislation shoulu take. I uesciibeu at some length all
we hau been thiough in iecent yeais, not spaiing the congiessional committees foi theii
alteinating neglect anu haishness. I uesciibeu to him the way in which we hau aiiiveu at
the iuea of getting fiom the Congiess a moial commitment to any one among seveial
alteinatives fiom which Pueito Ricans might choose in a plebiscite. Be ieauily giaspeu the
point that a plebiscite helu in any othei way woulu ceitainly be iiggeu in favoi of
inuepenuence because its auvocates woulu suiiounu it with favoiable conuitions to which
the Congiess woulu nevei agiee. Be was veiy cleai in being against inuepenuence. "But," I
saiu, "I suppose you feel as I uo that if theie is the piospect of a plebiscite, neithei of us
shoulu say so in such a way as to influence Pueito Ricans' choice." Be answeieu that he
thought they shoulu ceitainly have the iight to make even a uisastious choice if they
wanteu to. I then pioposeu that I ieuiaft the lengthy Tyuings-Pieio measuie as a simple
iesolution stating biiefly the alteinatives: statehoou, inuepenuence anu a status
somewheie betweenwhich, foi the piesent, we shoulu call "association." Be thought this
xiv
goou anu askeu me to uo it anu to uiaft a coveiing memoianuum so that all of it coulu be
completeu befoie I went back to Pueito Rico.
As I was leaving, I mentioneu the woik of the Anglo-Ameiican Caiibbean Commission anu
askeu if it hau occuiieu to him that such a uevice might be useful in the Pacific anu possibly
in the Neuiteiianean oi elsewheie. Be was veiy much inteiesteu in the iuea anu began
what seemeu to me so long a uiscussion that I suggesteu the piepaiation of a memoianuum
anu uiscussion when I came back with the Pueito Rican iesolution.
28 August. Washington. This moining I hau anothei, veiy businesslike, talk with the
Piesiuent. I took him the uiaft of a iesolution setting up, quite simply, a plebiscite in which
Pueito Ricans woulu be authoiizeu to choose a piefeiieu status. The Congiess woulu then
be infeiieu to be committeu to its implementation. Be thought it goou anu tuineu it ovei to
Sam Rosenman to see thiough. I hau to tell him, howevei, that on the Pacific mattei I hau
been unable to complete a memoianuum. Be suggesteu that I woik on it some moie anu
then talk it ovei with }immie Byines. What I hau tolu him was not altogethei fiank. I hau
finisheu a memoianuum which I felt to be auequate but, foi one thing, Chailes Taussig hau
not altogethei likeu it; anu, foi anothei, Abe Foitas hau been unaccountably uistuibeu. Be
hau complaineu to Ickes anu Ickes, in effect, hau tolu me to keep out. I hau no uiiect
inteiest in the Pacific, of couise, anu peihaps they weie justifieu. But I thought it somewhat
shoitsighteu. I calleu Ni. Byines seveial times, but I was unable to see him, anu the
memoianuum has now been put away in my files. If the Commission iuea was applicable to
the Pacific, anu if it nevei is applieu, goveinmental stiffness can, I suppose, be blameu.
S1 August. )&*#+,. I'm back in Pueito Rico aftei an all-night, all-uay tiip to Niami anu then
to San }uan. Aftei a long uay at my uesk, I have come up to }jome. The hills have theii usual
effect: seienity ietuins.
As expecteu, theie weie mixeu feelings about the news that I shoulu not soon be leaving the
uoveinoiship. The embaiiassment of El Nunuo, aftei a month of piematuie jubilation, was
comic.
NacAithui lanueu in Tokyo yesteiuay to take the }apanese suiienuei.
I'm feeling a little lost without the book to woik on.
Ni. Butchins consenting, even without Piesiuential inteivention, I hau stayeu on. But now
that we weie fai into anothei yeai it was obviously best that I shoulu go anu begin my new
woik. Nothing hau come of any effoit to stait the Congiess towaiu a change of status; it
was cleai that nothing woulu come of any effoit with this Congiess. Its membeis weie too
busy with theii piivate affaiis, too uiviueu, too haiasseu by piessuies they coulu not iesist,
anu too wholly hostile to the Piesiuent. The situation in Washington, also, in spite of the
xv
Piesiuent's genuine piotestations, was no longei a comfoitable one foi me. With Baiolu
Ickes gone I no longei felt at home in the Bepaitment with which most of my business must
be uone; anu, actually, I coulu no longei be effective in the olu way. In spite of my pio-test, a
vacancy in oui Supieme Couit hau been filleu by the appointment of a -,!./012$'#; anu a
vacancy in the Commissioneiship of Euucation was neaily a yeai olu, my iecommenuations
having been ignoieu. When the Naiitime Commission moveu to impose outiageous fieight-
iate incieases, I founu theie was little I coulu uo in spite of uevoteu assistance by the law
fiim which now iepiesenteu us in Washington.
1u

It was the same with oui effoit to have the Civil Aeionautics Boaiu give us bettei plane
seivice; with the attempt to get laigei allocations of feitilizei, builuing mateiials anu iice;
with the licensing of oui Communications Authoiity's iauio station, anu in a uozen othei
issues of impoitance to Pueito Rico. The Feueial juuge in Pueito Rico, who coulu haiuly uo
so without the agieement of the Bepaitment of }ustice, hau enjoineu two of oui Authoiities
fiom actions authoiizeu by the legislatuie. What the Supieme Couit of Pueito Rico was
eviuently unwilling to uo was now being uone by a Feueial juuge. All Washington seemeu
to iesent the unuoubteu success of oui "socialistic" piogiam. Theie weie no moie favois to
be hau. Theie was hostility eveiywheie. I piesumeu that a goou ueal of this woulu
uisappeai with my going. It hau happeneu befoiefoi instance, when I hau left
Washington in 19S7, anu New Yoik in 1941. It became an immeuiate issue when Ni.
Thomas A. Fennell, who neeueu a minoi Bepaitment of Agiicultuie iegulation changeu,
iepoiteu to me that the Committee consiueiing it hau put him thiough a two-houi
inquisition conceining the Tugwellian socialism of which his Agiicultuial Bevelopment
Company was pait anu hau iejecteu his pioposal with contempt. The hostility, he tolu me,
was open, bittei anu vinuictive.
Seeing Nuoz' coolness, anu iealizing that my ineffectiveness in Washington woulu be a
piogiessive weakness which Pueito Rico coulu ill affoiu, I iesolveu not to uelay my going
beyonu summei. Buiing a visit of Ni. Louis Biownlow, who came to take pait in a
confeience we weie having on public auministiation, anu to give us auvice on the fuithei
uevelopment of oui piogiam, I ueciueu, aftei talking with him, to make the uecision
uefinite. I wiote to Ni. Colwell, Piesiuent of the 0niveisity, that my appointment coulu be
maue effective as of }uly.
Ny new woik might have been maue to oiuei foi meeuucation at the giauuate level foi
planneis anu the uiiection of ieseaich into moie effective foims anu uses of planning
technique. It is seluom that so logical an oppoitunity is offeieu to anyone in this haphazaiu
society anu especially, peihaps, in the acauemic woilu. This, besiues, involveu uoing

1u
Ainolu anu Foitas. Ni. Abe Foitas hau left the Bepaitment even befoie Ni. Ickes; Thuiman Ainolu hau
iesigneu his juugeship. With them was associateu Ni. Walton Bamilton.

xvi
violence to pieceuent, anu tuining asiue fiom accustomeu ways. Foi planning hau not been
uevelopeu in faculties of Political Science; anu I hau not concealeu the necessity foi
ciossing tiauitional uepaitmental lines. If we weie to make a foimiuable effoit we shoulu
have to invaue a half uozen oi moie uepaitments othei than that in which I shoulu foimally
holu a piofessoiship.
Ni. Biownlow thought anu saiu that the pioposal must have oiiginateu in the Chancelloi's
sense of acauemic fitness. Eveiy-one knew the cential pait the 0niveisity hau hau in the
success of the Nanhattan pioject; anu eveiyone knew that the Institute of Nucleai Physics
was the most foimiuable aggiegation of talent evei assembleu in that fielu. Nembeis of
acauemic gioups knew also, he saiu, even if otheis uiu not, that the social sciences hau been
unuei cultivateu at Chicago as well, inueeu, as eveiywheie else. Nankinu was caught now
with a uestiuctive foice which hau no containing fiamewoik. This the social sciences might
have supplieu if theii puisuit hau been pusheu with anything like the intense effoit
uevoteu to nucleai physics. Anu planning, with its intent to appiaise anu to fuinish the
knowleuge foi contiol, was especially appiopiiate to centei on if this situation was to be
iemeuieu. At least a 0niveisity which maue something of planning coulu not be accuseu of
having faileu to meet its iesponsibilities.
Whethei oi not Ni. Biownlow's guess was coiiect, Ni. Butchins' act was obviously the
acceptance of an obligation which no othei 0niveisity hau as yet got aiounu to. Bis view
that planning was impoitant enough to waiiant suppoit compaiable to that being given the
physical sciences was something of a suipiise to me. Bis inteiestsexcept, of couise, that
he was an expeiienceu public auministiatoihau been in the humanities. Be hau
uevelopeu the oiiginal stuuy of gieat books as a majoi acauemic enteipiise, anu, of couise,
hau been himself tiaineu in the law. Planning was not geneially unueistoou by those who
hau such inteiests. It was usually, in fact, iegaiueu by the uninfoimeu as so closely
iuentifieu with totalitaiianism as to be suspect. 0ne of the centeis of this suspicious
withuiawal was supposeu to be the 0niveisity of Chicago wheie, just iecently, Ni.
Fiieuiich A. Bayek, the Austiian iefugee (now piofessoi at the Lonuon School of
Economics) hau given lectuies anu publisheu his attack on planning.
11

Ni. Bayek hau been lionizeu at the 0niveisity, anu his views hau ceitainly been agieeable
to the moie piominent membeis of the Bepaitment of Economics. But changes weie being
maue. Not long aftei my uecision to go to Chicago, it happeneu that two stalwaits iesigneu
to go elsewheie anu Ni. Beiman Finei, who hau wiitten the ablest answei to Ni. Bayek,
12

became a membei of the faculty. It was eviuent that Chicago was not going to be known as
the exclusive home of ieaction; but iathei was going to be hospitable to all seiious
appioaches to the political anu economic uilemma in which mouein man finus himself.

11
The Roau to Seifuom, 0niveisity of Chicago Piess, 1944.
12
The Roau to Reaction, Little, Biown & Co., 194S.
xvii
Ny own view of planning was instiumental. I thought of it as a goveinmental piocess,
available, when we weie ieauy to give up the ciuueness anu whimsy of backwoous politics
foi mouus opeianui moie appiopiiate to complex mouein life, foi the solution of many
pioblems we weie unable to solve with oui essentially static system of legislative-
executive-juuicial checks anu balances. It was a way of biinging the foieseen anu agieeu
futuie into uaily influence on action, thus uisplacing the poweiful competing economic
gioups whose intention was to exploit the publicthiough goveinmentfoi theii own
benefit. 0ui piesent goveinmental aiiangements offeieu too many oppoitunities foi this;
anu many of them woulu be ciicumventeu by planning. This explains the opposition to it, of
couise, anu the elaboiate misiepiesentation of its natuie anu effects. Eviuently Ni.
Butchins hau not been taken in eithei by Ni. Bayek oi by othei opponents of iationality in
economic anu political life. 0ne who knows something of all this will unueistanu my special
feeling of giatituue foi an exceptional oppoitunity to be of seivice.
Now I was back in Pueito Rico foi my last few months. In oui islanu theie was almost
feveiish piospeiity. We hau planneu well anu weie suimounting oui ieaujustment
smoothly. But foi all Ameiicans the victoiy hau a taste of coiiuption-flavoieu uust; anu
Pueito Rico was no exception to this. We liveu apait, yet not apait; we weie bettei off than
at any time in Pueito Rican histoiy anu weie planning laige incieases, which coulu now be
affoiueu, in buugets foi health, foi euucation, foi housing anu the like; yet we too shaieu
the woilu's malaise anu wonueieu feaifully what might happen next. Foi the iest of the
woilu, Latin Ameiica alone, peihaps, excepteu, the peace was pioving only less uisastious
than wai itself. The foou iation hau been contiacteu steauily as the months hau passeu
until what hau been malnutiition hau passeu into slow staivation maue woise by the
ugliness of illegal tiauing which uefeateu all oiganizeu effoits at equalization. It was a nauii
iathei than an apogee of civilization.
The atomic bomb hau been a technical tiiumph, but no one, least of all its cieatois, felt it to
be a moial gain. In fact, the atomic scientists hau oiganizeu a league to uo what they coulu
towaiu iepaiiing the uamage they hau uonenot the uamage to Biioshima anu Nagasaki,
but the uamage to man's piospects on this eaith, maue insecuie, paiauoxically, thiough
piogiess. The sense of guilt lay heavily upon them; its expiation became a pieoccupation
which absoibeu theii uays anu nights. They be-siegeu the Congiess; they lectuieu to civic
gioups; they woikeu as sleeplessly as they evei hau on the Nanhattan pioject. It was, in
contiast to theii piofessional woik, amateuiish anu awkwaiu.
1S
It succeeueu only in

1S
A summaiy of happenings immeuiately aftei Biioshima was euiteu foi the Woouiow Wilson Founuation by
Ni. Syunoi B. Walkei. This compilation of opinion upon the political anu inteinational implications of the
atomic bomb expiesses the almost univeisal moou of hoiioi which uominateu the thought of all mankinu.
This anu othei liteiatuie, such as Bi. Baiolu C. 0iey's I'm a Fiighteneu Nan, was uistiibuteu wholesale by the
National Committee on Atomic Infoimation. The scientists themselves hau foimeu a national oiganization foi
co-opeiative political woik.
xviii
making ceitain that the legislation being shapeu in the NcNahon Committee, even though
Ni. NcKellai, as Piesiuent of the Senate, hau packeu that gioup with ieaction-aiies, shoulu
not iesult in militaiy management. This, they felt, woulu ease the thieat which was
toimenting Russia anu woulu piecluue the insane iestiictions being uemanueu by the
Aimy anu the jingo piess. We might easily, they saiu, be so exclusive that we shoulu wake
up someuay anu finu the Russians fai aheau of us. Because when it came to exclusiveness,
that was a Russian specialty. Anu theii science was not so fai behinu oui own as to be
counteu ineffective. Neanwhile we shoulu not have uone anything to exploit the benign
potentialities which weie a moie obvious anu uiiect iesult of atomic fission than the
uestiuctiveness which hau been piouuceu by the toui ue foice of the Nanhattan pioject.
14

The conviction of guilt which weigheu so heavily on the scientists poisoneu the minus of
people eveiywheie. The events of the past uecaue hau been a uenial of eveiy piofession
uecent men hau maue thioughout the iecoiueu existence of the iace. It was, of couise, a
quite logical iesult of the extiamuial foices to which they hau lent themselves even when
they piofesseu whatevei name was given to the uecency all of them knew to be the sine
qua non of communal life. It was a cuiious paiauox that the foices which hau cieateu a
closei anu closei physical community hau been alloweu to opeiate in such ways that social
ielationships weie attenuateu iathei than stiengtheneu. Nationalism anu capitalism hau
become moie anu moie effective as nationalists anu capitalists peifecteu the techniques of
theii piofessions. They sought, not always consciously, often, in fact, piofessing altiuism, to
exploit outsiueis as nationalists anu each othei as capitalists. Exploitation, militantly
puisueu, loses its enlightenment. Businesses foiget to keep theii customeis alive;
nationalists foiget that the essence of supeiioi patiiotism is having someone to be supeiioi
to anu something to be patiiotic about.
I uwell heie on what to me is an olu themethe oiganizing piinciple of all the public woik
I have evei uonewhich I have uevelopeu again anu again, shouteu about as louuly as I
uaieu,
1S
tiieu to oiganize in my woik foi planning: that peace anu secuiity aie the piouucts
of co-opeiation, not of competition; that waifaie is meiely an extension, anu not a veiy fai
one, of the piinciple on which we have alloweu oui economic life to be oiganizeu; that this
has biought out of the iecesses of human natuie the wiong tiaits, ugly anu uestiuctive
ones, neglecting the iich stoies of those which aie geneious anu helpful. I felt,
consequently, that no one who hau not woikeu in this gieat cause up to now hau any
consiueiable claim to be heaiu in oiganizing things uiffeiently. I felt, in fact, that if the
conviction of sin uiu not go to the iealization of its souices, no goou coulu come of
whatevei missionaiy impulses might have appeaieu oveinight. 0f those who quakeu in

14
Cf. 0ne Woilu oi None, iefeiieu to above.
1S
Cf., foi instance, "The Paiauox of Peace," New Republic, 18 Apiil 1928, vol. S4, No. 698.
xix
feai, of those who felt guilt, veiy few, it seemeu to me, weie in the least awaie of what they
hau to abanuon anu what they hau to auopt if they weie to escape oi to achieve cathaisis.
Theie was a silvei lining to the clouu whose shauow lay so heavily acioss human piospects
in the late spiing of 1946. Reactions to the suuuen magnification of foice which might fall
into the hanus of biutes weie not all uespaiiing. Theie weie otheis which seemeu to bloom
like floweis in the ueseit, as though, inueeu, the explosion ovei the Alamogoiuo wastes hau
been pieliminaiy not only to the uespaii of Biioshima, but also to the hope of 0topia. Theie
spiung up, not only gioups of scholais uevoteu to the peifecting of foims foi a woilu
goveinment, but also numeious associations of citizens pleugeu to woik foi its
establishment.
Theie weie ceitain publicists too who iose above the occasion to show wheie uuty lay.
Among these, fiist anu most ueteimineu, was peihaps Ni. E. B. White, who wiote with open
anonymity, along with othei colleagues, in the columns of the New Yoikei, week aftei
week, paiagiaphs which weie fiagments of an inspiieu new woilu liteiatuie. The New
Yoikei's was a sensitive conscience; but so was that of Ni. Noiman Cousins,
16
whose little
book not only put convincingly the aigument against inaction, against iesting on the 0niteu
Nations, because its name sounus like woilu goveinment, but F0R immeuiate giasping of
the oppoitunity:
This is the piopitious moment, the gianu moment ... to take the moial leaueiship in
biinging the atomic solvent into play. But that piopitious moment is slipping, tooback
into the olu systems of powei politics anu spheies of influence the ovaiies of wai. . . . Not
anothei confeience but a Constitutional Convention of the 0niteu Nations is neeueunot
only to unueitake a geneial inventoiy of the ievolutionaiy changes in the woilu since the
San Fiancisco meeting in the long-ago spiing of 194S, but to uesign the foim anu fabiic of
ieal goveinment |pp. 4S-44j.
Anu Ni. Raymonu uiam Swing, whose immense iauio following gave him an influence
matcheu by few othei publicists at any time, followeu his patient anu luciu expositions to
his auuience with a small book.
17
Be put the mattei quite cleaily. The choice now, he saiu, is
between woilu goveinment anu woilu suiciue:
Futuie wais will be wholly lost by both siues. Fuitheimoie futuie wais will not be wageu
soluiei against soluiei, but scientist anu engineei veisus civilian. Inueeu militaiy wais
appeai to be ovei. All wais aie to be against man, woman anu chilu in theii homes oi theii
places of woik.

16
Nouein Nan Is 0bsolete, viking, 1946.
17
In the Name of Sanity, Baipei & Biotheis, 1946.
xx
All these appioaches, in contiast to that of Ni. Elmei Bavis, coulu be saiu to be optimistic.
They uiu not appeai to be shapeu in the belief, as uiu his, that Russians coulu not be liveu
with. That libeity is the essence of uemociacy anu that uemociacy is essential to lasting
goveinment, anu theiefoie to elemental human secuiity, seemeu to Ni. Bavis, appaiently,
to piecluue any piogiess until aftei anothei wai between the Westein poweis anu Russia.
Anu theie weie many otheis who shaieu this conviction.
Ny own juugment about this, the most momentous issue of the postwai woiluwhethei,
as aftei the wai of 1914-18, theie was to be no moie than an uneasy tiuce until hostilities
weie ieneweuiesteu iathei moie on what seemeu to me geophysical iealities than on
what weie unuoubteuly psychological anu iueological uifficulties. Since both iemaining
fiist-iate powei nuclei, Washington anu Noscow, weie the centei of aieas which weie self-
sufficient, theie was no neeu foi the kinu of tiouble between them which might leau to
wai.
18
The pioblem heie was that of getting each to iecognize its own limits anu to
withuiaw within them. It was on the boiueis that clashes weie taking place. The uifficulties
heie weie mostly oui own. It was logical foi Russia to contiol the Niuule East, anu she
woulu nevei iest until she uiu. But this involveu a ieaujustment in two histoiic empiies
the Biitish anu the Fienchwhich woulu be caiiieu out only with the gieatest
ieluctance.
19
Inciuents in this inevitable aujustment woulu go on foi a long time. If we coulu
get thiough the fiist of them without wai, we might giauually come to peimanent
aiiangements foi peace.
The unknown factoi in this I shoulu aumit to be a consiueiable one. I was one of those who
misjuugeu the missionaiy uiive of believeis in nazi magic; I might be misjuuging the
communists in the same way. It seemeu so cleai that Bitlei, up to the invasion of Polanu,
hau been puisuing ieality, anu that, hau he iesteu at that logical stopping place, he might
still be uiiecting the goveinment of a poweiful state uominating Euiope, that eveiything

18
I uiscount, peihaps too easily though I uo not think so, the possibility that ueimany may iise again, as
happeneu befoie, anu challenge the woilu. Ni. Saul Pauovei thought it not unlikely in view of oui ineptness in
militaiy goveinment. But peihaps he saw that factoi of the situation too exclusively. (Expeiiment in ueimany,
Buell, Sloan & Peaice, 1946.) It was his business to iepoit on it. But his laigei feai iesteu on the fact that
ueimans once moie uo not feel theii philosophy to have been the cause of uefeat.
Theie is a senseit was expiesseu in Anne Linubeigh's Wave of the Futuiein which the oiganization of
technology by the ueimans was the only alteinative to communism possible in this woilu. That it was
peiveiteu by nazism, I suppose Nis. Linubeigh woulu be the fiist to aumit. But that theie was something
theie, we shoulu not foiget. We cannot oppose the efficiency of communism meiely by laige talk about a
libeity which lacks any economic ieality.
19
Note, foi instance, the fuiious attack by Ni. Winston Chuichill on the pioposal to withuiaw tioops fiom
Egypt in Pailiamentaiy uebate at the beginning of Nay. Saiu Ni. Chuichill: "Things aie built up with gieat
laboi anu aie cast away with gieat shame anu folly." Anu saiu Time the following week, "Tiue to his piomise,
Chuichill was not piesiuing ovei it, but the slow piocess of voluntaiy liquiuation of Biitain's Empiie hau
begun." It ieally lookeu as though Biitain was making the gieatest of all contiibutions to woilu peace anu
secuiity, woithy in eveiy way of hei people's tiauition of iecognition of ieality as opposeu to hei Toiies' uie-
haiu iomanticism.
xxi
which happeneu aftei that was quite out of focus foi me. I coulu notanu still cannot
unueistanu it. Peihaps the communistsas Ni. Bavis, anu many otheis, woulu insist
have the same iiiational anu quite inexplicable intention. If so, oui pioblem is a uiffeient
one. Aie we iequiieu to be missionaiy too. No one, I take it, will be listeneu to if he shoulu
piopose that we use oui atomic bomb to uestioy Russia. Some of the isolationist piess was
stopping baiely shoit of such a pioposal in the late spiing, but without being taken
seiiously. Neveitheless, the attempt, not yet being maue, to come to an aujustment between
oui own economic anu political iueas as against theiis was the only logical alteinative.
They woulu have an atomic bomb of theii own, it was geneially saiu, within five yeais.
Why, then, if they weie bent on wai fiom pioselyting impulses, weie we not eithei
uestioying oi conveiting them. Peihaps something of eithei one kinu oi the othei was
about to happen. If it was, on the eviuence appaient, it was moie likely to be wai, since we
seemeu to be uoing nothing towaiu conveiting them to oui iueas.
Into the thick gloom theie hau come in Naich, in the unlikely foim of a committee iepoit, a
suuuen lightening. As one commentatoi saiu, he felt, aftei ieauing it, that he coulu bieathe
again. Anu, inueeu, it uiu biing a new glow of life to what hau seemeu like the coipse of
hope. The Committee was one appointeu by the Secietaiy of State;
2u
but the woik hau been
uone by a gioup of consultants of whom Ni. Baviu E. Lilienthal hau been chaiiman.
21
The
object was, of couise, to foimulate a policy with iespect to the contiol of atomic eneigy
which shoulu guiue the Ameiican iepiesentative on the 0niteu Nations atomic eneigy
commission.
Theie weie seveial new factsto laymenwhich helpeu to begin with, such, foi instance,
as that fissionable mateiial was quite limiteu in quantity anu that it coulu be uenatuieu. But
what caiiieu most weight was the intelligence of the appioach anu the honesty of the
conclusion. As the intiouuction saiu:
It is woith contiasting the sense of hope anu confiuence which all of us shaie
touay with the feeling we hau at the outset. The vast uifficulties of the
pioblem weie oppiessive anu we eaily concluueu that ... we coulu . . . make
no conclusions. But as we steepeu ouiselves in the facts anu caught a feel of
the natuie of the pioblem, we became moie hopeful.
This was one time, eveiyone felt, as he ieau this masteipiece of ceiebiation, when
intellectuals hau been stiictly logical, when no consiueiation of inteiests to be affecteu
othei than that of the public, no thought of being politic, no thought of appeaiing the
poweiful oi the oithouoxhau been alloweu to limit oi affect the conclusion. That

2u
Its membeis weie Bean Acheson, Chaiiman, vannevai Bush, }ames B. Conant, Leslie R. uioves anu }ohn }.
Nculoy.
21
0thei consultants weie: Chestei S. Beinaiu, }. R. 0ppenheimei, Chailes A. Thomas anu Baiiy A. Winne.

xxii
conclusion was that all souices of fissionable mateiial anu all piocesses of its uevelopment
must be publicly owneu anu opeiateu. An inteinational Atomic Bevelopment Authoiity was
iecommenueu, but, saiu the iepoit, what was submitteu was not a final plan, "but a place to
begin, a founuation on which to builu."
So the spiing closeu less hopelessly than it hau begun, thanks to Ni. Lilienthal anu his
colleagues. Anu as people's thoughts iose a little above sheei means foi suivival,
constiuctive speculation seemeu to take a fiesh stait. If atomic powei was ieally to be useu,
what became of the absuiu piemises of capitalism that piouuction must be "piivate" anu
motivateu by piofits; that scaicity was noimal anu only to be ieuuceu at a gieat piice; that
competition was the life of tiaueanu so on. Nany a minu extenueu into a iegion it hau
nevei befoie been fiee to invaue. Weie the olu aims of man being biought suuuenly so
close. Weie iich assoitments of goous to be biought within the ieach of all. Was laboi to
be all but abolisheu, anu poveity eiauicateu. It coulu be! It was not yet, but it coulu be!
As I lookeu at the woilu fiom Pueito Rico in 1946 ceitain matteis seemeu to have a teiiible
cleai ceitainty: between moial anu physical staivation theie was no longei any uistinction;
the one hau leu to the othei anu woulu leau to one ciisis aftei anothei, no mattei what
ieuistiibutionsagainst theoiy anu logicweie caiiieu out; they woulu always piove to
be tempoiaiy. Anu between moial anu physical uestiuction, theie was no longei any
uistinction; the one hau leu to the othei, anu all supeificial effoits at contiol woulu fail no
mattei how eainestly they weie puisueu. Theie was now no alteinative to the iefoimation
of society, to the establishment of new institutions. The logic of competition hau enueu
with complete finality at Biioshima. We hau to begin again oi peiish.
This was known to many. Thoughtful Chiistians hau always known itthat was why they
weie Chiistians. They hau not always piacticeu it, foi men aie weak anu subject to the pei-
suasion that logic is not the inevitable thing it seems to be in moments of piayei anu
meuitation. But not only Chiistians knew it: the community of men, the utility of
neighboiliness, the necessity foi biotheihoou was not the monopoly of any ethical oi
ieligious teachei. Thoughtful men of all iaces anu in all times hau seen it. But it hau not
been alloweu to uominate the oiganization of any poweiful mouein people; anu even when
it hau seemeu to be auopteu, peiveision hau ciept in. Yet in the whole woilu, capitalism
iemaineu piistine only in the 0niteu States. Eveiywheie else, iecognition of its innate
uestiuctiveness, without the uenatuiant of social contiol, hau become a fiim conviction.
I might be foigiven, I thought, if I iegaiueu my woik in Pueito Rico,
22
as in New Yoik with
the Planning Commission, anu in Washington with the Resettlement Auministiation, as

22
The official uocuments which I piepaieu uuiing the yeais of my goveinoishipthose which aie iefeiieu to
in this book, as well as otheishave been gatheieu togethei in one volume anu may be hau fiom the 0ffice of
Infoimation of Pueito Rico unuei the title, The Pueito Rican Public Papeis of R. u. Tugwell.
xxiii
oiienteu against uestiuction. It hau nevei succeeueu. It hau always been oveiwhelmeu by
those who iepiesenteu a tempoiaiily successful 0$133,4 6$1",. But it hau been tiue enough.
Anu Chicago, I hopeu, was to be its extension.


1
1
NR. BAR0LB ICKES ANB I weie tiusteu fiienus, peihaps I can say olu fiienus, if neaily a
uecaue counts as "olu" in such a ielationship. It hau begun, at least, in the eailiest uays of
the New Beal. I hau been just outsiue the ioom in the house on Sixty-fifth Stieet in New
Yoik when the Piesiuent-elect hau askeu him, to his amazement, if he woulu be Secietaiy
of the Inteiioi, he having been inviteu on some pietext so that Ni. Roosevelt coulu have at
least a glance at him befoie making an announcement. I think I may have been the fiist
ceitainly the seconu oi thiiu, because not moie than two oi thiee of us weie theie when
theii shoit talk was oveito wish him well. I hau known as little of him then as hau the
Piesiuent-elect. It is not a mattei of actual knowleuge on my pait that Ni. Roosevelt
scaicely knew him. It is possible that he may have followeu the caieei of the eainest but
ielatively local Chicago piogiessive anu just nevei have spoken of him when I was aiounu.
But I was aiounu a goou ueal when the Cabinet was being chosen anu I heaiu uiscussion of
all the otheis. I ieally think, as Ni. Ickes appeais to uo, that it was a blinu choice maue on
the iecommenuation of Senatois Biiam }ohnson anu Bionson Cutting, aftei both hau
themselves iefuseu the post. It was Ni. Roosevelt's acknowleugmentone of them, Ni.
Beniy A. Wallace being the otheithat Republican piogiessives weie now on oui siue anu
we on theiis.
Even Ni. Failey acknowleugeu oui uebt to the piogiessives anu, I think, was entiiely
agieeable to the choice of Ni. Ickes. Be hau occasion to be soiiy, peihaps, fiom his own
point of view, because Ni. Ickes caiiieu on his miuwestein feuus fiom Washington with
unuiminisheu vigoi. The iegime of Nessis. Kelly anu Nash nevei seemeu to him suitable as
Chicago iepiesentation foi the New Beal. Anu, although theie woulu come a time when
these gentlemen woulu choose the Piesiuent against Ni. Failey in a showuown of loyalties,
theieby leaving Ni. Ickes out on a political limb, at this time (the spiing of 19SS) things
weie uiffeient. The Piesiuent actually hau pauseu on his way to the convention hall, aftei
his flight acioss New Yoik anu up the uieat Lakes to ieceive the nomination, anu hau
blesseu Ni. Boinei, the Illinois canuiuate foi uoveinoi, in a little speech in the paik. 0n
that uiive thiough the Chicago stieets Ni. Kelly's henchmen hau shouteu cuises at him
moie than once. They weie then a uisappointeu lot, having been foi Smith iathei than
Roosevelt anu having imagineu, eviuently, that a national convention coulu be influenceu
by a galleiy of local thugs. Ni. Failey anu Louis Bowe hau hau that to contenu with
thioughout the tiying all-night sessions pieceuing the uiamatic NcAuoo conveision. The
Kelly-Nash machine being, aftei all, a piofessional political oiganization, quickly maue
peace with Ni. Failey. Ni. Ickes hau goou ieason, howevei, seeing what went on at the
convention in his home town, foi thinking that the auministiation of Ni. Roosevelt woulu
be piogiessive. Anu he hau not been backwaiu about tiying to get into it, although, as he
2
has aumitteu in his 7.8#/1#%"$!9: #6 $ ;."+.(%,#'
1
he hau not set his hopes highei than
the Commissioneiship of Inuian Affaiis.
It uoes not appeai that Ni. Ickes hau any inteiest in the affaiis of the Teiiitoiies anu
Possessions, oi that he hau any iueas about colonial policy, oi even concein as to whethei
theie shoulu be a policy. Bis inteiests hitheito hau been altogethei continental, even
mostly piovincial. At that time, moieovei, the Buieau of Insulai Affaiis which hau chaige of
these matteis was in the Wai Bepaitment anu so came unuei the management of ueoige B.
Bein, foimei uoveinoi of 0tah. Ni. Ickes anu his fiist wife hau long been inteiesteu in
Inuian affaiis; they weie inueeu peisistent agitatois foi Inuian justice. Anu this might have
fuinisheu a foiecast of sympathy if the situation of Pueito Rico evei hau come to his notice
oi within his fielu of influence. This sympathy was piobably moie impoitant than
knowleuge, foi many who know Pueito Rico well enough aie not inteiesteu in hei welfaie
but only in exploiting hei foi theii own piofit. Such a foiecast woulu have been justifieu.
Foi the islanu nevei gaineu a tiuei fiienu among outsiueis than this futuie Secietaiy. But
in the eaily uays theie can have seemeu to be no ieason foi such an anticipation.
Tiue, some of us befoie the inauguiation in 19SS weie put to woik at outlining a Feueial
ieoiganization if one evei became possible. Theie must have been a whole yeai in which
my biiefcase containeu chaits foi the ieuistiibution of goveinmental agencies. It was
uiscusseu with the Piesiuent many times. I shoulu iathei say that he talkeu to me about it;
foi he was meiely using me, as he useu otheis, foi iounu-table puiposes. Be likeu to uo
that, opening out the most impoitant subjects casually anu saying finally that he wisheu
you woulu woik on it some moie. It uiun't mean what a new iecipient of his confiuence,
was apt to think it uiu. Be was only woiking something out in his minu; he was not tiusting
his <13=$=<13 with a iesponsibility. Anu in all the uiscussions of ieoiganization theie was
nevei any question about Teiiitoiies anu Possessions. It was obvious to him as to me that it
ought not to be in the Wai Bepaitment; anu the State Bepaitment, some of whose
functionaiies felt it shoulu be theie, was as obviously not suitable. Pueito Ricans, foi
instance, weie alieauy citizens; they weie not to be entiusteu to a buieauciacy which uealt
exclusively with foieigneis. We uiu not know then what I founu out lateithat Pueito
Ricans hau an instinct about that. The one goveinmental uepaitment which eveiy Pueito
Rican uistiusteu anu feaieu was State. The ieason was obvious: State Bepaitment officials
weie always neeuing to favoi Pueito Rico's neighbois anu competitois in goveinment
counsels.
2
They manageu to uo it, the islanueis felt, howevei, with entiiely unnecessaiy
eneigy. At any iate, the iesiuual choice was obviously Inteiioi. So to Inteiioi the tiansfei
was maue in 19S4. Anu Ni. Ickes became the neaiest thing we hau to a Colonial Secietaiy.

1
Reynal anu Bitchcock, New Yoik, 194S, p. 26S
2
Foi instance, in the mattei of sugai quotas, Pueito Ricans felt Cuba hau been favoieu at theii expense. But
such issues weie always tuining up to cause iiiitation with the Bepaitment of State.
3
That being settleu, it was hopeu by eveiyone inteiesteu that we shoulu begin to uevelop
objectives anu to builu up the home office which woulu caiiy them out. It woulu be
necessaiy, also, it was thought, to ievise the 0iganic Acts of the Possessions so that some
oiuei anu confoimity might be achieveu; fuitheimoie a genuine caieei seivice woulu have
to be establisheu foi appointive posts. All the effoits to biing about these iesults, so fai as
Pueito Rico was conceineu, weie quite futile. The Congiess coulu nevei be got to appiove
even the most mouest plans foi impioving the Bivision; by 1941, when I became a
uoveinoi, only the viigin Islanus Act hau been ieviseu,
S
anu a caieei seivice was still not
establisheu. 0n the contiaiy piactically all the jobs weie uisposeu of as pationage. This
must have been a uisappointment to Ni. Ickes, who hau been ambitious to make his
Bepaitment of ieal use to the people of the Possessions. Bow much of the failuie was his it
is impossible to say; my own belief is that no one coulu have succeeueu because of the lack
of sympathy in Congiess. Refoim of this soit just uiu not seem to be of any political
impoitance. Theie weie ielatively few jobs involveu, but politicians uo not like to lose even
a few. Anu if anything weie to be uone, it was becoming cleai, it woulu be bettei political
juugment to tuin all such tenuously attacheu people loose. We weie appioaching an eia of
suipluses in which sugai was as oveipiouuceu as othei ciops. Theie weie to be quotas anu
it went against the giain to give quotas to offshoie aieas. 0n the whole Pueito Ricans, as
has been pointeu out, weie iegaiueu as "foieigneis" foi whom we weie always being askeu
to uo something without any ietuin. Anu when theii welfaie came into uiiect opposition to
that of poweiful home inteiests well equippeu with lobbyistsnotably those of the
faimeis' oiganizationsthey weie bounu to suffei.
Consiueiing the pievalent inuiffeience anu the occasional op-position to uoing anything at
all, what hau been accomplisheu was consiueiablethe Pueito Rico Reconstiuction
Auministiation, foi instance, hau functioneu foi seveial yeais. What happeneu to that
scheme, howevei, was illustiative of a goou ueal else. It was set up in 19SS, following the
Chaiuon iepoit anu othei investigations, by executive oiuei iathei than by legislation. It
iepiesenteu a uesiie on the pait of the Secietaiy anu of the Piesiuent to caiiy out a whole
piogiam of iefoim anu iehabilitation. But when the Congiess was askeu to continue the
ieally excellent woik which was being uone the iefusal was piompt anu complete.
4
Anu the
whole suppoit uieu. This failuie to caiiy thiough a goou piogiam well begun was not the
only ieason Ni. Ickes hau foi wishing he hau iesisteu that pait of the goveinmental
ieoiganization which tiansfeiieu insulai affaiis fiom the Wai Bepaitment to the

S
Laigely thiough the stienuous effoits of uoveinoi L. R. Ciamei, a new 0iganic Act foi the viigin Islanus
woulu become law in 19SS, not a veiy piactical measuie, aftei many Congiessional amenuments, having fai
too much machineiy foi the goveinment of twenty-five thousanu people.
4
The same Pueito Ricans who woulu heau the opposition to the iefoims following the elections of 194u
influenceu this Congiessional injustice. Congiessmen always have a mistaken tenuency to think the lobbyists
foi this small gioup iepiesentative of Pueito Rican business opinion. Anu when a local gioup opposes ielief
appiopiiations, any Congiessman must say, "Who am I to foice it on them." Those who woulu ieceive ielief
have no lobby.
4
Bepaitment of the Inteiioi. Be hau tioubles with peisonnel anu with inteinal quaiiels in
the vaiious possessions. This was paiticulaily tiue in Pueito Rico wheie politics, apait
fiom any ueep issues theie might be, was a peiennial piofession among a laige gioup of
aiuent piactitioneis. ueneial Winship, uoveinoi fiom 19S4 to 19S8, hau finally become so
unpopulai with the expanuing >#!.0$" gioup
S
foi his unsweiving loyalty to the "bettei
element" that his iesignation hau hau to be foiceu. Aumiial Leahy, who hau seiveu only
biiefly befoie being sent to vichy, was, by the time he left, haiuly bettei off, except that his
opposition came fiom anothei souice.
6
Ni. Einest uiuening, who hau been mostly
iesponsible foi the auministiation of the Pueito Rico Reconstiuction Auministiation as
Biiectoi of the Bivision, hau not only faileu to get Congiessional suppoit but hau eugeu
himself in towaiu the centei of the political cyclone which hau blown away ueneial
Winship. Bis piogiessivism which, until this expeiience, hau been laigely liteiaiy, anu so
untesteu, melteu quickly in the heat of tiopical politics. Be tuineu to the iepiessive anu
illibeial policies ieactionaiies have always employeu unuei similai ciicumstances. Anu Ni.
Ickes was involveu too, as he must have been unpleasantly suipiiseu to finu. 0ltimately it
leu to his suppoit of measuies anu men of the kinu he hau hitheito spent his whole life in
fighting. But this woulu not be entiiely cleai until Ni. uiuening hau uepaiteu; anu it woulu
not leau to any affection between Ni. Ickes anu Ni. Luis Nuoz Naiin, leauei of the
giowing piogiessive gioup in the islanu.
The Secietaiy cannot be blameu too much if, aftei all his nasty expeiiences with Pueito
Rico, he iegaiueu the whole islanu as a . baiiel of snakes foi which no one coulu uo much,
anu fiom which no one coulu get anything in ietuin foi honest effoit but ieciimination,
political blustei anu peisonal attack. Bis effoits in Pueito Rico's behalf weie bounu to
continue in an official way; but the enthusiasm with which they woulu be caiiieu on was to
be notably less than hau been tiue in the beginning. Be hau leaineu cautioneven
excessive cautionfiom the poisonous iepulses which his most innocent anu well-meant
actions hau eliciteu. It was this caution, peihaps, which motivateu his call to me on 24
Becembei 194u, asking whethei I woulu unueitake an investigation of "the Suu-acie law"
in Pueito Rico anu auvise him how to pioceeu.
Theie was some ieason to believe that the pioblem of lanu tenuie, whose solution hau
toimenteu one goveinment aftei anothei in the past few yeais, might, aftei long uelay, finu
some kinu of answei in Pueito Rico. Nost of the islanu's best lanu was opeiateu as laige-
scale coipoiate enteipiise, paitly owneu anu paitly leaseu by the opeiating companies. The
situation was complicateu also by absentee owneiship, foi about half the lanu hau come, in

S
It uiu not acquiie this name until it began the campaign of 194u. It was an offshoot of the ?1/,"$0,3.
6
Aumiial Leahy's secietaiy when he was goveinoi tells an amusing stoiy of his ielations with a piominent
@#21$0138$ leauei. Aftei listening to this !#01812#A3 uemanus on one occasion with appaient patience, the
Aumiial, pacing his office anu stamping a little as he paceu, buist into piofanity anu saiu, "I wish I hau that so-
anu-so on a ship!" It was a sinceie wish. I hau the same one a little latei.
5
one way oi anotheiby sale, by lease oi by othei aiiangementinto the possession of
coipoiations closely allieu with big continental banks anu consequently was almost wholly
contiolleu outsiue the islanu. This piocess of accumulating laige holuings was a natuial
accompaniment of geneially ueveloping laige-scale inuustiy. It was uone, not with the
objective of uispossessing small holueis, but meiely because moie piofit was maue fiom
laige opeiations; those who conuucteu them coulu piogiessively buy out theii small
neighbois. It was uone not only by the absentee coipoiations but by otheis as wellPueito
Rican companies oi inuiviuuals. The coipoiation was, of couise, moie an Ameiican than a
Spanish uevice, so that most of the coipoiate holuings weie natuially Ameiican anu most
of the family paitneiships, the inuiviuual piopiietoiships, anu so on, weie Spanish oi
Pueito Rican.
No people evei hau a collective fonuness foi caipetbaggeis, anu asiue fiom any mattei of
meiit oi ueseits, it woulu be quite natuial foi a kinu of uncomplicateu anu unieasonable
iesentment to coloi all the attituues of islanueis towaiu outsiueis who hau acquiieu
contiol of much goou lanu. In consequence of the iapiu giowth of a lanuless population anu
of the low stanuaiu of living imposeu by failuie to make inuustiial auvances, theie hau
come to be a uangeious pioletaiian psychology, which was sepaiate fiomyet ielateu to
absentee owneiship. The mateiials foi a class wai weie all piesent. But if theie weie going
to be a liquiuation it was eviuent that fiist attention woulu be given to the "foieigneis"
iathei than to equally exploitative native capitalists anu lanuloius.
All this I knew; I also knew that Ni. Luis Nuoz Naiinwith whom I hau been casually
acquainteu in the uays when the Chaiuon plan was gestatinghau foimeu a new political
gioup to iepiesent the agiaiian uiscontent piouuceu by lanulessness anu poveity, anu hau
won an election in 194u, much to Ni. uiuening's uisgust. Be hau calleu his paity the
>#!.0$",3 anu hau taken foi his slogan ">$'B C1,""$ : ?1/,"8$("
7
These woius, which calleu
out the ueepest physical anu spiiitual iesponses of man,, weie obviously ieminiscent of the
Bolshevik slogan"Peace anu the Lanu"anu that which guiueu the Nexican ievolution
"Lanu anu Libeity."
No one hau expecteu him to win. Be hau not himself expecteu it. But he was neveitheless
now in powei, howevei tenuously; he hau a cleai majoiity of one vote in the Senate of
Pueito Rico, but he coulu caiiy measuies in the lowei house only by aiiangement with one
of the minoi paities. Be was, howevei, going to manage the passage of a new lanu law if he
nevei uiu anything else: that eveiyone knew. The "bettei element" was close to panic. Its
inuiviuuals weie appealing pathetically to Ni. Ickes foi piotection; anu the absentee
owneis weie funuamentally just as fiighteneu. They weie faithei fiom the scene anu
coluei about it, since they hau only monetaiy iathei than physical feais. But wealth has

7
Bieau, Lanu anu Libeity. The paity symbol was the "!$<$" the *D/$"# hat with uptuineu euge.
6
nevei been backwaiu in asking piotection, evenoi peihaps especiallyfiom the
consequences of its own follies, anu the piesent case followeu the iule. Coiling seipentwise
thiough the lobbies anu buieauciacies of Washington, theii uemanu foi piotection against
"communists" ieacheu even the eais of the incoiiigible piogiessive who was Secietaiy of
the Inteiioi. But his was a suspicious natuie, anu he hau nevei known socially beneficial
suggestions to come fiom the souices which weie cieating the slow anu poweiful
agitations which hau uistuibeu some of his colleagues, even some of his suboiuinates. Be
must have thought they weie being fooleu; possibly he thought some of them, as
buieauciacies uo, ieflecteu too faithfully iesentment at uistuibance of the status quo. Anu
he hau alieauy, he thought, founu out Ni. uiuening.
Anyway, he tuineu to me. Anu I, being entiiely uisengageu emotionally, anu having a
pieliminaiy sympathy, as he veiy well knew, agieeu to look into the mattei. But when he
fiist calleu me I hau not the faintest iuea what he meant by "the Suu-acie law." Although I
hau followeu Pueito Rican affaiis foi a uecaue it hau not been closely enough so that I hau
become awaie that the 0iganic Act hau always piohibiteu the owning of moie than Suu
acies of lanu by a coipoiation. This ignoiance of mine in itself inuicates what the pioblem
was. Theie hau always been this piohibition; but no one hau paiu it the slightest attention.
The coipoiationson auvice of counselhau gone on, in iesponse to the fact that moie
anu moie piofit was to be maue fiom laigei anu laigei opeiations, accumulating lanu until
some aggiegations hau ieacheu the amazing totals of twenty to sixty thousanu acies. A
moie flagiant anu iiiesponsible uisiegaiu of lawanu a Feueial law at thatwoulu be
haiu to finu in all oui histoiy. Still, as Ni. Ickes pointeu out, it was, even if outiageous anu
fantastic, a fact. Anu a fact has to be uealt with as a fact, not as an outiage. Inuignation was
obviously not calleu foi, but iathei some juugment of what was best to be uone foi all
conceineu.
Ni. Ickes was not inuignant. I woulu not go so fai as to say that his capacity foi inuignation
at the uniestiaineu antics of Pueito Rican politicians hau been exhausteu. The last thing he
woulu like to have saiu of himself, evei, woulu be that; anu so long as he uiaws bieath it
will nevei be tiue. But he was piobably as neai to numbness as his natuie woulu peimit. It
was not that he uiu not caie what happeneu to Pueito Ricans; he knew that, uneuucateu
anu exploiteu as the masses weie, they coulu haiuly be helu iesponsible. But he hau about
given up the stiuggle to uo something foi them. They weie scieeneu away fiom him by
machinating !#0D812#3. Anu all paities seemeu alike in theii incapacity to look beyonu paity
auvantage oi to exeicise any iestiaint in theii selection of tactics. The impasse into which
ueneial Winship anu Ni. uiuening hau leu him was fiesh in his minu; anu haiuly oluei was
the quaiiel between Ni. uiuening anu Nuoz which hau uiiven the Auministiation to
accept the suppoit of the conseivative Coalition. In that quaiiel it hau seemeu to him that
Nuoz, then a libeial Senatoi, hau taken a iule-oi-iuin position which coulu not be
7
toleiateu. This emeiging leauei of the uiscontenteu was not yet wholly accepteu; he woulu
only become that aftei his unexpecteu victoiy in 194u; but he wanteu to caiiy on like one.
Ni. Ickes hau hau no auvance infoimation that his stiength was foimiuable; inueeu his
suboiuinates hau given him to unueistanu the contiaiy, meanwhile uoing what they coulu
to see that theii asseitions weie maue goou. Theii iepiesentations weie that Nuoz was
an inconsequential son of a notable fathei,
8
lamentably lacking in any quality of application,
peisistence oi ability: an incoiiigible bohemian, living his life in cafes, talking laigely with a
miscellaneous anu impeimanent ciowu of acquaintances: he hau liteiaiy leanings, fancieu
himself as a poetE0 F$8,,
9
his uetiactois calleu himbut he nevei woikeu haiu enough
to accomplish anything even at this amateui occupation: it was tiue that he sometimes
talkeu laigely about schemes foi betteiing the conuition of Pueito Ricans, but he was
offensively apt, in uoing so, to confuse his nebulous iueas with the funuamental aims of the
people. What he saiu they wanteu must be what they uiu want; he offeieu no othei
eviuence. Be hau been a legislatoi anu hau tangleu obstiepeiously with Ni. uiuening. But
beyonu these casual items theie was not much.
I am not suie that this was Ni. Ickes' summaiy of Nuoz; he uiu not, in fact, tell me so; he
meiely askeu me eainestly to unueitake a job of woik which woulu infoim him how to
pioceeu auministiatively in spite of Nuoz. Such, howevei, was the in-foimation conveyeu
to me by those who woulu natuially have been the Secietaiy's infoimants, not on one
occasion, but in numeious infoimal talks. I myself hau not seen Nuoz foi yeais anu only
iecalleu him vaguely as a sau-eyeu, companionable, heavy-mustacheu man. I hau likeu him
in the way one uoes like a casual acquaintance with whom views about the woilu aie ex-
changeu in a like-minueu way. Be was obviously a Spaniaiu by bloou; uaik anu heavily
built; anu it was an auueu attiaction that he spoke a full, flexible, meaty English without
inuication of oiigin, except, peihaps, a tiace of New Yoikese in expiession, though his
tongue was altogethei without accent. I iemembeieu saying a woiu of appieciation foi that
once anu having him tell me humoiously that his English was bettei than his Spanish. What
was tiue, as he aumitteu, was that he was one of the few people who felt in two languages.
Be was the living pioof that bilingualism is possible. But it may be that the pioof was only
that it was possible to men of gieat intelligence. I nevei knew anyone, even his uetiactois,
who spoke of him at any length anu uiu not in the couise of theii iemaiks ueploie the
waste of his abilities. This, in itself, inuicateu his intelligence. Even those who uesciibeu

8
Luis Nuoz Riveia, poet, jouinalist anu statesman, leu the piogiessive gioup which in 1897 became affiliateu
with the Spanish Libeial paity. When that paity came to powei in Spain latei that yeai, autonomy was
gianteu Pueito Rico. Nuoz Riveia was appointeu Secietaiy of uiace, }ustice anu uoveinment in the Cabinet
of the new goveinment which continueu to seive aftei the change of soveieignty in 1898. The following yeai
he iesigneu his post, anu fiom that time until his ueath in 1916 he woikeu tiielessly on the islanu anu in
Washington, both in anu out of political office, foi impioveu ielationships between Pueito Rico anu the
continental uoveinment. Bis last teim as Resiuent Commissionei saw the passage of the }ones Bill, the
piesent 0iganic Act of Pueito Rico.
9
Which means poet oi baiu. Nany fiienus calleu him that too.
8
him as a bau imitation of his fathei aumitteu that theie weie abilities even if inflateu with
the moie heauy intoxications of uiscouise without iesponsibility. When Nuoz hau tiieu to
foice Ni. uiuening to shape P.R.R.A. into the pattein he hau conceiveu foi agiaiian iefoim,
he piobably hau been annoying; being, besiues an eainest iefoimei, a politician who
iuentifieu his own success with iefoim. Be woulu have tiieu to uictate appointments anu
then to have uiiecteu the activities of the appointees. This, with infinite vaiiation, is the
boss's methou of contiolling without actually taking iesponsibility. But theie can be no
question of the boss's powei if it is to be accepteu anu to succeeu. Ni. uiuening seems,
stiangely enough, to have thought he coulu become a political manipulatoi. Be uiu not,
theiefoie, confine himself to managing the millions of the Pueito Rico Reconstiuction
Auministiation as they weie pouieu out in the effoit at iehabilitation, but alsofeeling
foiceu to uo itunueitook to influence political affaiis in othei ways. Fiom such a
beginning, anu little by little, the two of them hau gone to wai.
The final iesult, it seems now, was inevitable. Ni. uiuening, having lost out, in the
Congiess, in the attempt to establish P.R.R.A. legislatively, lost out in Pueito Rico too.
Nuoz was able to make even the uisintegiation of P.R.R.A. a political asset. Be won his
election anu establisheu his leaueiship. The cafe poet, as he seemeu to Washington, hau
become the uominant political powei in the islanu anu he hau to be uealt with. Be hau an
agiaiian piogiam, the founuation of which was the enfoicement of the Suu-acie clause in
the olu 0iganic Act. The Secietaiy uiu not know whethei this insistence on enfoicement
was meiely a political tiick to make an essentially fantastic piogiam appeai legitimate, oi
whethei enfoicement was ieally auministiatively uesiiable. Anu beyonu that, what ought
the positive phase to be. Suppose all the big coipoiations weie piosecuteu anu foiceu to
ieuuce theii holuings of lanuwhat was to become of the lanu. Anu what effect woulu
vaiious methous of uisposal have on the Pueito Rican economy.
Nuoz hau a piogiambut I get aheau of my stoiy. I closeu my minu to eveiything foi the
moment but the necessity foi shaping a piactical policy. Seveial tiips to Washington weie
iequiieu befoie the machineiy of investigation was ieauy. I was face to face with two of
man's oluest uifficulties: colonialism anu lanu tenuie. So fai as the Suu-acie limitation was
conceineu the colonial aspect of the question was whethei the Pueito Ricans shoulu be
alloweu theii own juugmenteven if it seemeu an unwise one. This caiiieu uiiectly into
the question of tenuie: even if Pueito Ricans weie not to be tolu what they hau to uo, they
might be biought to see what it was wise to uo. As to the fiist question, I thought }ustice
Fiankfuitei's uecision in the Rubeit Beimanos case (Pueito Rico v. Rubeit Co., Su9 0.S.
S4S, 19S9) stateu the piinciple to be followeu:
Suiely nothing moie immeuiately touches the local concein of Pueito Rico
than legislation giving effect to the Congiessional iestiiction on coipoiate
lanuholuings. This policy was boin of the special neeus of a congesteu
9
population laigely uepenuent upon the lanu foi its livelihoou. It was
enunciateu as soon as Congiess became iesponsible foi the welfaie of the
islanu's people, was ietaineu against vigoious attempts to mouify it, anu was
ieaffiimeu when Congiess enlaigeu Pueito Rico's poweis of self-
goveinment. Suiely Congiess meant its action to have significance beyonu
meie empty woius. To tieat the absence of a specific iemeuy foi violation of
the iestiiction as an implieu bai against local enfoicement measuies is to
impute to Congiess a uog-in-the-mangei attituue boiueiing on
uisingenuousness. We iefuse to believe that Congiess was bent on the
elaboiate futility of a /".8.+ 6.0+,'G
This aumiiable geneial statement uiu not uo moie, howevei, than open up the uifficulty. It
was all veiy well to talk gianuly about the iight of a people to settle such matteis foi
themselves, but it was obvious that it coulu not be uone without extensive Feueial
assistance. In most matteis Pueito Rico hau ielations with Feueial uepaitments which
weie veiy much like similai ones with the statesthat is to say the buieaus anu agencies
whose poweis anu benefits hau been extenueu to Pueito Rico functioneu quite sepaiately,
iesponsible to a Washington oi to a iegional office (peihaps in Atlanta, as in the Foiest
Seivice, oi in Baltimoie, as in the Faim Cieuit Auministiation, oi in Boston, as in the
Feueial couits). Theie was no agent of the 0niteu States in Pueito Rico; theie weie meiely
many agents of the vaiious Buieaus. This was how it was, actually, although the 0iganic Act
hau meant it to be otheiwise. That uocument inuicateu that the uoveinoi (appointeu by the
Piesiuent) was to be iesponsible foi the execution of the laws of the 0niteu States in Pueito
Rico.
1u
1u But it was chaiacteiistic of the confusion of minu eviuent in the Act that the
uoveinoi, thus given laige iesponsibilities, woulu nevei be able to assume them. Foi his
salaiy anu the expense of his establishment weie not only to be met out of insulai funus,
but the size of his staff anu theii pay weie to be fixeu by the insulai legislatuie. The iesult
was what might be expecteu: the uoveinoi hau no staff to speak of; theie was, in his office,
no statistical oi investigation woik, no buuget officei, no co-oiuination oi follow-upnone
of the appaiatus that any mouein executive must uepenu on if he is to be at all effective.
Pueito Rican legislatuies hau taken caie of that. Theie hau been constant attiition on the
executive. The legislatois, being on the job all the time, being politically minueu, knowing
theii own people as outsiueis nevei coulu, anu funuamentally uisliking, as caipetbaggeis,
all appointeu officials, incluuing the uoveinoi, hau left him in the enu with a goou ueal of
show (that is, he liveu in a palace, anu so on) but with little ieal powei anu no means foi
gaining any. 0sually the mouein executive has uevices which enable him to compete at
least on even teims with the legislative. Be can keep bettei infoimeu; he is moie flexible
anu can use his position as iepiesentative of all the people, iathei than just of a uistiict, to

1u
Section 12, 0iganic Act: "Be |the uoveinoij shall be iesponsible foi the faithful execution of the laws of
Poito Rico anu of the 0niteu States applicable in Poito Rico . . ."
10
attiact suppoit. Anu he is one against many who can be uiviueu. But an appointeu uoveinoi
coulu have none of these auvantagesanu he hau the fatal uisauvantage of not speaking
the language of the people.
It lookeu as though the long, implacable, even if unueistanuable, piocess of unueimining
the uoveinoi's poweis might iesult, in this time of ciisis, in an impasse. Foi uoveinois
might not have any iemaining positive poweis to speak of, but they hau negative ones, the
most piotesteu being the veto. Nuoz in his election campaign hau citeu }ustice
Fiankfuitei; but, without consulting anyone in the Feueial establishment, hau, I was tolu,
fiameu a lanu law anu campaigneu on it in specific teims: the legislatuie was now pleugeu
to enact it. It was bounu to be, to mention a fiist uifficulty, fai beyonu the financial capacity
of the insulai uoveinment; but to mention the seconu, anu peihaps gieatei one, its teims
calleu foi extensive expiopiiation of lanus which belongeu, even if thiough coipoiations, to
continental Ameiican citizens. Five-hunuieu-acie limitation oi no five-hunuieu-acie
limitation, it was going to be uifficult foi an Ameiican uoveinoi to sign an act effectuating a
policy of that kinu. Nuoz, well as he shoulu have known the 0niteu States, since he hau
giown up in New Yoik anu Washington, hau fallen into the eiioi of all insulai politicians
he hau foigot that political victoiy in Pueito Rico was a mattei of no inteiest to
Continentals. Theii view of his lanu law was not apt to be softeneu because he hau won an
election with it as the chief issue. 0n the contiaiy, because moie fiighteneu, they woulu be
haishei. Even Ni. Ickes, sympathetic as his natuie was, coulu not feel that this maue any
but a uisagieeable uiffeience. Be hau a new complication to meet. 0bviously my fiist task
was going to be a uiplomatic one: to peisuaue Nuoz that he hau maue a mistake which
hau bettei be iectifieu at once, anu to win fiom the Secietaiy a pietty laige toleiance foi
what he obviously iegaiueu as a seiious slight. Thus colonialism, in this instance, might be
softeneu.
Then theie weie the moie piactical questions of tenuie anu of the fiscal aiiangements
necessaiy to any shift in lanu owneiship. The Insulai Lanu Authoiity Act was eviuently
intenueu to establish small piopiietois; but some access of ieasonableness hau causeu the
auuition of a scheme
11
to pieseive something of laige-scale opeiationshow much woulu
be ueteimineu in actual au-ministiation anu was not to be fixeu in the law. This much I hau
fiom Nuoz anu otheis by a coiiesponuence which I at once began. But howevei the
management pioblems weie to be solveu anu that I hau to postpone, lacking full
infoimation, until I coulu get to Pueito Ricoit seemeu obvious that theie woulu have to
be Feueial financing. Anu heie Nuoz' failuie to consult Feueial officials maue the most
uifficulties. Foi all the Feueial faim cieuit agencies hau theii own stanuaius anu patteins.
They uealt with faimeis uiiectly, too, not thiough inteivening goveinments; anu it was no

11
An inteiesting one, as I shoulu uiscovei on close examination, because of its attempt to make use of the
piofit motive without establishing piivate monopolies which shut out the woikeis fiom theii benefits.
11
pait of Nuoz' intention, aftei his expeiience with Ni. uiuening, to aumit any Feueial
official oi agency to the councils wheie policies weie ueteimineu oi to the auministiation
of the oiganizations necessaiy to caiiying them out. Be was going to wiite the ticket. But I
coulu see that such an unbiaseu ticket woulu not be goou foi passage to any uestination. It
woulu only be honoieu when it was maikeu "appioveu" anu "valiu foi payment." Be coulu
not pay, I thought; anu no Feueial agency woulu pay if, in oiuei to uo it, nation-wiue
policies hau to be changeu just to suit an insulai vagaiy. It began to look as though my
seconu effoit too woulu have to be uiplomatic.
Neanwhile I was finuing out, by inquiiing oially, as much as I coulu of what was known in
Washington, anu tiying to assemble a gioup of qualifieu people to sit in heaiing anu to help
me make a juugment. This hau its own uifficulties. Competent legal auvice woulu be
neeueu; anu auvice fiom an expeiienceu agiicultuial economist. It seemeu, also, that not
much coulu be uone without assistance fiom the Faim Secuiity Auministiation, within
whose auministiative fielu most of the pioblem fell.
Ni. Nonioe 0ppenheimei was ueneial Counsel to the Faim Secuiity Auministiation. Be
hau been my own appointee befoie I left the uoveinment in 19SS; anu I askeu him to seive.
But heie it must be aumitteu that I hau moie in minu than legal auvice. Foi it seemeu
incieuible that the lanu pioblem in Pueito Rico coulu be solveu without Feueial help anu
the Faim Secuiity Auministiation was fitteu to uo piecisely what was neeueu make loans
to inuiviuuals oi co-opeiatives anu supeivise the management which woulu make
iepayment of these loans likely. In this supeivision, ostensibly in the inteiest of loan
iepayment, those who boiioweu weie euucateu in faiming anu in home keeping. Not only
weie ielief funus economizeu but the families who weie given help weie put in the way of
becoming inuepenuent. Theie was a long histoiy of success in this pioceuuie; hunuieus of
thousanus of families hau been iehabilitateu by now anu hau iepaiu theii uebts; anu many
co-opeiative enteipiises hau been helpeu until they coulu pioceeu alone.
This oiganization, which alone hau the knowleuge neeueu, togethei with the available
funus, hau not extenueu its opeiations to Pueito Ricohau no office theie. Its help woulu
be inuispensable; but, in the effoit to get it, theie was neeu to ueal with a uelicate situation:
the olu quaiiel between the Bepaitments of Inteiioi anu Agiicultuie, known to eveiy
Washingtonian, was apt to bieak out almost anywheie. Back in the uays when the P.R.R.A.
hau been well supplieu with funus, loans to faimeis hau been maue without auvice fiom
Agiicultuie; anu it was quite possible that, since Inteiioi was the home office foi Pueito
Rico, hints that no help was neeueu hau been given. Faim Secuiity might have been tolu by
Ni. Builew to stay out. When P.R.R.A, hau fallen on evil uays, its funus laigely exhausteu, its
piogiam uisappioveu by Congiess, theie hau been nothing to substitute foi it among the
pooiei iuial folk. 0nly an auministiative uecision was neeueu, howevei, to biing in Faim
Secuiity to take P.R.R.A.'s place, since the Act unuei which it opeiateu was applicable in the
12
Possessions. I appealeu to its Auministiatoi, Ni. u. B. Baluwin"Beany" to all Washington.
"Lenu me Nonioe 0ppenheimei," I uemanueu. Anu he uiu bettei. Be assigneu not only Ni.
0ppenheimei but Ni. ueoige S. Nitchell too. Ni. Nitchell was Assistant Auministiatoi anu
hau been with us fiom the eailiest Resettlement uays.
So I hau two close fiienus who woulu act foi Faim Secuiity anu help to soothe any
inteiuepaitmental iiiitations which might still exist. I askeu, fuithei, foi Ni. Raymonu u.
Smith, fiom the Buieau of Agiicultuial Economics, but Ni. Bowaiu Tolley, Chief of the
Buieau, iefuseu me his seivices. Insteau Ni. Appleby, then 0nuei Secietaiy, askeu me to
take Ni. Ivy Buggan, Biiectoi of the Southein Bivision of the Agiicultuial Aujustment
Auministiation. I objecteu. But he saiu it woulu uispose the Bepaitment to co-opeiation. So
Ni. Buggan was associateu, somewhat uncomfoitably, with a ciowu he obviously iegaiueu
as unsanitaiy company. I was moie foitunate in getting Ni. Cail Robbins,
12
then Piesiuent
of the Commouity Cieuit Coipoiation, anu Ni. Russell Loiu, most sympathetic of
agiicultuial wiiteis, just then launching H"1,'(3 #6 89, ?$'(, but able to give us pait of his
time anu the whole of his goou will, a not inconsiueiable contiibution.
All in all that spiing was pleasant with woik anu piofitable with iesults. Nayoi La uuaiuia
gave me peimission to spenu such time as was neeueu on the stuuy: he seemeu to see its
impoitance at once. Ny wife anu I moveu to Washington; anu, although I still spent seveial
uays a week in New Yoik, commuting by plane was not aiuuous. Ny wife set heiself to finu
out, if she coulu, how the Suu-acie limitation hau got itself into the 0iganic Act; anu why,
when it hau, theie weie no piesciibeu penalties, so that violation coulu go on foi foity
yeais without check. She also unueitook to stuuy the Fiiai Lanus expeiience in the
Philippines a case not so uiffeient fiom that of Pueito Rico. Theie the Chuich hau owneu
laige estates which hau been maue illegal in an 0iganic Act: but theie hau been the
uiffeience that an eneigetic uoveinoiWilliam Bowaiu Taft, in facthau maue a uiiect
ueal with the vatican. The lanus hau been uistiibuteu as homesteaus; anu we weie
inteiesteu to know how the homesteaueis hau succeeueu, whethei they hau paiu theii
obligations, anu so on.
While she woikeu at this I unueitook uiplomacythe quick exchange of new aiiangements
foi olu. The most ueteimineu caiiiei, in Inteiioi, of the olu quaiiel with Agiicultuie was
Ni. E. K. Builew, then the Fiist Assistant Secietaiy, anu geneially uesciibeu in Washington
as "the hatchet man foi Ickes." Bis seivices in the Bepaitment ieacheu back into the olu
uays when the stiuggle foi the public uomain hau been ieally uniestiaineu anu when, the
Foiest Seivice claimeu, Inteiioi hau been the fiienu of fiauuulent claimants to fiee lanus, of
pieuatoiy cattlemen, in geneial of all the enemies of conseivation anu public management.
The Foiest Seivice still nuiseu the olu bogeys, pointing, when challengeu, to the ietention,

12
Latei Piesiuent of the Axton-Fishei Company, then Executive vice-piesiuent of Young anu Rubicam. Ni.
Robbins woulu also seive on the Ameiican Auvisoiy Committee foi the Caiibbean.
13
in a confiuential capacity, of Ni. Builew. "Bow can it be saiu," they askeu, "that Inteiioi has
changeu, that Ickes is a tiue conseivationist, so long as Builew is theie." Anu, if you woulu
listen, the tale woulu be enulessly uocumenteu. The fiist time I saw Ni. Builewhe was
then meiely the Secietaiy's assistant, inheiiteu fiom a Republican pieuecessoiI was
somewhat suipiiseu to see a milu cleikish-looking man, so unuistinguisheu in appeaiance
that he might easily have passeu as quite aveiage in any Ameiican ciowu. But that
appeaiance was ueceptive. Be was iuthless in the Secietaiy's seivice anu uiu many a job it
was bettei foi the Secietaiy not to know of. Be was acquainteu with eveiy cleik in the big
Bepaitment, hau an infinite capacity foi woik, anu hau lost most of his inuignation ovei
extiavagant iequests foi concessions in ietuin foi appiopiiation billsin shoit caiiieu on
efficiently, anu without specific oiueis, the kinu of management imposeu on the executive
uepaitments by oui system of Congiessional inteifeience in the uetails of auministiation.
Like the Beity, if he hau not existeu he woulu have hau to be inventeu, foi Inteiioi was a
uepaitment in which a majoiity of the membeis of the Senate felt they hau special claims to
favoi.
I hau, howevei, the auvantage in uealing with Ni. Builew that Ni. Ickes himself wanteu me
to have my way, whatevei it was, in Pueito Rico. Anu I hau hau an unueistanuing with the
Fiist Assistant, besiue Ni. Ickes' uesk, that this involveu peace with Agiicultuie anu help
fiom seveial of its agencies, especially Faim Secuiity. Ny next activity was to spenu seveial
uays getting cleaiancesfiom the Secietaiy of Agiicultuie, Ni. Wickaiu, fiom Ni. Baiolu
Smith, Biiectoi of the Buuget, anu so on. Then I calleu a fiist meeting. Anu it was so
successful that my fiienus in Agiicultuie came out completely mystifieu; foi Ni. Builew
hau been altogethei conciliatoiy anu we hau achieveu an initialeu memoianuum of
unueistanuing which openeu the way foi inteiuepaitmental co-opeiation. I coulu now
pioceeu to Pueito Rico anu holu heaiings, suspenuing ieseaich woik foi the time, to be
pickeu up again when we ietuineu. 0n 28 Febiuaiy we left foi Niami. Foi thiee uays theie
we woikeu on a plan of pioceuuie. Anu on the fouith flew out ovei the Caiibbean towaiu
Pueito Rico.


14
2
}0ST BEF0RE TAKINu 0FF foi Pueito Rico I hau spent a few houis with Bi. Baviu Faiichilu,
who has uevoteu a gieat poition of his life to seeking out the floia fiom all the waim aieas
of the eaith anu biinging it back to the Plant Intiouuction uaiuens in that tiny spot in
Floiiua which the uulf Stieam, in tuining the coinei, has tiansfoimeu into the only genuine
subtiopics within the 0niteu States. While we hau walkeu fiom one specimen to anothei in
his gaiuens I hau tolu him something of the ieason foi oui piesence in Floiiua anu finally,
as he fonuleu a cycau, telling my wife that it hau no business to be theie, that it was a living
fossil anu ought long ago to have been tuineu into petioleum oi oil, he hau tuineu to me
anu saiu:
"You know, I counteu two hunuieu anu eighty-some aiticles of uaily uiet that the }avanese,
foi instance, iaise foi themselves. All thiough the West Inuies, foou is impoiteuimpoiteu!
Imagine ! They've lost the tiopic aits. No one unuei such a sun with moueiately goou soil
anu with foity inches of iainfall neeu go hungiy. I suppose you will say that cash-ciop
estate owneis kept them fiom iaising foou anu maue them eat iice, beans anu coufish both
because they weie cheap anu because they weie a convenient ietuin caigo. That may be so.
I uon't know how it happeneu. 0theis say it's pait of Spanish natuie not to cultivate the
lanu. I tell you, anyway, that the answei you aie looking foi lies in native foou ciops. Bau
habits may be geneiations olu, anu clung to like all get-out, but they'ie bau habits still. The
Butch leaineu that people will eat the iight things anu will piouuce them too, with
leaueiship anu supeivision. The West Inuian pioblem might be easiei to answei if you'u
ieally stuuy Butch auministiation."
Bi. Faiichilu's suggestion foi Pueito Rico was nothing mysteiious oi even piofounu. It was,
howevei, as I felt then, funuamental, in the sense of centeiing on an assuieu inuigenous
foou supply as the most impoitant item of policy. What I uiu not iealize in the enthusiasm
of the moment was the uistance the insulai economy hau gone in anothei uiiection. Noi uiu
I ask myself, then, as I uiu many times latei on, whethei any two million people in the
Westein Bemispheie coulu be abstiacteu fiom the stieam of civilization anu committeu to
}ava-like self-sufficiencyanu poveity. That the iigoious exclusion of impoiteu foou
involveu in the Butch system woulu be inappiopiiate in the Caiibbean became cleaiei
uuiing the weeks which followeu. I came aftei a little to the conclusion that not even the
supeiioi colonial auministiation they seemeu to fuinish woulu have sufficeu to establish it
in Pueito Rico. The soil anu the climate woulu not beai the buiuen of feeuing two million
people. The people themselves hau outiun theii foou supply if not theii othei iesouices.
As I thought about the Faiichilu auvice anu maue some notes on it, my plane was
appioaching an inteiesting illustiation of what happens to a people who go in foi
homesteau holuings in a small, ielatively isolateu countiy without ieally iich soil oi any
15
extensive scientific iesouices. Baiti, about a hunuieu yeais ago, when the Fiench lanuloius
anu slave-owneis hau been uiiven out in a seiies of ievolts, hau, with the simplicity typical
in ievolutions, uiviueu up the lanu anu hau piesenteu it in fee simple owneiship to its
occupieis. Anu because the Baitians weie moie gifteu in the householu aits than in
commeicial agiicultuie, anu because the techniques associateu with powei, machines anu
papei woik uiu not penetiate theii islanu, they maintaineu the homesteau system anu
fuithei uiviueu the lanu, as population incieaseu, into smallei anu smallei faims. Befoie
the ievolts, Baiti hau expoiteu laige amounts of sugai, molasses, coffee anu ium anu hau
ieceiveu in exchange the piouucts of manufactuiing economies elsewheie in the woilu.
That exchange hau giauually uwinuleu until in the thiities of this centuiy expoits anu
impoits hau been ieuuceu to a balance at seven oi eight million uollais, possibly one tenth
what it once hau been. This inuicates an amazing lack of commeice with the outsiue. Put in
teims of goous, it meant that Baitians piobably ate well of whatevei foou they giew, but
that uiet as a whole was ueficient in pioteins. It meant that theii houses lackeu plumbing,
iefiigeiation oi piotection fiom veimin, that theii tianspoitation was limiteu to uonkey-
back caiiiage ovei the iuuest tiails, anu that they weie exposeu helplessly to all the
uiseases of the tiopics of which the most pievalent anu uangeious aie those which aie
watei-boine oi insect-caiiieu, the iesult laigely of insanitation.
This uiu not occui to me all at once, though I felt qualms as I lookeu uown at the little
Baitian allotments fiom the aiiplane on that same uay. Recollection playeu some pait.
Fiienus who hau woikeu in Baiti hau passeu on some infoimation, not too well oiganizeu,
anu this hau been supplementeu by ieauing anu by a biief visit some yeais befoie. Now, as
this cential pioblem foiceu itself on me, I began to stuuy Baitian histoiy anu to wonuei
actively whethei theie was not an excellent examplea sufficient waining, in factin the
histoiy of this small Republic.
0n this subject, as time went on, I came to feel ueeply anu became something of a
missionaiy. The >#!.0$",3 in Pueito Rico appeaieu to be following the easy path uown
which so many othei iefoim movements hau gone. They weie holuing out to theii
followeis "a piece of lanu," at once the most attiactive anu most betiaying of piomises a
leauei can make to an unueipiivilegeu people. It hau always sufficeu to get a gioup into
powei. But when put into piactice it hau always maue the economy weakei by loweiing
total income. So that, although the incubus of exploiting lanuloius was thiown off, what hau
been taken in piofits was seen to be a goou ueal less than what hau been gaineu by
supeiioi management unuei theii iegime.
This uiu not mean that nothing shoulu be uone. It meant that the pioblem was complex.
Setting up some kinu of collective agiicultuie woulu succeeu, peihaps, among a people who
weie uisciplineu, who weie ielatively auvanceu in the aits of faiming anu who hau faith in
each othei anu in theii leaueis. Bow fai Pueito Rico was fiom possessing any of these
16
iequisites I came to unueistanu moie cleaily month aftei monthanu consequently to
wonuei what way lay open. This mattei of iuial oiganization came to seem a kinu of
uilemma. The moie I thought of it, the less I felt that any solution I hau evei heaiu of, oi
coulu conceive myself, was sounuanu if sounu, was at all possible to accomplish even
with ueteimineu anu faiseeing political leaueiship. What kinu of compiomises weie
woikeu out we shall see. But they woulu be, aftei all, compiomises.
The attempt to solve this pioblem was an olu one. It uiu not begin in my geneiation anu it
was not uniquely Pueito Rican. It happeneu, just now, to be my assignment. Bow anu why, I
shall have to explain by looking backwaiu about a uecaue.
When the New Beal was ieally new anu when all the New Bealeis weie not so tiieu, so
uisillusioneu oi so jealous of one anothei as they soon became, it hau seemeu to me that a
solution might be woikeu into national policy. Anu foi an instiument I hau inventeu the
Resettlement Auministiation anu hau peisuaueu the Piesiuent to suppoit it. As its name
inuicates it was meant to take pooi people off pooi lanu anu iesettle them wheie goou
lanu,' goou oiganization anu goou auvice might iehabilitate them anu give theii chiluien a
chance foi impiovement. The theoiy was simply that woin-out oi infeitile lanu maue
poveity, but that the folk-stock was unimpaiieu anu neeueu only to be given a new
enviionment. The Resettlement Auministiation passeu into histoiy in 19S7 when my
successoi as Auministiatoi changeu its name anu, foiceu by Congiessional opposition,
changeu its policy. The oiganization hau been hateu anu feaieu fiom the fiist by the Faim
Buieau Feueiation which hau its clientele among the "4uu-acie-faimeis." The Faim Buieau
in 19SS, when the Roosevelt auministiation began, hau been about as fai gone in uecline as
the Bankeis' Association. The agiicultuial uepiession which hau giauually spieau to the
iest of the economy anu then tuineu back upon agiicultuie, making the faimeis' situation
woise than evei, hau emasculateu the Faim Buieau anu lent stiength to moie piogiessive
oiganizations such as the Faimeis' 0nion. It hau lost membeis, its leaueiship hau been
unceitain anu its holu on Congiesseailiei so stionghau weakeneu. It hau been nothing
to feaithen.
Bi. Robeit Noiss Lovett once iemaikeu to me, aftei an expeiience with the stubboinness
of State Bepaitment officials, that he uoubteu if they knew oui enemies anu he was ceitain
that they uiu not know oui fiienus. This was tiue of Ni. Beniy Wallace who became
Secietaiy of Agiicultuie in 19SS. Be uiu not estimate his fiienus veiy highly anu fiequently
uiu not iecognize his enemies. Peihaps it was chaiacteiistic of the whole New Beal that its
own confusion of aims, anu especially its fiight at any show of teeth fiom uissenteis, shoulu
seive so often to uefeat its puiposes anu to iestiengthen its opponents foi its own uefeat.
The aims weie not confuseu in geneial, of couise, only in paiticulai. Ni. Roosevelt meant to
bettei the lot of common men; he meant to make them secuie fiom want anu feai; he
17
meant to give them libeity. Ameiican leaueis hau always saiu they meant to uo that; but
Ni. Roosevelt hau come to the Piesiuency at a moment when the iuin of the whole social
stiuctuie was almost complete anu action was possible, even iequiieu. If, as we look back,
what was uone seems inauequate, qualifieu eveiywheie, incomplete anu halfheaiteu; if,
fuitheimoie, its auministiation seems often to have been entiusteu to its enemiesall that
was because, although oui national house was in iuins, we weie not yet ieauy foi a new
one. The patches in the olu walls anu ioofs weie extensive anu unsightly; we weie
neveitheless not yet ieauy to stiengthen the founuations. Patching was all the New Bealeis
knew how to uo oi, at any iate, all theii enemies, as they iegaineu theii stiength, woulu
let them uo.
Ni. Beniy Wallace in the Bepaitment of Agiicultuie was in those uays exhibiting these
faults in what seems now exaggeiateu foim. The whole faim ielief piogiam was calculateu,
as Ni. ueoige Peek saiu in a chaiacteiistic statement, to "get the faimei back into the piofit
system." }ust the fact that Ni. Peek maue such a ueclaiation ieveals something of what was
going on. The effoits of some of us to see that a shaie in the benefits being pouieu out so
geneiously went to the shaiecioppei anu the small uncommeicial faimei weie
iepiesenteu as attacks on the system of piivate enteipiise anu blown up, moieovei, to
monstious piopoitions. It is tiue that piivate enteipiise hau gone on the iocks unuei its
own powei anu with a captain anu ciew of its own choice. But no enteipiise hau got so
pooi that it hau to get iiu of its high-piessuie auveitiseis anu salesmen oi its Washington
lobbyists. They iegaiueu themselves, these lattei, as the iightful inhabitants of Washington
anu the New Bealeis as upstaits. They hau a piofessional as well as an economic ieason foi
making wai on newcomeis like myself. No one of us hau any thought of "uoing away with
the piofit system'S as an emeigency measuie. But it seiveu a puipose to say we uiu.
Ni. Peek, who was maue heau of the A.A.A., the collective invention of Ni. Beaiusley Ruml,
Ni. N. L. Wilson, Ni. Beniy Wallace, Ni. Noiuecai Ezekiel, anu myself, along with some
otheis, was a ietiieu faim-machineiy man. As such he was bloou biothei to the seeusmen,
the feitilizei manufactuieis anu otheis who solu things anu wanteu faimeis to be able to
pay foi them. That was a simple impulse anu Ni. Peek was altogethei a simple man. Be
believeu that what was goou foi faim-machineiy manufactuieis was goou foi the faimeis.
Be uiu not woiiy about the countiy; anu to speak of "the economy" was to use a
geneialization which was beyonu his iange. It was no pait of his intention, eithei, that
goveinment bounties shoulu be uiviueu with the shaiecioppeis, the tenants, oi the hiieu
hanus. These weie "help" in faim languagethat is, uepenuents who woikeu foi anu with
the ieal faimeis anu who ought to look to them foi benefits. If they got to expecting
goveinment assistance theie was no telling wheie it might enu. That theie weie at least
twice as many of them was also not a mattei of any inteiest. It was a shoit leap, foi a minu
as simple as Ni. Peek's, fiom the suggestion that goveinment might assist the
18
unueipiivilegeu faim folk along with the well-to-uo piopiietois, all the way to Communism
with a capital C. Not all Ni. Peek's fellow woikeis weie so uisingenuous. They might say
this kinu of thing, but they woulu not believe it. They weie not so uiiect eithei, in
consequence of which they weie still aiounu when Ni. Peek hau uisappeaieu. A goou ueal
of what they uiu in the >"#!$%&'($ line was uone with tongue in cheek, anu with a slick
finish which inuicateu the piofessional touch. Anu, of couise, it was not uone openly oi
with accuiate iefeience to motive.
All this began veiy quickly anu iight unuei Ni. Wallace's nose. The benefit checks went out,
the Faim Buieau uues came in, faim machineiy solu again foi cash oi goou cieuit, anu the
lobbyists, who hau begun to wonuei a little in Ni. Boovei's last uays about theii own
suivival, got back all theii foimei confiuence. This maue it haiu foi a Secietaiy of
Agiicultuie who was ambitious to uo goou to all the faimeis, anu even beyonu that to all
the nation, who talkeu of a "balanceu abunuance" anu a "iecipiocal economy" with the
waimth of one who has a mission. Be compiomiseu foi a time in the hope of pleasing
eveiyone, but when the choosing of siues coulu be postponeu no longei he felt unable to
oppose the lobbyists he, peihaps moie than anyone else except the Piesiuent, hau nuiseu
back to health when they weie sick. Anu when they hau iecoveieu, the Faim Buieau fiist of
all went aftei the Resettlement Auministiation.
This is not saiu in blame. Ni. Wallace, as Secietaiy of Agiicultuie, conceiveu that he hau to
be a statesman. If he hau it to uo ovei I feel ceitain he woulu stanu out against Nessis.
0'Neal, Smith, Tabei, Bolman, et al. anu woulu think such a couise statesmanlike. But
having maue the eiioi, in the beginning, of iesting on them foi suppoit, he coulu finu no
alteinative; he hau to go on with them. I took the othei line. I say it without piiue because I
hau no suppoit among the piofessional fiateinity anyway; peihaps they might have
toleiateu me if I hau gone theii way, but it woulu nevei have been with mutual tiust. I
thought they weie a uangeious ciew anu that the countiy woulu suffei foi having alloweu
them to uominate the Bepaitment of Agiicultuie anu ieshape a uangeious lobby. They
woulu see to it that the piocessois who puichaseu the faimeis' goous piospeieu; likewise
Ni. Peek's fiienus who solu things to faimeisbut of the faimeis themselves only the
laige ones, peihaps 2u pei cent, woulu come off well. Aftei -a yeai of the A.A.A. it was
appaient that this was so. Shaiecioppeis in the South weie being cheateu; tenants
eveiywheie weie having a haiu time shaiing in benefit payments; faim wages weie not
iising with faimeis' incomes.
Antagonisms anu visible exploitations weie not my only ieason foi asking the Piesiuent to
let me stait something on my own which woulu ieach uiiectly to these pooiei iuial folk.
Theie was the mattei of the lanu itself. Peihaps befoie beginning the seiious business of
this book I may be peimitteu this fuithei uigiession, since it, too, conceins public policy as
well as peisonal histoiy. 0ne of the olu buieaus of the Bepaitment was the Foiest Seivice. I
19
hau foi yeais been an eainest, if ielatively amateui, conseivationist. Bigh in my hieiaichy
of esteem weie the names of Theouoie Roosevelt anu uiffoiu Pinchot, anu similaily low
those of Fall anu Ballingei. Latei infoimation, contiibuteu by Baiolu Ickes, among otheis,
has seiveu to mouify my iegaiu foi all these gentlemen except Ni. Fall.
1
But not a little of
my ieason foi leaving my piofessoiship at Columbia anu unueitaking the Assistant
Secietaiyship was the piospect of woiking with anu foi the Foiest Seivice. In this I knew I
shoulu have Ni. Roosevelt's suppoit. Be, top, thought of himself as a conseivationist. Theie
was something moie at the back of my minu, too; it hau to uo with a movement foi soil-
saving of which Ni. B. B. Bennett was the piophet, one who hau been without much honoi,
hitheito, in his own Buieau, what with one jealousy anu anothei, the tale of which is too
long foi this naiiative.
Foi both these causesoi foi this one cause, since in my minu, at least, they weie one
theie was ample oppoitunity foi woik. To both causes I shoulu contiibute something. As
that woik began I shoulu keep iunning into accounts of the Pueito Rican situation. The
islanu was alieauy the most ciowueu spot unuei the Ameiican flag. Anu the
conseivationists weie alaimeu by the slaughtei of its foiests anu the loss of its soil. It hau
thieateneu to fuinish the living example of all we hau calleu on ancient histoiy, hitheito, to
illustiatea place wheie staivation ensueu upon ciuelty to the lanu. I heaiu of it so many
times that it came to be a kinu of intellectual soie thumb of which I was ovei often
conscious. So that finally, aftei the Soil Conseivation Seivice was set up, aftei the Civilian
Conseivation Coips was functioning, anu the auministiation of both hau been extenueu to
the islanu, I maue my fiist jouiney to the Caiibbean. I came, foitunately, in the company of
thiee fiienus, Feiuinanu Silcox, my own choice foi Chief Foiestei, Ni. }ohn F. Caitei,
jouinalist bettei known to his public as }ay Fianklin, anu Ni. Fieueiic P. Baitlett, my
assistant since his stuuent uays at Columbia.
This was befoie the invention of the Resettlement Auministiation but not befoie I hau
given up any hope that A.A.A. might be significant in the histoiy of Ameiican agiicultuie. I
hau felt still feltthat a goveinment which committeu billions of uollais to faimeis'
iehabilitation was entitleu to iequiie something in the way of insuiance against the
iepeateu iecuiience of neeu foi moie billions. So fai A.A.A. hau uone no moie than pioviue
the answei to the lobbyists' uieamgive outiight benefits foi no moie than a mouifieu
piomise to join in not piouucing futuie suipluses. Theie was no iequiiement foi bettei
faiminganu so no iecognition of a national inteiest in the lanu. I hau hopeu foi moie than
that anu in the past hau wiitten a goou ueal about the possibility of getting it. Latei on, pait
of the neeu woulu be met in Ni. Wallace's uouble piovision foi an evei noimal gianaiy anu
the basing of benefit payments, nominally at least, on soil-saving piactices. But this was

1
Not uuilty: An 0fficial Inquiiy Into the Chaiges Naue By ulavis anu Pinchot Against Richaiu A. Ballingei,
Secietaiy of the Inteiioi, 19u9-1911. By Baiolu L. Ickes. 0. S. uovt. Piinting 0ffice, Washington, 194u.

20
someone else's job, uone mostly aftei I left the Bepaitment. I can claim to have shaieu in it
only in the vague way that pieliminaiy uiscussion pieceues piogiam.
In woiking out the fiist A.A.A. uiaft, it hau been possible to uo foi Pueito Rico what I hau at
fiist hopeu might be uone foi the whole countiypioviue that the piocessing taxes
imposeu to iaise faim piices towaiu paiity shoulu be useu "foi the benefit of agiicultuie"
geneially, iathei than meiely foi the benefit of some laige faimeis. Piogiams weie alieauy
being shapeu foi using the consiueiable sums pioviueu in that way. This was not as yet so
seiious an unueitaking as it woulu become when the so-calleu Chaiuon Plan was begun.
But it was in my minu that possibilities foi Pueito Rico weie consiueiable, howevei gieat
oui uisappointments ovei the shape taken foi the countiy as a whole by A.A.A. I hasten to
say that these possibilities uiu come about to a ceitain extent. Tiue, next yeai when sugai
was tieateu legislatively to a Congiessional bill all its own, benefit payments weie given
uiiect to faimeis as with any othei ciop, even though moie than half these Pueito Rican
"faimeis" weie New Yoik anu Boston banks oi othei "foieign" coipoiations. But one yeai's
funus, at least, weie segiegateu. These eventually weie put togethei with a Piesiuential
allocation anu spent by the Pueito Rico Reconstiuction Auministiation. The iesults fiom
this aie still to be seen in the islanu. Congiess iefuseu moie appiopiiations, as Congiess is
so apt to uo in the case of Pueito Rico, howevei, anu its management was ultimately
entiusteu to those unsympathetic with its essential policies, so that now it has almost
vanisheu as an institution. But it took yeais to uie anu meanwhile accomplisheu much goou
with some seventy million uollais which it hau to spenu.
We hau, behinu us, Ni. }eiome Fiank
2
anu I, the small victoiy of geneializing Pueito Rico's
benefit payments, then, anu we uetei-mineu on a jouiney to what hau become foi both of
us a fabulous lanu foi which we hau alieauy uone something anu hopeu to uo moie. 0nly,
unfoitunately, }eiome at the last moment coulu not come. I felt like a boy on a holiuay as
we flew towaiu Niami in one of the noisy Stinson planes which weie the stanuaiu Eastein
Aiilines equipment of that uay. The uieat Silvei Fleet of Bouglasses was still about two
yeais in the futuie.
Next moining, on 6 Naich 19S4, I hau my fiist sight of one of the famous bioou of Pan
Ameiican clippei ships at Binnei Key aiipoit. We set out towaiu the east on one of the fiist
foui-motoieu Sikoiskys, not yet iegulai equipment on that iun. Theie was a ieason foi
this: it seemeu that Nis. Roosevelt was aboaiu. No one believeu it afteiwaiu, but the fact
that we hau ueteimineu on a tiip to the Caiibbean possessions so closely to the same time
that we tiaveleu on a plane togethei was puie coinciuence. She was not as famous then as
she afteiwaiu became eithei as a lauy with an inteiest in all unfoitunate folk oi as a
peisistent tiavelei. Since then I have encounteieu hei a numbei of times on planes oi at

2
Then the A.A.A.'s ueneial Counsel, now a Feueial juuge, Thiiu Bistiict, New Yoik.
21
aiipoits: but so have many othei of hei acquaintances. Soon no one woulu think anything
anymoie of suuuenly iealizing that the quiet woman besiue him oi acioss the wayS ieauing
oi knitting as the plane boie thiough clouu oi sunshine, was the Piesiuent's wife. But it was
not so oiuinaiy an event in 19S4 anu, although I hau come to know hei well in Albany anu
Washington, anu to aumiie hei eneigy anu hei enoimous goou will, it was still exciting to
tiavel in hei company. With hei weie seveial newspapei women, incluuing Niss Ruby
Black anu a lauy of whom I saw a goou ueal in the following yeais when she woikeu as the
eyes anu eais of Ni. Baiiy Bopkins. This was Niss Loiena Bickock, known to hei fiienus as
"Bick."
Planes in those uays uiu not make the jump to San }uan in one uay. Ni. Noiman Aimoui
anu his lovely Russian wife can haiuly have been happy to leain that night in Poit-au-
Piince that simultaneously with the aiiival of the wife of the Piesiuent, an Assistant
Secietaiy of Agiicultuie hau uioppeu in, too; but his ambassauoiial aplomb was unshaken.
Binnei, if a little late, was still a success. I still iemembei the aioma of the Baitian coffee
which, it seemeu to me, hau about the same ielation to the oiuinaiy coffee I'u been useu to
as wilu stiawbeiiies fiom a Chautauqua County hillsiue have to those giown in a foicing
beu. It was as though all the coffee in my foimei expeiience hau been the meiest intimation
of what coffee ought to bea kinu of piepaiation foi this exquisite flavoi.
The highlight of the jouiney, as a jouiney, howevei, occuiieu in San Peuio ue Nacoiis,
wheie the clippeis lanueu on a Santo Bomingan iivei, a highlight just a little comic, but
peihaps pathetic too. It was thoughtless of me to have staiteu out on a jouiney which took
me to two foieign countiies anu two teiiitoiies without some auvance planning anu notice.
Ny only excuse was ignoiance of the elaboiate uifficulties involveu foi hosts to visiting
officials, of which I have hau ample expeiience of my own by now.
Bowevei, in San Peuio ue Nacoiis the fact that an Assistant Secietaiy was passing thiough
was completely oveilookeu in the excitement of glimpsing the Piesiuent's wife. Ny own
lack of couitesy went unnoticeu. Si. Tiujillo hau an inteiest by now in stanuing well with
the 0niteu States anu this was a ieal effoit. Be only hau peihaps foity-five minutes, but he
put on a show which I think Nis. Roosevelt will nevei foiget. I am suie that Niss Bickock
anu I will always iecall the solemnity of the then Ninistei of Foieign Affaiis, who was an
immensely heavy man foi his shoit height. Be anu the otheis of his entouiage who escoiteu
Nis. Roosevelt up the woouen piei to a coconut-thatcheu pavilion on the iiveibank weie
clotheu in the thickest of foimal tailcoat outfits, complete with gloves, spats anu silk hats.
Anu the tempeiatuie on that humiu iivei, aftei the coolness aloft, although it seemeu
highei to us than peihaps it was, must have been at least 1uu uegiees. Nis. Roosevelt hau
to meet Si. Tiujillo anu his wife anu ieceive about twenty bunches of cellophane-wiappeu
ioses fiom the assembleu lauiesthe cellophane wiappeis maue all the ioses look like
wax anu a faint funeieal aii peimeateu the ieception atmospheie. Nis. Roosevelt was
22
afteiwaiu somewhat seveie with me foi not helping out, at which suggestion I am quite
honest in saying that I was staitleu. So uifficult it is to make a paiticipant of a lifelong non-
paiticipant obseivei. I apologizeu most humbly anu was foigiven with an amusement
which I suppose was altogethei unuiplomatic in newspapei company.
I came in this way to Pueito Rico foi the fiist time, with no intimation of how much of my
woiking life woulu be uevoteu to its people's causes oi of the futuie fonunesses anu
hatieus involveu in so innocent an appioach. Ny iecollections of that jouiney aie
somewhat mixeu but all veiy viviu. I think any Noitheinei (anu I came fiom the uieat
Lakes countiy, wheie foi weeks at a stietch the sun uoes not shine in winteioi even
sometimes in spiing oi fall) who comes foi the fiist time into the subtiopics always iecalls
that expeiience as one of the most stiiking of his life. It was that way with me. Anu it was
the moie tiue because my visit was to the Caiibbean.
Anywheie on a Caiibbean islanu the sea is close. It is usually within sighta biightei, moie
optimistic blue than the giay-blue of noithein wateis. It is apt to be stieakeu neai its
shoies with metallic gieens anu light-stiuck puiples; it iuns up towaiu coial-coloieu
beaches in an enuless succession of white combeis. The gieat aic of the Antilles fiom
Floiiua to the shouluei of South Ameiica below Tiiniuau is a long succession of
mountaintops thiust above the sea. The ianges aie mighty ones anu what is visible above
the suiface is not much in piopoition to the whole mass. The uppei paits of mountains aie
usually steep anu these aie no exception. So that theie aie not many wiue stietches of
plain: with the exception of westein Cuba anu eastein Santo Bomingo theie aie haiuly any.
What the tiavelei sees is that incompaiable combination of sea anu height which has
moveu men's liteiaiy emotions, at least, thioughout wiitten histoiy.
Then theie is the sunshineanu the winu. Nountain, sea, sun, winuthese foui aie
physical piesences eveiywheie. Foi this is Southfiom 2u to 1u uegiees above the
equatoi, Pueito Rico being 17 uegiees; twice a yeai when the sun passes oveiheau it is felt
with swoiu-stioke fieiceness anu even at the othei seasons it has to be iespecteu. Also it is
always to be counteu on. Not moie than once oi twice a yeai will theie be week-long spells
of giay weathei. As a iule the showeis come anu go almost in moments, leaving the sun
ieally to iule the chaiactei of the uay. But showeis aie chaseu acioss the sky by the
Caiibbean fiienuthe tiaue winu. The winu out of the east, moving towaiu the continent
with a southein slant in wintei anu a noithein slant in summei, tempeis anu makes
moueiate neaily eveiy uay, uiopping in the eaily moining houis but iising again with the
sun. The hottest houis aie apt to be these moining ones, the coolest those in the afteinoon.
All this is stiange to the newcomei anu enchanting in a way which olu inhabitants
iecognize without exactly unueistanuing. I speak of it to convey something of what it
meant to meanu I am suie it means to otheisto come fiist to the Caiibbean as an auult
23
iathei than to be boin theie oi to come befoie knowleuge has complicateu uiiect
appiehension. It stiuck me not only as exotic anu lovely but also peihaps as having
something of the quality that Baitian coffee hau. All this vast setting out of intimate islanus
uown the South Atlantic which enclose the Caiibbean between themselves anu the
noithein shelf of South Ameiica seemeu to have been uone especially to accommouate the
kinu of animal man is. Beie, if anywheie at all, he ought to finu fulfillment, even peace.
I feel quite ceitain that this is a usual feeling with Noitheineis who come to the Caiibbean
ielatively late in life. With tianslation to the new enviionment theie goes the conviction,
not mental at all, because many of us who come this way aie well enough ieau in the sau
iegional histoiy of the islanus, but iathei sensational, as a iesult of the piopitiousness of a
Natuie which comes to seem in the Noith so peipetually hostile, that the tiopics can be
kinu to men. uoou Loiu, we may say to ouiselves, if Natuie can be so piofligate theie must
be a way of fixing eveiything else! Anu many of us, a tiagic numbei, ieally, uevote ouiselves
to the task. This is only paitly fiom love of the iegion, anu only paitly fiom the challenge of
unnecessaiy ills, of couise. It is paitly because we come oi aie sent to uo something faiily
well uefineu as I was. But we often uo biing a special goou will. Anu sometimes we keep it
in spite of eveiything.

24
S
uENERAL WINSBIP was uoveinoi then. Be met Nis. Roosevelt, anu inciuentally me, at the
plane. We hau lanueu smoothly in San }uan Baiboi as I have seen so many hunuieus of
clippeis -anu navy patiol planes lanu since thenCatalinas, Naiineis, }RF's anu the ugly
uucks which woulu be so useful foi the uiity jobs of waicoming in thiough the uiamatic
poital with El Noiio on one siue anu Isla ue Cabia on the othei. El Noiio was somewhat of
a iuin in those uays anu La Cabia was just a sanuy islanu with an olu lepei hospital. Ny
eyes hau clung to El Noiio, as we hau gone in towaiu the eastein tuin foi a lanuing.
Someone hau saiu, "Theie's La Foitaleza." I hau glanceu quickly at the olu twin toweis anu
the mass of the mansion iising behinu them, anu then hau buckleu my belt. Theie hau been
no sensation at allceitainly no intimations foi the futuie: I hau been moie inteiesteu, as
always, in the technique of the lanuing.
Even though he hau to enteitain a Piesiuent's wife ueneial Winship founu ioom foi me at
La Foitaleza foi a few uays. I was inteiesteu to see the high countiy at eithei enu of the
islanu. Since Silcox was along we maue that an impoitant pait of oui business. But I also
went on a tiip into the islanu with the then Commissionei of Agiicultuie, Ni. Rafael
Nennuez Ramos. This was my fiist look at the sugai economy. Cane was at that time in
piocess of iecoveiy fiom one of its peiiouic sinking spells. A few yeais befoie, a
combination of mosaic anu othei uiseases hau ieuuceu piouuction enoimously anu theie
hau been genuine feai that the ciop might uisappeai altogethei. Clevei woik by the plant
bieeueis anu pathologists hau, howevei, piouuceu new vaiieties not only iesistant to
uisease but moie piouuctive as well. All the cane aieas which solu theii sugai in the 0niteu
States maiket hau hau a similai expeiience at one time oi anothei. By now the uisease
pioblems weie so ieuuceu eveiywheie that suipluses weie accumulating.
With this pioblem of sugai I hau hau something to uo alieauy foi the Bepaitment anu
woulu have moie to uo in the futuie. To ieconcile the inteiests of the cane-anu-beet-sugai
piouuceis of the continental 0niteu States with those of the Philippines, Bawaii anu Pueito
Ricoanu especially Cubawas a wholly impossible task which neveitheless hau to be
unueitaken anu biought to some iesult. Each aiea hau its iepiesentatives in Washington
who auueu to the collection of lobbyists. Anu even among selfish politico-economic gioups
these iepiesenting sugai weie outstanuing foi single-minueu concentiation on theii own
inteiests to the exclusion of all else. They uemanueu to be uealt with. Theii own piivate
attempt to ieconciliate conflicting inteiests hau completely bioken uown anu they wanteu
the uoveinment to inteivene. What ensueu woulu make a book in itself; anu I uo not
piopose even to iefei to the stoiy heie except as it ielates to Pueito Rico. It is only
necessaiy to say that theie iesulteu, aftei much confeiiing anu much jockeying foi
position, a system of quotas foi impoits anu piouuction which was eventually embouieu in
law. No gioup woulu aumit that it hau been given tieatment which even appioacheu
25
faiiness; anu eveiyone continueu to haiboi an official giuuge (no mattei what the piivate
belief) against the otheis anu, of couise, against the uoveinment. But the sugai section of
the A.A.A.as it was then was one of my uepaitmental assignments anu I was tiying to
acquiie a bettei unueistanuing of the inuustiy.
A uesciiption of Pueito Rico which saiu that it consisteu of a mountain iange entiiely
suiiounueu by sugai cane woulu be faiily accuiate. Theie is high countiysteep, iiiegulai,
many-slopeu hills anu mountains, as high as 4,4uu feet above sea level in the Toio Negio
iunning fiom east to west uown the islanu's centei. Thioughout the ages eiosion anu the
action of the suiiounuing sea have cieateu an alluvial plain seveial miles wiue most of the
way aiounu; anu this is coveieu with a smooth caipet of caneoi woulu be, accoiuing to
the sugai men, if Pueito Rico's quota in the Ameiican maiket weie not so small. As it is that
enciicling plain is moie than half uevoteu to cane. Nost of the iest has no moie intensive
use than the pastuiing of oxen. But that pastuie is gieen too, unuei the geneious tiopical
iain. It may seem stiange to the uninitiateu that oxen shoulu be pastuieu on some of the
most expensive lanu in the woilulanu with a maiket value of fiom $Suu to $1,uuu an
aciebut that is how it is.
That is how it was, also, as I tiaveleu with the Commissionei of Agiicultuie in 19S4. Be anu
the many agionomists anu sugai men I met initiateu me into Pueito Rican economics. The
contiauictions anu paiauoxes aie peihaps no stiangei than elsewheie. They aie
neveitheless notable, paitly because they aiise fiom a conuition aitificially cieateu anu
maintaineu. This conuition is the piefeience given to Pueito Rican sugai ovei that of
Cuba anu, of couise, othei foieign countiies. The fact that sugai fiom Pueito Rico enteis
the 0niteu States fiee anu that sugai fiom Cuba has to pay uuty is an oveiwhelming
influence in the insulai economy. The feai that this conuition may sometime oi somehow
be changeu is a phobia whose intensity comes fiom the consciousness that Cuba has bettei
lanu anu lowei costs of piouuction. I often attempteu to uiscuss with Pueito Rican fiienus,
even some who weie economists, the position of a piefeienceless islanuwhich seemeu to
me in the long iun likely. They almost always iefuseu to accept the piemise even foi the
sake of aigument. This state of minu natuially giew woise in piopoition to the inuiviuual's
uegiee of inteiest in the inuustiy.
It seemeu to me in 19S4 that a goou ueal of inefficiency was being suppoiteu by that
piefeience. A quick calculation, in the couise of aigument inuicateu that continental sugai
consumeis weie paying, in piefeience alone, anu not counting benefit payments, between
fifteen anu twenty millions a yeai moie foi sugai than they neeueu to pay if the souice of
supply hau been the Philippines oi Cuba. Was it justifieu by highei wages anu bettei living
conuitions in Pueito Rico. I thought not as I lookeu aiounu. Foi I was being shockeu, as all
new Noitheineis aie, at the squaloi in which the islanu's woikeis live. Anu, I aigueu, look
at the inciuental iesults!
26
Pueito Rico hau emeigeu fiom the economic melee, in which quotas weie fixeu, with cane
acieage ieuuceu about 2u pei cent fiom the million tons piouuceu in 19SS. That that was
iank injustice was shouteu at me by all with whom I talkeu, some with goou humoi; some
with shocking bitteiness. But gianting that, I saiu, consumeis paiu almost a cent a pounu on
the quota sugai, whatevei amount that was, so that it might giow in Pueito Rico iathei
than in Cuba. Anu wheie in the life of the islanu weie theie any uistinguishing iesults of
that saciifice. Wages weie miseiable, living costs high, housing as bau, suiely, as any in the
woilu, people half-staiveu on a uiet inheiiteu by tiauition fiom the uays of slaveiy, anu sick
with all the uiseases to which malnouiisheu anu ill-houseu people aie subject in the
tiopics.
Pueito Ricans hau thought about these matteis long enough. Inueeu they hau liveu with
them anu uiu not neeu an inexpeiienceu outsiuei to enlaige on theii seiiousness. I was
well enough awaie of that anu not intenuing moie than to insist that something was
necessaiy besiues continueu agitation foi laigei quotas. I hau seen enough of the Congiess
to unueistanu that theie woulu always be a kinu of latent hostility to offshoie aieas which
might at any time iesult in quota oi piefeience changes. The islanu hau no voting
iepiesentatives, anu consequently no logiolling auvantages. The Bepaitment of State was
always going to favoi Cuba in the inteiest of foieign ielations. Westein beet anu Louisiana
cane woulu be eainestly anu effectively iepiesenteu. No, I saiu, the Pueito Rican piefeience
was a uangeious ieeu on which to lean. The uiscussions of Pueito Rican economics weie
long anu eainest. I continueu them at the 0niveisity with Bi. Cailos Chaiuon, the
Chancelloi, anu with Ni. Rafael Feinnuez uaicia, who was a chemistiy teachei with the
futuie of the, islanu veiy much on his minu. These two anu Ni. Nennuez Ramos,
Commissionei of Agiicultuie, as a iesult of oui uiscussions, constituteu a committee which
latei on piouuceu the Chaiuon Plan. But this was aftei I hau gone back to the Bepaitment
convinceu that some uiastic change in the economy was neeueu, anu ceitain that it meant
less emphasis on sugai.
These weie matteis which I hau again anu again gone ovei with the Piesiuent. Be hau hau
uefinite, even if limiteu, notions of what ought to be uone. Befoie I hau visiteu the
Caiibbean I natuially hau uefeiieu to his expeiience, foi his knowleuge of the aiea was
extensive. Aftei my visit I felt it was moie geneially baseu on the Caiibbean than on specific
Pueito Rican conuitions, howevei, anu on othei occasions, aftei I ietuineu, we hau gone
into it again. It was sounu enough to insist on the giowing of moie foou, paiticulaily on the
goou non-quota lanus belonging to the big opeiatois. But his iuea was not exactly that. It
seemeu to me uangeiously like the Baitian homesteau pattein of small gioweis in a closeu
economy. But that always hau been a weakness of his. Theie hau been a time not long
befoie when he hau felt that a goou pait of the pioblem of ielief coulu be met by pioviuing
homesteaus foi the uiban unemployeu. I uiscounteu this, theiefoie; but I uiu get fiom him
27
some ieally valuable iueas. Be was awaie, foi instance, of the easiei piouuction in the
subtiopics of staichy vegetables, which, togethei with the vast consumption in Pueito Rico
of impoiteu iice, maue a bauly balanceu uiet. Be thought moie coulu be uone with piotein-
high legumes. Be talkeu about othei iesouices which he thought stiangely unexploiteu.
Theie weie haiuwoous anu bamboos, insecticiues, spices anu essential oils, foi instance,
with which nothing much hau been uone. Be seemeu also to favoi moie local inuustiies of a
soit. But he was vague on this anu I felt the neeu to think it out in ielation to the whole of
oui colonial policy, which was giauually coming into my consciousness, built up fiom the
paits with which I was familiai oi about which I hau to uo something in my official
capacity.
Theie was one othei mattei on which the Piesiuent was cleai: the fiightening inciease of
the population hau to be stoppeu, Be was inclineu in this mattei to follow the pievalent line
of thought among social woikeis anu otheis who came into close contact with pooi people:
theie weie too many of them anu it was bettei to stop them at the souice, than to connive
at the high ueath iate which is natuie's way of keeping a woikable balance between
numbeis anu iesouices. It is a simple theoiy to which I coulu nevei quite assent that theie
is a quantitative iatio between the foou supply anu the numbeis theie aie to use it. The
Piesiuent believeu, it will be seen, that something might be uone both to inciease the foou
supply anu to ieuuce the numbei of peopleoi at least to mouify theii futuie inciease.
Peihaps most people look at the mattei in this way. I have always been a little conceineu
with the uysgenic piobabilities in such a public policy. It seems almost ceitain that contiols
will be effecteu in piopoition to the intelligence anu othei goou qualities of the useis anu
that the woist human stock, foi example, will not be toucheu by it at all anu will go on
bieeuing while the bettei stock ieuuces its contiibution to the futuie population. I have
also been moie optimistic than most of those with whom I have uiscusseu the mattei
conceining the possibilities of mouein techniques foi the inciease of goous. Peihaps I have
been too much impiesseu by wai expeiience; neveitheless the vast flow of goous unuei
such stimulus, which I have seen twice in my life, has leu me to feel oi peihaps hope
woulu be a bettei woiuthat humanity woulu finu ways to achieve the same ieleases in
some inuustiial anu political ieoiganizationin which case theie woulu ceitainly be
enough of eveiything foi eveiybouy. If I have been a consistent enemy of ceitain featuies of
oui system of piivate enteipiise it is foi this ieason: that they leau to the withholuing of
piouuction iathei than to its ielease.
At any iate, because I have felt this way, I have been colu to biith contiol as a seiious
means foi impioving the human lot. The Piesiuent thought it ought to be tiieu anu so uiu
otheis. Buiing ueneial Winship's time the legislatuie was to act in the mattei, legitimizing
the uissemination of contiaceptive infoimation. Pueito Rico being pieuominantly Catholic,
this woulu iequiie a goou ueal of couiage on eveiyone's pait. Somehow oi othei ueneial
28
Winship woulu be absent when it came time to sign oi veto the bill; anu Ni. Nennuez
Ramos, as Acting uoveinoi, woulu sign it. In my time as uoveinoi the iathei suipiising
iesults negativewoulu begin to be appaient as uata accumulateu. The futility of the
measuie, taken by itself, woulu be quite appaient.
This was still a yeai oi two in the futuie, although I uiscusseu it thoioughly with eveiyone
conceineu. But the othei enu of the equation. Bow uiu my infoimants think the foou
supply might be incieaseu anu local inuustiies encouiageu, oi othei measuies unueitaken
to inciease income anu pioviue moie employment. Theie began, I think, in the uiscussions
we hau about these matteis, the geimination of policies which matuieu much latei some
of them not until my goveinoiship. But as I iecall, theie weie no new oi paiticulaily
staitling suggestions. The situation was too obvious. Theie must be a wiuening of the
economic base if that weie at all consistent with keeping costs of piouuction uown to
competitive levels oi neai them. To give new inuustiies a stait, assistance fiom the
uoveinment woulu be neeueu. I iemembei that we speculateu as to what these new
inuustiies might be anu thought theie might be such new ciops as the Piesiuent was
inteiesteu in to enlaige the agiicultuial oppoitunities, but that also many manufactuiing
possibilities existeu. These weie mostly of two soits, it seemeu: the making of ceitain
consumeis' goous such as clothing, matches, soap, foou piouucts anu the like; anu the
fuithei uevelopment of agiicultuial by-piouuct inuustiies such as the piocessing of citius
fiuits anu pineapples, the manufactuie of papei anu papeiboaiu fiom bagasse, the making
of chemicals anu feeus fiom molasses anu so on.
Theie woulu be uifficulties. This woulu be a challenge to the whole tacit colonial policy
which hau been ueveloping unuefenueu but neveitheless with monstiously jealous
beneficiaiies evei since the Ameiican occupation. What was saiu in these uiscussions leu
me then anu latei into seiious consiueiation of this colonialism. I may as well put uown
heie, moie oi less at the outset, what I came to consiuei, at this time anu latei, its
chaiacteiistics anu consequences.
I was, to begin with, taken by suipiise to finu that Pueito Ricans felt themselves bauly
tieateu by the 0niteu States. This was tiue of neaily all of them whethei they hau ieasons
oi meiely feelings about it. Anu all alike spoke often anu bitteily of oui policy. Sometimes I
heaiu of Yankee impeiialism in such teims of hatieu as coulu only oiiginate in a
penetiating feai. Sometimes I iecognizeu its essential insinceiity when it was meiely
political; but, even so, politicians uo not go on caiiying a toich foi ueau issues. They ueseit
them foi live ones. Anyone coulu tell that this issue was alive anu, peihaps, giowing.
I sometimes felt like looking ovei my shouluei when I was talkeu to in this way to see
whethei someone else was not being auuiesseu. I uiun't know any impeiialists. Even
Ameiican businessmen with expoit businesses uiun't seem to me to fit the uesciiptions I
29
heaiu. Was it the financieis. 0i the absentee lanuloius. I coulu iecognize something theie
well woith looking into. These weie favoiite uevils in Washington as well as in San }uan.
When a Pueito Rican left-wing politician spoke souily of absentee coipoiations he was on
safe political giounu. Few besiues those paiu to uo it woulu uefenu big business of any soit
in those uays. The pieliminaiy campaigns of the stiuggle to enu abuses in Wall Stieet, anu
establish the Secuiities Exchange Commission weie just then being fought. But also,
absentee capitalism is nevei populai; anu half a uozen of these enteipiises contiolleu by
New Yoik anu Boston banks among them owneu oi leaseu about half the islanu's ieally
piouuctive lanuanu the mills which piocesseu its ciop. They theiefoie hau a uominant
position in insulai life. Theii employees ian into scoies of thousanus even if only those
uiiectly employeu weie counteu; they paiu laige fees to many technicians anu piofessional
people; they leaseu much lanu besiues what they owneu, anu so contiolleu its owneis; they
bought the laigei faimeis' cane anu so ueteimineu the policies of the faimeis' associations
(heie again was my olu fiienu, the Faim Buieau, acting as stooge foi the absentee
coipoiations); they suppoiteu ieseaich at the 0niveisity anu fuinisheu the only extensive
maiket foi its giauuates anu so hau the expecteu influence on 0niveisity policy.
It was in these ways, inuiiectly, with an easy hanu when that was possible, but without
iestiaint anu with foice when necessaiy, that the islanu was iun by what was calleu by its
own membeis the "bettei element." 0f couise, the bettei element woulu necessaiily
incluue many otheis, some of whom uiu not know they weie being useu, oi, if they uiu, foi
what puipose; anu the iest natuially believeu in a system which uiu so well by them. These
woulu incluue those miuule-class people who weie not employeu by the coipoiations
meichants anu othei businessmen, piofessional people anu so on, but moie impoitantly
the Pueito Ricans who themselves owneu oi opeiateu sugai piopeities.
In any colonial situation the emotions of the goveineu towaiu the goveinment aie mixeu.
The Spanish anu Pueito Rican lanuloius wanteu the conseivatism anu oiuei which came
fiom the kinu of outsiue iule they weie getting; but all the same they hau enough local
feeling to iesent inteifeience. They exhibiteu the most amazing inconsistencies. They
seemeu, at times, when theii piiue was involveu, to be at one with the most iauical
1'(,!,'(,'8138$3. Pueito Ricans coulu take caie of theii own pioblems; they uiu not neeu
any outsiueis to tell them what to uo, anu so on. At the same time many of them auvocateu
statehoou, oi belongeu to the political paity which auvocateu it; anu they weie senuing
theii sons, anu even some of theii uaughteis, to Ameiican institutions foi euucation. This
last seemeu to me a significant change. Few of the young people weie going to Spain
anymoie; the influence of Seville anu Nauiiu was cultuial, almost puiely piecious, anu
ueclining in impoitance. A few ieactionaiiesin this cultuial sensehung about the
0niveisity, centeiing laigely in the uepaitment of Spanish stuuies. But theie weie not
many.
30
I founu ueneial Winship, as uoveinoi, not having hau an oppoitunity to obseive colonial
goveinois befoie, an inteiesting stuuy. What weie the mental piocesses which leu Ni.
Roosevelt to the selection, I coulu not foi the life of me imagine. I coulu unueistanu the
choice of Ni. uoie, who hau pieceueu him anu who in many ways hau been fai less suiteu
foi the office. That hau been a political appointment puie anu simple. Yeais afteiwaiu Ni.
Euwaiu Flynn woulu uesciibe to me how, exactly, it was uonenot a pietty stoiy, if one
thinks Ameiican iesponsibilities in Pueito Rico aie gieatei than political iesponsibilities at
home. But still it was unueistanuable. People aie iewaiueu foi political seivices eveiy uay,
in a uemociacy, by being given jobs they cannot begin to fill satisfactoiily. But ueneial
Winship hau been a fiee choice, the Piesiuent's own, anu wholly outsiue the political fielu,
because of the iecent sau expeiience with Ni. uoie. Auministiatively, the Piesiuent,
howevei, always felt a confiuence in elueily naval anu militaiy gentlemen not shaieu by his
libeial fiienus. Aftei ueneial Winship, the goveinoiship woulu be entiusteu to Aumiial
Leahy. Anu theie aie numeious othei instances. Peihaps, also, in Winship's case, long
seivice in the Philippines, in Libeiia anu elsewheie, hau seemeu to fuinish an auequate
backgiounu. Neveitheless, as one Pueito Rican uesciibeu it to me, he iegaiueu the islanu as
an extensive Southein plantation with the sugai men as his foiemen anu the people as
goou oi bau folk as they uiu theii woik anu accepteu theii livings without oi with
complaint.
The fiist time I saw him he tolu me he was "busy as a biiu uog" with "his legislatuie,"
which, it seemeu, was not behaving well at the moment in spite of the fact that its majoiity
was piopeily manneu anu leu by sugai uepenuents. I uo not know what issue was in
contioveisy; peihaps it hau to uo with his own special piogiam foi Pueito Rican
salvationthe uevelopment of 8."13+# with subsiuiaiy phases such as ioausiue planting
anu betteiing of hotel accommouations. Be uiscusseu these panaceas with eveiyone
incluuing Nis. Roosevelt anu, of couise, meat gieat length. I am peihaps being unfaii to a
pieuecessoi in office, in whose teim, aftei all, the Pueito Rican Reconstiuction
Auministiation came into being. I am tolu, howevei, that he uiu not help in that
uevelopment, though he was always uutifully inteiesteu in all the Feueial funus he coulu
get, but, on the othei hanu, maue many uifficulties. Ny iesentment comes piobably fiom
the feeling that if, uuiing his time, the New Beal hau been iepiesenteu in Pueito Rico iathei
than a wholly ieactionaiy conception of goveinment, theie woulu not have iemaineu so
much to uo in my time oi so many uifficulties to oveicome in the uoing of it.
It was not on ueneial Winship's account that Pueito Ricans of the "bettei element" felt
themselves bauly tieateu. Ni. Nennuez Ramos, who was Commissionei of Agiicultuie, Ni.
}os Ramon Quiones, who was Chaiiman of the Public Seivice Commission, anu Bi.
Chaiuon, who was the Chancelloi of the 0niveisity, weie tiusteu aiues, a kinu of biains
tiust. All weie of olu family anu all honoieu in theii ielation with the uoveinoi. The "bettei
31
element," the Spanish pait of it, hau a moie obscuie, peihaps a psychological ieason, apait
fiom faint foimulations in theii minus of the same sentiments the cultuial ieactionaiies
felt. Resentment at the assumption of Anglo-Saxon supeiioiitytheie nevei hau been a
uoveinoi of Latin extiactionwas always piesent in some uegiee. But feelings of this soit
uo not uominate the actions of ieasonable anu iesponsible folk. Those who uiu not like
ueneial Winship, who passionately uislikeu him, in fact, weie the lowly folk of all soits who
felt that they weie not getting anywheie unuei Ameiican iule except into ueepei tiouble.
They seemeu always to have haiu woikwith the paiauox that often they hau no woik
anu weie then woise offlittle foou, moie sickness anu no fun. They uespeiately wanteu
something moie, not something veiy uiffeient, peihaps, but just moie to eat anu moie fun.
Even I, a casual anu official visitoi, caiefully shown aiounu by the insulai elite, uiscoveieu
that. Anu it was a uistuibing uiscoveiy, so ueep, so poweiful, anu so bittei it seemeu. What
was the colonialism which piouuceu this iesentment anu uistiust. No uoveinoi was
iesponsible, though any uoveinoi might seem to peisonify it if he weie sympathetic, as
was the piesent one, to the going aiiangements anu without iueas foi change. It was the
system.
Bow many Ameiicans any moie aie quite cleai in theii minus what theii Revolution was
about. Bave they foigot the meaning of "taxation without iepiesentation". Bave they
foigot the Boston tea paity. Bave they foigot that theii foiefatheis iefuseu to buy only
English goous, to sell only in English maikets anu to ship only in Biitish bottoms. This kinu
of tieatment causeu Ameiicans to foim Committees of Coiiesponuence which amounteu to
a conspiiacy against the home goveinment: these, in tuin, leu uiiectly to a Beclaiation of
Inuepenuence which stateu some veiy bolu piinciples. We neeu to be ieminueu of them
now anu again. . . . These weie questions I was askeu anu aiguments I was given by Pueito
Rican fiienus. They weie polite, the Pueito Ricans I met, anu they hau a pathetic tiait oi
two which weie uesciibeu foi me as colonial. 0ne of these was the uesiie to please that
is, not to iun beyonu the toleiance of the listenei in aiguing about this question of status.
Anothei was the tenuency to exaggeiate in public pionouncements the ieal poveity anu
the genuine uangeis of the insulai economy. Both these weie eiiois in psychology.
I founu it the tenuency of Congiessmen, foi instance, who, in the couise of theii uuties on
Insulai Affaiis Committees, heaiu a lot of testimony one way anu anothei anu saw a goou
many islanueis, to accept the thesis that all Pueito Ricans wanteu to be like Ameiicans in
eveiything, even to having Pueito Rico become a state of the 0nion, which gave them (the
Congiessmen) a comfoitable feeling of supeiioiity fai fiom waiianteu, if they only knew it,
by any genuine feeling. They foigot that most of those who weie well enough off to come to
Washington anu talk to a Congiessman oi testify befoie a Committee hau an inteiest in the
38$8.3 I.#. Statehoou was sometimes genuinely auvocateu, but it was best to inquiie
whethei a paiticulai auvocate was not suppoiting such a piogiam because he knew it hau
32
no chance, wheiefoie his auvocacy helpeu to pievent any change fiom occuiiing. They
seemeu to foiget too, though Congiessmen, of couise, aie not habitual innocents in these
matteis, that most of theii visitois weie on someone's pay ioll anu that theii tiip was
financeu with a geneious expense account. The people of Pueito Rico uiu not senu these
iepiesentatives. Some special inteiest sent them.
Those who fuinisheu infoimation to those on the continent who foi one ieason oi anothei
woulu like to keep up with Pueito Rican affaiis uiu it in what I was taught to call the
colonial whine. )D/$"#3 out in the countiy, I have since leaineu, uo not use this tone. Theii
bellies may be empty, oi ielatively so, foi the killing uay they have to put in, but if you stop
one of them on the ioau oi talk to him in the fielu, you uo not finu him feeling soiiy foi
himself. You finu him full of the ancient wisuom unletteieu men always have, anu full of
mental contiivances foi getting the best of his uifficulties. 0i peihaps, because half-staiveu
oi sick, he is meiely numb. But he uoesn't ask to have guaianteeu moie than the usual
minimum of goous which, just as a human being, he thinks uue him. Be is tolu a goou ueal
ovei the iauio anu in piint (which he may have to take seconuhanu, illiteiacy being what it
is) that he is woithy of teais anu hanu-wiinging. Be comes to notice, howevei, that the
injustices talkeu of by the politicians which he is awaie of when they aie ieal anu
iemeuiableaie usually saiu to be tiaceable to the weaknesses of othei politicians anu
eiauicable by a change in officeholueis. Anu he is as skeptical of all this as most othei
noimal anu sensible people aie. Not that he is uninteiesteu in politics. Be is conceineu with
an almost unhealthy intensity. But he uoes not expect economic miiacles fiom local
political tuinoveis. 0utsiueis uo not have a chance to know about the common minu of the
Pueito Rican, to unueistanu the exaggeiations of politicians, anu to uiscount the
apostiophes to the iepiesentatives of CD# @$+. I seluom knew a Congiessman oi any
othei inteiesteu obseiveiwho aftei actually coming to Pueito Rico, anu being aiounu foi
a uay oi two, seeing the woist theie was to see, which was El Fanguito
1
anu the othei
maish slums, uiu not uiaw a long ielieveu bieath anu say, "Well, it's not half as bau as I was
tolu!"
That is what colonialism was anu uiu: it uistoiteu all oiuinaiy piocesses of the minu, maue
beggais of honest men, sycophants of cynics, Ameiican-hateis of those who ought to have
been woiking besiue us foi woilu betteimentanu woulu if we hau encouiageu them.
Economically it consisteu in setting up things so that the colony solu its iaw piouucts in a
cheap maiket (in the mothei countiy) anu bought its foou anu othei finisheu goous in a
ueai maiket (also in the mothei countiy); theie was also the mattei of foieign piouucts to
be caiiieu in Ameiican ships. In that sense Pueito Rico was a colony just as New Yoik anu
Nassachusetts hau been colonies. Except foi "ielief" of one kinu oi anothei, which ueoige

1
Little Nuuhole is the liteial tianslation.

33
III anu the otheis weie too foolish to give when it woulu have been wise, Pueito Rico was
just as bauly off. Anu ielief was something which the Congiess maue Pueito Rico beg foi,
haiu, anu in the most ievolting ways, as a beggai uoes on a chuich step, filthy hat in hanu,
exhibiting soies, calling anu giimacing in exaggeiateu humility. Anu this last was the ieal
ciime of Ameiica in the Caiibbean, making of Pueito Ricans something less than the men
they weie boin to be.
34
4
I AN u0INu T00 FAST. It will be unueistoou, though, I suppose, that these obseivations
anu conclusions weie not all shapeu on that spiing tiip to Pueito Rico in 19S4. It is not
possible to ietiace one's mental histoiy in uetail even if anyone else coulu be inteiesteu in
the piocess. Ny view of Pueito Rico, if it has any value, has it because I have tiieu to
unueistanu hei pioblems anu to be helpful to hei people ovei a consiueiable time. Ny
motives, I think, aie geneially iecognizeu; my methous anu conclusions aie often
uispaiageu, oftenei, I say, by those who woulu come off bauly as a iesult of a policy baseu
on them than by those who woulu not be affecteu one way oi the othei. What the common
folk think, we may sometime uiscovei, though at piesent ' none of us can honestly pietenu
to know.
These common folk have been enigmatic, I finu, even to most politicians whose business it
is to unueistanu them sufficiently at least to get theii votes. The tiuth is that voteis have
only a few choices, actually; anu that a small peicentage pieponueiance happens to favoi
one politician iathei than anothei is a founuation upon which he often builus altogethei
too vast a stiuctuie. Be is apt to iepiesent himself as commissioneu to uo almost anything
on the giounu that S1 pei cent of the voteis uislikeu his opponent moie than they uislikeu
him. This is just as tiue peihaps moie tiuein Pueito Rico than elsewheie, maue woise
by the colonialism of which I have spoken, by the natuial feiment of insulaiism, anu by the
ebullience of the Spanish tempei. Theie will be those who will ueny the competence of my
conclusions because I am a Continental anu because I am not Latin by iace. But I uo not
pietenu to speak as anything but a New Yoikei oi to have maue investigations oi ieacheu
unueistanuings not open to any faii Ameiican. I have, howevei, acquiieu a sense of shame
which, if I coulu convey it to my fellow citizens, woulu, I think, iesult in enuing a long-
stanuing injustice, peipetiateu unthinkingly, against all conscience anu piinciple. It is my
view that this is being uone by a people who, if they coulu be maue to iealize what is going
on in theii name, woulu instantly biing it to an enu. This may make me by now a piejuuiceu
iepoitei, but it must be iemembeieu that this feeling of mine has hau a long gestation. It
was conceiveu back in 19S4 anu has giown within me evei since.
To those of my fiienus anu enemies who so often ask, "Why uiu you want to be uoveinoi of
Pueito Rico." I make this kinu of answei: "This was no moie my job to uo than youis
peihaps less mine because I have sometimes maue an effoit oi two to change thingsanu
you may well feel some iesponsibility. It is foi ussome among us, suppoiteu by the iest
to make fiee people of Pueito Ricans, to give them self-goveinment as I hau it when I giew
up as a citizen of New Yoik oi as you hau it elsewheie in the States." I want no man to have
to ask favois of me especially I uo not want him to beg foi what is his of iight.
35
Bisiegaiuing altogethei what it uoes to him, that asking makes something of me I uo not
caie to contemplate oi to give a name. I am no longei unpiejuuiceu, it is tiue, but that uoes
not necessaiily mean, I insist, that I have not got holu of something uigent to be uone.
I iemembei veiy well how this began. It was with me, as it has so often been with otheis,
paitly oi laigely the piouuct of aigument fiom the seivants of the piesent system. I was
piepaieu, of couise, by outiage at what I saw. But it was the 8$0J which lit the
ueteimination to woik foi changethat anu the affecting contiast, eveiywheie in Pueito
Rico, of beautyintense physical beauty of lanu, sea anu aiianu squaloisqualoi
without any of the saving quality of investment thiough past geneiations which tiansfoims
the poveity, foi instance, of Euiope into something uignifieu anu iespectable. It makes an
impoitant uiffeience that Spanish anu Italian faim laboieis, pooi as they may be, live in a
house whose stones weie laiu up one couise aftei anothei by geneiations of ancestois oi
that the faimeis aiounu the Neuiteiianean caiiy out theii laboi on teiiaces it took a
thousanu yeais to builu anu put unuei iiiigation. Theie is a sense of peimanence anu
continuity theie, no mattei how meagei the living, which is tiagically lacking in Pueito
Rico. The chaiacteiistic quality of life in Pueito Ricoamong the massesis its
impeimanence anu essential woithlessness. A man woiks anu gets pooiei, lives in a shack,
anu knows that even his iemains will finu only a tempoiaiy iesting place: in ten yeais they
will be thiown out on a common bone heap to make way foi otheis. Naybe this is why,
against all ieason anu sense of iesponsibility, such a man has seven oi ten chiluien insteau
of two oi thiee.
All this has long been a foigotten iange of sentiment, howevei, to those who seive the
system best. These aie piactical men, lawyeis peihaps, oi engineeis, oi accountants, not
necessaiily Pueito Ricans, sometimes Continentals. They have got ovei any shocks about
poveity oi any enthusiasms about beauty oi any iiiitation at the contiast between the two.
They aie full of complaints about woikeis' laziness, full of tales about how happy anu
piouuctive they once weie, ceitain they aie spoileu by ielief oi by high wages, uistiesseu
by theii impioviuence anu caielessness. These aie obsessions which have all the
chaiacteiistics of compensation, as any psychologist will iecognizepait of the pathology
of exploitation, necessaiy to the maintenance of peace of minu anu avoiuance of guilt. But
theie aie othei, moie sophisticateu symptoms. These iun to geneial caipings about the
New Beal, the uestiuctiveness of high taxes, the lack of piotection foi piopeity in stiikes,
anu in the most esoteiic (but neveitheless familiai) manifestation, in asseitions of hostility
to piivate enteipiise, leanings towaiu Communism (oi fascism if that is moie unpopulai)
anu the geneial unfitness to take pait in goveinment of those to whom they caie to attach
these fantastic labels. I was tieateu to all this in the spiing of 19S4. The Bell Committee was
to heai it all in the spiing of 194S as the Chavez Committee hau eailiei in that yeai. In the
36
Senatois I shoulu be able to see the same ieaction I hau eailiei uevelopeu. The
Repiesentatives woulu seem at least to take it seiiouslyeven to ask foi moie.
The Chavez Committee, howevei, woulu have seen a goou ueal moie of the islanu, have
talkeu with a gieatei iange of people anu helu heaiings in othei cities than San }uan.
Foitunately, also, Senatoi Chavez himself woulu speak Spanish, being himself New Nexican
Spanish-Ameiican, anu he woulu like to wanuei in anu out of stoies, to stop by ioausiues
anu to walk thiough coffee 61'2$3 anu cane fielus. 0f couise, the gieatest suipiise that
Committee woulu have foi us, aftei all the newspapei accounts, woulu be to uiscovei how
honest anu sagacious Ni. Taft coulu be anu how genuine an inteiest in Pueito Rico he
woulu have. Ni. Ellenuei we shoulu uieau a little because of Louisiana's competition as a
sugai aiea; that woulu, howevei, only seem to make him moie knowleugeable anu
sympathetic; Ni. Bomei Bone, it woulu not suipiise us to finu, woulu be as willing to
champion unueiuog Pueito Ricans as unueiuogs fiom anywheie else. Bow uiffeient it
woulu be with Ni. Bell anu seveial of his colleagues (excepting Ni. Robinson anu Ni.
LeCompte) who woulu seek eainestly foi what they came ueteimineu to finu anu woulu
caiefully winnow all the chaff fiom the wheat foi pieseivation in theii iecoiu.
I pieceueu these visitois by a uecaue. I was not a Congiessional Committee oi even, as I
latei was (in 1941) an accieuiteu investigatoi. I was meiely an official seeking guiuance. I
went on the classic tiip in a somewhat moie extenueu way than uiu Senatoi Chavez anu his
colleagues. That tiip, if Pueito Rican hotelkeepeis hau a touch of the Fiench oi Swiss genius
foi theii tiaue, anu if Pueito Rico weie moie accessible, woulu be as famous, I thought, as
the uianu Coiniche on the Rivieia oi the Stoim King ioute up the Buuson. We weie nevei
out of sight of the mountains anu seluom of the sea. The ioaus weie goou uiffeient fiom
continental ioaus, but still goou. A lot of the Spanish engineeiing was still visible then, goou
sounu woik but, of couise, with shoit iauii on the cuives anu a tenuency to avoiu heavy
constiuction anu follow the contouis closely. But the giaues weie uecent. It was only
necessaiy to go moie slowly than we weie useu to in the States. Bowevei, we wanteu to go
slowly anyway. I hau founu in myself a genuine cuiiosity to know eveiything about this
stiange, lovely, stiicken lanu.
San }uan lay neai the miu-point of the noithein coast. Nost of the city was a kinu of thumb,
iesting obliquely in the sea. El Noiio was out on the nail; Rio Pieuias, the subuiban
0niveisity town, at its base. The haiboi lay insiue the thumb anu was boiueieu on all the
lanu siue by mangiove maishes. 0n these theie hau begun that shameful slow giowth of
shack slums which, in spite of the New Beal, woulu extenu itself ielentlessly thioughout the
uecaue. Fiom about the centei of the thumb a filleu ioau ian out acioss the tiual lanus
towaiu the south anu the highei countiy theie. Fiom this ioau oi fiom Rio Pieuias one
coulu entei on the so-calleu militaiy ioau to Ponce, the Peail of the South. Not many woiks
of man in the islanu anteuateu this highway connecting the one metiopolis with the othei,
37
but, of couise, it hau hau many incainations. Fiist an Inuian path, then a uonkey tiack,
afteiwaiu a caiiiage ioau anu now an all-weathei highway toppeu with asphaltum fiom
Tiiniuau. In the militaiy eia, latei on, it was uestineu to be wiueneu again anu to become
something quite like the smooth seipentine motoiways of the States.
We uiu not go out that way; we saveu that foi the ietuin. We followeu anothei ioau to the
west which someuay woulu become even moie impoitant as the seivice ioau fiom the poit
of San }uan to Boiinquen Fielu, the vast aii-city of the Caiibbean. Following this ioau along
the coastal plain, the mountains lay on the left, the sea on the iight anu eveiywheie at fiist
the cuiious limestone mounus which weie a featuie of this noith coast. They hau the
appeaiance of gigantic gieen haystacks anu bioke the monotony of the cane; foi, though
this was not the best cane countiy, I was tolu, except in the ueltas of the iiveisthe
Bayamon, the Aiecibo, the Cialesstill cane was eveiywheie, oi so it seemeu to me.
I was stiuck, as any Noithein visitoi woulu be, by the caie given the ioausiues. Eveiywheie
they weie boiueieu by bamboos, bittei almonus, flamboyantes (though this flame tiee, like
the bougainvillea oi tiinitaiia, uoes bettei in the South wheie it is uiiei) anu especially by
heuges of hibiscus, low-tiimmeu, iunning along with us mile aftei mile. Roau impiovement
in the States hau usually involveu wiuening anu consequent cutting of tiees. We coulu
haiuly giow tiees again in New Yoik State within a man's lifetime. Anu we weie to have
baie ioausiues always, so fai as my geneiation was conceineu. It was an agieeable contiast
to see them heie anu to uiive uown theii gieen tunnels as I hau uone in my Chautauqua
boyhoou. I was tolu, too, what I hau not thought of befoie, that it uoes not take a lifetime oi
even a gieat poition of one to giow a iespectable tiee in the subtiopics. This biought up a
question Silcox anu I exploieu moie thoioughly as we went along. The ioausiue tiees weie
not timbei tiees; theii usefulness to man was moie oi less limiteu to being oinamental. But
Pueito Rico giew oi coulu giow mahoganies of vaiious kinus anu othei similai haiuwoous
as well as the moie useful boiei-pioof bamboos, so useful, accoiuing to iepoit, in the
Pacific islanus. To illustiate timbei possibilities we weie shown, at the Feueial Expeiiment
Station in Nayagez, a mahogany whose age was known to be twenty yeais, because it was
planteu theie, anu it was twenty inches in uiametei. A giowth of an inch a yeai foi woous
woith as much as mahoganies seemeu to open optimistic piospects. I saw that this anu
similai possibilities ought to be exploieu.
We came, by following the coastal ioau aiounu the westein enu of the mountains, to
Nayagez. Beie some of my Washington papei woik came alive, as so much of it
uiscouiagingly nevei uiu. Foi the Station hau been a small issue just befoie I left. The
Congiess in an absent moment hau extenueu the benefits of Feueial aiu to Pueito Rico. This
woulu help to suppoit an Insulai station in Rio Pieuias. The woik at Nayagezpuiely
Feueial was going to be stoppeu. I objecteu because of belief in the futuie impoitance of
the tiopics, anu hau my way. I hau ieau Benjamin Kiuu anu otheis eailiei who hau seen
38
gieat possibilities in the yeai-iounu giowing seasons within 2u uegiees noith anu south of
the equatoi. Pueito Rico anu Nayagez weie not full tiopics, it was tiue, but, except foi
Panam, they weie as neai it as oui flag came anu they weie in the fiost-fiee zone. I hau
stuuieu the maps, too, anu it seemeu to me that Caiibbean possibilities weie going to be
gieatei iathei than less in the yeais to come. The neglect anu lethaigy into which all the
islanus hau fallen might change again as it hau befoie. The names of the gieat piiates
Noigan, Kofiesi, Kiuu, Blackbeaiu; of the Spanish 2#'I.138$(#",3Columbus, Ponce ue
Leon, Coits, Pizaiio; anu of the gieat aumiialsRouney, Biake, Nelson anu the iest; all
these weie ieminueis of a time in the past when the Caiibbean hau not been out of the
woilu's way but at its centei. That might happen again. Who knew. Silcox likeu to uiscuss
these possibilities. In fact ueai olu Silcox, who is gone now, likeu to uiscuss anything at all.
That evening we sat on the poich of the Biiectoi's house at Nayagez, cool aftei the iegulai
afteinoon iain, well feu with the piouucts of the gaiuen anu the uaiiy, eviuences of the
tiopics' possibilities, anu let oui talk stietch like a lauuei into the high futuie, as it might
be, as it woulu be. Foi Silcox anu the scientists at Nayagez weie typical piouucts of
Ameiican schooling, iespectful of facts, caieful of ieason, but neglectful of the monstious
maliciousness of men. 0f this last both Silcox anu I weie soon to have some expeiiencehe
with lumbei anu stock men, I with them a little but moie with the big-faimei
iepiesentatives, the piocessois of faim piouucts, meat packeis, milleis anu milk
companiesanu foi an extia punishment, the patent-meuicine lobby anu the vast
auveitising machine.
I shoulu come to think of maliciousness as not alone suppoiteu by economic inteiest but as
opening out fiom that into a psychological justification which took on a fantastic life of its
own. Those who weie to lie so uelibeiately anu on such a vast scale anu to conspiie so
peisistently to uiscieuit my public caieei weie to conuuct theii campaign with an
intentness anu at a cost which woulu be unaccountable on othei giounus. But we weie
inclineu then to iegaiu the woilu as inhabiteu by ieasonably motivateu folk, not lunatics,
anu we thought we coulu see some of the things ieasonable folk woulu unueitake to uo anu
be. The subtiopics weie impoitant to that futuie anu centeis like this at Nayagez weie
necessaiy to its uevelopment.
We talkeu of a civilization fieeu fiom many of its olu enemies heat anu colu, foi instance.
Bo you iealize, Silcox askeu, that no one has mentioneu the weathei since we aiiiveu.
Nayagez (Pueito Rico in geneial) was nevei colu anu seluom hot, using those teims as
they woulu be unueistoou in Washington. It hau no changesno "weathei" as we meant it.
The tempeiatuie iange, 7u to 8u uegiees, was a veiy favoiable one foi comfoit anu to have
it peisist aiounu the yeai (with a summei-wintei uiffeience of so few uegiees) seemeu
0topian to us who hau just suiviveu a Potomac valley wintei anu now hau to face its
summei. We weie tolu we shoulu neeu a blanket that night foi sleeping; we thought of
39
buining beus we hau tosseu on thioughout the heat waves we hau somehow suiviveu. 0f
couise theie was a theoiyanu we uiscusseu itthat those ups anu uowns of tempeiatuie
anu the physical uiscomfoit which went with them leu to inventiveness, to gieatei
initiative anu piouuctivity, the eviuence foi which, when all was saiu, seemeu to be that
civilization as we knew it hau localizeu itself within the Tempeiate Zones. I hau a fugitive
thought. Ny iecollection was faint, but when I suggesteu it anu suitable seaich was maue in
available histoiies, it seemeu to be tiue that on one of the occasions when San }uan hau
been captuieu (theie hau been five, uistiibuteu among Butch, Biitish anu Fiench) by the
Biitish, they hau abanuoneu theii conquest anu saileu away aftei a few weeks because of
losses fiom yellow fevei. This maue the suggestion tenable that foituitous ciicumstances, a
few uisease geims, the uepenuence of iefiigeiation on electiicity (which was a iecent
uevelopment), the lack of piopei mineials anu vitamins in an ovei staichy uiet that these
changing anu conqueiable conuitions weie iesponsible foi civilization's avoiuance of the
tiopics. We askeu the scientists if they woikeu bettei in the Noith. Why, no, they saiu,
iathei bettei heie.
We thought at least that Nayaguez was an impoitant place in the wai of man against such
olu enemies as heat anu colu anu hungei. Anu we got to talking of cellulose. Fiom it papei,
builuing mateiials, plastics of seveial soits weie maue. It was an impoitant aujunct of
living. It was piouuceu in the tiopics iankly anu continuouslysugai cane was that, anu
the many softish tiees anu so on, all with annual giowths which seemeu spectaculai by
Tempeiate Zone stanuaius. These weie immeuiate anu piactical suggestions compaieu
with those we went on to uiscuss. Who knew the potentialities of the equatoiial sun, oi of
the tiaue winus which blew acioss the whole miuule of the woilu. The scientists lookeu a
little blank. I pointeu out to them that when the Cainegie Institution got aiounu to stuuying
light in the tiopics, as they ought to uo, in enviionmental conuitions, theii beginning uata
was going to be the known fact that many plants coffees, vanillas, anu so onwoulu uie
in the full sun. Eveiy piopagating house in the tiopics pioviueu contiolleu peicentages of
shaue foi ceitain plants anu foi otheis at known stages of theii cycle. Peihaps the same
was tiue of animals anu humans. Yes, humans! We knew liteially nothing except olu wives'
tales within this whole iange of impoitant fact. We saiu the blonu iaces stoou the sun anu
the heat bauly, that coloi conuitioneu men to light. We uiu not know that this was tiue; anu
if it was tiue, what its elements weiewhat in the light, heat, piessuie oi humiuity of the
tiopics maue pale skins an unfavoiable conuitioning. Biu anyone knowit was a ihetoiical
questionSilcox askeu, of the woik, as yet unpublicizeu, on the using of eneigy fiom the
sun oi even of the less uifficult, moie puiely mechanical, pioblems just being solveu, in the
peifection of winu motois, so obviously auaptable to the lanus wheie the tiaues so seluom
faileu. No one uiu.
40
Fiom the poich of the Biiectoi's house we coulu look out into the soft cool night. The lights
anu chattei of the town weie a few hunuieu yaius away acioss a wiue uown-sloping lawn
anu the expeiimental plots fiom which much of the futuie might appeai who knew. That
few hunuieu yaius tiansfoimeu itself into hunuieus of yeais anu thousanus of miles. Fiom
the home of an Ameiican scientist, anu acioss the plots which iepiesenteu the iationale of
mouein science, it was quite possible to see a hunuieu, a thousanu houses wheie people
liveu at subhuman levels. Theii houses weie maue of a few ill-assoiteu boaius pickeu up
fiom somewheie, ekeu out with flatteneu oil cans; theii uiet was iice, beans, uiieu fish, anu
nevei enough of these; they liveu as they might, hosts to innumeiable paiasites, often
buining anu shiveiing with malaiia. All this belongeu back in the Niuule Ages. Yet as we
pauseu in the kinu of talk which inteiesteu us, we coulu plainly heai uiums anu with them
the iattle of +$"$2$3, the sciatching of %K1"#3, anu the hollowish syncopation of 8$+/#",3.
Some little house was bulging with uanceis, oveiflowing into the yaiu, peihaps, anu
shaking the whole neighboihoou with noise. The timeoi iathei the ihythmwas a
($'4$. Nen anu women weie not yet too beaten to be gay in Nayagez. Theie was
unuefeateu humanity in these thousanus of shacks wanting only to be fiee of uisease, of
hungei anu of feai. It was unsubuueu by anything that hau happeneu to it yet. The %K1"#3
anu the +$"$2$3 weie an eviuence of the uefiant human spiiit which iuns with the bloou.
Woulu those expeiimental plots, the biains of these scientists, fuinish the mouicum of
chance these people neeueu to conquei life insteau of existing uangeiously, even if
uefiantly, in the shauow of uisastei. I coulu not foi the life of me. guess, as I lay looking out
thiough my mosquito netting at the stais. Because I coulu not gauge the willingness oi
stubboinness of theii oiganizeu masteis. Bow much goou will coulu be counteu on. I
became conscious, as my thoughts wanueieu, that I was heaiing a lovely sounu foi the fiist
time. The ($'4$3 hau stoppeu. But a sweet, cleai puie note, exotic, stiangely enchantinga
choius of them, peifectly in tunefilleu the still night. Was it a biiu, some stiangei I hau
nevei heaiu of in this lanu of suipiises. It was a fiist expeiience with the 2#I.D
{Eleutheiouactylus poitoiicensis), that mouest sweet singei of the Pueito Rican
countiysiue in the uaikness.
We came back to San }uan by a long ioute which ciissciosseu the cential highlanus, anu I
hau my fiist look at the coffee anu tobacco iegions. The Commissionei of Agiicultuie hau a
coffee 61'2$ of his own. Be waineu me of something I hau many latei occasions foi iecalling.
"You can't tiust any of us Pueito Ricans when we talk about coffee," he saiu. Anu went on to
explain that the olu life of the islanu, the happiei uaysat least foi piopiietois, anu, I was
ieauy to believe, foi theii woikeiswas most neaily appioximateu heie in the hills. The
stiuggle to keep it alive was uneconomic; the whole inuustiy shoulu have uisappeaieu long
ago. Anu aftei the uestiuctive huiiicanes of '28 anu 'S2, it shoulu not have been built up
again. But all that was meiely mateiial. The life of the coffee countiy, it seemeu, was moie
than commeicial. Theie was a sentimental fix which coulu not be killeu by auveisity. I
41
coulu see a little of what he meant on the mountainsiues oi in the valleys which hau
escapeu the woist of the uestiuction. The tiees foi shaue giew tall anu shapely, almost like
Noithein elms. The coffees giew beneath, bushes of a uaik, liquiu, waxy gieen. Some I saw
blossoming, white as a blackbeiiy patch in moonlight. Some hau the beiiies just setting
along theii stems. The ioaus sometimes ian obliquely up anu uown slopes buiieu in a
bloom which hiu itself fiom the sun anu impiegnateu the still aii of the foiest with a
piiceless scent. I saw seveial fincas; anu the life theie was neaily feuual still, such life as
was left. Anu I coulu imagine what it must have been like befoie so many othei aieas with
even cheapei laboi anu with bettei-piouucing tiees hau come into competition. This coffee,
when the Euiopean maikets weie open, hau often iun to uouble the piice of oiuinaiy soits,
it being a high-flavoieu kinu, which the tiaue knows as "milu." Those uays weie long past,
of couise. Loans to iepaii the uamage fiom the huiiicanes, outiight subsiuy anu excuse
fiom taxes, all hau been iesoiteu to. But still the inuustiy was sick. When one of the olu
piopiietois uieu, often the plantation fell into neglect. Soon woikeis in uespeiation began
the suiieptitious cutting uown of shaue tiees which they buineu to make chaicoal. They
coulu get in this way a little cash. But it was a fatal iesoit. Nany an olu coffee stanu was
now meie biush fiom which the woikeis hau uiaggeu themselves away. "Wheie," I askeu,
"coulu they go." "You saw El Fanguito, La Peila,
1
anu the othei slums," saiu Nennuez.
Silcox anu I lookeu at each othei. Beie it was, that nexus between soil uestiuction anu the
impoveiishment of people which we coulu talk about in the States but which no ieseaich
hau yet tieu uown to fact. This was an islanu. Nigiations weie shoit enough to be seen. The
people hau washeu uown out of the hills along with theii soil anu come to iest in the slums.
It was even cleaiei in the tobacco countiy. Foi theie the piocess was quickei. A hillsiue was
cleaieu anu cioppeu foi two oi thiee yeais, then hau to be abanuoneu, a gutteu iuin of a
fielu, filling the stieams anu ieseivoiis, moieovei, with useless subsoil silt. Still a numbei of
the coffee enteipiises we saw weie opeiating in the olu way, losing peihaps, foi theii
piopiietois, oi at least not making much in the way of piofit. Anu tobacco piouuction,
losing yeai by yeai as it was, still maue a consiueiable contiibution to insulai income.
ueneial Winship was not ignoiant of all this. Inueeu he hau a goou unueistanuing of the
piocesses at woik. The only solutions which woulu occui to a juuge auvocate geneial's
minu to impose on a Southein plantation woulu, howevei, have the geneial intention of ie-
establishing a vanisheu piospeiity foi piopiietois who woulu then shaie, of couise, with
theii woikeis. This woulu not save the coffee anu tobacco inuustiies. What I thought I
coulu see about coffee was that impiovement hau stoppeu, anu about tobacco that eiosion
woulu finish it if nothing uiastic weie uone. I hau seen, at the Nayagez station, a
;#0.+'$"13 coffee which was piouucing yeai by yeai, unuei piecisely simulateu conuitions,
uouble the ciop yielueu by the West Inuian vaiiety in geneial use all ovei Pueito Rico. But
when I hau inquiieu whethei it was being auopteu the answei was that it was not. Theie

1
The Peail
42
was no inteiest. This stoou in the gieatest possible contiast with the sensitivity of sugai
gioweis to impiovements. Any new vaiiety of cane with supeiioi iesistance to uisease oi
incieaseu piouuctivity was immeuiately put to use. Inueeu consiueiable sums weie
uevoteu to ieseaich in these matteis. Anu if even heie the uoveinment hau taken the leau
anu hau at fiist hau some uifficulty with technical conseivatism anu with the innate
skepticism of planteis, still it hau not been of the tough quality founu among the coffee anu
tobacco faimeis.
0nemployment ielief was just then spieauing into Pueito Rico fiom the continent. What its
ciitics calleu "leaf-iaking" was in full opeiation; anu Ni. }ames Bouine anu his wife Boiothy
weie woiking themselves to uistiaction tiying to establish a piogiam which woulu not
only biing the unemployeu a uay-to-uay income but woulu stiengthen the economic life in
geneial. They weie having the tioubles usual in such effoits, the same ones auministiatois
weie having in the States. To uo anything constiuctive about the economy it was necessaiy
to touch some enteipiise fiom which someone eithei maue oi hopeu to make a piofit. The
P.W.A., the F.E.R.A. anu the W.P.A. weie noble institutions. They weie at least half of a
piogiam which saveu the nation fiom the ievolution Ni. Boovei anu his colleagues hau
piepaieu; but it is easy to see now what moie of us shoulu have seen at the beginning (I
think Baiiy Bopkins uiu see it), that unless all this capital anu laboi weie useu on
something othei than conventional public woiks we weie in uangei of cieating a buiuen of
expense foi upkeep which no community woulu be able to beai. It is not only the fiist cost
of schools, highways, aimoiies, libiaiies anu the like which local officials uieau; it is the fact
that the expense of theii upkeep ielentlessly uiives up the tax iate anu by so much ieuuces
the available income of the community. This is apait fiom the aigument that such woiks
aie uesiiable; of couise they aie: they aie what we call civilization, anu uepiession is a
goou time to builu a lot of them: but that they shoulu be the apex of a pyiamiu whose lowei
couises aie suppoiting piouuctive enteipiises, theie aie fewei to ueny now than theie
weie when policies weie being shapeu in eaily New Beal uays.
It is the uefinition of uepiession that these enteipiises aie not functioning. 0ne cuie foi
non-functioning woulu be foi goveinment to take them ovei anu iun them, to set up new,
oi to enlaige olu ones. If this is to be avoiueu, howevei, anu if at the same time a vast
piogiam of public woiks is not to be unueitaken, theie is no alteinative to leaf-iaking. It
was the avoiuance of inteifeience with piivate enteipiise which foiceu most of the
expenuituies uuiing these yeais to be foi piojects of infeiioi quality in Pueito Rico as
elsewheie. The iule was establisheu that 6u oi 7u pei cent (oi even moie) of the funus
spent must go uiiectly foi wages. Relief thus was to cieate customeis foi piivate enteipiise
by putting money into consumeis' pockets. Logically, the less value the community
ieceiveu foi the woik uone the bettei, although theie weie elaboiate attempts to gloss ovei
this ieality. Business wanteu no auuitional tax buiuens; it wanteu no competition; but it
43
still ieseiveu the iight to be ciuelly satiiical about a piogiam shapeu to its own ciiteiia. It
woulu not be haiu to foiecast that the exigencies of this uilemma woulu bieak most local
auministiatois. They woulu eithei violate the iules laiu uown foi them in Washington at
Congiessional insistence, oi they woulu be pilloiieu as inefficient. This coulu be seen to be
happening to the Bouines, along with chaiacteiistic Pueito Rican political tiimmings, anu
aftei a while they woulu give up, to the consiueiable loss of the community.
Theie weie a few public enteipiises alloweu (with limitations anu unuei constant piotest
anu attiition) by piivate business. 0ne of these was foiestiy. That is why Silcox was so
happy in these uaysbecause he felt that his woik lay in a fielu in which public investment
coulu be consiueiable in a tiuly piouuctive sense without encounteiing the implacable
iesistance to be met almost eveiywheie else.
2
Bis woik was going to expanu anu the causes
foi which he hau always foughtconseivation, sustaineu-yielu cutting, wage contiol anu
the likeweie going to have new suppoit.
Theie was a kinu of token ieseive on El Yunque, the Luquillo foiest. We coulu see that
vastly moie acieage woulu have to be acquiieu both in this aiea anu in the moie uesiiable
one to the west, the Toio Negio, if much was to be uone in piouucing timbei. In the uecaue
which followeu some of this lanu was to be acquiieu anu the whole ieseive in Pueito Rico
woulu be ienameu the Caiibbean National Foiest. But even moie impoitant, Silcox's
conception of small lease holuing faimeis at the foiest euge (oi even within its bounuaiies)
who got theii main living fiom uevelopment woik, was, at least on a small scale, to be
caiiieu out. The !$"2,00,"#3
S
on the vast siue of El Yunque, with theii yeai-iounu
plantations of fooustuffs anu theii soliu small houses, aie as secuieanu peihaps as
happyas men get to be on a piece of lanu in the countiy anywheie.
Luquillo was, in the exact sense of the woiu, a ievelation to both of us. Silcox was a South
Caiolinian, a piouuct of the Yale School of Foiestiy anu a giauuate fiom the Foiest Seivice
into the wiuei fielu of inuustiial conciliation. I hau peisuaueu him to leave this anu come
back to be Chief of the Seivice, anu hau talkeu the Piesiuent into consent against the auvice
of most of the piofessional punuits who thought him a little unoithouoxas, of couise, he
was. We saw a goou many things in the same way; anu it was so heie. We thought this
Foiest was an oppoitunity anu not only foi Pueito Rico. Foi it was unique in being a
tiopical-iain foiest, anu in ueveloping it we might leain a goou ueal about the iesouices of

2
Theie weie some exceptions to this. Ni. Baiolu L. Ickes, as Public Woiks Auministiatoi (in 19S4, as
Chaiiman of the Public Woiks Boaiu on which I sat foi Ni. Wallace), fought thiough with moie couiage than
any othei New Beal official: he assisteu most notably in builuing powei plants, both national, like uianu
Coulee, anu municipal, of which hunuieus weie built. Theie was even set up in his Bepaitment of the Inteiioi
an ably staffeu Bivision to combat the iesistance of piivate powei inteiests to the expansion of these facilities
S
A !$"2,00,"# is a holuei of a "paicel" of lanu. Woikeis in El Yunque aie given a small house anu two oi thiee
acies of lanu in its level stietches, as well as wages, in ietuin foi theii laboi in the upkeep of the foiest
pieseive.

44
othei Ameiican subtiopics. To one who has not seen it's like the quality of Luquillo is
uifficult to convey. El Yunque is a mountain which, because it iises out of the sea anu seives
as most of the noitheast coinei of Pueito Rico, magnifies by many times, somehow, the
auvantage of S,4uu feet. It lookeu a lot biggei than it was to us as we came to the enu of the
motoi ioau anu staiteu upwaiu on foot thiough hunuieus of Civilian Conseivation Coips
woikeis who weie making tiail. Anu that impiession of magnifieu size, as though
eveiything weie being seen thiough a ieauing glass, peisisteu. Peihaps this was because
we weie looking at tiee feins, giant palms anu othei such plants foi the fiist time, anu weie
ielating them to otheis familiai to us which they woulu have most iesembleu if they hau
hau moie moueiation in giowth. Beie, of couise, eveiything seemeu to have been seizeu
with a kinu of elephantiasis, anu to have got all out of scale. Theie was not much coloi.
Theie was a silveiy cast to a whole patch of mountain when the winu tuineu the leaves of
the L$%".+# (;,2"#!1$ !,08$8$ L.). The waxy ieuuish bloom of the !&+!$'# (/,01,#'1$
/#"1'I.,M$) seen low uown in the uense unueigiowth was not conspicuous. It seemeu not
unlike the wilu tiilliums we useu to see in the woous at home; in mysteiious
tiansfoimation it hau become something exotic, al-most baleful to the eye, shining theie in
the wet uaik gieens anu biowns. Asiue fiom this, the Afiican tulips' uaik iich ieu blossoms
weie about the only coloi to be seen.
A iain foiest is not a comfoitable place to be. Not only is theie the constant uneasy inteiest
in vegetation which seems to have got completely out of hanu, but theie is also the
atmospheie of mysteiy cieateu by the uiifting iain anu mist. Foi El Yunque is a mountain
with its heau in a tuiban of clouu. The tiaues blowing fiom the Atlantic iise to cioss the
heights anu finu themselves conveiteu fiom what was a cleai uiy winu bounu uown the
latituues into a peipetually piecipitating fog lingeiing on the way. At the top the annual
iainfall appioaches two hunuieu inches by which it can be seen that it uoes liteially iain
a goou ueal of the time, anu that the sounu of iushing watei, which heie pioviues a
backgiounu foi the limpiu counteipoint of the 2#I.D, has an explicable oiigin.
We felt incieuibly eniicheu by this expeiience, anu I was encouiageu to finu a cleai way
foiwaiu in one enteipiise, howevei limiteu. So much was confuseu by conflicting inteiests,
so limiteu by human failuies! I wonueieu whethei someuay a gianuchilu of mine might not
come to a foiest of his uay heie anu heieabouts which hau vast stanus of mahoganies anu
othei haiuwoous, peihaps also ;1'29#'$3 anu othei tiees, useful foi many puiposes, giown
to matuiity! anu the whole seiving as the souice anu ieseivoii of vast flows of
hyuioelectiic powei which woulu make possible a hunuieu inuustiies, lifting a whole
people to a new level of life.
Thus my fiist acquaintance with Pueito Rico. . . .
45
S
IT WAS just aftei oui fiist boy was boin in the summei of 19S9 that, foi the fiist time in
seveial yeais, Pueito Rico came alive again to me. Ny wife anu I hau planneu a tiip to
Euiope. Letteis to anu fiom Ni. Baiolu Laski anu othei fiienus in Englanu anu Fiance hau
piepaieu the way. 0n 1 Septembei we weie to have saileu; oui passages weie engageu anu
oui bags packeu; we hau taken hotel iooms in Lonuon. But eveiyone knows what was
happening on the fiist of that Septembei anu why oui steamei nevei saileu. Insteau, we
acquiieu a new cai with a iauio anu ian slowly uown the coast anu out ovei the sea to Key
West.
Those weie uays when, listening houi aftei houi to what was happening in Euiope, I
leaineu, like othei Ameiicans, the lesson that wai is only the logical extension of
uiplomacy, anu uiplomacy the extension of politics, as olu Clausewitz saiu so long ago, anu
that appeasement uoes not woik with people who uo not play games with balls. I hau less
to leain than many otheis, peihaps, about the technique which was being exposeu, having
long been a stuuent of inuustiial oiganization anu its consequences in social
accommouation. A couple of months latei I was to encountei Ni. Walton Bamilton on a
New Yoik-Washington tiain anu take inoiuinate satisfaction in having him say, "You
unueistoou this long befoie any of us, uiun't you." I was honest enough to point out that I
hau meiely taken seiiously the lessons available to all my geneiation anu hau listeneu to
Patten anu to veblen iathei than to Bianueis oi the English economists.
What hau been looseu on Polanu was the enoimous powei of a ielatively uisciplineu
inuustiy uiiecteu to the achieving of a uefinite puipose. It seemeu obvious that when that
machine was tuineu upon nations uisoiganizeu by competitive piofit-making, wounueu
within, anu lacking any masteiing puipose, theie coulu be but one iesult. It was alieauy
cleai that nothing coulu save Fiance; anu, in Chambeilain's time, any chance that Biitain
might iesist successfully seemeu slight. Bamilton anu I pointeu these things out to each
othei anu talkeu at length of oui own situation. Theie was a lot of soul-seaiching in those
uays. ueimany's monstious powei was appeaiing to be fai gieatei even than in fact it was,
to those who hau been blinu to its giowth anu suuuenly saw iesults they hau until then
stubboinly iefuseu to anticipate. I was a }eiemiah with the satisfaction of having my
piophecies fulfilleu; but having the feai, too, that they might iesult in my countiy's
humiliation.
It is cleai to me now that luck saveu usthe luck of uoeiing's miscalculation about the kinu
of an aii foice neeueu to soften Biitain foi invasion. No one hau any iight to count on that;
anu I uiu not. The foices gatheiing even in this countiy which coulu iesist weie not easily
uiscoveieu. Businessmen woulu betiay us foi theii own gain as they always hau anu we
46
might be an easy conquest when the full time came. It might have happeneu just that way,
too, except foi the Spitfiie, anu except foi Ni. Roosevelt's seeing the whole uangei. Bis toui
ue foice of giving businessmen chaige of wai piepaiation was an act of genius. Knowing
what he uiufoi he hau no illusions about the aims oi methous of businessit was so
ieckless as to fill me with uespaii. I believeu in my heait that we weie lost when he maue
that uecision. It can be seen now that he took as long a gamble as any statesman in histoiy,
but that it was the best choice. The vinuication is that he won. Be unueistoou how thick
was the fat on oui collective iibs anu how little it matteieu how much was wasteu oi taken
in piofit pioviueu time was telescopeu anu the leau of the methouical ueimain buieauciacy
oveicome.
As we uiove south along the coast, with the iauio on, stopping in the summei heat to bathe,
ieluctant, howevei, to leave the cai foi long, lest we miss the latest bulletin, all the yeais of
intellectual conviction just behinu me seemeu to be tuining fiom something only
conceptual, in the last analysis unieal, into something hoiiibly mateiializeu in ieality. What
I hau saiu anu wiitten somehow embouieu itself in spectial foim anu stalkeu alongsiue the
cai, a shauowy monstei unueteiieu by the swamps anu wateiways of the Caiolina coast. It
might be wisheu back into its vessel by one who hau conceiveu it; but it woulu not actually
ietuin.
Ny piivate %,38$008, my unueistanuing of the woilu, was some-thing which coulu be
iegaiueu now only with a kinu of amazeu hoiioi. It is no wonuei that I was uneasy in an
occupation of an oiuinaiy eveiyuay soit. What was theie, though, that I coulu uo. I was, foi
one thing, a political unuesiiable. 0i so it coulu be infeiieu fiom ieauing the piess. It might
be that the lobbyists, like public-ielations men, the "high-piessuie boys," as Ni. Kenneth
Ciawfoiu was teaching us to call them, hau foigot me. Theie was among them a high
moitality iate in spite of theii foiesighteu caie foi theii own secuiity. 0f couise, the olu
Foou anu Biug business hau given them the scaie of theii lives; but that hau been yeais
ago. It might be that my fiienus in the Auministiation, who piotesteu theii* aumiiation foi
my couiage but who woulu just as soon not be seen lunching with me at the Cailton oi the
Nayflowei, hau sufficiently iecoveieu theii couiageoi felt that I hau been sufficiently
foigotto aumit me again to iespectable company. I uiu not want to "offei my seivices" to
anyone who woulu consiuei that I was asking foi a job; I woulu not appioach Ni. Wallace,
who woulu simply iepeat his suggestion that I become Chief Foiestei, which I woulu not uo
so long as the olu quaiiel existeu between Inteiioi anu Agiicultuie about conseivation in
geneial anu foiestiy in paiticulai; but I coulu, I ueciueu, wiite to Ni. Baiolu Ickes without
being misunueistoou. While I hesitateu anu consiueieu, I ieau in the Niami News that Ni.
Baiiy Slatteiy hau left the 0nuei Secietaiyship in Inteiioi to become heau of the Ruial
Electiification Auministiation.
47
This, even to one not cuiiently familiai with affaiis in the Bepaitment, boie the stigma of
aiiangement. Ni. Slatteiy hau ceitainly gone to make way foi someone else. Neveitheless,
it pio-viueu an opening foi coiiesponuence anu I wiote to Ni. Ickes, saying that I hau seen
the notice of Ni. Slatteiy's iesignation anu, iecalling that moie than once, anu with
appaient sinceiity, he hau uigeu me to become 0nuei Secietaiy in Inteiioi, I thought I
might with piopiiety inquiie about the piesent situation. I ian ovei the ieasons, uwelling
on my iestlessness as the ciisis in oui national life built itself up, not going into my uneasy
feeling of having foieseen it anu not having been louu enough in waining, but emphasizing
my feai that those who unueistoou the stiength of ueimany anu its souices woulu veiy
likely not be entiusteu with the expanueu auministiative measuies which woulu have to be
taken. Inteiioi, I thought, as a Bepaitment, might play a vast iole. If it suiteu him now I
woulu leave my New Yoik postNi. La uuaiuia consentinganu come to woik with him.
The ieply was waim anu fiienuly but saiu that, as I hau supposeu, the 0nuei Secietaiyship
was foiecloseu.
1
But woulu I, he askeu, become Biiectoi of the Bivision of Teiiitoiies anu
Islanu Possessions. Ny answei then was that we woulu talk about it latei in Washington.
We weie technically not in the Caiibbean at Key West. But the uistinction between the
Caiibbean anu the Stiaits of Floiiua was a fine one, not to be tolu by the eye. This was
Septembei, the month of huiiicanes. Fiom the bau piess these tiopical uistuibances hau
hau we Noitheineis hau acquiieu an exaggeiateu iuea of theii fiequency anu of theii
uomination in the life of theii iegion. . . . But theie was no huiiicane; anu we leaineu some
of the pleasuies of the summei subtiopics in that month, a knowleuge we have since
enlaigeu. They aie consiueiable. In the fiist place it is nevei so hot as is expecteu by the
stiangei. We kept casual tiack anu weie amazeu to see that Washington anu New Yoik hau
uaily tempeiatuies which iangeu fiom 1u to 1S uegiees highei than those in Key West. We
felt that we hau maue a uiscoveiy. Let those who knew no bettei go elsewheie! Besiues
theie was no iagweeu on the keys, appaiently, because I hau no hay fevei anu my nose was
one which a giain of pollen woulu inflame foi uays.
It was a stiange withuiawn inteival. In those uays Key West hau only the fiist intimations
of ietuining naval impoitance. It liveu what life it hau in memoiy of the Spanish wai anu of
a vanisheu cigai-making inuustiy. Nostly it was ueau oi felt itself so; but theie weie in the
haiboi seveial olu foui-stack uestioyeis beginning the patiol seivice they caiiieu out
uuiing the neutiality-zone uays. 0ne of them was the -,./,' )$+,3, latei lost unuei tiagic
ciicumstances off Icelanu. Commanuei Paikei anu the othei officeis swam anu uiank anu
uineu with us anu we with them in a milu soit of way. But Einest Bemingway anu most
othei fiienus in the neighboihoou weie away. Anu theie was time to meuitate. Bulging
pillais of clouu stoou about the hoiizon in chaiacteiistic majesty; the small peisistent winu

1
I leaineu latei that it hau been offeieu to Silcox in a maneuvei calculateu to biing the Foiest Seivice into
Inteiioi.
48
of summei blew thiough the inteimittent cuitains of iain which moveu acioss the Stiaits
anu the uulf; occasionally we watcheu a wateispout foim anu tiavel westwaiu. Anu I askeu
myself ovei anu ovei what I ought to uo.
With Chailes Taussig
2
I hau maue a tiip uown the islanus fiom St. Thomas to Tiiniuau in
19S7, stopping at Naitinique, uuaueloupe, St. Kitts-Nevis anu Baibauos. We hau seen anu
heaiu much that was uisquieting. In the Biitish islanus, especially, theie hau seemeu to be
no ielaxation of uisciimination anu bonuage. The economic life of each islanu was helu in a
vise by a few meichants anu planteis. A high uevelopment of this system hau seemeu in
Bawaiiwheie I hau been foi a consiueiable stay in 19S8to iesult in faii wages anu
auvantageous living conuitions. The piofits of the five-family monopoly weie so fai less
than the wastes of competition that eveiyone piospeieu. Elsewheie, anu especially in the
Caiibbean islanus, the system uiu not piouuce the same iesults. Eithei the missionaiy
families which hau piouuceu the Bawaiian ownei-managei gioup hau left a heiitage of
ability, conscience anu ieally enlighteneu self-inteiest, oi ciicumstances weie such that
they coulu not caiiy theii exploitation to extiemes as uiu theii Caiibbean counteipaits. It
may well have been laigely this. Foi no way has evei been founu to hainess the Bawaiian.
Be will not give up his fieeuom foi iegulaily paiu laboi eithei in the factoiy oi in the fielu.
Bis athletic bouy, ample humoi anu fiee appioach to life aie physical anu mental tiaits as
unchangeable as the climate of his islanu. The missionaiies coveieu the women with
Nothei Bubbaiusthe 9#0#J.but they nevei succeeueu in smotheiing the spiiit of the
men. Those who woik, in the mouein inuustiial sense, in Bawaii aie not the Bawaiians but
impoiteu }apanese anu Filipinos.
The people of Afiican uescent in the Biitish Caiibbean islanus aie not native theie as the
Polynesians aie in the Pacific, theii migiation going back into piehistoiy. Eveiyone knows
how anu when the Afiican tiibesmen came eastwaiu acioss the Atlantic anu no uescenuant
of the Euiopean iaces can take enough piiue in his ancestois' activities when that
movement was going on to claim that a moial supeiioiity justifies his status. It is a sheei
biutal economic monopoly which exists, long establisheu anu iuthlessly maintaineu,
coming uiiectly uown, inueeu, fiom the uays of slaveiy, anu not immensely impioveu in all
iespects since then. 0i so it hau seemeu, in 19S7, to Chailes Taussig anu me. We hau felt so
stiongly about what we hau obseiveu that we hau infoimeu the Piesiuent anu otheis in
Washington. They must in consequence have been less suipiiseu, at least, when the bloouy

2
Ni. Chailes Taussig of the Ameiican Nolasses Company, an olu family business of which he is the main
stockholuei. The conuuct of the business was such as to peimit him to spenu a goou ueal of his time in public
seivice anu evei since the eaily uays of the New Beal he hau chosen to uevote a goou pait of it to the
Caiibbean, fiequently iepiesenting the Piesiuent. All he uiu was voluntaiy, even when he was Chaiiman of
the National Youth Auministiation. Be nevei accepteu a iegulai position in any goveinment uepaitment anu
was always moie oi less a fiee-lance. The olu family business hau always hau connections in the Caiibbean,
especially in Cuba anu Baibauos, anu he hau been as familiai with the Caiibbean islanus all his life as most
people aie with a neaiby county.
49
iiots of 19S9 in Baibauos anu Tiiniuau, anu the almost equally seiious tioubles in }amaica,
uistuibeu Colonial 0ffice complacency. It was these tiagic events which leu to
Pailiamentaiy questions, to Loiu Noyne's Commission of Inquiiy, to the West Inuies
Welfaie Funu (latei enlaigeu as the Colonial Welfaie Funu) anu, I suppose it shoulu be saiu,
also, to the establishment of the Anglo-Ameiican Caiibbean Commission, though that
woulu be latei on in the anticipation of wai, when it was cleaiei than it hau been in 19S7
how the islanus lay like a fleet of gieat stationaiy plane-caiiieis in the path of any woulu-
be attackei of the Panam Canal.
We tolu the Piesiuent that not only weie economic conuitions such that immeuiate
explosions might be expecteu but that political conuitions woulu be founu to be equally
contiibutoiy. The suffiage in Baibauos, foi instance, wheie we hau taken some pains to
inquiie, was, by piopeity qualification, iestiicteu to an extiemely small peicentage of the
auult male population. In this way, thiough the powei of the uoveinoi to appoint ceitain
membeis of the legislatuiewhich existeu in all Biitish colonies iepiesentation was
kept within a small goveining anu contiolling gioup whose membeis weie also the
meichants anu planteis. 0niest seetheu beneath a suiface which was kept to a tianquil
appeaiance simply by non-iecognition. The blanu uenial, by eveiyone of influence oi
authoiity to whom we talkeu, that tiouble impenueu, was unequivocal. When we came
away we actually hau not uiscoveieu whethei theii complete calm was only outwaiu-
seeming oi whethei it came fiom a colossal confiuence in theii olu powei of suppiession.
Colony oi ciown colony, the economic conuitions unueilying uistuibance weie the same;
anu the agitation foi political change uiu not seem piopoitional to oppiession: it was not
the most backwaiu places wheie the uemanu foi iefoim was gieatest, but those which
weie making piogiess. This iaiseu the question whethei it was not tiue, as many of the
meichant-plantei class hau tolu us, that theie was no stopping place, once concessions
weie begun, shoit of "inuepenuence." Success in agitation, they felt, was an inuication of
stiength which agitatois woulu fully exploit unuei any conuitions. These weie essentially
impiactical uemagogues who stiiieu up a peaceful folk. Theie weie no haiuships which
hau not always existeu. uiievances came, such of them as weie justifiable, fiom conuitions
which coulu not be impioveu anywaypeihaps hau bettei not be impioveu if theie weie
to come with it ambition, iestlessness, incoiiigibility. Foi then the alieauy thin economic
baik was fuithei stietcheu. Those who weie in manageiial anu political contiol weie
something out of this centuiy. They hau ability, but they weie shiewu, haiu, iesponsible to
a naiiow ciicle of family, of class. The iemnant of noblesse which still existeu was
uissolving; anu its place was being taken by a bittei ueteimination to suppiess uistuibance
anu to iesist outsiue inteifeience. All this hau seemeu to us even then, when events hau not
yet uefinitely inuicateu that the Caiibbean woulu be impoitant in a national sense in an
50
appioaching wai, to be humanly inuefensible, even if not in any way a thieat to the
inteiests of the 0niteu States.
Resting at Key West in ueneial Anuiews' house, I coulu look acioss towaiu westein Cuba.
The Floiiua peninsula anu Cuba, togethei with }amaica uown below, weie the enu of the
bow which encloseu the Ameiican Neuiteiianean. At the othei enu was Tiiniuauoi,
when the imagination ieally ian fiee, Biazil, whose hump stoou out into the Atlantic
withinanu foi uays I stuuieu boiioweu maps which showeu ittwelve hunuieu miles of
Afiica. That was Fiench West Afiica, whose capital was maikeu "Bakai," a name I uiu not
iecall fiom my school uays any moie than I iecalleu what weie eviuently the Biazilian
opposites, Belm, Foitaleza, Natal anu Recife. Below Bakai weie Bathuist, Bissau,
Fieetown anu Noniovia, not to mention Lagos in Nigeiia anu Biazzaville in Fiench West
Afiica. They seemeu to be placeu so that moie woulu be heaiu of them in yeais to come. I
askeu expeiienceu pilots about that anu uiscoveieu it to be commonplace among them that
this shoit ciossing was a futuie ioute to anu fiom Euiope; anu that somewheie on the
Biazilian anu Afiican coasts gieat aiipoits woulu be built. A layman woulu nevei guess this.
It hau to uo not only with the long line of Caiibbean islanus, anu with the hump of Biazil,
but with the pievailing winus anu the weathei. Pan Ameiican Aiiways ioutes uiu not iun
that way, but foieign ioutes uiu, anu not as a stunt, but iegulaily with mail anu passengeis
foi South Ameiica. It unueilineu the auvantage of Euiopeans in that continent which Noith
Ameiicans nevei appieciateu, being confuseu by the names "Noith" anu "South" as though
they weie halves of one piece. The geogiaphic situation hau become viviu to me when I hau
flown a whole uay westwaiu fiom Tiiniuau to Baiianquilla. These poits aie at noith-centei
anu noithwest of the coast of South Ameiica, but they aie haiuly south of Noith Ameiica at
all but south only of the Noith Atlantic 0ceanwith the Caiibbean in between, theii
noithein bounuaiy the Antilles. Someuay, saiu one of my aviatoi fiienus, theie will be an
aiifielu on eveiy one of those Antilles anu on acioss Afiica to the East. Anothei uoubteu it.
These places woulu not geneiate much local tiaffic; anu planes to South Ameiica, foi
instance, woulu neeu only one oi two lanuing spots in the Caiibbeanpeihaps Tiiniuau
anu Poit-au-Piince.
S
Befense in the Atlantic was beginning to inteiest the naval officeis,
aftei yeais of pieoccupation with the Pacific, anu the conceptions which giew so iapiuly
uuiing the next few yeais weie geneiating then, oi peihaps it shoulu be saiu, weie
iegeneiating, foi they weie aftei all not new even in this oi the last centuiy the
2#'I.138$(#",3 hau them, anu the gieat Biitish aumiials.
The Navy, at any iate, was ieinteiesting itself in bases.
4
The naval minu hau not yet gone
fieely into the aii. The Piesiuent was telling his intimates, anu latei woulu tell the

S
Planes almost immeuiately so incieaseu theii iange that only one stop was neeueuanu a iivaliy began
between San }uan in Pueito Rico anu Poit-of-Spain in Tiiniuau.
4
The naval base foi the Antilles was being locateu about this time oi a little latei at the eastein enu of Pueito
Rico. I hau been tolu yeais befoie that Coial Bay at the eastein enu of St. }ohns was to be the fleet anchoiage,
51
Congiess,
S
of uangei fiom Euiope, coming by way of Afiica anu South Ameiica. It was bolu
talk because it was iegaiueu by the uninfoimeu as fantastic. To begin with, it was not
aumitteu that theie was a will to uamage us in Euiope. Bitlei's puipose even then was not
cleai to most Ameiicans. But also Ameiican thought was not accommouateu to the aiiplane
as an instiument of uestiuction.
6
It is haiu even these few yeais latei to iealize the
incieuible piovincialism of the late thiities when eveiything lay befoie us anu we woulu
not see it. I uo not believe that a single one of the Piesiuent's associates felt that his
auvances into public euucation in stiategy uuiing those uays weie wise. No politician,
accoiuing to the iules, shoulu evei be staitling. Anu Ni. Roosevelt, especially in talking
about uangei fiom aii fleets coming by way of South Ameiica anu the Caiibbean, was, it
was geneially saiu, going fai beyonu the piobabilities. It maue eveiyone uneasy but it uiu
not establish conviction. Events tumbleu upon one anothei, of couise, anu month aftei
month public opinion was compelleu to oveitake his leau. Theie was moie belief that he
was iight at the enu of 19S9 than at the beginning of it; but not enough to fiee his foieign
policy foi pieventive action. Anu the fact that he hau been iight anu otheis wiong hau, as
so often happens, affecteu his populaiity auveisely iathei than otheiwise.
Looking at the Caiibbean fiom Key West I hau, then, new inteiests auueu to my olu inteiest
in Pueito Rico. Eviuently, even quite cleaily, it was becoming an impoitant location in the
gianu stiategy which must govein oui uefense. Eviuently, also, it was something of a
testing place foi Ameiican piofessions of uemociacy. Foi uemociacy was not even a
pietense in many of its neighboiing islanus any moie than it was in most of the woilu's
uepenuent aieas. Beyonu that theie was a toimenting question anu I botheieu eveiyone
with it who woulu listen in the wintei which followeuif we hau bases in the Caiibbean,
anu especially aii bases, hau we not a ieal anu immeuiate inteiest in the tianquility, even
the loyalty of its people. Bow coulu we builu a chain of foitiesses on thickly settleu islanus
which weie hostile. These questions seemeu impoitant to a few people like Secietaiy

anu I hau gone to see it. That was supposeu to have been one ieason foi oui acquisition of the westein viigins
fiom Benmaik. But latei maneuveis hau centeieu in the laigei piotecteu aiea with Culebia anu othei islets
on the noith, vieques to the southeast anu Pueito Rico on the west. A sea wall was to be built acioss miles of
sea fiom vieques to the Pueito Rican coast at Ensenaua Bonua. vast magazines weie to be cut into the
vieques hills, a Naiine base was to be establisheu on Culebia anu a gieat home poit with uiy uocks, machine
shops, anu so on was to be centeieu at Ensenaua Bonua just unuei El Yunque. The navy eye obviously
conceiveu of fleet concentiations in this stietch of wateia conception which was to be maue obsolete by the
expeiience at Peail Baiboi. It woulu take some time foi the lesson to sink in to the naval consciousness, but
giauually the plan woulu be changeu to a moie mouest iepaii base anu magazine. 0ne ieason foi slowness in
ie-auaptation was saiu to be the aumiials' unwillingness to suggest ievision to Ni. Roosevelt aftei having, foi
ieasons of flatteiy, nameu it aftei him. Roosevelt Roaus was an olu-Navy plan. The iejuvenateu Navy woulu
not want fleet concentiationsthough theie woulu always be neeu theie foi uiy uocks, lanuing fielus,
magazines, anu machine shops.
S
Nessage to Congiess asking auuitional appiopiiations foi national uefense, 16 Nay 194u.
6
Nuch less, of couise, to the anticipation of the iocket bombs anu othei iobot piojectiles which woulu appeai
in 1944.

52
Ickes, like Ni. Sumnei Wellesto whom they weie even olu consiueiationsanu to the
Piesiuent; but to almost no one else.
I think at this time, as he stiuggleu with a ieluctant public anu with the iecalcitiant
Congiess which iepiesenteu it, the Piesiuent's tiue qualities of statesmanship appeaieu as
they hau nevei uone in his uomestic management. Beie he was imaginative, tiuly
peiceptive, with a ceitain anu stubboin giasp on stiategic ieality. Be iealizeu the
commitments of oui position anu of oui powei; he woulu not let us iest in caieless sloth
while uisastei was piepaieu by a smooth-spoken enemy. Specifically he was uiawing
closei anu closei to oui inevitable allies against the will of a violent opposition anu the
stubboin unwillingness of the public to awaken. Ameiicans wanteu not to be uistuibeu.
They weie not onlytwo thiius of themliving well anu secuiely again aftei the fiight of
the eaily uepiession, but they weie eainestly engageu in piivate inteinal quaiielsfaimei
anu inuustiialist against woikei, piogiessive against ieactionaiy, Southein whites against
Negioes, Catholics against Piotestants anu so on. They weie also skeptical anu pacifist. It
may not be that the two necessaiily aie coinciuental but they weie eveiywheie pievalent
togethei. The pievailing tempei of the univeisities, of influential folk geneially, hau foi
geneiations now been confiimeu in these two attituues. All of us giew up that way. It was
as unusual to be anything else as to be, foi instance, non-Catholic in Italy, oi vegetaiian in
Nontana, anu such attituues aie not conuucive to the acceptance of positive
iesponsibilities.
Biu the offei fiom Secietaiy Ickes pioviue me a pait to play in the uiama upon which the
cuitain was iising. Peihaps; but theie weie uefinite uifficulties. The Bivision was staffeu
fai below its iesponsibilities anu neeueu a man with the confiuence of the Congiess to
enlaige its capacity. I was not the one to uo that. Beie was a minoi Bivision of a
Bepaitment, which was uevoteu mostly to a uiffeient soit of inteiest, entiusteu with all the
uuties of a Colonial 0ffice. 0i, if not, wheie uiu those uuties lie in Washington. The people
who caiiieu on the woik weie not caieei men anu women in the sense in which those weie
who caiiieu on similai woik in othei countiies. Yet they weie all theie weie. This
unueiemphasis, caieless staffing anu geneial lack of equipment foi the task of colonial
goveinment was obviously the iesult of oui confuseu policy. We hau inteiests of which we
coulu not let go; but at the same time we felt compelleu to pietenu that they uiu not exist. It
was pait of a geneial public hypociisy which was natuially shaieu by the Congiess. Anu
any attempt of the executive to cleai it up hau been smotheieu in the obfuscations of the
Committees. Aftei the occupation of Pueito Rico in 1898, militaiy goveinments hau been
instituteu foi some ieason oi othei theie hau been a satisfactoiy local goveinment
iecently iefoimeu, anu theie was no iesistance of any account to the change in
soveieigntyanu, aftei the change to civil goveinment unuei the Foiakei Act of 19uu, the
53
home management of Pueito Rican affaiis hau simply been left inof all placesthe Wai
Bepaitment. Theie it hau stayeu until 19S4.
This leaving of colonial affaiis to the Wai Bepaitment foi thiity-foui yeais while Pueito
Ricans wiitheu anu piotesteu almost unnoticeu, ceitainly without public sympathy, was
not eviuence of ill will, except among the lobbyists foi those inteiests which woulu be
fuitheieu by neglect of Pueito Rico. It was moie an eviuence of a laigei apathy anu
confusion. Foieigneis uiu not inteiest us. It was tiue that Pueito Ricans hau been maue
citizens in 1917 on the only occasion when seiious ievision of the 0iganic Act was
unueitaken aftei 19uu, but it was uone in a suuuen iealization of stiategic possibilities, not
as pait of a policy, anu, significantly enough, in time of wai when Pueito Rican loyalty was
impoitant. Ameiicans geneially hau not come to think of Pueito Ricans as ieal citizens
iathei, when they thought of them at all, as citizens of a soit of seconu class.
Actually theie was no policy. Biu we intenu to give this newly acquiieu possession
statehoou. To be Ameiican citizens without a State to live in, without iepiesentation in the
Congiess, without even incoipoiation of theii Teiiitoiy, was to exist in a monstiously
illogical situation. The only possible justification might have been a ueclaiation of intention
as to the futuie. Theie was nothing of the kinu; inueeu theie was much eviuence that
anything of the kinu was unlikely. Weie we going to "give" them inuepenuence as hau been
uone with the Filipinos. Nany Pueito Ricans weie haunteu with the feai that we might uo
just that; anu those few who wanteu it linkeu the possibility with such a special kinu of
aiiangement economically, with subsiuies anu piefeiences, as coulu be expecteu only fiom
a people suuuenly become uioolingly geneiousanu the Ameiican public oi the Congiess
hau shown no eviuence of any such weakness.
The pievailing attituue was neithei selfish noi geneious; it was inuiffeient. Time spent on
Pueito Rico was a political waste. Bettei to keep issues foggy, foiget the whole thing; but on
no account builu up an executive buieauciacy with an inteiest in shaipening policy. I hau
seen Ni. Ickes anu Ni. Einest uiuening stiuggle yeai aftei yeai foi appiopiiations which
woulu suppoit a mouestly competent staff in the Bivision of Teiiitoiies. They hau nevei
hau any success. The Bivision iemaineu, as it hau been, an oiganization whose peisonnel
haiuly ieacheu beyonu the level of cleiks anu secietaiies, without specialists, without
techniciansanu natuially without any objectives beyonu infoimational contacts with the
teiiitoiial goveinments. The cieation of a Colonial 0ffice was long oveiuue; anu the iight
man might uo a gieat seivice in beginning the woik. But I coulu not see that the countiy oi
that the Congiess wanteu one. 0n the contiaiy it woulu be iesisteu; anu I was not
peisuasive with Congiessmen. I tolu the Secietaiy in 0ctobei that, much as I wanteu to
paiticipate in the coming events, I coulu not uo it in that way. Be woulu tuin, a little latei,
to Ni. Rupeit Emeison, who woulu stiuggle too, but woulu leave aftei a yeai as fiustiateu
as I am suie I shoulu have been if I hau unueitaken the task.
54


55
6
SAN }0AN is somewhat east of miuway along the noith coast of Pueito Rico. Against the
beaches, on eithei siue, the Atlantic iolleis cast themselves in long white ianks. As the uay
goes, the sea out beyonu becomes a uaik anu uaikei blue anu the white flecks of bieaking
waves aie moie fiequent. The winu iises late in the moining but the sea is ueep anu theie
aie not many ieefs, so that one looks out fiom shoie without the tiansition of bieakeis on
ieefs anu bais. A few miles out, in fact, the Pueito Rican Tiough contains the Biownson anu
Nilwaukee Beeps, the one ieaching to 8,S42 meteis anu the othei to 9,22u meteis. The
haiboi is a uieugeu iivei anu the olu city sits on a piotubeiance between the estuaiy anu
the sea. It is easiei than it once woulu have been to foiget that the base of this neai-
peninsula is submeigeu, making it an islanuthat is, easiei unless it is necessaiy, foi some
ieason, such as wai oi eaithquake, to consiuei how the inhabitants of its ciowueu
tenements might be moveu to the mainlanu. An eaithquake, conceivably, oi a bombing
might uestioy the two biiuges which caiiy all the tiaffic into anu out of the olu city which is
at once the commeicial poit, the business centei anu the militaiy heauquaiteis. Nost
people who belong to the income gioups above the woikeis' level have long since
establisheu theii homes beyonu the biiuges in Santuice, Bato Rey, Rio Pieuias, Isla veiue
oi uuaynabo. Anu a goou many even of the woikeis have escapeu theie oi to Catao anu
othei small settlements acioss the bay, some even as fai as Bayamon on the ioau to the
west.
The whole aiea aiounu the bay hau giown by 1941 into a metiopolitan aiea about the size
of Niami anu was still showing all the signs, so obvious to a city plannei, of iapiu
speculative expansion. I coulu see that even fiom the plane as we came in on oui visit to
holu heaiings on the Suu-acie law in Febiuaiy 1941. Bousebuiluing hau been extenueu
into neighboihoous wheie stieets hau not yet followeu; in many places wheie theie weie
paveu stieets theie weie no siuewalks but only papei-litteieu iubble; alongsiue the most
expensive iesiuences theie hau been establisheu the most objectional business uses
gaiages, uiink stanus, cheap notion stoies. Theie was no thought, no oiuei, no community
uiscipline. Theie weie othei sinistei signs. Fiist the filth; nevei, I thought, hau I seen so
little eviuence of that civic oi peisonal piiue which shows itself in piopeity caie anu
cleanliness. Refuse lay along the stieets anu the well-uiesseu citizen walkeu ovei anu
thiough it with no appaient consciousness of its piesence. But also what shockeu me as it
must any newcomei, oi any visitoi who, like myself, hau not come to San }uan foi some
yeais, was the iising tiue of slums which seemeu about to oveiwhelm the city. El Fanguito,
the shack city ovei the maishes besiue the Naitin Pea Channel, hau, in 19S4, consisteu of
a few hunuieu squatteis' houses; now we saw it stietching up towaiu Rio Pieuias miles
away in a seemingly enuless spieau of squaloi. It hau a kinu of oiuei anu goveinance of its
own, such as a homunculus oi some othei low foim of life has: the shacks weie in iows,
56
that is, which left some open space foi filth to accumulate, anu the tiue lifteu the piles of
gaibage anu uepositeu them again, in the same place, twice uaily. What a staitling eviuence
of the failuie of all oui effoits to outpace, with schemes foi housing anu public woiks, the
foices of uisintegiation so poweifully at woik on this islanu! uoou loiu, I thought, how glau
I am that I have no pait in 8913!
"Tell me," the Piesiuent hau saiu as I was leaving Washington, "whethei we have got iiu of
the slums; anu whethei theie is any place on the islanu to get a safe uiink of watei." Well,
the answei to the fiist question was obvious. I hau not yet seen any of the housing into
which I knew laige sums hau gone, but at least it hau not toucheu El Fanguito. I wonueieu
what hoiiible viius was at woik piolifeiating itself in this way towaiu lowei anu lowei
levels of life. 0n that same night I came into possession of the answei to the Piesiuent's
othei question, too. I iemembeieu, coming back to the hotel aftei a walk, ueneial Winship's
telling me yeais befoie that one of his ambitions was to pioviue an ample anu safe watei
supply foi San }uan. I askeu the fiist peison I met when I came into the hotel. "Bell," he saiu,
"the watei's filthy; anu half the time it's shut off." That seemeu tiue to an exaspeiateu
Continental, no uoubt, though it was an exaggeiation. I stoppeu at the uesk anu inquiieu of
the attenuant. "All the watei we seive to guests is boileu," he saiu. Anu when I tuineu on
the showei, being wiinging wet fiom my walk in the hot stieets, nothing happeneu. The
watei N$3 off. I hau a uiy iub with a towel; but I began then anu theie to have unkinuly
thoughts about the city goveinment of San }uan which woulu not be uissipateu foi a long
time to come. With iespect to this incieuibly ineffective management, people maintaineu,
as I shoulu leain by uiligent inquiiy uuiing the next week, an attituue of complaint in
piivate anu non-inteifeience in public. 7: /,'(18#.
1
I came to see, in fact, as a piinciple
which maikeu many phases of life, making foi inuiffeience anu acceptance.
This attituue might have been one of the phases of insulaiism, of life on an islanu wheie
acquaintance was wiue anu wheie family connections, also wiue, counteu abnoimally. It
may have come fiom the fact that the "bettei element" was conscious of limiteu
oppoitunities anu nevei ielaxeu its intention to keep them within a limiteu ciicle. It uiu
leau to a wiuespieau nepotism, with the usual iesults, something I iemembeieu Ni.
0mening to have pointeu out. Anu it was tiue that one of the complaints about him hau
been that he hau impoiteu many Continentals foi jobs which he consiueieu Pueito Ricans
unfitteu to fill. Pueito Ricans, themselves, I hau heaiu it saiu, weie willing to maik a
canuiuate foi any job 9u pei cent foi being a Pueito Rican, leaving 1u pei cent foi
competence. This hau seemeu a giossly piejuuiceu comment, quite typical, I suspecteu, of

1
An exclamationliteially, "0h, blesseu"with many uses ianging fiom expiessing milu inteiest to gieat
inuignation. To illustiate the sense in which it is usually useu: shoulu you complain that, foi instance, a
ceitain goveinment employee is lazy, illiteiate, incompetent, uishonest anu a little weak in the heau, it is not
unlikely that the peison to whom you complain (if he is a Pueito Rican) will agiee entiiely with youi estimate
anu then say, "But $: /,'(18#! he has ten chiluien! Be must have a job!"
57
unaujusteu continentalism; but when, next moining, the watei still uiu not iun in the
showei, I thought theie might be moie in it than piejuuice.
It woulu iequiie a moie confiimeu pessimist than I have evei manageu to be, howevei, to
see the woilu uaikly on a Caiibbean moining. I have always been an eaily iisei, foi which a
goou ueal of sympathy has been wasteu on me by those whoif they only coulu be
peisuaueu of itmight have a ieneweu expeiience as I uo of exaltation with each subtiopic
uawn. Not so much can be claimeu foi the eaily houis above the Tiopic of Cancei; below it
they ieveal foi an houi oi two in a kinu of quiet gloiy the full iange of visual sensation. Anu
this is especially tiue, so fai as my expeiience goes, on the Caiibbean islanus. I thought it
might be haiu to leave so beautiful a neighboihoou as the Conuauo. This, I coulu see, was
the iight siue of the iailioau tiacks; half the houses weie, howevei, unsuiteu in theii
aichitectuie to the tiopics, semi-palaces buiieu in the most iesplenuent foliage: palms,
bittei almonus, flamboyantes, casuaiinas, foi tiees; hibiscus, oleanuei, ciotons, gaiuenias
foi shiubs; anu tiinitaiia (oi bougainvillea), allamonua (oi canaiio), coialita (oi bellisima)
foi vines; all-fuinishing yeai-iounu coloi, pinks, puiples, ieus anu yellows, to shine upon
anu thiough the basic liquiu gieens. The magical lights anu uistances of eaily moining
came acioss the sea to the: neighboihoou of the hotel; anu it was haiu to believe that the
slums acioss the lagoon anu ovei the iise of giounu, anu the uangeious watei supply,
meant what they hau seemeu to mean the night befoie oi even in the exaspeiation of the
iecent wateiless attempt to shave.
I began at once a seiies of piepaiatoiy inteiviews with those: who hau iesponsibility foi
ieshaping tenuie aiiangements now that the Supieme Couit hau cleaieu the way.
2

Natuially, I calleu fiist on the uoveinoi, Ni. uuy j. Swope of Baiiisbuig, who hau been
piomoteu fiom the auuitoiship on Aumiial Leahy's iecommenuation. Be was somewhat
woiiieu, as he fiankly saiu. The >#!.0$",3, just come into piobable legislative contiol, weie
going to enact a lanu-tenuie bill. It was bounu to be one which woulu be opposeu bitteily

2
I shall not iepeat the histoiy of the Suu-acie limitation itself, which is sufficiently uwelt on in my iepoit to
Secietaiy Ickes of Becembei 1941. The ieauei may be ieminueu, howevei, that the way hau been cleaieu foi
auministiative action only aftei the Bepaitment of the Inteiioi, togethei with a couiageous Insulai Attoiney
ueneial, Ni. Benigno Feinnuez uaicia ueteimineu to enu the long peiiou of law evasion. When Ni.
Feinanuez uaicia assumeu office in 19SS he announceu the beginning of enfoicement anu establisheu a
uivision foi that puipose in the Insulai Bepaitment of }ustice. Even befoie this a bill giving oiiginal quo
waiianto juiisuiction to the Supieme Couit of Pueito Rico hau been passeu. It hau been intiouuceu jointly by
Ni. Nuoz Naiin, then a Libeial Senatoi, anu Ni. Bolivai Pagn, a Socialist, latei Resiuent Commissionei in
Washington, now an aiuent enemy of Nuoz anu an equally aiuent ally of the sugai coipoiations. In }anuaiy
of 19S6 the fiist case was begun. 0n Su }uly 19S8 the Supieme Couit of Pueito Rico affiimeu the law. The
uecision was ieveiseu in the Feueial Ciicuit Couit of Appeals but was uphelu, in the uecision alieauy noteu,
by the 0niteu States Supieme Couit on 2S Nay 194u. Notion was maue foi the appointment of a ieceivei; the
couit ueciueu favoiably anu theie was appeal. Final uecision in the 0niteu States Supieme Couit uiu not come
until 16 Naich 1942. By that time theie woulu be an Insulai Lanu Authoiity anu the outlines of its policy
woulu be taking shape.

58
by the sugai inteiests. Yet Pueito Ricans weie so oveiwhelmingly foi it that it woulu be a
uenial of uemociacy if he weie to veto it. Be knew how much tiouble he was in foi among
the lobbies in Washington, but, being a Bemociat anu a Piesiuential appointee, he uiu not
see how he coulu go against anything so cleaily consonant with Auministiation policy.
Besiues he hau a political instinct to obey the manuate of the iecent election. Be was much
ielieveu, he saiu, to have me say that I saw no way he coulu escape fiom appioving anu that
I thought the Secietaiy woulu give him suppoit.
Yet I coulu see that he was woiiieu anu he tolu me some of it. Be felt that Nuoz was
public-spiiiteu anu loyal; but he piofounuly uistiusteu some of his followeis. The >#!.0$",3
weie a conglomeiate gioup, he saiu, helu togethei by Nuoz' authoiity, but having among
themselves the most uiveise views anu affiliations. Be uiu not woiiy about the masses who
hau voteu the Populaies into powei; that hau been a piotest vote against intoleiable living
conuitions; anu he uiu not woiiy about the piofessional politicians who hau joineu the
movement simply because it hau a chance to pievail; but he thought theie was anothei
gioup, veiy influential, who woulu in the enu foice Nuoz to the most extieme iauical anu
anti-Ameiican measuies. They weie, in spiiit, communiststhat is, they hau leaineu
communist tactics. They liveu on anu foi tiouble, anywheie anu eveiywheie; they wanteu
iiots anu uisoiueis.
S
These tactics weie aimeu not only at the uppei class, the lanuloius,
anu so on, but at the Continentals in Pueito Rico. Anu when it came to that they hau the
tacitsometimes opensympathy of numeious wealthy Spaniaius, Fianco followeis,
6$0$'%138$3. The piess, too, hau one uominant policyto haiass anu to foment
uissatisfaction with any anu all continental Ameiican men anu measuies, not with anything
constiuctive in view, but simply out of a malice which, appaiently, its clientele appioveu.
Ni. Swope was a lifelong politician but he coulu see that he hau got into a situation beyonu
his uepth. Be hau succeeueu Aumiial Leahy on the eve of the fiist legislative session aftei
the political oveituin which hau biought the Populaies into powei. The Aumiial, asiue
fiom some pioblems of appointment, hau hau to meet haiuly any of the issues involveu in
what amounteu to a uelayeu 19S2. In those few he hau pioveu ieactionaiy. Still he uislikeu
intensely the Pueito Rican -,!./012$'# !#0D812#3. Foi while the 0niteu States hau met the
accumulating pioblems of the long uepiession with New Beal iefoims, the olu ieactionaiy
ciowu hau iemaineu in powei in Pueito Rico. Anu they hau conceueu nothing. The
piessuies built up in ueneial Winship's iegime weie now to be ieleaseu in a seiies of quick
changes. Ni. Swope was afiaiu they woulu be anti-Ameiican as well as economic. Be hau
been a lame-uuck Congiessman whose political affiliations at home weie with Senatoi
uuffey. Aumiial Leahy hau unuoubteuly been glau to escape the uemanu of the ;#$0121O'
that he shoulu iecognize its affiliateu paities as a majoiity. This hau openeu up a iange of

S
It will be iemembeieu that at this time Russia was ueimany's ally anu that the Communist "line" was
uistinctly anti-Biitish, not to say anti-Ameiican.

59
pioblems with which yeais of quaitei-ueck authoiitaiianism hau maue him impatient. Be
was iepoiteuly glau to go to vichy; anu no uoubt he felt it a foitunate chance that a
politician like Ni. Swope was at hanu to ueal with a situation so obviously neeuing
piofessional hanuling.
The ;#$0121O' coulu claim to have a majoiity in the sense that its paities togethei hau won a
gieatei numbei of votes than the Populaies. But it was maue up of @#21$0138$3 anu P'1O'=
-,!./012$'#3extieme leftists anu extieme iightists, who weie joineu only in a tenuous
election-uay union. They obviously hau nothing in common except an appetite foi jobs; anu
they uisplayeu this in ways which affecteu the Aumiial's stomach. The iuling ieality in the
situation was that the >#!.0$",3 hau a genuine majoiity of one in the Senate. This meant
that they coulu anu woulu ieject any appointment of which they uiu not appiove. In othei
woius, it was impossible to iun the executive establishment without theii concuiience in
the choice of peisonnel. Buiing the yeais since the 0iganic Act hau maue it possible,
piobably by an oveisight, an inuefensible numbei of positions in the uoveinment hau been
maue subject to confiimation. This was fieely saiu to be necessaiy foi keeping
caipetbaggeis in theii places. It hau hau the inciuental iesult of utteily iuining the well-
intentioneu civil seivice anu of cieating a vast nepotism, matteis which the politicians
thought unimpoitant. The >#!.0$",3 showeu no signs of wanting any goveinmental
iefoims; in this iespect they weie as gieeuy foi jobs as the ;#$0121O', But they uiu have the
confiiming powei anu intenueu to see to it that the ;#$0121O' iascals weie thiown out anu
Populaies saints weie substituteu foi them. They hau even passeu an anti-nepotism law
intenueu to ioot out some well-entiencheu families. The whole buieauciacy shook in its
boots anu the ;#$0121O' paity heaus went to extieme lengths in the attempt to keep theii
goveinmental machine in office, if not in powei. 0nly the uoveinoi, whose position anu
effectiveness they hau helpeu to unueimine, having been a long time in contiol, stoou
between them anu the consummation of the election-uay uisastei. They pioposeu to the
Aumiial, as they latei pioposeu to Ni. Swope anu even latei woulu piopose to me, as the
piice of peace in Washington, that the Senate shoulu be bilkeu by the uevice of inteiim
appointments., with ienewal aftei confiimation hau been iefuseu anu the shoit legislative
session hau aujouineu. Since the legislatuie met only once a yeai, foi a few weeks,
officeholueis coulu be piotecteu without too much tiouble. This was theii piice foi peace;
if it was not paiu theie weie ample funus available to be spent in making tiouble in
Washington foi a iecalcitiant uoveinoi. This, they aigueu, was justifieu by the majoiity
they coulu auu up among themselves fiom the last election. But they weie too fiighteneu
anu too piesseu by theii followeis even to be uiplomatic. They maue thieats. That, of
couise, settleu the issue with each of us in tuin.
It was pioposeu, as a mattei of mechanics, to follow the custom of yeaishow uoveinois
evei alloweu the custom to giow up, it is haiu to unueistanuanu to piesent a 8,"'$ (list)
60
of two oi thiee canuiuates foi eveiy job, one of which was to be chosen by the uoveinoi,
thus ieuucing his appointive functions to the ministeiial level. The >#!.0$",3 expecteu, of
couise, to follow the same custom; it was an accepteu pioceuuie. The uiffeience was that
the >#!.0$",3 weie piepaieu to guaiantee confiimation while the ;#$0121O' pioposal
amounteu in piactice to a conspiiacy foi evauing confiimation. Neithei Aumiial Leahy noi
Ni. Swope gave in to the Coalition thieats, though Aumiial Leahy maue iestiaineu use of
the iepeateu appointment pioceuuie to thwait the Senate foi othei ieasons, but neithei
iesisteu the uictation iepiesenteu by the pioposal of names. That thistogethei with othei
uevices which will neeu to be mentioneu lateiieuuceu the executive to an appenuage of
the legislatuie anu negativeu the piinciple of tiipaitite goveinment, no one seemeu to
iealize. Theie is a uelicate balance involveu in this foim which, when uistuibeu, makes a
uiffeience in efficiency out of piopoition to the appaient cause. Eveiyone knew something
was wiong, that auministiation was feeble if not coiiupt, anu so on, but no one seemeu to
see that it was such uevices as this which hau uiiven the Pueito Ricans back to committee
goveinmentessentially the system of the Continental Congiess fiom which the Feueial
uoveinment hau escapeu by the long evolution which hau cieateu the constitutional
system. Sight of the olu weakness anu the means of its coiiection hau been lost in an
obscuiing fog of iesentments; ieveision to the ineitia of late-eighteenth-centuiy
goveinment was all but complete.
Ni. uuy Swope, local politician fiom Baiiisbuig in Pennsylvania, maue uoveinoi of two
million people whose cultuie he was ill-fitteu to unueistanu no mattei how 31+!&812# he
yeaineu to be, might have stoou foi all the ieasons why Pueito Ricans hau committeu
goveinmental suiciue by smotheiing an alien executive. Foi this left the ieal powei in the
hanus of a boss, a back-staiis uictatoi, a legislatoi whom all Pueito Ricans acknowleugeu,
but who, so fai as official iecognition was conceineu, uiu not exist. The typical boss hau a
vast ietinue of hangeis-on, mostly on the pay ioll of the legislatuie. Theii jobs weie
sinecuies since the sessions weie shoit, but they weie expecteu to take caie of the
thousanu uaily uetails of a complete extialegal, subteiianean goveinment. Ni. Swope sat at
the uoveinoi's uesk in the Spanish thione ioom, liveu in the palace whose viitually
unfuinisheu spaces symbolizeu the emptiness of his authoiity, anu piesiueu ovei the
weekly meetings of the Executive Council; but the Pueito Ricans who met him theie on
Tuesuays at ten voteu solemnly on half a uozen authoiizations, peihaps, of municipal
boiiowing oi some such ielatively insignificant mattei, uiu not feel that they weie veiy
ueeply obligateu to him oi that they oweu him any uuty. Theii ieal business was uone with
the new boss, Nuoz, in fai less foimal ways; they took uiiection fiom him iathei than the
uoveinoi. Pueito Rican ingenuity hau uefeateu the 0niteu States occupation. This might
not have happeneu if moie effective uoveinois hau all along been appointeu, but ietiieu
militaiy men anu lame-uuck Congiessmen weie easy game foi clevei !#0D812#3; even if they
knew what was going on, they weie usually unable to pievent it; anu Nuoz, though he was
61
fai fiom typical, was inueeu of quite anothei soit, hau inheiiteu a tiauition which he hau to
maintain because, by now, public affaiis woulu not function at all if it weie not maintaineu.
The comfoit-seeking, miuule-ageu uoveinoi, who hau usually not been much of a success
at homespeaking now of none in paiticulai but only of the typewho hau sought only a
job foi political uuties well uone in Iowa, Inuiana oi Nichigan, anu who founu himself
involveu in the complex intiigues anu conspiiacies of insulai politics, always falling into
tiaps, feaiful of his Washington suppoit, which the "outs" in Pueito Rico eaily leaineu how
to unueimine, especially if they weie monieu "outs," was one of the unhappiest figuies
imaginable. Be hau usually come with goou will, vaguely feeling himself a little supeiioi,
necessaiily, to a conqueieu people, but hau neveitheless tiieu haiu to ingiatiate himself
with the influential "bettei classes." That these hateu him foi his supeiioi feeling, anu foi
the fact that he iepiesenteu an alien oveiloiuship, anu while smiling blanuly in his face,
woulu glauly stab him in the back, he soon founu out to his uismay. Anu he hau no weapon
with which to meet it. Be soon became a membei of a small alien set of Feueial
officeholueis, with a little isolateu society of theii own, existing in a foieign lanu with what
giace they coulu. Theie is not much eviuence that any of them weie awaie of a vast mass of
faimeis anu woikeis who hateu the same selfish uppei classes so many of whose membeis
weie ieauy to cut uoveinois' thioats. These weie potential but unuseu allies. Even if it hau
occuiieu to some uoveinoianu peihaps it uiusuch an appeal was haiuly possible
acioss the baiiieis of language, cultuie anu tiauition; if it was evei tiieu tentatively it nevei
came to anything. So uoveinois liveu in the palace with a few fieicely iesenteu continental
assistants, anu the ieal life anu management of insulai society went on outsiue theii
knowleuge, to say nothing of theii contiol.
Ni. Swope, with whom I spoke that Naich uay in 1941, was not, piobably, a man to analyze
all this. Be was, as he saiu, a plain Pennsylvania Butchman, by which he eviuently hopeu to
convey that he knew moie than he appeaieu to know. Anu I believe that if he uiu not know,
he felt, that his position was quite impossible. Foi the empty honoi which ueneial Winship
hau been thick-skinneu enough to holu onto foi five yeais hau giown so empty by now as
to appioach the iiuiculous. Nuoz was the boss in Pueito Rico; anu he oweu his own
political powei to that gieat mass of common people who hau been the only iesouice, even
if unuseu, of any appointeu uoveinoi. It was no longei possible to tuin away fiom those
who so iapaciously exploiteu the masses anu to appeal ovei theii heaus. Nuoz hau uone
that anu so foiecloseu the possibility. Ni. Swope was, neveitheless, in uefiance of ieality,
confionteu with the uemanu of the bouibon ;#$0121O' foi the juiciest jobs on penalty of a
iow in Washingtonwhich he knew they coulu veiy well piecipitate, since by a cuiious
split in the libeial ianks, Ni. Bolivai Pagn, a @#21$0138$ once, but now moie piopeily a
;#$0121#'138$, hau been electeu Resiuent Commissionei against the tiue. Anu he woulu have
commanu, foi this puipose, of all the moneybags on the islanu. Be hau befoie him also the
62
example of the abuse to which Aumiial Leahy hau been subjecteu. With uue obseivance of
the ieticences piopei to a situation in which men unueistanu each othei anu uo not neeu to
talk openly, Ni. Swope conveyeu to me that he founu the goveinoiship uncongenial.
But I hau a specific task to get thiough in analyzing lanu iefoim anu tiying to foimulate a
helpful piogiam. Befoie I went to see Ni. ueoige Nalcolm, the Attoiney ueneial, howevei, I
spent a uay oi two in geneial oiientation. Ni. Swope I now saw as a uistoiteu figuie out of
uoya, toimenteu by his knowleuge of ill-concealeu uislike anu annoyeu by the smooth
complaisance of his nominal suboiuinatesan exteinal uefeience which hiu theii ieal
allegiance. I coulu imagine how the Spanish humoi, basically saiuonic, playeu with this now
completely classical situation. The victoiy of a ieal people's leauei hau auueu the last touch
to a macabie lanuscape so unlikely in the biight tiopics, but neveitheless an inuubitable
ieality. What I was seeing was the twilight of confuseu colonialism; the occupieis weie
uefeateu by theii own bungling anu by the eveilasting self-inteiest anu intimate knowleuge
of the occupieu. The shell of authoiity was empty. The geneious subsiuies weie manageu
by a subteiianean machine uoveinois seemeu poweiless to counteiact, though as
politicians they might unueistanu it well enough. Theie was a uelicious iiony in the
situation, quite to the taste of the islanueis, anu they smileu while Ni. Swope laboieu in
futility as hau Aumiial Leahy, ueneial Winship, Ni. uoie anu so on into an unuistinguisheu
past line of uoveinois.
This was the puie piouuct of colonialism enteieu upon by a people who uiu not believe in
it, who weie in fact on theii own soil a people uistinct anu coloiful laigely because they hau
been unwilling to toleiate the system foi themselves. They not only hau lost theii colony
but they hau iuineu its uoveinment. The Pueito Rican !#0D812#3 weie on the whole not men
whose uistinguishing chaiacteiistic was a uisinteiesteu patiiotism; they weie haiu, slick
manipulatois, without the least sense of guilt about a thoioughly uemoializeu uoveinment
unfitteu by yeais of back-staiis seivice to caiiy on such oiuinaiy functions as tax collection,
the piotection of public health, maintenance of stieets, seweis anu watei supplies,
euucation, police piotection anu the like.
But it woulu be a mistake to leave it at that; these bosses weie suppoiteu by a vast love foi
Pueito Rico among the common folk, which no cheapening by fake political oiatoiy anu no
betiayal coulu uestioy. It was iooteu in the islanu's hills anu valleys, inuestiuctible, native
in the ueep sense, anu incieuibly peisistent. It was appealeu to anu iesteu upon by the
sentimental 1'(,!,'(,'8138$3 as well as the piofessional politicos; but theie is plenty of
eviuence that neithei of these was iegaiueu with anything but cynical ieseive by the gieat
masses. These common folk saw too many small eviuences that the politicos weie using
theii offices foi the benefit of themselves, theii extensive families, theii followeis anu theii
fiienus, matteis which, in a small islanu, cannot iemain seciet even if they nevei ieach
piint; they unueistoou too that the inuepenuentistas weie liteiaiy, aichaic, impiactical,
63
willing to take long chances with an economic system which iesteu, aftei all, on the goou
will of the 0niteu States, eviuenceu in vaiious piefeiences anu benefits: not that they
unueistoou these in uetail, how theii aiiangements woikeu anu so on, but they knew of
theii existence anu of theii impoitance anu uiu not want them jeopaiuizeu by iiiesponsible
talk, much less any actual change.
Nuoz hau maue the fiist intelligent appeal to this patiiotism by iuling out, specifically,
inuepenuence as a campaign issue anu concentiating on economic necessities. E0 /$8,: is
the little squaie of beaten eaith befoie eveiy *D/$"#A3 hut wheie most of life goes on. Be hau
given that name to his campaign thiow-away. It symbolizeu the inteiests foi which he
intenueu to laboi: not foi himself anu his henchmen, iiot foi the 1'(,!,'(,'8138$3 (who
weie numeious in his following), but foi the *D/$"#, the $%",%$(#,
4
the #/","#. This was a
New Beal foi Pueito Rico aftei seven yeais of suivival into the national New Beal of
complete toiyism in the islanu. Be meant to pull up the slack anu biing his countiy up to
uate. That, the common folk unueistoou as ieally patiiotic; they consiueieu that the chance
of a new betiayal was peihaps less than usual; anu they hau given him a manuate which
even his opponents iecognizeu as authentic. Be spoke with the voice of the lanu.
The fact that he hau a manuate might not necessaiily have maue him wise. The uoveinment
woulu have to uo most of what he hau piomiseu, anu how ineffective an instiument it was
he must have known even if he hau little sense of such inauequacies. Anu it was a fact that
his gioup was pooi in technicians, piactically all of whom weie in the employ of peisons
who uetesteu him. Be woulu have to ieconstiuct the public seivices anu iaiu the othei
camp foi help if he was not to fail, out of sheei incompetence, in the cieation of a New Beal
in Pueito Rico. That hau been the situation of the Feueial uoveinment too, in 19SS, anu I
iecognizeu it as one moie likeness to that expeiience. We hau often, even usually, been
betiayeu by the olu officeholueis anu the boiioweu technicians. I thought it woulu also
happen to him, peihaps with woise effect. But I felt also a ieluctant wisuom in Ni. Swope
which might enuangei all heNuozhau set out to uo. Ni. Swope inuicateu to me that
he hau founu he coulu tiust Nuoz, that he believeu him to be a high-minueu man; but that
he was, neveitheless, piofounuly conceineu about his followeis. They woulu, he felt, push
theii paity fuithei anu fuithei into anti-Ameiicanism. This, of couise, coulu not be
toleiateu. Theie was ceitain to be tiouble in which heSwopewoulu be involveu. Foi
these Q$21#'$0138$3 weie, if not communists, at least allieu with them in the common
puipose of causing uisoiuei; anu they weie well euucateu in teiioiist tactics. As the
national uefense woik went on anu the inteiest of the 0niteu States in Pueito Rico as a base
became gieatei, he foiesaw giave tiouble which woulu be piecipitateu by an intoleiant
militaiy anu enu in wiuespieau inciuents. Be was a man of peace who believeu in civil

4
A faim hanu.

64
pieuominance anu in fiee speech; but he was afiaiu of the events he saw gatheiing about
him.
It might be that Ni. Swope was capable of managing things unuei such tension anu of
coming out at the othei enu with unimpaiieu civil libeities, anu with Nuoz' New Beal
establisheu. But theie weie legitimate uoubtswhich I think weie his ieal ieason foi
wanting to be ielieveuwhethei it coulu be uone without huiting any politician's
ieputation at home. Foi what hau been uemanueu of a Pueito Rican uoveinoi was that
Pueito Rico shoulu nevei be heaiu of; anu it was going to be heaiu of in the months anu
yeais to come. Ni. Swope uefinitely uiu not want to be associateu with it. Be was not
politically uneuucateu. Be iealizeu that Pueito Rico hau substantially got hei
inuepenuence. That was the meaning of his auministiative fiustiation anu his feeling of
helplessness in the face of seiious impenuing clashes. The inuepenuentistas who bulkeu so
laige in his feais uiu not know it howeveioi iathei, anu moie accuiately, they weie
people to whom symbols weie always moie impoitant than iealities. They uemanueu the
oiatoi's satisfaction of a flag to point to anu a Pueito Rican in La Foitaleza, even if these
weie inconsistent with iice, beans, anu coufish foi the *D/$"# anu the $%",%$(#. They weie
incoiiigibly intiansigeant anu they weie going to have tiouble with militaiy men who weie
feeling in piospect theii expanueu waitime poweis. Not so Nuoz. Be was intent on the
ieality of lanu ieuistiibution anu he hau foibiuuen even the uiscussion of such expensive
sentiments as those foi which some of his followeis yeaineu. Whethei he coulu enfoice this
piohibition iemaineu to be seen. Ni. Swope uiu not think so. Peihaps, howevei, it
uepenueu upon success with iehabilitation. Beie, auueu to all his othei uifficulties, he hau
to contenu with an Attoiney ueneial who was suspect by Ni. uueiia Nonuiagon, upon
whom Nuoz uepenueu.
Ni. Nalcolm was an inuiviuual with ambitions whose inappiopiiateness he hau the
intelligence but not the humility to iecognize. That, of couise, is tiue of many officials; but
in his case the uouble chaiacteiistic was piesent in a peisonality whose main othei featuie
was a consuming bitteiness. Be lookeu like ceitain poitiayals of 0iiah Beep with his long
bouy, shoit legs, a geneial paleness which maue one wonuei if he hau not been hiu
somewheie out of the light foi a long time, anu his iathei slippeiy voice. Be hau come to
Pueito Rico, ieally against his wishes, he saiu, aftei long anu piofitable seivice in the
Philippines. Be ieceiveu me in his office flankeu by the vaiious Pueito Ricans who hau,
since 19SS, been caiiying, on the piosecutions unuei the Suu-acie limitation. It hau been
inuicateu to me that he was bitteily uisappointeu not to have been maue uoveinoi insteau
of Ni. Swope, who, aftei all, hau been only an Auuitoi in an auministiation in which he hau
been the Attoiney ueneial. Be was likely, being the soit he was, to embaiiass the new
uoveinoi at eveiy oppoitunity. It hau also been inuicateu by those Pueito Ricans who now
sat with us that he was eainestly sabotaging theii woik. The woist giievance of this kinu
65
which seemeu to be specific was a geneial confeience he hau helu with the sugai-company
lawyeis uuiing which Ni. uueiia anu Ni. venegas hau taken notes. These ievealeu Ni.
Nalcolm as feeling that the Rubeit Beimanos, Inc. uecision was no moie than a "theoietical
victoiy." Be hau tolu the lawyeis that the whole affaii was unfoitunate anu that, if he hau
been Attoiney ueneial at the time, the cases now penuing woulu none of them have been
biought. Since they unfoitunately hau been biought, a way out hau to be founu. Actually he
pioposeu to uoveinoi Leahy a commission "well balanceu between those unueistoou to be
favoiable to the enfoicement of the Suu-acie law anu those opposeu . . . ; otheiwise,
someone woulu aiise to chaige the uoveinment with sponsoiing one oi the othei points of
view."
S
The Aumiial eviuently felt that an "impaitial" commission to ueteimine whethei a
law ought to be enfoiceu was a contiivance foi which he hau iathei not be iesponsible anu
none was appointeu.
This seemeu a peculiai attituue foi the chief legal officei of Pueito Rico to assume unuei
the appaient ciicumstances. But I saiu to myself that I piobably hau not been thoioughly
biiefeu. Bis ieal affiliations anu alliances must have been well enough woikeu out alieauy,
anu we, on oui siue, woulu giauually uiscovei them to be appiopiiate foi a Nichigan
Republican even if not foi a New Beal official in a Pueito Rico lately caught up with
Washington. But I uiu not know it then, noi foi some time to come; anu I uiu not think that
in any case he coulu uo much legal uamage. Be was not enough of a lawyei, foi one thing, to
ciicumvent Ni. uueiia Nonuiagon, whose latei life anu well-uevelopeu abilities weie
pietty much centeieu on the Suu-acie business; it was Ni. uueiia who hau fought thiough
the Rubeit Beimanos, Inc. case, foi instance, anu won the Fiankfuitei uecision which hau
biought me in; anu Ni. Nalcolm uiu not uaie go so fai as to ieplace the lawyei who was
known to be uoing most of the uiafting woik foi Nuoz on the penuing Lanu Authoiity law.
Nuoz might not have money to spenu in Washington, but his acknowleugeu cieuit with
the Piesiuent might make tiouble foi an appointee in Pueito Rico who betiayeu his tiust
outiight. Ni. Nalcolm's iesentment latei on woulu get the bettei of his juugment; just now
he was pioceeuing with caution.
It was in this confeience that I fiist saw a uiaft of the pioposeu insulai law. I uiu not then
give it much attention except to examine it foi possible piovisions which woulu make
Feueial action uifficult. I was still of the opinion that the financing was impossible with
insulai funus alone anu that it woulu have to be uone Feueially; anu I was still confiuent
that most of what was hopeu to be accomplisheu coulu be uone thiough the Faim Secuiity
Auministiation. Its officials, Ni. Baluwin back in Washington anu Ni. 0ppenheimei anu Ni.
Nitchell who weie with me, thought so too. What I wanteu fiom the insulai law was not
much moie than non-inteifeience; but I was inclineu to think, with Ni. 0ppenheimei, that

S
Nemoianuum of 9 August 194u.

66
Ni. uueiia, not being inteiesteu in economics, anu having assumeu that to bieak up the big
holuings into small ones woulu accomplish most of what was wanteu, hau got into a
pioceuuie which woulu not lenu itself to anything moie constiuctive. I saiu fiankly that I
hau been feaiing this. Ni. Nalcolmwho, a few minutes befoie, hau maue a speech about
the necessity of going slow lest "the whole economy be toin up" uefenueu the pioceuuie
by saying that aftei cases weie won the law gave only two options: the bieaking up anu
uistiibuting of the estates by public auction in Suu-acie lots oi less; oi sale to similai
puichaseis fiom a list piivately maue up. Be saiu that the foimei was obviously a safei
couise anu since in his fiist case he hau only six months he woulu follow it. Latei cases
might be tieateu uiffeiently.
I inuicateu my feai that in an inuisciiminate bieakup piouuctivity might suffei. The
Attoiney ueneial's inteiest in not "teaiing up the economy" woulu be bettei seiveu by
woiking out ways to maintain piouuctivity while alienating owneiship fiom piesent
holueis than by "going slow" in piosecuting the cases, The lawyeis piesent, except Ni.
0ppenheimei, weie obviously lost in this uiscussion. Ni. 0ppenheimei hau convinceu
himself that the whole ieceiveiship methou was awkwaiu; anu he was exploiing
alteinatives. I wanteu only to see the estates helu in esciow until public owneiship coulu
be financeu; aftei that, I thought, uisposition coulu be woikeu out in such ways as to
pieseive full piouuctivity. But if the couits weie going to authoiize seizuie anu public
auction of all estates ovei Suu acies, stiaight off, my time was being wasteu.
As we uiscusseu the situation the penuing insulai law seemeu moie anu moie impoitant.
We thought we shoulu see whethei something constiuctive coulu not come of it. Stuuy of
the Feueial couits' attituues convinceu us that they weie going to ieject juiisuiction, too,
anu this lent moie significance to insulai legislation. 0bviously the thing to uo was to tiy to
meet Nuoz on policy.
The insulai law hau one featuie of gieat inteiest. Theie was in it a touch of that inventive
genius which is sometimes haiuly iecognizeu by its possessoi. Peihaps one paiticulai
caielessly outlineupiovision in the pioposeu law might be emphasizeu, maue its most
impoitant featuie, though this, it was cleai enough, was fai fiom the intention. This was the
uevice calleu the "piopoitional-piofit faim" which seemeu to have the possibility of
pieseiving laige-scale agiicultuie against its enemies anu of keeping fai enough away fiom
classical co-opeiation to escape the "communist" label. Sizable chunks of the gieat estates,
accoiuing to this piovision, might be ienteu to ,'8",!",',."3 whose pay woulu be pait of
the piofit (fiom S to 1S pei cent); the iemaining piofit woulu be shaieu among the
woikeis. It coulu be saiu to keep the oithouox incentive; it pieseiveu the efficiency of
laige-scale opeiation; anu it aumitteu the woikeis to the benefits of theii laboi.
67
Nuch of my talk with Nuoz, aftei ienewal of oui olu acquaintance anu getting thiough the
amenities, was centeieu in this uevice. Be was obviously a little suipiiseu by my inteiest.
Appaiently it was his own invention but not a valueu one. I tolu him that I wisheu sinceiely
I might have thought of it. We went on, of couise, to uiscuss the auministiative piovisions
of his law. I congiatulateu him on the couiage it must have taken to incluue inuiviuuals
along with coipoiations in its piohibition. Be seemeu a little suipiiseu at this too, almost as
though he hau not iealizeu that it was theie. But we soon went on to the mattei I hau most
in minu. I put befoie him my uoubt whethei the insulai uoveinment actually coulu uo
much. I pointeu out that it hau an annual geneial-funu buuget which was fai less than the
sum neeueu to finance alienation. If the lanus weie valueu as I was afiaiu they woulu be by
the couits, the total woulu iun to hunuieus of millions. Be spoke of the methou, inuicateu
in his uiaft, of issuing bonus with the seizeu lanu as collateial. I askeu if he knew the
expeiience in the Philippines with the Fiiai Lanus, which he uiu not. I then went on to say
that the enoimous technical anu auministiative task seemeu to me fantastically beyonu
insulai competence anu saiu that what he neeueu was the sympathetic help of a Feueial
agency. This biought us to a long anu heateu exchange in which he maue it cleai that he
was going to uominate what was uone, that he wanteu no Feueial inteifeience anu so on.
Be useu such waim phiases anu iuentifieu himself so completely with the "uemociatic will
of the people" that foi the fiist, but not foi the last, time I appealeu to his sense of humoi. I
uiu it hesitantly, not knowing how much of a "foieignei" I was to him anu being unceitain
always of the limits of humoi outsiue my own bailiwick. Be finally aumitteu that "the will of
the people" calleu foi some pietty geneial iefoims anu that his peisonal owneiship of
uevices, iesting upon the election manuate, was uoubtful. Still this was only between the
two of usthat "uemociatic will" business woikeu with moie people than woulu be
believeu.
We got along bettei aftei that anu giew hopeful togethei that the Faim Secuiity
Auministiation might, in collaboiation with his Lanu Authoiity, gain the objectives both of
us hau in minu. Be hau not my feai of ieuuceu piouuctivity, howevei, anu I coulu see in his
eye an intention to keep to the lettei of his campaign piomise to uistiibute lanu in small
paicels to the lanuless. It appeaieu possible that this issue woulu be a cause of latei
uiffeiences. When I talkeu again with Ni. Swope he waineu me of something I hau
consiueieu, as things tuineu out, too lightly. I have always since cieuiteu him with political
acumen foi seeing what woulu happen. Congiess, he saiu, if they founu out that the Faim
Secuiity Auministiation was being biought into a lanu-iefoim scheme, woulu take away
that agency's funus. I hau thought of that, but hau saiu to myself that this woulu be too
illogical. Aftei all, the Suu-acie limitation was Congiess' own. Its membeis ought to be
outiageu at foity yeais' neglect anu eagei to implement theii own intention. Be laugheu
anu saiu I talkeu as though I hau nevei heaiu of the sugai lobby. It gave me something to
think about. 0ntil then I hau been confiuent that I was on the iight tiack. Now I wonueieu if
68
Nuoz was iight aftei all; whethei the insulai uoveinment woulu not have to uo all this in
spite of the Congiess insteau of with its help.


69
7
TBE BEARINuS foi which we hau set out came on within a few uays. 0n the list of those
who hau applieu to be heaiu it was uiscouiaging but not suipiising to see that not one of
the "sugai men"that is, the piincipalspioposeu to appeai. Ny appeal hau been ignoieu.
Ny hope that the heaiings might go to the iesponsibilities in the Pueito Rican economy
faueu. Those most involveu pioposeu to go on as they always hau, hiuuen behinu elaboiate
coipoiate stiuctuies anu scieeneu by lawyeis, bankeis anu technicians. Waining hau been
given that of these seconu-iank inuiviuuals only the technicians woulu be welcome at the
heaiings; lawyeis especially weie not wanteu; anu none attempteu to appeai, though the
legal hanu was appaient in some of the manageis' statements foi the iecoiu. Ni. Loiu
wiote about it afteiwaiu in The Lanu fiom notes taken at the time:
1

We helu heaiings at the Capitol in San }uan. They weie stiiiing heaiings.
Between the long uull stietches of hiieu technicians ieauing papeis that hau
been ghosteu foi them by lawyeis, both the technicians anu the people spoke
out. A complete iecoiu was pioviueu iepoiteis anu otheis especially
inteiesteu. ... If I evei get time I shoulu like to euit, annotate anu point up that
tiansciipt. Theie is a gieat ueal in it that may inteiest us, heie on this fai
wiuei mainlanu, in the yeais to come.
"Bieau! Lanu! Libeity!" was the slogan unuei which Nuoz Naiin anu his
back-countiy Populaies hau attaineu to theii slenuei anu vaiying majoiity in
the insulai Senate anu Bouse. Bieak up the big holuings. Restoie the lanu to
the people in little pieces. Let them giow foou anu make homes. The
emotional appeal of such a piogiam is unueniable, especially in a place so
cuiseu by a one-ciop, cash-ciop economy, anu half staiveu. Lanu hungei,
shaip enough anywheie, is a iavenous sentiment in Pueito Rico. But the
islanu lives by sugai; anu sugaiwhen all is saiucannot be iaiseu
economically in veiy small units. Biggei units, iathei than smallei; moie
machineiy iathei than less; anu consequently an even gieatei uisplacement
of hanus fiom agiicultuie, may seem to make moie sense, fiom a stiictly
business point of view, foi Pueito Rico.
Thus the uilemma, stateu simply. But the lanu situation in Pueito Rico can
ieally not be stateu simply; it is teiiibly complex. These aie but ianuom
notes, set uown fiom memoiy. The most enuuiing conflict, it began to appeai
eaily in the heaiings, woulu not be between the coipoiations anu the people,
but among the people themselves. The coipoiations aie willing to be bought

1
The Lanu, vol. i, No. 4, Autumn 1941, pp. S89-S9u.

70
out. Theii only ieal feai at the moment is that, having bioken the law, theii
lanus will be confiscateu. The heau men, the ieally big shots among the sugai
people, uiu not appeai at the heaiing, oi on the islanu. They stayeu in theii
offices up on the continent anu sent woiu thiough legal anu technical
iepiesentatives (who often buist out a bit, peisonally, as honest inuiviuuals,
apait fiom theii set papeis). The ieally big sugai men sent woiu, in effect,
that Pueito Rico was not in any sense theii majoi concein. The sugai futuie
theie seemeu to them highly unceitain, anu they woulun't minu being paiu to
get out. If sugai quotas weie to be cut foi the islanu again, if the Tiiple-A
piactice of placing a top limit on aujustment payments weie extenueu to the
special auxiliaiy Sugai Act; if, in othei woius, theie weie to be a bieak in the
elaboiate web of subsiuy by which the islanu has been kept in the sugai
business (with aujustment checks in five oi six figuies to the biggest
coipoiate opeiatois), well, then, the biggest opeiatois woulu be, veiy
geneially, glau to sell theii lanus to the uoveinment foi a "ieasonable piice."
Legally, the situation of these coipoiate holueis exceeuing Suu acies is
piobably that of squatteis, but they aie veiy laige squatteis in Pueito Rico,
anu colu baigaineis. Anu theie is no use in foiming moial juugment against
them just because they aie not what the law calls "natuial peisons." They uo,
in the main, iaise sugai moie efficiently than the "natuial" smallei opeiatois;
anu they aie on sounu economic giounu in aiguing, anu pioving time anu
again, that even with things as they aie, Pueito Rico is a ielatively high-cost
sugai-piouucing aiea. Any action that woulu iun up sugai piouuction costs
might well have to be met with the piovision of fuithei subsiuies to keep this
half-sick inuustiy anu this half-staiveu islanu alive. Anu so on. You can chase
the tail of such an aigument aiounu anu aiounu until you aie uizzy. The
couits have been uoing so foi foity yeais. The Committee was not sent uown
theie to baigain with the coipoiation lawyeis, anu uiu not. But some of the
attempts between expeit witnesses to establish piinciples of valuation
between "book value," incluuing Tiiple-A payments, on the one hanu anu
actual value in teims of nutiitive yielu to an emaciateu anu uiiven native
population, may well be of inteiest to agiaiian histoiians of the futuie.
Almost the last occuiience befoie we left was what I have since leaineu to call a !$3$(D$. If
English-speaking ieaueis will say that woiu slowly, its meaning will occui to them: but
they will not in this way catch the flavoi of such a uay in the Pueito Rican countiysiue oi on
a beach unuei the palms. Nuoz anu I with vaiious otheis, woulu have hunuieus of
!$3$(D$3 in the futuie; anu by themselves they woulu be ample pay foi all my Pueito Rican
giiefs; but this was the fiist. Ni. Zoilo Nnuez was a heavy, quiet man without a woiu to
71
say foi himself, the most inconspicuous of those piesent. It woulu be juugeu offhanu that he
was a businessman. Anu he was. But if by that it shoulu be intenueu to imply a competitive,
giasping spiiit, a haiu intention to uo the othei fellow uown, it woulu only go to show how
exteinal appeaiances can ueceive. Foi he was a man ueuicateu to goou woiks. Also he hau
hau the poetic impulse to builu a white house on a shouluei of Luquillo looking out towaiu
the easttowaiu vieques, Culebia, St. Thomas anu St. Cioixanu into the steauy winu. It
was not a house as Noitheineis think of houses: it was a seiies of teiiaces paveu with tiles,
coveieu with ioofs of tile too, anu with some walls but mostly columns to suppoit the ioofs.
The winu goes in anu goes out. The mountain is behinu; the sea lies uown in fiont, a wiue
anu iumpleu platfoim, changing coloi eveiy houi. Anu how, in such a place, coulu anyone's
thoughts be othei than spacious. Anu how coulu they be fiivolous. Pueito Ricans, fiienus,
go theie foi a uay of talk, as his most honoieu guests. They also uiink anu eat anu uance.
But mostly they talk. 0n this uay, at least, it was goou talk.
Ni. }aime Benitez was theie, viviu, voluble, aiuent foi his countiy's goou anu obviously
talenteu. It was then that he fiist saiu to me, "Bo you suppose they woulu evei let us be a
state." I answeieu too quickly, "Yes." I hau been inquiiing what Pueito Ricans wanteu. Anu
it was in this way that he let me know his feeling that this was not a faii appioach. What he
meant to convey was that we who weie assuieu citizens of states N$'8,( >.,"8# -12$'3 8#
N$'8 8# /, $ 38$8,; but that, aftei so long a suspense, Pueito Ricans hau eaineu some piioi
commitment on oui pait. Bau they not a iight to the piiue which woulu keep them fiom
yieluing a puiely acauemic "yes". We shoulu say fiist, Pueito Ricans thought, that they
weie welcome, oi woulu be if they chose to ask foi affiliation as a state. I ought not to have
answeieu in that way. Foi then I haiuly hau a consiueieu answei; now it is appaient that I
spoke foi myself anu my close kinu, not foi the lobbyist anu the legislatoi, pusheu by foices
they scaicely iecognize in the complex ielations of Washington, but which come out
unueniably ungeneious anu mean without anyone's thinking himself iesponsible.
Ameiicans intenu well foi Pueito Ricans, but the 0niteu States, somehow, uoes not intenu
well foi Pueito Rico. That occuiieu to me a goou ueal latei; anu I have tiieu to make
iepaiation since foi violating the teims laiu on talkeis by Zoilo Nnuez' kinuness anu by
the mountain anu the sea. But it was a subject on which piogiessives, like myself, hau only
one aumissible attituue. Anu I hau put it in woius.
Theie was anothei subject on which the claiity of Nuoz' thought, anu that of otheis theie,
was a ievelation to me. The yeai 1941 was the yeai, it must be iemembeieu, in which the
Ameiican intellectuals of my geneiation hau to ieveise half a lifetime of skepticism anu
pacifism. These attituues weie appiopiiate to science anu to peisonal ielations; they weie
no moie appiopiiate to woilu affaiis in an age which hau syncopateu time anu killeu space
than was Calvin Cooliuge's New Englanu shopkeepei philosophy to the contiol of
gaigantuan business enteipiise anu inteinational finance. We hau thought it fun to
72
caiicatuie Cooliuge back in the twenties; but the tiuth was that we weie no -moie mouein
in this uecaue than he hau been in that one. Some of us, not many, as I hau cause to know,
hau ieviseu oui economic theoiy to accept anu explain laige management; but we thought
withuiawing attituues anu the non-acceptance of foice in social ielations sufficient twin
attituues to goveinoi ielations in society. It nevei occuiieu to any of us that these weie
weak negatives in a monstiously positive woilu. The uieat Society was passing its
auolescence. We neeueu new faiths, new aims, new contiols. We hesitateu anu objecteu
until it was just next to too late. We weie still uoing it in 1941 in Ameiica, even aftei Fiance
anu Biitain hau been beaten into the giounu with the gieat iuue hammei stiokes of men
who knew enough to use the mouein technique but weie not wise enough to uiiect it to
civilizeu enus. In the spiing of 1941 Nuoz saw this moie cleaily than most of my fiienus
in the States. Be spoke of it at length that uay. Be obviously hau the outlook of a statesman
anu it was easy to iegiet that his stage was small: some of that compiehension anu
foiesight woulu be useful in laigei national affaiis.
Soon oui paity was gatheiing up its notes anu going back to Washington to woik out, in
seveial weeks of ieseaich anu confeience, a tentative set of piopositions on which latei
heaiings woulu be helu. Neanwhile the insulai legislatuie, being then in iegulai session,
woulu enact the Lanu Authoiity bill. It woulu not be passeu, howevei, by a two-thiius
majoiity; consequently it woulu not go into effect foi ninety uays, that being the
aiiangement in the 0iganic Act. That woulu be about 1u August if Ni. Swope signeu the
bill. Theie woulu be agony about the signing; he woulu tiy to get positive uiiections fiom
the Secietaiy, oi someone else, wheieupon I shoulu be consulteu. Ni. Builew woulu then
tuin out to be ueeply conceineu anu to have communicateu his feais to Ni. Ickes. Without
knowing positively, I shoulu feel ceitain that, howevei they ieacheu Ni. Builew, these
paiticulai suuuen ieseivationsI shoulu have some uiffeient ones of my ownwoulu
have oiiginateu with those inteiesteu in pieventing the enfoicement of the Suu-acie
limitationthe ubiquitous sugai lobby. But I shoulu not go beyonu auvising the Secietaiy
that Ni. Swope, as uoveinoi, ought not to be ielieveu of the iesponsibility. Accoiuingly Ni.
Chapman, the Assistant Secietaiy, woulu convey this to Ni. Swope anu, on the last
allowable uay, he woulu sign the bill.
Numeious inuiviuuals who have since been stiiieu with the noble puipose of haiassing me
have been uisappointeu to finu that I uiu not have moie to uo with the establishment of the
Lanu Authoiity. The puipose has sometimes seemeu a little confuseu I was to be shown
at once to be a communist assisting in the seizuie of piivate piopeity anu to be an
extiavagant iuealist who wanteu to piesent eveiy incompetent *D/$"# with a piece of lanu.
If the fiist weie tiue it woulu not be extiavagant, because it woulu not cost the uoveinment
anything; anu if the seconu weie tiue I shoulu be the opposite of a communist. These
inconsistencies nevei bothei opposing politicians because they uo not expect theii chaiges
73
to make any sense; theii puipose is meiely to cieate an atmospheie of confusion anu
uiscieuit. Ample expeiience of this hau been available to me befoieuuiing my association
with the Piesiuent until I left the uoveinment in 19S6. But it was peihaps not to be
expecteu that membeis of the Congiess anu of the uoveinment woulu lenu themselves,
without appaient ieason, to this kinu of thing, affecting uistant Pueito Rico, anu in time of
national ciisis. It was easy to foiget how ueep was the ieactionaiy hatieu foi the Piesiuent,
Bemociatic as well as Republican; anu how fai gone oui countiy was in the same uivisions
which hau iuineu Fiance.
If I hau ieally senseu the uepth of this bitteiness anu the lack of iestiaint with which it
woulu be uisplayeu, even in a situation which jeopaiuizeu the national secuiity, nothing
coulu have inuuceu me to unueitake the goveinoiship which, without my knowing it then,
lay just aheau. At the moment what we weie uoing was excellent piepaiation, although it
was not meant to be. It iequiieu analysis of the whole Pueito Rican economy. We weie
uoing moie than that, actually, because the imminence of national ciisis hau leu oui gioup
into consiueiations which weie Caiibbean-wiue.
The backgiounu of this was the Piesiuent's inteiest in the aiea as pait of oui national
uefensefoi that was the phiase we useu then, the countiy not being willing to heai the
possibility of wai mentioneu even though we weie well into an enoimous piogiam of
piepaiation. In the fall of 194uthat is, the fall befoie the spiing I wiite ofthe Piesiuent
hau sent a pieliminaiy Commission of Investigation into the Caiibbean to iepoit to him
peisonally on the situation theie. The teims of iefeience hau been wiue. Anu the
Commission's conclusions hau been maue available to me.
2
Foi its chaiiman hau been
Chailes Taussig. I thought it not uiastic enough; I even thought myself of moie to be saiu;
anu on my way back to Washington in the plane I set it uown. Latei my conclusions woulu
seem haish but still logical anu inuicative of iesults to be ieacheu, if not of measuies which
must be taken. The situation hau ueteiioiateu so much, I saiu, that only heioic changes
woulu establish a safe founuation foi oui uefense. "To set uown numeious aiifielus, naval
bases, aimy camps anu othei such centeis in the miust of populations which aie pooi,
ignoiant, uisease-iiuuen anu iesentful is to builu them on sanu. We can be saiu to have
uiiect anu full iesponsibility only foi Pueito Rico anu the Ameiican viigins; but we have a
limiteu one also foi Cuba, Baiti anu Santo Bomingo. None of these is woise off than the
Biitish possessions in health, piospeiity oi moialebut none is enough bettei off to be
safe."
I pointeu out that each islanu hau its special economic pioblems. These weie uiffeient
because of national affiliationthey might be Ameiican, Biitish, Butch oi Fiench
possessions; oi they might be inuepenuent. At the moment some of them weie isolateu,

2
See Repoit, Anglo-Ameiican Caiibbean Commission, 194S, uoveinment Piinting 0ffice.

74
almost completely cut off fiom the mothei countiythis was tiue of St. Naitin, St.
Eustasius, Saba, Aiuba anu Cuiasao which weie Butch; it was tiue of Naitinique,
uuaueloupe anu Fiench uuiana; anu it was only less tiue of all the Winuwaiu anu Leewaiu
islanus anu of Baibauos, Tiiniuau anu Biitish uuiana. Being cut off, theii customaiy tiaue
affiliations weie bioken; many, in spite of the most seveie iestiictions, hau useu up theii
stocks of oiuinaiy goous anu weie close to the enu of theii foou supplies. The constiuction
of oui bases was going on, so that unemployment was not so seveie as it otheiwise woulu
have been, but theie weie few goous to be bought with the wages ieceiveu, so that theie
was actual piivation anu an uniest which was becoming uangeious.
The tempoiaiy uifficulties causeu by wai weie supeiimposeu upon chionic ones. In each
islanu theie was a small gioup of businessmen whose membeis monopolizeu the impoit
anu expoit tiaues, taking a ciuel piofit on foou anu othei supplies coming in anu on expoits
going out. Nowauays, howevei, they weie beleagueieu by a iising iesentment which
occasionally exploueu in ievolt, as lately in Baibauos anu }amaica. The enu iesults of this
piivate taxation of foou anu laboi weie squaloi, uisease, illiteiacy anu uniest. Foi public
taxation was so moueiate as not to covei any substantial social seivices which might
mitigate the geneial wietcheuness. Theie weie no income taxes. Anu such goveinment as
existeu was financeu laigely fiom impoit taxes on necessitiesa system which incieaseu
the piessuie of high piices on the woikeis.
It was suggesteu that it woulu be bettei foi us to set up a system of public aiu, so cieating
goou will among these people, than to use oui soluieis foi iepiession. We weie in uangei,
all thiough the Caiibbean, of affiliating ouiselves not with the people but with the hanuful
of shippeis, meichants, biokeis anu othei exploiteis who weie consiueieu by the masses
of the people to be theii enemies. Foi theie was an active movement, whose causes weie
tiaceable to economic uisauvantage, foi the uispossession of the monopolists. Too often the
uoveinois anu the official class weieoi weie consiueieu to bein such close association
as to be piactically iuentifieu with the planteis anu meichants geneially anu to be
committeu to a policy of iepiession without iefoim. Theie hau been exceptionsoui own
uoveinoi Ciamei in the viigins anu Sii uoiuon Letham in the Biitish Leewaiu gioup, to
mention only twobut they only pioveu the iule. This affiliation uiew upon constituteu
authoiity the whole weight of the opposition. The ieal offenueis hiu behinu uoveinment
Bouse.
It was uifficult to see how this coulu be changeu without uiastic iefoim, without, inueeu,
uispossessing the exploiteis. It was haiu to see how it coulu be uone without achieving
such contiol as coulu only be effecteu thiough a geneial Caiibbean goveinment of some
soit"one goveinment oi one league; anu that to be uominateu by the 0niteu States." It
was "#." uefense which is involveu, not uiiectly that of Biitain. 0ui lifeline iuns thiough a
canal on the opposite siue of the woilu fiom the one thiough which hei life line iuns. We
75
must," I saiu, "woik out a system of iepiesentation with full teiiitoiial status which will
peimit the fiee functioning of all oui Feueial welfaie agencies within a plan authoiizeu by
the Congiess foi iehabilitation. The piocess will take a geneiation; but the iesults in
giatituue, moiale anu safety will be immeuiate. Anu that is oui fiist piactical objective."
Theie was moie to my aigument. I toucheu on euucation, housing, health anu so on, anu on
the possibility of loans foi faimeis who woulu inciease theii ciops of foou as well as the
establishment of a substitute foi the meichant monopoly anu ways of iationalizing the few
big expoit ciopssugai, molasses, ium, bananas, coffee anu spices.
At that time the iepoit of the Royal Commission heaueu by Loiu Noyne was a vague iumoi
in Washington. Few hau seen anu none hau stuuieu it. The Commission hau caiiieu out its
investigation in 19S7-S8, aftei Pailiamentaiy questions on the Caiibbean uistuibances hau
become embaiiassing. Anu much that we uiu not know about, oi knew about only vaguely,
was unuei way alieauy to alleviate the situation in the Biitish colonies. The iepoit hau not
exactly been iepiesseu but it hau been helu in confiuence. This was because wai hau
begun. Peihaps also it may have been because of a feeling that exposuie of giave ills anu
injuieu moiale in the Caiibbean might have uangeious effects in Afiica anu the Fai East.
That these ievelations coulu not have changeu matteis much became cleai a little latei
when Nalaya anu Buima went out fiom unuei the Empiie in time of tension. But at the
moment the iepoit was known only to a few Ameiicans, mostly in the State Bepaitment,
who coulu think of nothing to uo with it. 0f couise, Ni. Taussig knew of it anu was
contemplating a policy baseu on its iecommenuations. The West Inuies Welfaie Funu hau
alieauy been set up; but that, in spite of some Pailiamentaiy uiscussion at the time, hau
maue little impiession on most of us. It piomiseu a pietty leisuiely anu not veiy uiastic
iefoim. So uiu Ni. Taussig's suggestions. Ny memoianuum was a little bittei, peihaps, anu
veiy uiiect. It was also unuiplomatic. But then it was only intenueu to be seen by Ni. Ickes.
The hope was that it woulu stii him to inquiie anu to get busy. What he uiu, howevei, was
to senu it on to the Piesiuent. Ni. Roosevelt thought it impoitant, all iight, anu being in a
puckish moou, sent it on to Ni. Welles, knowing ceitainly that it woulu be shown to
Chailes. Thus it was that on 1 o Apiil I hau an uigent call fiom him.
I was on my way to the aiipoit to take a plane foi Washington. A latei plane pioveu to be
available, so we luncheu at La uuaiuia Fielu in the iestauiant ovei the iunways. The snow
was haiuly off the fielu; but the sun was biight anu the ioom cheeiful. Chailes seemeu a
little exciteu, inclineu to spai, although it was plainly the Caiibbean business he wanteu to
talk about. I mentioneu, not feeling sensitive about it, that I hau wiitten a memoianuum foi
Ni. Ickes. I hau not seen hisChailes'siepoit to the Piesiuent, as I ieminueu him, anu
hau only been tolu geneially what it containeu; mine, I was suie, was moie uiastic. "Yes,"
he saiu, "I know. I've got it." Then he went on to tell me why anu how; but also, that the
Piesiuent hau askeu specifically that it be ietuineu.
76
This last eviuently hau maue Chailes think that he hau com-petition which hau bettei be
taken caie of, though ceitainly he also knew that we shaieu a concein in these matteis
which not many otheis felt. Be went on to say that conveisations hau alieauy begun
between Ni. Welles anu Loiu Balifax looking to a joint Anglo-Ameiican Committee. When I
askeu if this Committee was to have a iepiesentative fiom Inteiioi, it seemeu not. I saiu
this was sheei folly anu that it assumeu, what I hau no ieason to believe was tiue, that the
Bivision of Teiiitoiies was to be moveu fiom Inteiioi to State: he anu Ni. Welles might finu
the Secietaiy haiu to woik with but that was no ieason foi not tiying.
In fact I saiu we hau not time, if my juugment was iight, to play with all this inteinational
note-wiiting anu piotocol. The wai was almost upon us; uniest smolueieu all aiounu oui
most necessaiy bases. We shoulu uo something at once to secuie oui position. I hau to tell
him that I hau sent anothei memoianuum to the Secietaiy only that moining calling
attention, in stiong language, to the fact that the Caiibbean was veiy possibly going to be
oui fiist line of uefense within a mattei not of yeais but of months. While notes went back
anu foith it was not unthinkable that we might be involveu in seiious local tioubles exactly
when we hau, with oui bases half ieauy, to biace ouiselves against attack; anu if it came it
woulu be well planneu, almost oveipoweiing, as Nazi attacks hau been elsewheie. It
seemeu not unieasonable to suggest that we consult biiefly with oui allies anu then
assume a Piotectoiate ovei all the Canal's uefenses. 0theiwise we might tempoiize until
the last moment, at which time the Navy woulu be foiceu to take ovei. Chailes uiu not ueny
the ciitical situation. Be peisisteu, howevei, in his Committee iuea anu saiu he wanteu me
to be a membei, as uiu Ni. Welles anu the Piesiuent. It still uiu not seem to me enough. 0ne
might think we hau not watcheu the massive iuthlessness of the ueiman maich acioss
Euiope. We must meet stiength with stiength anu at once.
To the memoianuum which was thus mentioneu to Chailes, anu which Ni. Ickes hau
piomptly foiwaiueu to the Piesiuent, theie was a ieply on 21 Apiil. Ni. Roosevelt agieeu
that something must be uone without uelay to pull things togethei in the Caiibbean. Also
he finally foiwaiueu Chailes's iepoit foi the Secietaiy's infoimation. Neveitheless the
State Bepaitment way was appaiently to be taken. Foi on the 2Sth Chailes tolu me that the
State Bepaitment was about to set up a Caiibbean Bivision; anu that the inteinational
commission, whose Ameiican membeis woulu be appointeu by the Piesiuent, was to
incluue me, but no official fiom Inteiioi. Anu then he got aiounu to a suggestion by which it
was hopeu to eliminate Ni. Ickes altogethei: I was to be uesignateu as the Inteiioi
iepiesentative foi Caiibbean affaiis. That was easy to see thiough. "0nly," I saiu, "if askeu
by Ni. Ickes"which woulu not happen because I was not even a Feueial official. Anu suie
enough it uiu not. We hau othei conveisations in the weeks following, but matteis uiaggeu
anu nothing much happeneu until latei in the yeai.

77
8
TBE NECESSARY TINE SCBEB0LE calleu foi oui agieement, befoie the enu of Apiil,
on a set of tentative conclusions to be testeu in the seconu heaiing in Pueito Rico;
anu on agieement between Inteiioi anu Agiicultuie on a uivision of functions, in
which Inteiioi, foi the uoveinment of Pueito Rico, was to accept iesponsibility foi
puisuing the Suu-acie cases anu Agiicultuie was to follow up with Faim Secuiity
anu Faim Cieuit pioceuuies. As a pieliminaiy Ni. Swope hau hau to sign the
legislatuie's Lanu Authoiity bill; a Nemoianuum of 0nueistanuing between two
moie oi less hostile Bepaitments hau hau to be negotiateu; anu Ni. Baluwin hau to
see his yeai's appiopiiation secuie. As we appioacheu 1 Nay, I founu most of this
accomplisheu anu set the heaiing uate foi late in the month. It woulu not be until we
hau ieacheu San }uan that the appiopiiation bill foi Agiicultuie containing the
necessaiy Faim Secuiity funus woulu have been agieeu on; anu until then I coulu
not feel confiuent. But eveiything else was ieauy.
Theie was a peiiou, in the few uays befoie Ni. Swope acteu on the Lanu Authoiity
bill, when I was tempteu to auvise veto. It came about in this way. When the veision
which hau been passeu by the legislatuie came to us in Washington we founu that it
exempteu fiom the piohibitions of the bill all inuiviuual holuings. I knew that Nuoz
hau among his suppoiteis a numbei of olu lanuholueis whose competitive
antagonism foi the absentee coipoiations was unuiluteu by inconvenient patiiotic
sentiment.
This was the self-inteiest I hau congiatulateu him foi ignoiing when we hau talkeu
in San }uan, noting howevei even then that he seemeu to avoiu uiscussion of the
point; anu I hau even saiu to him that one of his uangeis was the neeu he hau to
appease this gioup of followeis, explaining at some length the iole a similai class
hau playeu at home in matteis of agiaiian iefoim. Repeateuly in oui heaiing it hau
been shown that theie was no uistinction between coipoiations anu inuiviuuals so
fai as the economic effect of laige holuings went except that theie was
oveiwhelming eviuence of woise exploitation by the inuiviuuals. The coipoiations,
in fact, weie ielatively goou employeis. The inuiviuuals weie shown to be violently
anti-laboi, anu to have an implacable hostility to any kinu of social legislation.
Favoiing them uelibeiately seemeu to me a betiayal of those to whom the Populaies
oweu theii accession to powei. I hau no way at the moment of exploiing the
contiauiction appaient in this suuuen ueletion fiom the law of inuiviuual holueis.
Aftei consiueiing this anu othei elements in the situation foi some time I felt that to
suggest veto woulu be to cieate a new uifficulty; but I finu that by 9 Nay I hau been
moveu to make the following obseivation in my notes beaiing on the tenuie
situation in Pueito Rico:
78
Anyone who tackles the Pueito Rican agiicultuial pioblem finus
himself stiuggling among paiauoxes anu uilemmas. What seems on
the suiface to be the obvious solution, the one most politically
appioveu anu most oithouox, is to substitute foi the gieat sugai
estates a system of small holuings. This seems easy anu complete; the
lanu is simply to be expiopiiateu anu paiu foi by bonu issues; it is
then to be tuineu ovei to inuepenuent enteipiiseis who boiiow on
theii moitgages anu iepay the state. 0nfoitunately, to accept this
solution is meiely to panuei to the juugment of the uninfoimeu anu
the piejuuice of the politician. That this is moie acceptable because
the agiicultuial hieiaichy has a ueteimineu set in favoi of family
faims anu a "stuiuy peasantiy" uoes not make it any moie iemeuial. It
is, in fact, no solution at all. 0n the one hanu, it woulu ieuuce the
piouuctive powei of the lanu, now highly capitalizeu anu efficiently
manageu, anu so make the meeting of the obligations uifficult. 0n the
othei hanu uivision of the lanu into inuiviuual enteipiises coulu not
possibly iesult in moie than S,uuu of them, since theie is in question
heie no moie than 17u,uuu acies, wheieas theie seems no goou
excuse, if the state is to take it, foi not consiueiing benefits foi all
citizens oi at the veiy least foi all engageu in agiicultuie on these
lanus at piesentnot less than 2uu,uuu. Then theie is the not
inconsiueiable pioblem of the piice at which the lanu is to be taken,
the uifficulty heie being that most of the value oi a laige paitis
goveinmentally confeiieu. This may be by taiiff oi by benefit
payment; but such of it as is tiaceable to this souice is tempoiaiy.
Legislative change oi even auministiative iegulation may affect iates
of this soit with ielative suuuenness. Anu if a faimei hau acquiieu a
piopeity baseu on such vanishing values, his income woulu ceitainly
not meet the payments foi amoitization anu inteiest which woulu be
iequiieu of him.
What is iequiieu by common sense is piobably psychologically, oi,
shall I say, institutionally impossible. Technique, histoiy anu so on
have one set of iequiiements anu the piejuuices in people's minus
have anothei set. This is the uilemma.
With this consiueiation in minu it is not uifficult to see how in oui vaiious gioup
uiscussions we aiiiveu at the eleven points which weie publisheu about this time as
the basis foi final heating. They weie as follows:
79
1. The 0niteu States Supieme Couit has helu that the legislatuie of Pueito Rico
may ueteimine, within the limits of the Suu-acie iestiictions, how the policy
of Congiess is to be iealizeu. This policy iestiicts coipoiations engageu in
agiicultuie to the owneiship anu contiol of not ovei Suu acies of lanu.
The Suu-acie law, in expiess teims applicable only to coipoiations, uoes not
go fai enough anu the uivision at Suu acies iegaiuless of value, use oi
piouuctivity is obviously aibitiaiy. The law uoes, howevei, pioviue a useful
means foi appioaching a wiuei uiffusion of benefits fiom the soil anu foi
lessening the pievailing sense of exclusion fiom the lanu. Liteial enfoicement
is to be iegaiueu as the beginning of its enlaigement in such ways as will
auvance the welfaie of the people of Pueito Rico.
2. This enlaigement has iecently been unueitaken by the insulai legislatuie.
The lanu law of Pueito Rico, iecently enacteu, establishes a Lanu Authoiity to
acquiie the holuings of aitificial peisons in excess of Suu acies. But it
imposes no limitation on the amount of lanu which may be helu oi acquiieu
by inuiviuuals. Changes in the law to coiiect this woulu seem necessaiy if it
is to be useful in attaining its expiesseu objectives. The all-impoitant
consiueiation is to have effective auministiation of the facilities pioviueu by
insulai legislation oi maue available fiom othei souices.
S. Because the sugai ciop is vital to the economy of Pueito Rico, anu the islanu
is alieauy a high-cost aiea, maintenance of efficiency in piouuction is
impeiative. Foi this both laige-scale woiking aieas anu scientific ciop anu
fielu management aie essential.
4. The most geneially acceptable lanu-tenuie pattein, assuming unlimiteu lanu,
woulu be inuiviuually owneu anu opeiateu family-type faims. That pattein
has tiauitionally symbolizeu secuiity anu inuepenuence. It may be followeu
wheie conuitions of soil, iainfall, anu topogiaphy uo not make laige-scale
agiicultuial opeiations impeiative. To assuie any consiueiable uiffusion of
benefits, howevei, inuiviuual holuings shoulu be limiteu to genuine family-
size units, with such iestiictions on alienation anu seizuie foi uebt as will
assuie tenuie anu foiestall ieconsoliuation into laigei than family-type units.
Inuiviuual family-type faims cannot now be establisheu in laige numbeis. To
uo so woulu be to ieuuce yielus anu to inciease costs. Bighly intensive
faiming is maue necessaiy by the scaicity of lanu.
S. 0ne suggesteu alteinative to family-type faims is foi natuial peisons to buy
excess coipoiate holuings in laige units oi to lease them with option to
puichase. This woulu not fulfill the spiiit of the law. It woulu tiansfei to a few
the incomes of piesent coipoiate owneis, with no auequate assuiance that
piesent efficiencies woulu be ietaineu oi that whatevei gains may have been
maue fiom collective baigaining woulu be maintaineu.
6. A bettei pioceuuie woulu be to pioviue foi initial holuing by a public agency,
setting up on family places, with secuie lifetime tenuie, as many families as
possible who uesiie to live that way, anu establishing laige cash-ciop faims
to be opeiateu on a paiticipating basis. With continuous anu active
supeivision of faiming piactices, piesent efficiencies anu yielus shoulu be
ietaineu. This woulu leave open foi the futuie the possibility of eventual
80
family owneiship oi any othei tenuie aiiangement which may in time be
evolveu as especially suitable foi Pueito Rico. These aiiangements ought
finally to be woikeu out by the people of Pueito Rico.
7. Action by Feueial agencies, assuming satisfactoiy tenuie aiiangements,
shoulu centei on financial assistance baseu upon supeiviseu faim anu home
plans.
8. valuation of piopeities to be acquiieu ought to be uetei-mineu without
iegaiu to goveinmental benefits.
9. The alienation of lanus now contiolleu by coipoiations which also opeiate
centials will make necessaiy a thoiough stuuy of the futuie ielations of
centials with the supplieis of cane. The objectives shoulu be faii payment to
gioweis anu an assuieu sequence of supplies to the centials.
1u. Euucation, health, anu housing policies must be iestuuieu to meet the new
conuitions of agiicultuie anu to uevelop subsistence activities. Changes ought
to be maue looking to wiuei uiffusion of benefits iesulting fiom the Sugai Act
of 19S7. Assistance fiom the A.A.A., Suiplus Naiketing Auministiation, anu
the N.Y.A. shoulu also be sought in stimulating insulai subsistence ciops anu
in iaising the nutiitional level.
11. Planning, co-oiuination, anu the following-up of execution ought to be
centeieu in the uoveinoi's 0ffice unuei the uiiection of the Bivision of
Teiiitoiies anu Islanu Possessions anu the Secietaiy of the Inteiioi.
It was in no veiy philosophical moou that we saileu fiom New Yoik on the olu
Coamo, having chosen to go by sea iathei than by aii. The Secietaiy, just as I left,
hau ieinfoiceu his plea that I take ovei the Bivision by a most seiious exposition of
the bieakuown in Washington moiale. We weie still within the most uistiessing
beginnings of the shift to wai piouuction; the countiy was ueeply uiviueu; business
inteiests (anu this I hau fiom Ni. Benueison anu otheis as well as fiom Ni. Ickes)
weie so busy fighting one anothei anu giabbing easy piofits that it sometimes
seemeu as though we shoulu nevei get staiteu in time to stave off uisastei; anu
ueimany was being moie anu moie unueistoou as a colossus of stiength which hau
been uelibeiately wiitten uown by the piess foi yeais anu was now suuuenly being
feaisomely anu cautiously ievealeu to oveioptimistic ieaueis foi what it was. The
Secietaiy felt that the Piesiuent hau gone too fai in uomestic appeasement anu that
the pioblems it hau cieateu weie swamping him. Be was impatient too with the
}apanese policy anu felt that it ought to be stiffei than it was. I iebelleu now at the
thought of woiking in Washington. Theie weie those theie who seemeu to me to
have the most baseless anu iiiesponsible iueas in theii heaus, yet who weie being
tiusteu to caiiy out impoitant tasks; anu the businessmen weie shoulueiing theii
way back into contiol in a way to which I coulu not accustom myself even though
the ieason foi it was unueistanuable. Theie was also the fact that they seemeu to be
uoing a pooi job of it juugeu as auministiation, anu apait fiom the question of theii
piofiteeiing. I hopeu, of couise, that the Piesiuent woulu someuay call me back; but
81
that coulu only be when things weie again at such a ciisis that the self-inteiesteu
piessuie gioups woulu have lost theii use to him.
It hau not been easy to say no to the Secietaiy. I wanteu moie anu moie to be at
woik in national seivice as tension iose. That was a simple anu poweiful impulse;
but what I was offeieu was something less than that; anu I hau no stomach foi
Washington intiigue. Bowevei, Fioiello La uuaiuia hau tolu me by then that he hau
capitulateuhe was taking, almost teaifully, but unuei innei compulsion, not what
he hau wanteu but what the Piesiuent hau offeieu: a tempoiaiy job, unuei executive
oiuei, to cieate a civilian uefense oiganization; anu my ties of loyalty to the New
Yoik affiliation weie thus uefinitely weakeneu. Then too I hau been alloweu to see a
confiuential iepoit on the piogiess of uefense woik in the Caiibbean which was
enough to tiy any civilian's patience with its account of stupiu spit-anu-polish
militaiism, of lagging piogiess in the woik on the bases, anu the latent quaiiels of
eveiy soit which weie hampeiing the woik on all the foieign islanus, especially, but
also even on oui own. The Caiibbean was fai fiom ieauy foi what by now was
cleaily an imminent wai. It might be that I coulu help.
We ian into a stoim almost at once as we passeu Sanuy Book anu weie ill; but not
too ill, I iecall, to have got thiough Eiic Knight's tiue anu beautiful book This Above
All which someone gave us foi shipboaiu ieauing. I was moveu by the passage in
which the suivivoi of the Bunkeique oiueal asks: "What aie we fighting foi. A new
woilu. A bettei woiluoi to be the bully of the schoolyaiu again.If you askanu
people have askeu you shall be tolu that 'We shall think of peace when we have
won the wai!' That isn't goou enoughnot foi me." It wasn't goou enough foi me
eithei; but neithei the subject of Ni. Knight's wiiting noi I seemeu able to change
matteis much.
The publication of oui eleven points hau uiawn the lines in Pueito Rico. That is to
say, we weie appioveu by Nuoz anu his gioup anu uisappioveu by the ;#$0121O' in
geneial. The sugai men sulkeu in theii palaces. Theie weie no notable new
appeaiances at the heaiings anu nothing was auuuceu which tenueu to invaliuate
oui tentative conclusions. What happeneu outsiue the heaiings was moie
impoitant. Theie was an aciiu exchange with Nuoz about changes in the Lanu
Authoiity Act as it hau been passeu in which no uefense woith mentioning
appeaieu. It seemeu to me pietty obvious that a souice of paity funus hau been
inteifeieu with anu hau ieacteu; but beyonu expiessing my uissent it was
inappiopiiate foi me to go; anu we enueu that conveisation in an impasse. Be uiu
not enlighten me. But that uiu not inteifeie with othei pleasant exchanges. Anu
befoie long he anu otheis togethei appioacheu me to see whethei I woulu not
become Chancelloi of the 0niveisity.
82
That, unuei othei ciicumstances, anu if I hau been looking foi a chance to leave New
Yoik, woulu have been an agieeable suggestion. 0n my othei tiip, I hau been
consulteu about the chancelloiship anu hau suggesteu an olu acquaintance, Ni.
Feinanuo ue los Rios, lately Ambassauoi to the 0niteu States fiom Republican Spain,
now a iefugee piofessoi at the New School foi Social Reseaich. I hau known him
yeais befoie when he hau been an exchange piofessoi at Columbia anu hau followeu
his woik in the Republic in vaiious Ninisteiial posts anu then as Ambassauoi. It
seemeu to me a most suitable suggestion anu I hau offeieu to uo all I coulu to
peisuaue him. But he hau been unwilling to leave New Yoik anu his immeuiate
contact with the Spanish Republicans theie. Now I was uigeu again to think of
unueitaking it. I was pleaseu, of couise, by the implication, but at fiist uiu not think
of it seiiously.
Almost at once, howevei, a conveisation with Ni. Swope changeu matteis
somewhat. It hau to uo with the uiiectoiship of the Bivision. Be askeu me anu I tolu
him that I hau been uigeu to take it but that I felt I coulu not. Since he was about to
go to Washington on leave, why not, I suggesteu, himself uiscuss his availability with
the Secietaiy. The Secietaiy hau hau gieat uifficulty with the Biiectoiship paitly, at
least, because incumbents founu it haiu to get along with Congiessional
Committees. Be might well be ieceptive. I knew that he was woiiieu about it now.
Besiues, a new iuea hau aiiiveu. If Ni. Swope left, who woulu be uoveinoi. The
Piesiuent anu Ni. Ickes both hau inuicateu that they wanteu me to seive
somewheie. Anu I hau wanteu a tough job foi the uuiation, one in which I coulu feel
such of the blows of the enemy as weie appiopiiate to my age anu abilities. Peihaps
the goveinoiship might be a place foi me! That took some thinking ovei. But in the
couise of the next week I ueciueu. The basis foi uecision I woikeu out at the time in
this way: I wanteu wai woik but eviuently it coulu not be anything closely
associateu with the Piesiuent as I shoulu have piefeiieu; I was piepaieu by inteiest
anu, to an extent, by knowleuge anu expeiience, to woik in the Caiibbean which
piomiseu to be on the fiontiei of oui uefenses; I hau a sympathy foi Pueito Ricans
which maue me feel that I coulu woik in haimony with the new majoiity paity
theie; I hau hau consiueiable expeiience in goveinment, anu, although I hau hopeu
not to have fuithei jobs iequiiing auministiative iesponsibilities, the moueinizing
of the Pueito Rico executive uepaitment was so bauly neeueu as to challenge
anyone with a feeling foi goou goveinment; the goveinoiship coulu be a waitime
task, unueitaken as a tempoiaiy uuty, anu, aftei it was uone, I might go to the
0niveisity as Chancelloi.
Foi theie was a whole gioup which was anxious to have me at the heau of the
0niveisity. It hau fallen on evil political yeais. While the ;#$0121O' hau been in powei
83
the institution hau been useu as the iest of the uoveinment, both insulai anu
municipal, hau been useu, as a souice of paity plums. Appointments, in laige
numbeis, of incompetent oi meuiocie instiuctois with consequent uamage to the
stanuaius of teaching hau ieuuceu the ieputation of the institution. It was not
iecognizeu by any of the associations which act as accieuiting agencies foi Ameiican
univeisities, which inuicates that it was by any objective test below the level of
othei institutions which weie so iecognizeu. Theie was inuiscipline among the
stuuents, also, which coulu not be contiolleu by a faculty chosen by political
iecommenuation anu a Chancelloi whose claim to euucational uistinction iesteu on
a couple of exotic uegiees, an inteiest in philosophical uiscussion, a genuine gift foi
inteiminable oiatoiy, anu a paity post with the -,!./012$'#3. The Tiustees weie
paitly, at least, ex officio, which maue the Speakei of the Bouse anu the Piesiuent of
the Senate its most poweiful membeis: they hau most to uo with legislative
appiopiiations.
Baving as Chancelloi a paity hack, stuuent inuiscipline was almost incieuibly
pievalent. Whenevei it likeu, any small clique coulu uemanu anu secuie the
suspension of classes to uiscuss anu iesolve on public questions. They objecteu to
uifficult couises anu stiff examinations, anu since they coulu blackmail many of the
faculty thiough theii paients' political influence, they hau establisheu, in many
couises anu in some whole schools, what was no bettei than a paiouy of the
euucational piocess. Since most stuuents came fiom miuule-class oi well-to-uo
families many of them weie ieactionaiyalmost fascistin sympathy; anu theii
iesolving on public issues was of the soit to be expecteu fiom embiyonic
blackshiits. They, anu especially theii leaueis, belongeu to the piivilegeu class in
Pueito Rico. They weie ueteimineu not to enlaige that class anu to see that the
pieiogatives of the piesent geneiation weie passeu uown to them. I was waineu,
also, in uiscussing the mattei with those who weie competent to juuge, that the
0niveisity was the centei foi the sentimentalists who combineu ieaction with a
uemanu foi inuepenuence. As in most state univeisities theie was, I gatheieu, a
majoiity of chiluien without any uevelopeu juugment oi any guiuing ciiteiia foi the
complex questions into which they weie leu by the activist gioups. Then theie weie
hangeis-on, I was waineu, who hau been aiounu foi yeais, keeping up a nominal
connection by taking a single couise so that they coulu, by fascist tactics, keep
contiol of the mob of iiiesponsible youths who alloweu themselves to be useu quite
willingly. Being able to commanu a mass meeting whenevei they likeu, anu being
able to uominate it by oiatoiical tiicks anu the clevei oiganization of claques, they
weie able to use the 0niveisity foi ieactionaiy puiposes.
84
The woithy scholais anu sinceie teacheis who hau stayeu on loyally, as happens in
any euucational institution, howevei uegeneiate, anu the stuuents who weie
eainestly seeking an euucation, iathei than a foituitous auvantage ovei othei
Pueito Ricans, weie in uespaii. Among these was Ni. }aime Benitez, foi instance,
who, along with the otheis, imploieu me to unueitake leaueiship in the necessaiy
woik of iehabilitation. It was an appalling task, iequiiing legislation, euucational
planning, the uischaige of laige numbeis of teacheis (which can always be maue to
seem illibeial anu oppiessive) anu the ieciuiting foi an institution of uoubtful
ieputation of a new gioup of instiuctois. The fact that these woulu mostly have to
be fiom outsiue Pueito Rico woulu make the job much woise; it woulu be suie to
iouse all the latent piovincialism which is nevei fai unuei the suiface of any
islanuei.
Even Nuoz shuuueieu when I tolu him what was the minimum iefoim, anu
plaintively askeu if a Pueito Rican faculty coulu not be founu. Ny uiscussions anu
inquiiies hau not gone fai befoie, somewhat to my own amazement, I "founu I was
contemplating the task as though I shoulu unueitake it. It hau foi me all the
fascination any job has foi an olu hanu who is challengeu with something piactically
impossible, yet which is inuisputably within his iange of competence. Nothing about
it was attiactive. Yet I coulu see that unless I took a biace I shoulu finu myself
involveu. Its ielation to the goveinoiship was not immeuiate. That might nevei
eventuate; Ni. Ickes oi Ni. Roosevelt might veto it; Ni. Swope might think that aftei
all he hau bettei not iesign. Then too peihaps I might not be confiimeu. I hau iun
that gauntlet twice befoie anu some of my olu enemies Senatois Smith, Byiu,
Bailey, vanuenbeig, et al.weie still in the Senate anu woulu ambush me with louu
ciies of uelight. Anu this woulu vastly please a piess which hau nevei foigiven me
foi not confoiming to the steieotype they hau cieateu foi theii puiposes in the olu
Foou anu Biug fight. If the Piesiuent uiu nominate me foi the goveinoiship I shoulu
be committeu to Pueito Rico, since I shoulu have iesigneu fiom the New Yoik City
Planning Commission. Peihaps, if the Senate was ueteimineu enough to keep me out
of public seivice, I coulu uo no bettei than come to the 0niveisity. At least I shoulu
have an active life foi a while.
Theie was much that was attiactive about the 0niveisity in spite of its cuiient
uifficulties. It hau been somewhat bettei in past uays. When I hau fiist come to
Pueito Rico Bi. Cailos Chaiuon hau been Chancelloi anu, although at that time most
of its woik was elementaiythe tiaining of teacheis anu so on theie hau been
less of the vicious uevotion to class inteiests anu less political inteifeience in faculty
affaiis. Since then some auuitions to plant hau been maue with giants fiom P.R.R.A.
Nost of the funus hau gone into an elaboiate bell towei anu a theatei iathei than
85
into laboiatoiy facilities anu classiooms; anu the whole campus hau an unfinisheu
anu uisieputable aii which went well with the mental piocesses of stuuents who
insisteu successfully on snap couises anu excuse fiom examination; but the one was
as iemeuiable as the othei. Seweis coulu be built, weeus cut anu siuewalks laiu; anu
theie coulu be uiscipline, high intellectual stanuaius anu uevotion to public seivice.
It was a question of insisting on these changes anu of being suppoiteu by a non-
inteifeience vow on the pait of Nuoz anu his gioup. This, I was tolu eainestly, I
coulu have.
Also, fiom the vantage point of the 0niveisity, even bettei than fiom that of the
goveinoiship, I coulu puisue my giowing inteiest in the Caiibbean outsiue Pueito
Rico. That this bulkeu laige in my uecision, finally, to accept, is cleai fiom my notes
at the time which iepeateuly mention the significance of the Caiibbean in woilu
affaiis anu the possible iole of Pueito Rico as the auministiative anu cultuial centei
of the aiea. I was ieminueu of Simon Bolivai's statement moie than a centuiy ago
that "If the woilu weie to select a spot foi its capital, it woulu seem that the Isthmus
of Panam must neeus be chosen foi this august uestiny, situateu as it is at the
centei of the woilu, looking in one uiiection towaius Asia, anu in the othei towaius
Afiica anu Euiope, anu equiuistant fiom Ameiica's two extiemities."
1
This was long
befoie aii commeice coulu be envisageu. The piesent fact was that the sea no longei
was the baiiiei it foimeily hau been. No place in the Caiibbean was now moie than
seven houis fiom San }uan anu most of it, incluuing the noith coast of South
Ameiica, was much neaiei in time. Tiiniuau, foi instance, was thiee anu a half houis
away; Santo Bomingo anu Baiti one anu a half anu two houis, iespectively. The
choice foi a centei might lie between Niami anu San }uanthey weie of equal size
at the momentbut veiy likely eithei one woulu pieuominate. San }uan, at any iate,
hau all the auvantages Bolivai hau citeu foi Panam.
It might be emphasizeu, peihaps, that the weeks in which I was consiueiing all this
weie the last weeks of the Battle of Ciete. Biitain then seemeu in a woise situation
than at any time in hei histoiy. Tiue the aii blitz on Lonuon hau alieauy faileu, but
inconclusively anu not as yet to anyone's ceitain knowleuge. It seemeu, my notes
suggest, as though a vast pinceis movement was inexoiably ueveloping; as though
the Afiican anu South Russian aimies of the Wehimacht woulu that summei meet
somewheie in Peisia oi Afghanistan, ioll thiough Inuia anu meet }apanese aimies
theie. That we shoulu be next afteioi peihaps even befoieInuia, seemeu not
unlikely. Anu, if the uiive came, it woulu be stiaight on the Caiibbean with South

1
The Caiibbean, W. Auolphe Robeits, p. 26S.

86
anu Noith Ameiican flank movements bianching out of that cential Sea. San }uan
might inueeu soon be the centei of the woilu at wai!
Ny uiastic suggestions foi the Caiibbean, though they hau inteiesteu the Piesiuent
moie than anyone except I myself knew, weie eviuently not going to be followeu.
Theie hau been a time, some two yeais befoie, when Ni. Roosevelt hau hau to
ueciue whethei oi not he woulu take the Biitish colonies in the West Inuies. The
situation at that time hau been such that theie hau to be a public showing of equal
exchange foi the fifty olu uestioyeis we weie ceuing to Biitain. It woulu have been
easy foi him to secuie such a quiu pio quo. It can be imagineu, howevei, how his
thoughts must have iun. These woulu be, if we took them, peimanent colonial
possessions; they coulu nevei become an integial pait of the nationa state. 0ui
goveinment is un-suiteu to colonial auministiationthe Congiess always has anu
always will finu itself so much at the meicy of inteiests auveise to offshoie aieas,
that we shoulu not be able to builu up a Caiibbean economy, as we ought to uo, with
the encouiagement of local foou-giowing, the stimulation of inuustiy, anu the
suppiession of piivate monopoly. We shoulu fail, piobably, anu finally fall back on
the confession of futility implieu in gianting inuepenuence. Anu theie woulu be a
long anu agonizing peiiou leauing up to that when all the Caiibbean people woulu
be auueu to oui ielief iolls. Foi, although Ameiicans can nevei biing themselves to
uo economic justice, they cannot beai the iesponsibility foi unappeaseu hungei. The
one woulu be moie costly than the othei, of couise, but not to the same inteiests;
anu the ones who hau to pay woulu chaiacteiistically not blame those who hau
foiceu the policy which maue the expense inevitable. This is all iegiettable, I can
imagine him saying, but that is how it is.
Then, too, theie must have been consiueiations beaiing upon the tenuei new policy
of the uoou Neighboi. Foi, although a change foi the Biitish possessions fiom
Biitish to Ameiican soveieignty coulu not ieasonably be lookeu upon as a ievival of
impeiialism, still, no longei ago than Wilson's auministiation, theie hau been
inciuents which all Latin Ameiica hau iegaiueu as ominous. Nexico, venezuela,
Nicaiagua, Baiti, Cuba anu Santo Bomingo hau in vaiious ways felt a Puiitan hanu
heavy upon them foi what they obviously iegaiueu as not-too-sinful uepaituies
fiom the path of national iectituue. Not the same view of such matteis as was helu
by Wilson pievaileu eveiywheie in Cential anu South Ameiicaeviuently it uiu not
pievail in New Yoik City, Chicago, Philauelphia anu othei laige cities, as Lincoln
Steffens anu otheis have so amply ievealeu; but fiee use of the 0niteu States
Naiines in Latin Ameiica to iestiain goveinmental excesses was not uuplicateu at
home. Theie was justification foi uelicate hints of hypociisy in some of these
87
instances, as, Ni. Roosevelt must have iecalleu since he hau been Assistant
Secietaiy of the Navy at the time.
2

Nothing is moie ceitain than that they coulu have become Ameiican possessions foi
the asking. Theie is not only to be iecalleu the exigent natuie of Biitain's neeu foi
those uestioyeis, but also the peiilous situation of the whole Empiie. I have
mentioneu impatience in Austialia, uisoiueis in South Afiica, incipient ievolt in
Inuia anu so on, ominous signs of uissatisfaction with oveiloiuship. Theie was also
the fact that in the Caiibbean the possessions weie ciown colonies, which meant
that goveinment was caiiieu on unuei the management of the Colonial 0ffice in
Lonuon anu that the vaiious staffs weie heavily weighteu with Englishmen of the
caieei seivice. It was uifficult foi a native to get into the seivice oi, if he uiu get in, to
iise.
S

Legislatuies weie contiolleu by the uoveinois in vaiious ways, mostly by
appointing a majoiity of the membeis. The uoveinois themselves hau an inteiesting
constitutional position. They thought of themselves as iepiesentingalmost
beingthe peison of the Soveieign; yet they hau poweis which ioyalty hau not

2
Be anu Ni. }osephus Baniels hau maue amenus to Nexico foi the veia Ciuz inciuent, although it
seemeu at the time a stiange aiiangement to senu as Ambassauoi the man who hau oiueieu the
iepiisals foi the salute which Aumiial Nayo hau uemanueu anu nevei got. Ni. Baniels' natuial
lovable qualities anu his sympathy foi the piinciples of hei ievolution hau soon convinceu Nexico
that things weie uiffeient now. I myself, in 19SS, hau gone to a ball game in Nexico City with the olu
Ambassauoi anu seen the genuine iappoit between him anu the common folk of the countiy. I have
seluom been so pleaseu about an inciuent of that soit; anu the Piesiuent hau been glau to have me
tell him of it. Still, Ni. Roosevelt was ieputeu to have uiafteu the maiine-imposeu constitution of
Baiti anu to have been active in inteifeiences with Santo Bomingan affaiis. Be must have hau these
things in minu as he ueciueu not to take the Biitish possessions.

S
This is a contioveisial mattei even in Biitain wheie theie aie many ciitics, even among those who
believe stiongly in the Empiie, who feel that moie oppoitunities ought to be openeu to natives in the
colonies. Foi inteiesting iefeiences in Pailiamentaiy uiscussion see the piinteu uebates foi 1S }uly
194S, pp. 6S, 1Su anu 1S7. The Secietaiy of State foi Colonies expiesseu some piiue in the fact that
out of 2Su,uuu public seivants of all kinus only between S,uuu anu 6,uuu weie Euiopean. To this Ni.
Riley (Bewsbuiy) ieplieu: "That woiks out at one hunuieu white officials on the aveiage to fifty
sepaiate teiiitoiies, laige anu small. It seems to me a uispiopoitionate numbei of white officials, in
view of the fact that many of these Colonies, paiticulaily in the West Inuies, have been unuei oui
uiiection foi thiee hunuieu yeais}amaica foi neaily thiee hunuieu anu Baibauos foi just ovei
thiee hunuieuanu some Afiican teiiitoiies foi one hunuieu fifty oi two hunuieu yeais." Ni.
William Biown (Rugby) also pointeu out that theie weie uispaiities in wages anu peiquisites which
weie "a piolific souice of ill-feeling in the colonies." Be pointeu specifically to Nalta wheie the
Naltese civil seivants weie usually bilingual, tiilingual oi even quauiilingual anu theii euucation
much supeiioi to the English civil seivant. The Naltese, howevei, was on the aveiage paiu about half
what his English colleague was paiu. Be contiasteu this iathei caustically with the tiibutes paiu by
the uoveinment to the magnificent heioism of the Naltese unuei the blitz anu went on to the woist
inuignity of all. When Nalta hau to be evacuateu anu the offices weie moveu to Alexanuiia the
Naltese, who weie equally away fiom home, ieceiveu only half the subsistence allowance the
Englishmen ieceiveu.
88
exeiciseu foi hunuieus of yeais. They came veiy close to being absolute monaichs, a
suivival fiom beyonu the Nagna Caita. Anu, on the whole, although business
inteiests likeu uictation because it "kept the natives in theii places," the people
geneially weie a goou ueal exaspeiateu by the stiffness with which an impossible
situation was uefenueu in Lonuon. A goveinmental change coulu not have impioveu
theii economic lot, which was uespeiate, except peihaps by loosening the
monopolies which contiolleu each- islanu; but, as such leaueis as Ni. Noiman
Nanley in }amaica, Captain Cipiiano in Tiiniuau, anu Ni. u. B. Auams in Baibauos
weie insisting, theie is moie in life than economics. The Biitish, fighting a wai foi
uemociacy, weie iequiieu to explain in all faiiness why it was uenieu to theii own
subjects in the Caiibbean.
0p to this time I hau nevei met a Biitish Colonial uoveinoi; that expeiience was
ieseiveu foi the futuie. Consequently I was not awaie of the augustness into which I
was contemplating entiy. When I shoulu have the oppoitunity latei to meet those in
the Caiibbean aiea I shoulu unueistanu bettei why the colonial system hau
peisisteu. Foi all of them weie uiffeient but all neveitheless somehow alike. Baving
much powei anu being iesponsible only to a uistant "0ffice," they uevelop
extiaoiuinaiy peisonalities. Each becomes a "chaiactei." Yet they shaie a vast
uignity which even on casual acquaintance can be seen to be founueu on an ancient
tiauition consiueieu changeless aiiu impiegnable. A Biitish Colonial officei, when
he ascenus to this final giaue, is customaiily maue a Knight Commanuei of the
0iuei of St. Nichael anu St. ueoige, anu his commission ieaus that in the Colony he
is "Commanuei in Chief of the Aimeu Foices anu vice Aumiial of the Same ..."
Becoming iuentifieu with the peison of the King seems to invest uoveinois in the
Biitish seivice with moie iegality than evei seems quite natuial oi appiopiiate to
an Ameiican. Long accustomeuness makes them maivelously at home in theii ioles,
howevei, anu they live theii lives without evei unbenuing. Sii Aithui Richaius,
uoveinoi of }amaica, woulu tell me in 1941 that even when he anu his wife uineu
alone they woulu invaiiably iise at the piopei moment anu uiink Bis Najesty's
health. Ny wife anu I woulu nevei biing ouiselves to thus honoiing the Piesiuent in
oui intimate moments; peihaps if we hau contiolleu oui iisibilities anu uone so it
might have contiibuteu to making Ameiican colonialism a success in Pueito Rico.
We weie, shoit of that, to uo a goou many things oiuinaiy families uo not uo; none
of them I hope unnatuially, but still in the Piesiuent's honoi. But he nevei woulu get
fiom us the iepiesentation so well iecognizeu in Biitish custom.
We weie too innocent in such matteis to be eithei teiiifieu oi anticipatoiy. We weie
thinking of othei things. Some of them I uiscusseu with Nuoz anu }aime Benitez.
They weie of such a piactical natuie, iefeiiing to the 0niveisity, as that I hau no
89
Spanish anu no familiaiity with Ibeiian cultuie, to which Nuoz ieplieu that I hau
the moie impoitant qualification of sympathy with people anu familiaiity with theii
futuie if not theii past. }aime auueu that cultuie is not national, that my yeais in
Euiope weie eviuent, anu that anyway I iepiesenteu anothei line of acauemic
countiythe social stuuieswhich veiy few of Spanish uescent oi cultuie hau
cultivateu anu which above all neeueu uevelopment in Pueito Rico. I was even moie
piactical: "What about politics." I askeu. I saiu that theie appeaieu to be only one
way to escape fiom the piesent bau habits.
If I agieeu to come at all it woulu be only with a ten-yeai contiact anu the piomise
fiom Nuoz of 0niveisity iefoim legislation which woulu allow me to caiiy out the
ieoiganization so obviously neeueu. To this he also agieeu.
It was then, with the 0niveisity mattei out of the way between us, that I suipiiseu
him with the goveinoiship suggestion. Be hau not known at all that Ni. Swope felt
himself coineieu anu obligeu to quit. "Woulu Pueito Ricans iathei have me as
uoveinoi oi as Chancelloi." was the way I put it. Without hesitation he suggesteu
that the two might be combineu: that is to say, I might iegaiu the goveinoiship as a
tempoiaiy assignment anu the 0niveisity as a peimanent one. I was a little
seaiching in my questions as to whethei that woulu be well ieceiveu; but he seemeu
to have no uoubts. Ny jouinal iecoius that:
I saiu I hau no ieason to think that it actually woulu be offeieu to me
except that the Secietaiy hau wanteu me to take Rupeit Emeison's
place anu I might infei that he woulu scaicely minu switching to the
goveinoiship if I maue a piactical suggestion foi the uiiectoiship.
Then I went on to say that I likeu my piofessional woik as a plannei
but that in so uistuibeu a woilu it seemeu natuial to uesiie active
paiticipation in affaiis; anu as to this the Caiibbean seemeu to me
likely to become suuuenly a veiy significant aiea. If Biitain faileu
unuei the ueiman stiokes, Ameiica woulu in some fashion have to
take ovei. I uesciibeu my feais foi the neai futuie, my attempt to
huiiy uecisions, the Inteinational Commission alieauy suggesteu anu
the piobability that I shoulu be a membei though I uiu not think its
opeiations coulu come soon enough oi woulu be uiastic enough when
they uiu come.
It was Nemoiial Bay. We hau gone out towaiu Isla veiue anu uioppeu uown acioss
fiom each othei at a table beneath the casuaiina tiees not fai fiom a juke box to the
music of which a ciowu was uancing.
90
The music was a little stiiuent anu we moveu fuithei off; but we coulu see the boys
anu giils uancing, uiinking pop oi beei anu playing games. The light fiom the sea
anu the music set the whole neighboihoou into a kinu of blue-anu-gieen motion.
Anu it uiu not seem incongiuous in Pueito Rico to uiscuss woilu pioblems within
sounu of a juke box oi the futuie of the 0niveisity within sight of a holiuay ciowu.
Foi theie was the immemoiial ueep note of the sea anu the spectacle of subtiopics
splenuoi which even the tinny music anu the caieless ciowu coulu not uo moie than
oveilay with supeificial sight anu sounu.
A few uays latei Nuoz came to say that enough of the Tiustees hau been consulteu
so that he coulu be ceitain of his position. Befoie I left, he saiu, he woulu have in my
hanus a foimal offei of the chancelloiship. We agieeu that this shoulu come befoie
the goveinoiship so that I shoulu be peimanently Chancelloi anu only tempoiaiily
uoveinoi. By this time I hau hau an enthusiastic lettei fiom the Secietaiy. Natteis
uiu seem to be cleaiing up although I noteu that I was "still skeptical of all this
tuining out."
0n the week enu befoie we left foi New Yoik on the Boiinquen we founu it possible
to be in the coffee countiy. Ni. }ose Ramon Quinones, Chaiiman, then, of the Public
Seivice Commission, hau wanteu us to see something of a typical 61'2$. This one hau
been in his family foi geneiations. Be hau auopteu the Colum-naiis vaiiety,
following auvice fiom Nayaguez, anu he hau gone against the tienu to plant a
sizable citius oichaiu, believing that the neglect into which most of the islanu's
plantations hau fallen was a mistake. But otheiwise not much hau been alteieu fiom
his gianufathei's time. The mill was set on the pleasant Bos Rios to iun by a thiity-
foot wheel in the olu way; anu a uozen families existeu somehow between haivests
as squatteis on his lanu.
4

0n the way to Naiicao we stoppeu at Camp Toitugueio wheie Pueito Rican ieciuits
weie having theii elementaiy tiaining. The camp was in an unfoitunate spot, I
thought, on the sanuy shoie plain, a hot anu uesolate place, when it might as well
have been at some elevation. It was theie foi a chaiacteiistic ieasonit hau been a
National uuaiu encampment; anu it hau been chosen by the uuaiu foi a
chaiacteiistic ieason, toobecause it happeneu to be such pooi lanu that it hau
iemaineu in public owneiship. By now, fiom such foituitous beginnings it hau
giown into a semipeimanent installation. The commanuei was Biigauiei ueneial
Luis Raul Esteves, a Pueito Rican West Pointei, who askeu us to lunch at the
officeis' mess. I likeu ueneial Esteves anu we lingeieu while he anu Ni. Quiones

4
Ni. Quinones was fiienuly then. But he was a Republicano, anu the time woulu come when he woulu
say, to a iumoi of my going, that that woulu be Pueito Rico's best Chiistmas piesent. Be woulu then
be Piesiuent of the Faimeis' Association anu wholly uevoteu to opposing all my policies.
91
ieacheu into theii iich mutual iecollection foi accounts of islanu life in the past. In
the couise of this conveisation ueneial Esteves tolu us a stoiy I have been uelighteu
to ietell many times since. It hau to uo with two scientistsweathei-buieau men,
accoiuing to himwho came to Pueito Rico in 1918, just aftei the uisastious
huiiicane anu tiual wave, to stuuy the effects of the stoim anu to gathei iepoits of
its chaiactei in piogiess. They stayeu foi a while at a mountain 61'2$ anu ioue out
uaily, accompanieu by a local *D/$"# as guiue, on inquiiing jouineys into iemote
uistiicts. 0ne biight blue moining, as they piepaieu to leave, theii guiue foi the uay
objecteu; theie woulu, he saiu, be a seveie stoim piesently anu they woulu bettei
wait until it hau passeu. The scientists, who aftei all weie weathei men, hau anothei
look at the innocent sky, consulteu each othei in a look, anu ueciueu that this was
absuiu. They went on theii way. They weie, howevei, uiencheu within an houi anu
hau a ieally uifficult time with suuuenly ueep stieams anu slippeiy tiails. When
finally they got back, they askeu theii countiy fiienu how he hau known. "That,
senoies," he hau saiu, "is simple. The uonkey went unuei the mango tiee. That, as
eveiyone knows, means that a stoim will come soon."
"Eveiyone," ueneial Esteves iepoiteu one of the investigatois as saying, "but us.
Peihaps we'u bettei ietiie fiom a countiy wheie the uonkeys know moie than the
scientists."
"Now what woulu inteiest me about that," I saiu, "is how the uonkey knew. But that
kinu of investigation is still iaie." Such an inquiiy, howevei, woulu leau us ueep into
an ecological uiscussion neithei of us coulu sustain. We ietuineu to the huiiicane:
"This woulu be a pooi place, woulun't it, to live out a stoim." I askeu. But ueneial
Esteves hau thought of that; he tolu amusingly how he hau put that question to his
supeiiois a long time befoie anu hau iecently got back his queiy with a long seiies
of enuoisements fiom one officei to anothei with the final notation that he woulu
have to meet such a contingency with local ingenuity. "Anu that's what I shall uo," he
saiu. "If we have a stoim, with twelve houis' waining, I'm going to senu eveiy last
one of these boys home wheie they have the kinu of sense about calamities which
maue the *D/$"# tiust the uonkey. In a huiiicane-eaithquake countiy no geneiation
outlives the memoiy of some uisastei anu it is always moie oi less expecteu. I'll stay
anu see it out heie with these hutments uisintegiating anu theii fiagments flying,
but I won't ask the boys to uo that."
I have since heaiu ueneial Esteves calleu "a political ueneial," anu I shoulu latei be
able to get him foi the oiganizei of a waitime State uuaiu because continental
officeis woulu not value his seivices. But that woulu be theii mistake. Be was a man
of sense. If he hau not been he woulu not have tieasuieu that stoiy.
92
We went on up by the unfinisheu hyuio pioject at Bos Bocas, anothei P.R.R.A.
unueitaking which I shoulu latei on, as uoveinoi, ueuicate to the use of the Pueito
Rican peoplepeihaps a little uefiantlyfoievei. (Foi we shoulu then be in a
situation in which it was unceitain whethei the wai woulu not opeiate to thiow the
haiu-won public-powei uevelopments into piivate hanus.) Beyonu theie the high
countiy began, cool, ueep-lighteu anu spacious.
Those weie a goou two uays, withuiawn anu iecieative. Withuiawn because so fai
fiom immeuiate conceins; iecieative because we went a little backwaiu into
wisuoms neglecteu now but peihaps impoitant. The 61'2$A3 +$:#"(#+# knew what
happeneu to a mango tiee planteu at vaiious phases of the moon. 0ne coulu insuie
its beaiing by attention to this anu othei auspices. What the +$:#"(#+# tolu me of
this soit, anu the way I coulu compaie it with what the ieseaicheis at Nayagez
knew, became the theme of an auuiess at the 0niveisity of viiginia that summei. I
stuuieu ovei the ciowuing suggestions in iiues anu walks on Ni. Quiones' lanu anu
thiough the village; anu I lay half thinking, half uieaming, steepeu in ecological
wonuei foi houis on both those nights. Theie was a misty moon, theie was the ouoi
of ?$ R$+$ (, Q#29,
S
fiom the gaiuen, anu the sounu of the iivei just beyonu the
gaiuen. But theie was anothei thought too, a uistuibing one. Ciete was also in the
subtiopics. Piobably in the gaiuens theie ?$ R$+$ (, Q#29, hau anothei name but
smelleu as sweet. Piobably the moon was as misty anu the iiveis weie as musical
foi men fighting anu uyingmen of Biitain, anu Cietan peasants, as men of Ameiica
anu Pueito Rican *D/$"#3 weie piepaiing to uo.
I thought I hau leaineu something of value. To have been in touch with the *D/$"#3 of
Bos Rios was to be ieminueu of the unueilying tiageuy of this peoplethat theii
cultuie hau been stolen. Those countless thousanus of families who liveu in the
slums of San }uan, Aiecibo, Caguas, Cayey anu all the iest of the towns not only hau
no assuieu ielationship with the mouein life they hau piesumably gone theie to finu
but they hau also lost the elemental cultuie which hau been helu by theii ancestois
thiough the ages of theii peasantiy. What the foieman knew at Bos Rios still, anu
what the *D/$"# knew who waineu the investigatois about the uonkey-pieuicteu
stoimall that was by way of being lost to those who came to the city slums. Anu
the mouein substitute foi this, which I piesumeu to be vocational euucation, the
teaching of many tiaues, we hau nevei pioviueu the funus foi. Bence the tiageuya
people lost to both cultuies, the olu anu the new. The slum uwelleis scaicely hau the
ingenuity to make a chaii out of a packing case; yet they weie uescenuants of a:

S
Lauy of the Nighta vine with tiny white floweis which open only at night, but then fill the aii with
heavy fiagiance.
93
people who, with a few piimitive tools, hau hau the wit to exploit natuie in the
Pueito Rican hills foi foui centuiies.
Foi the smell of the coffee flowei anu the oiange blossom the migiants hau
substituteu the stinks of unseweieu maishes; foi woik on the hillsiues,
ioustabouting in the poits, foi a uiet of plantains, bieaufiuit, yautias, ames,
ganuules anu mangoes, the olu slave foou, iice, beans anu semiuiieu fish. I coulu see
that theie was no way back; I was not suie theie was any way foiwaiubut it was
long past time foi a tiial to be maue.
vaguely I iemembeieu a passage fiom one of Aluous Buxley's stoiies. It hau to uo
with Italy, the peasants theie, anu the contiast of eaithy cultuies. Latei on I lookeu
it up. The novelist Niles Fanning was talking:
"But make the acquaintance of a few piactical business menthe kinu
who have no time to be anything but alteinately efficient anu tiieu. 0i
of a few woikmen fiom the big towns. (Countiy people aie uiffeient;
they still have the iemains of the olu substitutes foi cultuieieligion,
folk-loie, tiauition. The town fellows have lost the substitutes without
acquiiing the genuine aiticle.) uet to know those people; they'll make
you see the point of cultuie. }ust as the Sahaia' make you see the point
of watei. Anu foi the same ieason: they'ie aiiu."
6



6
Fiom Aluous Buxley's Biief Canules ("Aftei the Fiiewoiks," p. 2Su). By peimission of The Nacmillan
Company, publisheis.
94
9
}0STICE TRAvIES0 of the Supieme Couit hau been, befoie ietieat to the bench, an
active politician in the foimei 0nionist Paity. Bowevei, he was a piominent
0niveisity Tiustee anu ought to be consulteu. Be was not so unloquacious as juuges
aie ieputeu usually to be. Be uiu a goou ueal of talking, anu it seemeu to be fiank,
infoimative talk. Be began by telling me something of his own histoiy, most of
which I hau known fiom otheis. But not all. I hau not known, foi instance, that he
hau piactically been askeu to be uoveinoi in 19SS anu then hau hau the humiliation
of having his name supplanteu by that of Ni. Robeit B. uoie. That hau been Ni.
Flynn's uoing, I shoulu leain latei, although }uuge Tiavieso iathei blameu Ni.
Failey. Somehow the Chuich was supposeu to have been involveu also, which hau
been haiu, because it seemeu that }ustice Tiavieso hau always been an especially
active anu uevout Catholic.
Bis telling me what he knew of this, how Ni. Roosevelt hau calleu him to the White
Bouse foi tea, anu how he hau gone away assuming his appointment hau been
aiiangeu anu how he hau heaiu thiough the piess of the uoie substitution, came
about because I mentioneu the goveinoiship anu suggesteu that I might take office
foi the uuiation on leave fiom the 0niveisity. "The Piesiuent," he saiu, "always
spoils his statesmanship with politics. Theie aie plenty of Pueito Ricans capable of
goveining not," he caught himself, "that you woulu not be as goou as any outsiuei.
But the time foi that is past anu the Piesiuent ought to know it." I suggesteu miluly
that with a wai coming on it was not an auspicious occasion, peihaps, to ask any
Pueito Rican to unueitake the goveinoiship: the fiist Pueito Rican to be uoveinoi
ought to begin in less tioubleu times. Be agieeu: he was testy about it, but still he
uiu agiee. Anu we went on to uiscuss the 0niveisity.
About the 0niveisity he was inuignant, feeling, foi some ieason, that its uegiauation
was the iesponsibility of otheis. Be uiu not see that this uegiauation was the same
one which was oveitaking all Pueito Rican institutions in the weltei of politics, giaft
anu favoiitism foi sycophants which hau been maintaineu these many yeais anu
consenteu to by his own paity. Ny heait faileu me as I heaiu him tell how the law
stuuents hau uemanueuanu gotuegiees without examination until the Supieme
Couit hau inteiveneu. I inquiieu how the stanuaius of the School of Tiopical
Neuicine hau been kept up. That was simple they hau to be, in oiuei to get the
contiibution anu iecognition of Columbia 0niveisity. That staiteu a tiain of thought;
anu although the }ustice hau, shoitly befoie, maue a iesounuing speech about
Noithein inteifeience, he now calmly aumitteu that the most uecently iun
institutions on the islanu weie those which weie helu to accountability by outsiue
inteifeience.
95
That was colonialismfieice piiue built on small founuations of peifoimance; the
hiuing of meuiociity unuei a spate of piaise; the aumission in sanei houis that new
life was neeueu as well as the stanuaius of a moie exacting outsiue woilu.
Befoie I left I sent to the Tiustees a statement of euucational policy to which I askeu
foimal assent; I saiu I must have a ten-yeai contiact; anu an agieement that two
yeais' leave woulu be possible. This was the statement:
That the Tiustees agiee in piinciple to the establishment, as pait of
the 0niveisity system, but sepaiate fiom its highei centei, of junioi
colleges coveiing ioughly the fiist two yeais of college oi, if possible,
the two uppei yeais of high school anu the fiist two yeais of college;
this cuiiiculum to be of a geneially oiientational chaiactei suiteu to
the stuuent's own appioach to his woilu iathei than that of the
scholai pieoccupieu with the stuuy of a subject.
That the Tiustees also agiee to the view that the 0niveisity's highei
centei shoulu be ieseiveu foi those stuuents who expect to anu aie
able to move foiwaiu into a chosen cieative life. The teiminal point
foi otheis stops shoit of this. But tests anu measuiements ought to
inuicate vocational couises in the junioi colleges suiteu to theii
capabilities. The highei centei of a 0niveisity is not the place foi a
stuuent to acquiie elementaiy euucation, to leau a spoiting life, to
accumulate social giaces, oi even moial chaiactei. It is a place foi
seiious tiaining in the intellectual puisuits. This is also vocational,
even if it is labeleu law, politics, oi philosophy, anu it shoulu be
caiiieu on unuei iigoiously qualifieu instiuctois in a piofessional
way. Stuuents shoulu be moie oi less on theii own iesponsibility as to
uaily conuuct even in ielation to the bouy of knowleuge anu the
uiscipline they aie puisuing. The teiminal examinations shoulu be
elaboiate anu uefinitive, set by outsiue oi piofessional examineis.
Anu success in these, not conuuct in couises, oi in examinations set by
theii instiuctois, ought to be the goal set by the 0niveisity foi its
passes anu honois. These methous aie not suitable foi lowei colleges
wheie elementaiy tools aie still being acquiieu anu boys anu giils aie
leaining to be uisciplineu.
These objectivesthe setting up of a junioi college system anu the
tiansfoiming of the 0niveisity into a cieative centei can only be
ieacheu by vigoious, even haish measuies. I shoulu expect to be
suppoiteu in using them when necessaiy. Aftei the establishment of a
96
new system I shoulu look foiwaiu to a fiee anu secuie faculty, self-
goveining anu self-ueteimining, in the highei centei. In the lowei
centei these last objectives woulu be haiuei to ieach anu woulu
iequiie a longei time. I shoulu expect the extension of patience until
that time aiiiveu. This piogiam will also iequiie financial suppoit but
it accoius so fully with the aims of the piesent auministiation that no
guaiantees of this soit seem necessaiy. A mastei plan ought to be
uevelopeu, in the couise of a yeai oi two, foi Pueito Rico's highei
euucation anu a fiscal piogiam spaceu ovei a peiiou of yeais anu
accoiuing with the iesouices of the islanu.
I state these things cleaily so that theie may be no mistake as to my
euucational theoiy. Pueito Rico ought to be a gieat iegional cultuial
centei. Its Spanish quality, its meuiating values with othei cultuies to
the noith anu south, ought to be emphasizeu anu enlaigeu. That can
only be uone by stienuous effoit anu with a secuie sense of time foi
accomplishment. I shoulu not like to unueitake it unsuppoiteu oi with
misunueistanuing in anyone's minu.
I founu when I got to Washington that the goveinoiship was settleu. Ni. Ickes hau
an optimistic moment ovei this. Not until I saw him a seconu time a few uays latei
uiu othei matteis come up; when they uiu, his moiuant moou was iesumeu. Buiing
this conveisation I felt I ought to tell him that his Feueial appointees in Pueito Rico
weie often meuiocie anu even moie often a piospective tiial foi a new uoveinoi on
othei giounus. Be askeu foi a suggestion of the soit I shoulu like in case of vacancy. I
gave him Ni. Nauiy Naveiick. Be saiu, "Nauiy woulu steal all youi publicity." I saiu,
"That woulu be fine. I uon't have any ambitions which can be injuieu." I was uneasy
about confiimation but that he shiuggeu away. It woulu be simple. Bempsey woulu
hanule it. This, of couise, iefeiieu to Ni. }ohn }. Bempsey, then 0nuei Secietaiy, on
whom Ni. Ickes leaneu heavily at that time foi Congiessional contacts. I thought
heanu Ni. Builew, too took the confiimation mattei too lightly anu saiu so; but
they woulu make no piepaiation.
The executive bianch of the uoveinment at this time became conceineu with othei
matteis. Something happeneu within a week which lifteu the pievalent uepiession
as if by magic anu gave all the blunueiing business neophytes in Washington new
couiage. Theie was a piecious gift of time. Fiom my notes of 22 }une 1941 (Sunuay):
Bitlei invaueu Russia last night, enuing a month of stiange
maneuveis. I am suie that neithei oui goveinment noi Biitain's ieally
believeu that we shoulu have the luck to have a new fiont open in the
97
east. Aftei oui uisasteis in Yugoslavia, uieece anu Ciete this seems an
incieuible anu haiuly ueseiveu goou foitune. It is a final mistake foi
Bitlei. As a mattei of gianu stiategy I uon't see how he can win now
no mattei how inefficient the Russians tuin out to be noi how
iemaikable the ueiman blitz.
This ought to give us at least anothei yeaiwhich shoulu be almost
enough, counting also on a ceitain peicentage of ueiman exhaustion.
Foi us to stiaighten out the chaos, get iiu of this businessmen's
inefficiency, anu cieate a mechanizeu foice with auequate auvance
bases, will take moie than one yeai; but it hau begun to seem as
though we shoulu not have months. Englanu might have fallen this
summei; anu that seems impossible now. . . .
It may be that ueiman-Russian wai will tenu to push the Caiibbean
out of view again. If it ielieves Biitain, the piospect that all the islanus
of the aiea will fall into Ameiican management is less foi the moment.
Chailes says that the inteinational commission is moving along anu
that I cannot escape appointment no mattei what Ickes thinks.
Chuichill, he says, has ieplieu favoiably to oui suggestion but wants
time to consult "on ceitain technicalities" which, I was unkinu enough
to suggest, meant asking the uoveinois, who woulu say "no" in theii
uozen uiffeient ways. Bowevei, Chailes is optimistic.
If the Russians uo put up a iespectable iesistanceagainst oui
Aimy's beliefanu thus ielieve the siege of Englanu, all such
oiganizing jobs can be caiiieu out with some giace. I hau thought
until now that we hau time only foi emeigency measuies. It is just
possible that insteau of impiovisations unuei piessuie we shall go to
the othei extieme of neglect. . . .
It may be, too, that if Russia ieally engages ueimany the policy heie
may be to go aftei }apan. That woulu tuin all attention to the Pacific
again, as in piewai uays.
Fiom then on we became fuiiously busy, my wife anu I, getting ieauy foi the Pueito
Rican activity. 0ui small son went to live with "uianuma" Ahues, who was the only
peison in his woilu he coulu love anu feai at once anu was theiefoie wonueifully
goou foi him. We liveu at a hotel; anu although we saw him eveiy uay it was she
who guiueu him out of babyhoou anu into the wiuening life of the walkei anu talkei.
While he emeigeu as a peisonality we set about to complete the Suu-acie iepoit
(which still iequiieu a lot of backgiounu woik although the Secietaiy hau agieeu
98
that it ought to be uelayeu until the contemplateu aiiangements weie substantially
effecteu); to leain all ovei again the souices of funus anu contiols in Washington foi
housing anu othei woiks, foi ielief anu so on; anu to stuuy the pait Pueito Rico
woulu play in the wai uiama just opening up.
Woik on the iepoit was not so uifficult now; we weie well into the subject, although
theie weie some uifficult spots. Foi instance, we neeueu infoimation conceining
expeiience with vaiious tenuie aiiangements in othei places anu at othei times. So
gieat was the complacency of the oithouox that this pioveu veiy haiu to assemble.
The geneial opinion seemeu to be that theie coulu haiuly be any useful puipose
seiveu by looking into foieign vagaiies in these matteis. Nothing coulu be as goou as
the Ameiican family faim. So we hau tiouble theie. Anu in the enu this pait of oui
woik went unfinisheu. Someuay I hopeu I might go back to this anu stuuy, without
piejuuice, the inventions anu expeiiences of othei peoples on the lanu. Aftei all,
men have been faimeis as long as they have been anything, anu something must
have tuineu up in this expeiience which is less wasteful anu moie humanly
satisfactoiy than a system which has piouuceu, fiom the fiee homesteaus of less
than a centuiy ago, Su to 7S pei cent of tenantiy, anu has so exhausteu oui soil
iesouices as to geneially ieuuce iathei than inciease oui natuial wealth. It cannot
be, eithei, that the absentee-owneu factoiy faim of Pueito Rico (anu of Bawaii,
Califoinia, etc.) is the answei to this olu iiuule. S9$8 may be a satisfactoiy solution I
was not piepaieu to suggestalthough Senatoi NcKellai woulu a little latei be
infuiiateu with me foi unceitainty on this point. I shoulu not like to uissolve into
senility until I have gone a goou ueal fuithei. But I hau not uone it in 1941.
The seaich foi souices of funus foi Pueito Rican iehabilitation soon leu to the White
Bouse. I saw that not much piogiess coulu be maue without the Piesiuent's help. I
took with me when I went to see him on 12 }uly pictuies of the enlaigeu slum aieas
which woulu have ievolteu a Bottentotanu on such questions Ni. Roosevelt was
nevei a Bottentot. Be saiu that, uamn it, he hau tolu eveiy uoveinoi since he hau
been Piesiuent that it was his business to clean up that uisgiace to the flaganu
now, eight yeais aftei he hau begun to talk about it, I was showing him that it was
many times woise than at the beginning. What was the mattei. To that I maue the
best answei I coulu, not ieally knowing. I thought it was because theie weie about
6,uuu new families founueu eveiy yeai, of whom about S,Suu settleu in the slums
wheie they hau no ient to pay, oi at least veiy little, since most of them weie
squatteis. Poveity-stiicken Pueito Ricans uiun't iegaiu ient as just; they got that
fiom slave uays peihaps; at any iate two thiius of them escapeu it somehow. Not all
the slum uwelleis hau to live theie. Still theie was the stubboin fact of low income
the Pueito Rican aveiage being only about one thiiu that of the continent anu
99
peihaps one half that of the Southein states. A goou ueal of it was tiaceable too, I
saiu, to the uecline of coffee anu tobacco which hau foimeily pioviueu woik on the
lanu. Piobably the biggest of all New Beal yeais in Pueito Rico hau not iesulteu in as
many as five hunuieu new houses; anu since this uispiopoition hau gone on foi a
long time the situation hau become the appalling one I laiu befoie him in
photogiaphs. I tolu him we shoulu nevei make any ieal piogiess eithei unless he
took an inteiest to the extent of giving some instiuctions. Wheieupon he calleu in
Niss Tully anu uictateu a message to the Biiectoi of the Buuget: C9, 30.+3 1' >.,"8#
-12# $", $ +,'$2, 8# !./012 9,$089G C913 39#.0( /, $88,38,( /: 89, @."%,#' T,',"$0 #6
89, Q$<: $'( 89, U,(12$0 R1",28#" #6 89, 7"+:G C9,' :#. 39#.0( 61'( $ 3#."2, #6 89,
6.'(3 $'( %,8 8913 !"#*,28 (#',G V N$'8 $281#'G With that I was satisfieu. I hau been
aiounu enough to know how long a way I still was fiom the action Ni. Roosevelt
wanteu; but he hau iisen to the occasion. It was a goou stait. I hopeu to builu on it.
We hau, howevei, talkeu foi some time, anu mostly about othei matteis. A laige
gioup of Congiessional leaueis hau just gone out anu left him looking uiscouiageu.
Be seemeu glau to see me, to ielax, to know that he coulu talk outiageously if he
wanteu anu still be safe. We hau always hau that kinu of ielationship. Anu even if I
hau not seen him in months, anu hau not the least iuea of the insiue of White Bouse
matteis, he talkeu as though I hau nevei left his siue anu knew not only the facts but
his minu about them. Be uiu that now, going on about extenuing the seivice of
uiaftees which Congiess was ieluctant to uo.
To him too, I coulu see, as moie anu moie to me eveiy uay then, the wai, not yet
ieally begun, was logically won. Theie was giief between wheie we weie anu the
submission of ueimany, but the attack on Russia hau aftei all settleu the mattei. The
ueep uangei was past. Be askeu if I uiun't think so. I saiu how shoulu I know the
answei: he hau all the souices of militaiy intelligence open to him: I hau only a
belief that Russians weie tough anu well munitioneu anu with the only "ism" which
coulu compete with that of the Nazis in moiale. Be saiu iuefully that he saw it so;
but that the whole Aimy was against that view, anu aggiessively so. Be was
neveitheless suie that Bitlei hau maue a fatal calculation. Be hau unueiestimateu by
at least the necessaiy thiity uayspiobably much moiethe time it woulu take to
subuue Russia anu pull out all but occupying foices anu auministiative staff. It
woulu be impossible to invaue Englanu aftei 1 0ctobei; he figuieu, consequently,
that it was going to be impossible to invaue Englanu at all.
These weie wiue matteis in which I coulu ventuie no infoimation anu no wisuom. I
uiu encouiage him, if my waim suppoit hau that effect, to tiust his own iathei than
the Aimy's juugment. It was on this same subject that he was to continue getting
what he believeu to be piejuuiceu intelligence anu woulu finally senu Ni. Baiiy
100
Bopkins to Russia foi obseivation. The iesistance to Russian aiu, on the giounus
that Russia was always about to collapse, woulu be one of his most tioublesome
pioblems fiom then until aftei Stalingiau. It founu well-piepaieu giounu, this
piejuuice, among the businessmen who weie in chaige of piouuction anu
uistiibution of iaw mateiials, machineiy, munitions, ships anu fooustuffs. Anu
equally well-piepaieu piejuuice in the militaiymoie especially the navalstaff.
Tuining to the subject closest to my inteiest he tolu me of iecent talks with Keynes
anu Balifax about postwai planning. The situation was such, he saiu, that on all but a
few subjects woik must necessaiily be in the laige iathei than in uetail. Theie weie
still many unsettleu issues of policy which maue any woik, othei than piepaiation
foi negotiation, futile. 0ne of the exceptions, howevei, was the West Inuia islanus
the whole Caiibbean. Be hau saiu to them, "I suppose you may be suipiiseu to have
me tell you that the Biitish West Inuies aie woise off than eithei the inuepenuent
countiies oi the 0niteu States Possessions." Be hau, he saiu, got the uesiieu
attention; anu he hau useu the oppoitunity to go iight on about what it seemeu
necessaiy to uo. Be hau saiu to them that all the gieat absentee lanuloius woulu
have to be uispossesseu anu agiicultuie ieoiganizeu. (Ni. Roosevelt uiu not enlaige
on this, but, knowing him of olu, I suspect he hau in minu homesteau faims.) The
same was tiue of the monopolies in contiol of shipping anu of the big meicantile
fiims which exploiteu all those who bought impoiteu goouswhich was eveiybouy.
0ften these inteiests hau meigeu anu, in any case, they woikeu togethei. As to
euucation anu healthall the islanus weie in some uegiee in the same situation
much illiteiacy, lack of vocational tiaining; anu pievalent enuemic sicknesses of all
kinus, almost uncheckeu, which ieuuceu vitalityexcept, appaiently, foi bieeuing.
Theie ought, he saiu, to be an inteinational commission which woulu not only uo
ieseaich anu give auvice but might well auministei tianspoitation agencies, set up a
subsiuiaiy bank to make agiicultuial anu co-opeiative loans, anu so on.
I thought this uisseitation fiom the Piesiuent of the 0niteu States must have
staitleu Keynes anu Balifax a goou ueal. I knew that woiu of such a talk woulu get
back to Lonuon at once. The chances weie goou that somehow it woulu get to the
vesteu inteiests unuei uiscussion piomptly too; anu unless a wai situation was
cieateu in which it coulu not be avoiueu, they woulu finu ways to escape
uispossession. The West Inuia Inteiest was not what it once hau been in Lonuon. In
the centuiy centeiing at 17Su the iich absentee planteis anu the meichants who
iepiesenteu them hau pietty well contiolleu Pailiament so fai as theii own affaiis
weie conceineu.
1
This was the heyuay of sugai anu molasses. The sweets weie still

1
Thiough the iotten-boiough system which, Benjamin Fianklin complaineu, gave the West Inuia
colonies many auvantages ovei Noithein ones.
101
luxuiies; but not so inaccessible to the English miuule classes that the maiket was
not giowing. Theie was still slave laboi to keep costs uown anu viigin lanu to keep
piouuction up. The planteis anu theii agents weie so iich as to fuinish the language
a phiase meaning lavishness anu opulence. "West Inuian plantei" connoteu vast
establishments abioau anu in the islanus, an aimy of slaves anu spieauing gieen
seas of cane. But the new political economy of Auam Smith uestioyeu the
piefeiences anu bounties of this plantociacy, the slaves weie fieeu, anu the
oveiwoikeu lanu began to iequiie feitilizeis. The centuiy-long bonanza
uisappeaieu.
Still the tiaces of these uays iemaineu in the pievalent psychology anu, to an extent,
in the actual economic situation, as Ni. Roosevelt veiy well knew fiom olu
knowleuge of his own anu fiom iecent ieinfoicements biought to him by Chailes
Taussig anu by myself. Peihaps also by otheis; with him you nevei knew. . . . Be was
well ieau in histoiy. Be knew all about the olu West Inuia Inteiest anu what hau
happeneu to it. Be knew also that in English countinghouses, anu maybe in a Toiy
Pailiament, it might still suivive in sufficient stiength to uefeat its newest
challengeis. Be might have suspecteu that planteis woulu finu a fiienu in Ni.
Winston Chuichill. That woulu seem likely in view of the Piime Ninistei's lifelong
affiliations. If they uiu they woulu be quite safe in spite of Ni. Roosevelt anu his
commission. The Biitish weie aumiiing themselves immensely just then, as they hau
a iight to uo, foi theii foitituue unuei the blitz. Ni. Chuichill's stiange combination
of eloquence anu }ohn Bull appeaiance hau centeieu all theii ieticent naicissism in
him. Be coulu uo no wiong. But if anyone expecteu anything of him oi of his gioup
which woulu benefit the subject peoples of the woilu they woulu be uisappointeu. I
felt suie that the commission woulu be set up, anu that Chailes woulu put in a lot of
woik at it. It woulu be well auveitiseu but its activities woulu piobably come to iest
in a safe "ieseaich," avoiuing any "uangeious" activity. Neveitheless if that was how
it was to be I was iesigneu to paiticipation anu by now iesolveu to uo what I coulu.
What Ni. Roosevelt thought about oui chance of leauing the way in colonial change
he uiu not confiue to me. It seemeu that we weie going to tiy not only to uo
something in Pueito Rico but to call on the best instincts of the Biitish to impiove
ciown-colony goveinment in the West Inuies anu living conuitions as well. Peihaps
we shoulu not get anywheie with it; but we shoulu make the effoit. Theie was even
moie than this. We uiscusseu the 0niveisity mattei. Be was uelighteu beyonu my
expectation. I founu him well infoimeu about the ueficiencies in Latin-Ameiican
euucation; he spoke paiticulaily of the piefeience foi laige matteis of philosophy
iathei than the moie piecise matteis of engineeiing anu economics. But also he was


102
inteiesteu that knowleuge of the Spanish language anu cultuie shoulu be
encouiageu in the States. Theie hau been talk, enuless talk, about Pueito Rico as a
halfway station, anu of Pueito Ricans as meuiating folk between the English anu
Latin tiauitions. The Piesiuent was willing to take that seiiously anu askeu me to
woik at it with Ni. Rockefellei's Intei-Ameiican gioup anu with the State
Bepaitment. I piomiseu to tiy. Buiing the next two months I wasteu much time in
this effoit. Foi the fiist time, in the executive bianch of the uoveinment, anu outsiue
as well as insiue the Bepaitment of State, I founu coluness foi all things Pueito
Rican. I maue many effoits to oveicome it but without much iesult. The iuea seemeu
to be that Pueito Rico was an Ameiican failuie anu that in the piactical effoit to
peisuaue oui Southein neighbois that we meant to be goou, oui pooi uepenuency
hau bettei be ignoieu anu if possible foigot. The piomoteis of cultuie finally got iiu
of me by piocuiing a iuling of counsel that, like the Bepaitment of State, theii funus
coulu only be expenueu in foieign lanus. A Pueito Rican fiienu who hau been telling
me fiom the beginning that this woulu happen laugheu anu saiu,, "You see, we'ie in,
so we'ie out. It's always the same. If we weie out, they woulu have to get us in. Then
we shoulu be eligible foi all the goou things. As it is, nothing uoing!"
Ny ambitions at this time went somewhat beyonu what this cultuial gioup coulu uo.
The uoou Neighboi policy in at least one instance hau uevelopeu a piactical
unueitaking which seemeu of immense piomise. I wanteu something like it foi
Pueito Rico. With funus fuinisheu by the Expoit-Impoit Bank theie hau been
establisheu in Baiti the Socit Baitien-Ameiicaine ue Bveloppement Agiicole. It
hau hau only a biief existence as yet but alieauy its usefulness was appaient. The
intention was to make an effoit at the iationalizing of agiicultuieinciuentally
fuinishing some much neeueu piouucts foi a countiy which uepenueu uangeiously
on the Netheilanus East Inuies: iubbei, quinine, insecticiues among otheis, all
subtiopical, all lost to oui hemispheie thiough neglect anu the supeiioi efficiency of
the Butch on the othei siue of the eaith. Foi Baiti the establishment of this
enteipiise was the gieatest winufall of a centuiy. The success theie hau leu to
schemes of a similai soit foi othei South anu Cential Ameiican countiies. Why not, I
wonueieu, Pueito Rico. Aftei negotiation anu taking auvice fiom the State
Bepaitment, the Expoit-Impoit Bank, howevei, gave me a similai answei; the funus
weie only available foi use outsiue the 0niteu States. It was getting monotonous.
Saiu my fiienu again, "You see; it's always the same; we'ie out because we'ie in."
By now I was ieally annoyeu. I hau faileu to get cultuial anu euucational help; a
Bevelopment Company coulu not be staiteu; I must not fail with housing, with
sanitation anu the watei supplyoi with the Institute of Tiopical Agiicultuie. But I
uiu fail on all of them in one way oi anothei in spite of eveiythinghaiu woik, the
103
Piesiuent's uiiective, eveiything. I hau not counteu on quite so much ill will, oi, of
couise, on the wai which woulu come along piesently. But most of all not on ill will.
Let me ielate, a little out of chionology, a typical instance.
As I was leaving the Piesiuent at a latei inteiview he calleu out: "Bon't foiget, you
have to get iiu of those slums anu you have to clean up the watei supplymake it
so I can have a uiink next time I come to Pueito Rico." I thought I ought to, with his
help. So I staiteu on both. Anu the stait was goou. The funus weie actually
eaimaikeu anu, as to the housing, a pioject foi the elimination of El Fanguito woulu
be within a week oi two of the uiit-moving stage on 7 Becembei. But then eveiyone
in Washington woulu act as though the bombs hau hit that city insteau of Bonolulu.
All funus woulu be withuiawn; all piojects woulu be stoppeu. I woulu aigue myself
black in the face that since the mateiials weie on the islanu they coulu be of no use
to the wai effoit on the continent; anu that since Pueito Rico hau no wai inuustiies,
the ciisis hau only enlaigeu the iule laboi supply; but all to no puipose. We coulu
put eveiyone on ielief; but we coulun't peimit them to builu homes. The iesistance
to ieason woulu closely iesemble paialysis. The Washingtonians woulu not even be
capable of answeiing letteis. Appaiently all they coulu uo was sit anu staie at theii
navels. While the slums giew fastei anu fastei.
It was a little uiffeient with the watei-supply mattei. Colonel uilmoie, then in
chaige of Public Woiks, was ieceptive. Be tolu me fiankly, howevei, as uiu the
Public Woiks Engineei foi Pueito Rico, that theii expeiience hau been such with the
unsatisfactoiy goveinment of San }uan that they woulu caiiy on no fuithei piojects
unuei such sponsoiship. The hoiioi tales they hau to tell of what went on weie
sufficiently convincing. They volunteeieu, howevei, foi puiposes of planning, to
make the pioject a Feueial one, anu saiu that once I was uoveinoi I coulu ask the
legislatuie to insulaiize the watei-supply system, thus fieeing them fiom the
uangeis they weie unwilling to face. With the planning uone we coulu then go aheau
iapiuly. It woulu be, accoiuingly, one of my fiist acts as uoveinoi to caiiy out this
infoimal agieement, insisting that a special session of the legislatuie take the
necessaiy action. Inueeu I woulu mention it piominently in my inauguial. Anyone
who has familiaiity with olu-fashioneu municipal goveinment will iecognize that
taking the watei system away fiom San }uan woulu be to ieally stii up the animals.
This woulu be a uiiect attack on the plum tiee. The !#01812#3 woulu wait,
unbelieving, until they weie suie I meant it; then they woulu set out to show me the
limits within which Ameiican uoveinois weie expecteu to stay. Ni. Bolivai Pagn,
foi instance, woulu make many impassioneu speeches in the Congiess (oi at least
have them piinteu in the Recoiu) showing what a peifiuious fascist (oi, as the case
might be, communist) I was. Be woulu even complain bitteily to the Piesiuent, as
104
Ni. Roosevelt woulu tell me with a big laugh. What the Piesiuent woulu say to Ni.
Pagn I cannot iepeat. It coulun't, howevei, have pleaseu him much. Anu all about
the watei system of San }uan I Anu all the time with the highest cause of ueath in
Pueito Rico, enteiitis, a wholly watei-boine uisease, causeu by inauequate supplies
anu ineffective tieatment. The Recoiu woulu seem to have useu moie papei, ink anu
piinteis' wages on the subject than the capital woith of the whole system. 0f couise,
it woulu be put on pietty noble giounus, fieeuom, home iule anu so on, anu with no
mention of infant anu even auult ueath iates, many times those in the States,
absolutely contiollable with a few miles of watei pipe anu a tieatment
establishment opeiateu by civil seivants. Anyone with any political expeiience
coulu see what was going on. At least Ni. Roosevelt woulu, although numeious
Congiessmen woulu piofess not to compiehenu.
As I say, I shoulu unueigo all that. The bill woulu be passeu. We woulu make
application to what woulu be now the Feueial Woiks Agency. Anu the next event in
the seiies woulu be a message fiom ueneial Philip Fleming, by then Auministiatoi,
to the effect that unless I knew of some ieason against it, a iival pioject piesenteu
by the Boaiu of Commissioneis of San }uan woulu be appioveu within a few uays.
The politicos woulu have put one ovei; with Washington help they woulu have
shown an inteifeiing uoveinoi just wheie to heau in. I woulu tiy feebly to piotest.
But nothing woulu come of it; anu I shoulu be too uiscouiageu by then to appeal to
Ni. Roosevelt.
Then theie was the attempt to secuie the Institute of Tiopical Agiicultuie foi Pueito
Rico. Beie I was on soliu giounu. I knew what it was about. Anu I coulu aigue with
complete ieason that Pueito Rico ought to have the establishment. I went at it tooth
anu nail. I buttonholeu eveiyone, high anu low, who might have something to say
about location. "Beie is the test," my aigument ian. "Foi foity yeais we have talkeu
laigely of Pueito Rico as a halfway station between the 0niteu States anu South
Ameiica. Baving the auvantage of oui piotection anu oui institutions anu of the
Spanish heiitage; anu having as well, among euucateu people, commanu of two
languages; being, as a mattei of fact, at that level, bilingual, it is well suiteu foi this
iole. But "we have nevei implementeu this claim of ouis. We holu the islanu, the
South Ameiicans have been known to say, as a pistol pointeu at them, not as a
seivice station foi the tiansfusion of cultuies. 0p to now they aie entitleu to say that
oui pietensions aie empty. An iueal uemonstiation of ieveisal woulu be to put theie
an institution we aie piepaieu to subsiuize geneiously anu which is expecteu to
function in the inuustiial fielu closest to South Ameiican inteiestsagiicultuie."
This pioject was not a new one. It hau been pioposeu yeais befoie anu ieviveu
when Ni. Wallace anu I weie in the 0. S. Bepaitment of Agiicultuie. Ni. E. N.
105
Biessman, as oui special iepiesentative, hau meanwhile, in seveial jouineys to the
south, Inteiesteu agiicultuialists thioughout the hemispheie in its possibilities. The
plans foi it hau been thiesheu out in numeious confeiences. Fuitheimoie the funus
hau been put at the uisposition of a Boaiu. Theie iemaineu only settlement on a
location. I thought it shiewu to point out that a ceitain amount of ill will woulu
follow its establishment in any foieign countiy. Those who hau lost out in the
competition woulu be envious. That coulu be avoiueu by selecting Pueito Rico.
The whole case was so goou that theie was inueeu a slight embaiiassment in
tuining me uown. Neveitheless it was uone with fiimness. We woulu afteiwaiu
establish an Institute of oui own at Nayaguez of which Bi. Cailos Chaiuon woulu
become the fiist heau. But, of couise, it woulu not meet the puipose of pioving
Ameiican goou will. I was sau about this failuie. But Ni. Biessman was an olu
colleague; we woulu have no uifficulty in uiviuing the fieluCosta Rica taking
giauuate tiaining, anu we centeiing on ieseaichbut still it was one moie eviuence
that my countiy's intentions towaiu Pueito Rico, when it came uown to business,
weie pietty accuiately iepiesenteu by the Congiess anu the State Bepaitment. It
was the moie embaiiassing foi me that the pioject hau ieally oiiginateu in Pueito
Rico as a pait of an eailiei scheme to make the 0niveisity a uual cultuie centei. It
hau even at one time ieacheu the stage of piomiseu founuation suppoit anu
affiliation with Coinell 0niveisity, which, moie by acciuent than by intention, hau
finally not mateiializeu. To have pickeu up the iuea anu to have insulteu Pueito Rico
by uelibeiately embouying it in a uoveinment-suppoiteu institution elsewheie
well, that was anothei illustiation, I coulu suppose, of the aphoiism which was
beginning to annoy me with its appositeness. Saiu my fiienu still again: "It's always
the same; we'ie out because we'ie in."
If these expeiiences, as I have ielateu them, convey some feeling of uisillusion, they
have seiveu theii puipose. I uiun't minu putting in the houis anu expenuing all the
talk, but, asiue fiom the co-opeiation I was getting fiom Faim Secuiity, theie
actually weien't any iesults. Befoie I began, the pieview of what it was to be like in
Washington was cleai enough. Towaiu the enu of }uly, the 0niveisity mattei
fuinisheu a uisappointment too. I was finally tolu that the ten-yeai contiact coulu
not legally be maue. Nuoz saiu he woulu peisuaue the legislatuie to iemeuy that,
but still it maue me uneasy. Theie was a nasty job to ua within the institution, anu I
was afiaiu of politics. Theie weie a few uays just at the last when I thought seiiously
of going to Fioiello anu saying that aftei all it might be bettei foi me to stay with
him. I even went to talk with Ni. Ickes about it, finally, on the 29th. But I was so
neaily on balance anu he was so obviously pleaseu with telling me that the
goveinoiship nomination was ieauy to go fiom the White Bouse to the Senate, anu
106
with uiscussing ways of getting things uone foi Pueito Rico unuei the new
aiiangement, that I came away without voicing my ieluctance. That night I hau
uinnei with Chailes Taussig; anu his optimism, too, was infectious. Between the
jellieu soup anu the Iceu honeyuew he iationalizeu the whole Caiibbean. At any iate
on 1 August I went to the Bistiict of Columbia Couit anu was swoin in as Chancelloi:
1 AugustI am now an employee of the 0niveisity of Pueito Rico iathei than of the
City of New Yoik. Tiouble has begun, as I hau tolu the Secietaiy it woulu, about
confiimation. I myself was optimistic aftei my call on Tyuings the othei uay. Be was
caustic about Pueito Ricans; but fiienuly to me. Yesteiuay, howevei, when,
accoiuing to iequest, I attenueu at the Committee (Teiiitoiies anu Islanu
Possessions) in the Senate galleiy, Tyuings calleu me asiue anu saiu that Tobey
(Chailes W., Senatoi of New Bampshiie) hau askeu foi uelay anu so it woulu have to
go ovei until next week. Be was still affable; but manageu to convey the impiession
that something was up. La uuaiuia, whom I saw this moining, was uowniight
iepioachful. Be saiu I woulun't like Pueito Rico anu that my wife woulun't eithei,
anu offeieu to keep my job open foi at least a few months to see what happens. I
tolu him of my tiouble about confiimation anu he offeieu to help although he saiu
anu I thought it uamneu nice of himhe hopeu I woulu get tuineu uown so that I
woulu come back to him.
Builew says he has talkeu to NcKellai; anu Chapman feais sugai tiouble. Bempsey
is optimistic. As foi me, I uon't like it anu wish I hau hau sense enough to know
when I was well off.
I uo not piopose to lingei, in this account, ovei the humiliating expeiiences of the
thiee weeks which followeu. Ny heaiing was put off fiom Tuesuay to Weunesuay
anu fiom Weunesuay to the following Tuesuay. Each uay I iepoiteu, hung aiounu
foi an inuefinite time anu was then tolu to come back. Ny olu fiienu Senatoi Robeit
N. La Follette uiu some scouting foi me anu saiu it was a Republican mattei: Tabei
of New Yoik anu Ciawfoiu of Nichigan, Repiesentatives, uon't want to lose this
chance anu have peisuaueu Tobey, Austin, vanuenbeig anu Banahei (membeis of
the Senate Committee) that they have something. "Bolu youi hat," he saiu, "it sounus
like a Rube uolubeig contiaption." Anu it ceitainly uiu. The stoiy was that Taussig's
Caiibbean iepoit anu the activities I was to caiiy out in Pueito Rico weie to ieuuce
lanu values theie so that Taussig's concein coulu buy them up. Then he was going to
split with me. To say that I was flabbeigasteu was to put it miluly. But as soon as I
heaiu what it was I iecognizeu it foi that type of 2913+,
2
which is useful foi
subteiianean attacks on ieputation but which cannot stanu the light. It hau all the

2
Chismevicious gossip.

107
eaimaiks of the kinu of neai-slanuei to which I hau been subjecteu in the Foou anu
Biugs fight. It was getting a builu-up, howevei, anu I coulu see that if the uelay
peisisteu I was likely to become again, as I hau in othei yeais, an involuntaiy 2$.3,
2W0,/",.
Aftei foui postponements a heaiing finally came off which was pietty neaily puie
faice. The thieats of exposuie, of couise, faueu out. Repiesentative Ciawfoiu was
piesent but confineu his opposition to the suggestion that a businessman woulu
have been piefeiable. Be appeaieu, as usual, with an aimful of books anu papeis;
but what I hau been tolu they weie going to piovethat Chailes anu I weie
conspiiing foi mutual piofit uiu not emeige. Ni. Ciawfoiu hau been an
accountant once, anu, tiue to this foimei piofession, hau an insatiable appetite foi
"facts" (which in this instance iequiieu to be put in quotes) anu feveiish eneigy in
collecting them in spite of what appeaieu to be a wholly inauequate physique. Be
anu a few otheis hau, highly uevelopeu, the iiiesponsibility peculiai to
Congiessional opposition. Concentiation on the negatives peculiai to insistent
caiping ueiogation has a chaiacteiistic effect finally on peisonality anu on the
pattein of action. Ny yeais of public life ought to have taught me what to expect. But
I aumit to having been taken by suipiise not only in Washington, but also a little
latei in San }uan, at the massiveness anu ueteimination of the opposition I
encounteieu. Theie seemeu so much to be gaineu foi the nation by exhibiting goou
will anu common confiuence that, in spite of tempeiamental wainings, I hau
believeu that I might be alloweu to pieseive the uignity necessaiy to a successful
colonial uoveinoi.
Nessis. Ciawfoiu, Tabei, Ncuehee, et al., cannot have escapeu the knowleuge that
theie was tiouble coming; anu that pait of it might come to the Caiibbean whose
auministiative uefense base was Pueito Rico. They might, it still seems to me, foi
once, have acknowleugeu the neeu of the Piesiuent foi someone at such a place anu
at such a time in whom he coulu have the ultimate kinu of confiuence upon which,
with things bieaking up, he might conceivably neeu to iely. I was not a political
appointee. I have no uoubt that Ni. Roosevelt hau taken into ac-count the political
situation in Pueito Rico anu thought that the peiiou just aheau was inappiopiiate
foi a uoveinoi who was out of sympathy with the aspiiations of the masses. But that
was not the usual basis foi "political" appointments. Bis piactical uemonstiation of
sagacity conceining Pueito Rico took place about this time. Anu it was a stiiking
one. Foi he publicly intiouuceu Nuoz to his neighbois at Byue Paik as the "Piime
Ninistei" of Pueito Rico. The implication of uominion status woulu stick in my minu
anu woulu contiibute to latei uecisions. }ust now it was a iebuke to the politicos in
Pueito Rico anu a hint to the Congiess.
108
It was one, howevei, which they chose to ignoie. The attenuance at this fiist
heaiingfoi theie was to be anothei, as I shall ielatewas not veiy goou. The
newspapeis hau plenty of copy in that month even if most of it was imaginaiy anu
misleauing speculation conceining the length of time Russia might holu out. The
Republicans anu the anti-Roosevelt Bemociats, I hopeu, weie ueciuing not to use me
at the moment as a saciificial iepiesentative of Ni. Roosevelt. They might even be
thinking it was necessaiy to be Ameiicans iathei than anti-Roosevelt in Pueito Rico
at this moment. It lookeu a little like it. Tiue, at the heaiing, an houi anu a half of the
time of seveial impoitant people was uevoteu to heaiing Ni. Cayetano Coll y Cuchi,
a chaiactei known bettei to the islanueis, eviuently, than to 0niteu States Senatois.
This was the same inuiviuual who hau suggesteu so uelicately at oui heaiing in San
}uan on the Suu-acie limitation that such iueas oiiginateu in Russia anu hau bettei
be confineu theie. 0n inquiiy I was amazeu to finu that he was a Socialist. I thought I
hau nevei heaiu anyone talk moie like the caiicatuie coipoiation lawyei. I also
founu that he was Chaiiman of the San }uan City Commission, that mouel among all
municipal goveinments with whom the Public Woiks Auministiation when unuei
Ni. Ickeswoulu uo no moie business. That explaineu something; but aiouseu
fuithei cuiiosity. The fiist peison I askeu casually about Ni. Coll y Cuchi talkeu foi
an houi. I coulu haiuly stop the flow. Anu I founu it the same eveiywheie. Bis ueeus
in the stiange woilu of law anu politics weie iegaiueu half humoiously, half
uepiecatingly by Pueito Ricans. Eveiyone acknowleugeu his smaitness at the same
time that they expanueu with gusts of iueful laughtei on his exploits. }ust aftei his
peifoimance befoie the Senatoiswhich he caiiieu off with the utmost giavity anu
an aii of complete sinceiityNuoz tolu me how he hau suggesteu the night befoie
that he hau always cheiisheu the ambition to be a piofessoi in the School of Law at
the 0niveisity. At a latei meeting of a Committee of the Bouse of Repiesentatives,
aftei Ni. Bolivai Pagn hau useu his most vitupeious talents on me, Ni. Coll y Cuchi
woulu appeai. Askeu if he agieeu with Ni. Pagn he woulu say, "Yes; only moie
exaggeiateu."
The opposition politicos weie not yet "exaggeiateu." They weie still feeling me out,
inuiviuually anu collectivelyinuiviuually aftei the fashion of Ni. Coll y Cuchi anu
collectively by means of uelegations who weie sent to Washington with instiuctions
to appeai in opposition to my confiimation unless I woulu give commitments. I
uiun't give any. But by now I was embaiiasseu foi time. I hau to leave soon if I was
to ieach the 0niveisity befoie its opening. I consulteu with Ni. Bempsey who was
confiuent, anu with Ni. Tyuings who was not opposeu, anu on the moining of 14
August left foi Niami. The Committee was to meet that uay with a favoiable iepoit
appaiently foiegone, since theie hau been no opposition anu a goou ueal of suppoit.
109
Lanuing at Chaileston, howevei, I founu a wiie fiom my wife which saiu: "Come
back; they want to examine you again."


110
1u.
WBEN 0N 12 A0u0ST the Senate Committee on Teiiitoiies anu Islanu Possessions
hau finally pioceeueu with the public heaiing on my confiimation, most of the
membeis hau not attenueu. Two oi thiee hau come in foi a while anu then gone out.
At the last only Senatoi Bone hau been theie; even Ni. Tyuings hau founu business
elsewheie. When they weie to vote on the following uay, howevei, in executive
session, moie of them hau been piesent; anu, as Ni. Tyuings tolu me ovei the phone,
theie hau been wiangling anu accusations. It seemeu to have been fantastically fai
fiom fact, anu utteily unielateu to any uisclosuies maue at the heaiing. It was
chaigeu, foi instance, that I hau been iesponsible foi "lanu uivision" in Pueito Rico,
which was "socialism." Theie weie othei accusations, too, some of which, I gatheieu,
the Senatoi was too kinu to pass on; at any iate the best he hau been able to uo was
to postpone action anu to suggest that the suspicions be cleaieu away by a heaiing
which those with auveise inclinations, especially, shoulu attenu. No explanation of
non-attenuance befoie seemeu to have been maue. At any iate that was why I hau
been calleu back.
0n that uay the Atlantic Chaitei was announceu, with all the uiama of the meeting
at sea between Ni. Roosevelt anu Ni. Chuichill, attenueu by theii staffs. Still with all
the news thus pioviueu, theie was ioom foi a fiont-page stoiy about my uistiessing
situation. It lookeu again as though the thing might be woikeu up into a politically
embaiiassing inciuent.
Taking counsel togethei, my wife anu I ueciueu that what the situation uemanueu
was a simple histoiical statementwith peihaps some exposition of the lanu
pioblem, since theie was eviuently a misconception in the Senatois' minus about
this. The uistoition of my views was piobably welcome to those who weie nuising
political oi peisonal ill will, anu they might not be anxious foi claiification, since it is
always safei to know veiy little about people who aie uislikeu out of convenience;
still, this time, theie woulu at least be an auuiencethe publicity guaianteeu that.
The Committee membeis woulu be theie; anu so woulu the piess. What was neeueu
foi the occasion was, moieovei, at hanu; I was lettei-peifect in the iequiieu
exposition. It woulu be enough meiely to iecite a goou ueal of the iepoit we hau
been woiking on.
This, in fact, was what I uiu. Senatoi Tyuings gave me eveiy oppoitunity to iecall foi
the Committee anu the ioomful of auuitois the histoiy of the Suu-acie limitation.
Even though this was a Congiessional mattei, anu so one on which they shoulu have
been infoimeu, it seemeu new to eveiyone theie. Ny position, of couise, was
unassailable. Not I, but Congiess, a Committee of which hau unueitaken to examine
111
me in not too fiienuly a spiiit, hau iequiieu that the lanu be uiviueu anu then hau
ignoieu the iesponsibility foi implementing its own Act. It coulu haiuly be
"socialistic" to uevise means foi caiiying out a foity-yeai-olu Congiessional
measuie which hau been ieaffiimeu at least once (in the }ones Act of 1917) against
executive iecommenuation.
1
I was alloweu to make a long statement, almost
uninteiiupteu, which enueu with a fiank suggestion that a Congiessional uuty hau
been evaueu. A policy hau been establisheu; it was one, howevei, which coulu not be
caiiieu out without implementation; anu the Congiess ought eithei to have
pioviueu funus anu set teims foi enfoicement, oi it ought to have ieveiseu its policy
anu confiimeu the big owneis in theii holuings.
2
I saiu, howevei, that no people in
the woilu hau willingly liveu in poveity alongsiue piouuctive lanus owneu in
absentia anu not useu to the fullest capacity. Fuitheimoie I knew of no instance in
which the Congiess, in such a situation, oi in one anything like it, hau favoieu
lanuloius as against homeless people. uoing on, I saiu that since the situation hau
uevelopeu so fai, anu since it was the neglect of the Congiess which was at fault, a
goou ueal of foibeaiance ought to be gianteu the insulai uoveinment if it tiieu to uo
something anu the Congiess uiu not.
This was a kinu of toui ue foice, it will be seen, but the eviuent inteiest on the pait
of Senatois Claik, Ellenuei, Banahei anu a numbei of otheis seemeu to waiiant it.
Ceitainly the questions they askeu weie not hostile. But Senatoi NcKellai uiu not
like the way things weie ueveloping; anu he insisteu on a line of questioning
appaiently intenueu to piove that I hau iauical beliefs in the mattei. Biu I favoi
goveinment owneiship of lanu. That seemeu to be his objective. Be wanteu a
categoiical yes-oi-no answei even though I insisteu that to give one without
conuitioning anu guaiuing it woulu be utteily uishonest anu misleauing. Be
followeu the same ioutine on othei matteis, incluuing the question of Pueito Rico's
status, being wholly peisonal, obviously hostile, anu uninteiesteu in the mateiial to
which the otheis hau given close attention. 0n the whole, howevei, in spite of Ni.
NcKellai, it seemeu likely that the heaiing hau counteu foi goou. Those piesent, at
least, woulu have a ieviseu, a moie infoimeu, view of the issues being ueteimineu in
the possession. Anu they at once voteu to iecommenu confiimation.
0n the moining of 2u August I again left foi Niami, woiking all the way on my
auuiess foi the 0niveisity's opening ceiemony anu continuing all next uay at the
NcAllistei. It was uisappointing to ieau in the Niami Beialu that Senatoi Taft now

1
That of the then Secietaiy, William Bowaiu Taft, who hau been the cabinet officei in chaige of
Insulai Affaiis.
2
2 A few yeais latei ceitain membeis of the Bouse Committee woulu favoi iepeal of the Suu-acie
piovision; but until now no one hau publicly suggesteu such a possibility.

112
appeaieu to have become the champion of those who opposeu me, anu hau objecteu
to a vote on confiimation in the Senate until he coulu piepaie a speech. But that was
how it was, anu patience was still neeueu. That speech, when it came off a few uays
latei, seemeu obviously a Republican political piouuction, uenouncing the New Beal
as socialistic anu so on. As to me he was content to accept the newspapei
steieotype: "The woist auministiatoi who evei liveu" anu "a failuie at eveiything he
evei tiieu." Even if theii souice is known, as the Aikansan saiu when kickeu by a
mule, such assaults huit. But beyonu the huit theie was the iiiesponsibility exposeu
by uenunciation unuei the ciicumstances when goou will neeueu so much to be
establisheu anu was so easily injuieu by paitisan shaipshooting. Ni. Taft uiu not
expect to pievent my confiimation. Be only meant to uiscieuit anothei Roosevelt
appointee. That this was a uangeious time foi that kinu of thing uiu not uetain him,
noi that Pueito Rico was an inappiopiiate place in which to piactice continental
politics. Ni. Taft woulu be a little embaiiasseu, I think, when he became acquainteu
with me latei, about this uninfoimeu uiatiibe. Anu ceitainly he woulu tuin out to be
a useful fiienu in the exigency of the blockaue. But up to now he hau been, along
with Ni. vanuenbeig, meiely one of oui moie thoughtless enemies, wholly paitisan
in appioach.
In the plane outwaiu to San }uan the 0niveisity auuiess was finisheu. I hau hopeu,
even aftei Ni. Taft's announcement, that confiimation woulu come uuiing the uays
en ioute. But it continueu to be withhelu at the iequest of vaiious Republicans; anu I
aiiiveu in San }uan still the taiget foi belittling speeches in the Senate, still unceitain
of confiimation. Taking its line fiom Ni. Taft, one of the laigest newspapeis in San
}uan began, the moining aftei my aiiival, a seiies of savage peisonal attacks.
Chaiacteiistically, the issue was completely aitificial: it was saiu that I was a
"phantom Chancelloi" (2$'2100," 6$'8$3+$), anu theie followeu the fiist of many
thousanus of woius to be expenueu in the month which followeu on the agony of the
0niveisity." Theie was behinu these attacks, as I giauually leaineu, moie than at
fiist appeaieu. I was inclineu to be amuseu; but that soon tuineu into uistuibance as
the hatieu behinu the aitificial issue became eviuent.
Buiing the months anu yeais aheau I woulu have othei chances, plenty of them, foi
stuuying the technique useu in this instance, but none woulu be moie chaiacteiistic:
at the beginning a phony fact is fasteneu to a univeisally appioveu piinciple;
thioughout seveial uays of uevelopment the fact is enlaigeu anu the piinciple
commenteu upon; euitoiials aie wiitten in moie anu moie pointeu language;
citizens aie inteivieweu anu, if theii woius aie sufficiently inuignant at the violation
of accepteu tiuth oi custom, they aie playeu up piominently; if it is at all possible,
meetings aie fomenteu anu iesolutions aie passeu; these aie sent to piominent
113
peisons of many soits, fiom the Piesiuent uown; Washington coiiesponuents aie
oiueieu to finu a way to get comment theie fiom Congiessmen anu othei officials.
By this time, if the thing has succeeueu at all, what began as a wholly imaginaiy
excuse foi attack has become a public issue. Peihaps the victim has even been
foolish enough to ieact, in which case a scieaming climax is possible.
This game seemeu to be woikeu in Pueito Rico with public connivance. Eveiyone
was awaie of what was going on; but eveiyone joineu in. If the statement of a
commentatoi was publisheu, his satisfaction seemeu to be quite unielateu to his
knowleuge of the oiigin of the iequest foi it, which must have been complete. When
all was ovei, the victim was not supposeu to holu it against those who hau exhibiteu
themselves at his expense. This, of couise, helu tiue only foi outsiueis. It was an
insulai game anu not intenueu to be useu on the home folks. When it was tiieu on
them occasionally, a fiist-class feuu iesulteu, with fuiies on each siue equaleu only
peihaps in the Kentucky Nountains, anu extenuing in aggiavateu cases thiough
geneiations.
These geneializations weie not available to me in my fiist month in Pueito Rico.
Consequently I was puzzleu anu upset. That, I suppose, was iealizeu by eveiyone
else conceineu, which maue the game moie inteiesting. I was hanuicappeu by an
incoiiigible tenuency to attiibute stanuaius of faii play to those who hau none; anu
to cling to libeialism, if I may call it that, as a methou of action. These attituues hau
the effect of at least confusing the newspapei gamesteis anu the clique of teacheis
anu stuuents who, without my iealizing it, hau set out to uiive me out of Pueito
Rico.
The issue, the "agony of the 0niveisity," was that I was going to be Chancelloi on
leave, anu that the "0niveisity woulu be tieu to the goveinoiship," etc., etc. That this
was a time of ciisis, that my leave woulu be tempoiaiy, anu that many othei
univeisity heaus in the States weie seiving in goveinmentall that was ignoieu.
S
It
hau to be foi the uemaiche to succeeu. Besiues, theie weie involveu a numbei of
peisonal ambitions. I leaineu giauually that theie hau been numeious canuiuates
foi the chancelloishiptheii aspiiations being ielateu not to ability oi even to
acceptability so much as to some piivately helu estimate of woith. All these
ambitious inuiviuuals might have been sciambling foi auvantage among themselves
evei since the >#!.0$" victoiy in 194u; but all of them coulu, with the gieatest

S
It was also ignoieu that unuei the 0iganic Act the Insulai Commissionei of Euucation is chaiiman of
the Boaiu of Tiustees of the 0niveisity. Since he is a suboiuinate of the uoveinoi's anu a supeiioi
officei may piesumably guiue a lessei one, the 0niveisity was, in any case, unuei the uoveinoi's
uiiection. That I woulu be Chancelloi on leave, acting as uoveinoi, woulu not mateiially altei the
0niveisity's ielation to the goveinoiship. Besiues, what if it uiu. This was a state univeisity!
114
enthusiasm, make common cause against me. Foi the puiposes of public appeal it
was also foitunate that I was an outsiuei; that maue the ueiogation
4
seem somehow
so much faiiei.
I ian heau on into this campaign quite on my own. Foi Nuoz, who, aftei all, hau
been iesponsible in the 0niveisity mattei, was still in the States anu I uiu not have
him foi consultation. In any case he coulu have uone nothing, but this I uiu not at
fiist unueistanu. Inueeu what puzzleu me most in the fiist few weeks was that the
attacks seemeu to oiiginate suspiciously close to his heauquaiteisthat is to say,
among his piominent followeis. The newspapei was only having to enlaige an
attack which was being fomenteu by those who, unuei noimal ciicumstances, woulu
have been its enemies. This, of couise, was a factoi it was easy to oveilook in tiying
to analyze what was going on; it is always haiu to keep in minu how iiielevant
ambitions can be to the likelihoou of theii satisfaction; oi how savage a violateu
$+#" !"#!1# can be on an islanu whose intellectual clan is small.
As I look back on this month, anu ieau ovei the notes maue at the time, I seem to
have taken it all too seiiously, anu to have blameu Nuoz, iathei than to have
lookeu aftei myself as I latei leaineu to uo. Foi to Nuoz, when he ietuineu, it
seemeu much less than outiageous that a newspapei shoulu, foi instance, suggest
that my puipose was to get the salaiies foi both offices, anu, having suggesteu it,
talk about it fiom then on as a fact to be euitoiializeu on anu inuignantly pointeu to
as an outiage which unfitteu me foi both posts. Actually the goveinoiship
iepiesenteu a ieal financial saciificethe salaiy was much lowei, theie was no
pension aiiangement anu so onanu eveiyone knew it quite well. I liveu, uuiing
that time, a veiy ietiieu life at )&*#+, in the hills neai Cayey, uiiving back anu foith
uaily, so that theie was nothing much to comment on; anu uuiing the whole time no
iepoitei evei came neai me. But actually a geneial newspapei of twelve, sixteen,
anu moie pages manageu to uevote a consiueiable piopoition of its non-auveitising
space to attacks on me neaily eveiy uay. These attacks weie completely without
ielation to ieality, completely uniestiaineu, anu shot thiough with a maliciousness
unique even in my expeiience, anu I hau felt the weight of the piess at its woist. It
was a ciusaue in ieveise, no less.
A numbei of the newspapei's employees spent a goou pait of theii time on the
0niveisity campus, which, aftei a week oi two, buzzeu like an angiy hive. The
stuuents weie enoimously exciteuabout something oi othei, none among them
knew quite what. Then, as was to be expecteu, the newspapei's employees weie
joineu by the sentimental nationalist as, the comunistas anu the falangistas who hau,

4
The Spanish (,3,381+$21O' is moie accuiate to uesciibe this piocess.

115
the thiee of them, no iueology in common but who maue use of similai tactics.
Peihaps even moie impoitant in this weie the Republicanos who weie glau to use
the otheis foi theii own puiposes. But it was often uifficult to sepaiate the vaiious
bianus of ieactionaiies. Fiequently they weie in fact iuentical. Cieate a sufficient
confusion, excitement, tensionanu anything might happen! This was at a time, it
will be iemembeieu, when the 0niteu States hung on the biink of wai. It was not yet
quite ceitain that the Piesiuent woulu be able to oveicome the opposition of the
isolationists, the ieactionaiy chuichmen, anu the Nazi sympathizeis; all of these still
hopeu that at least we shoulu be kept fiom outiight hostilities. In Pueito Rico, no
less than elsewheie, theie was this uivision, maue much woise by the civil
uissensions of the late Spanish wai. Theie weie veiy stiong anu active pio-Fianco
gioups, suppoiteu by at least a ceitain numbei of Spanish piiests of the Catholic
Chuich. It was no pait of the scheme foi the 6$0$'%138$3 to aumit that they weie anti-
Ameiican any moie than the 2#+.'138$3 uiu, but they took oaths which no Ameiican
coulu take, just as the comunistas also uiu. No uemociat, no believei in piogiessive
libeialism, coulu have anything in common with them. 0i they with him. Anu this
was the ciowuthey anu theii newspapeiwho saw in me a symbol of all they
most hateu. I hau the ieputation of being an Ameiican iauical, sympathetic to laboi,
a woikei in the cause of the small faimei, a uefenuei of civil libeitiesanu one of
the oiiginatois of the New Beal. Not one woiu of all this coulu be iiskeu publicly, of
couise, by that time. What I stoou foi most Pueito Ricans believeu in. I must be
uestioyeu by uevious means. Ny chaiactei was attackeu, my abilities weie
questioneu, it was insinuateu that I was uishonest anu uishonoiable. Anu no pains
oi expense, in Pueito Rico, in Washington oi in New Yoik, weie spaieu. Anyone who
coulu be peisuaueu to attack me was maue a heio; anyone who attempteu to uefenu
me was buiieu. No piaise ieacheu piint. No blame was alloweu to pass without a
uozen piintings.
Aftei this hau gone on, with vaiious manifestations, foi some time, I confounueu the
opposition by saying that if the stuuents, by a majoiity, expiesseu theii uesiie foi it,
I woulu iesign the chancelloiship. This was a posei; confionteu with such a choice,
even the comunistas anu '$21#'$0138$3 hesitateu; no qualms weie felt by the
ieactionaiy scions of Republicano families, howevei, anu fiom then on they hau to
assume leaueiship. The climax of the affaii was a uay-long oigy of oiatoiy in an
assembly helu with my peimission. The little gioup of activists completely
outgeneialeu a volunteei gioup of uefenueis, being expeiienceu agitatois anu, as a
mattei of fact, haiuly stuuents at all, but outsiueis with only a nominal membeiship
in the 0niveisity. Aftei my suppoiteis withuiew to a iump meeting on the athletic
fielu, anu the passage of theii own iesolutions, the agitatois suuuenly uiscoveieu
that they uiu not know what to uo next. They weie seiiously uiviueu among
116
themselves when it came to positive action. It was anticlimactic to settle on
iesolutions which meiely postponeu uecision until Nuoz coulu ietuin anu be
heaiu. But that was what they uiu. They weie, aftei all, afiaiu of the most poweiful
inuiviuual on the islanu. Anu many of them suuuenly iemembeieu that they weie
supposeu, whatevei theii seciet affiliations, to be Populaies. Theii exhibitionism
might have leu them too fai. Anu they hau acquiieu stiange beufellows.
Nuoz attempteu to meet the situation finally by an oiatoiical appeal in an
assembly of stuuents helu foi the puipose. Be maue a two-houi speech. But what he
talkeu about was uemociacy, faii play anu a chance foi the common people of
Pueito Rico. Those who hau been caiiying on the agitation weie inteiesteu in none
of these, no mattei what gioup they belongeu to; anu he got such unfiienuly
tieatment that it amounteu to notice of iepuuiation.
This was foi him a shock. 0ntil this actually happeneu he hau been unwilling to
accept my analysis of the situation, since I was a newcomei, anu inexpeiienceu in
Pueito Rican politics oi customs. What happens to otheis is nevei so seiious, eithei,
as what happens to one's self. The ieception he got at the hanus of what he hau
iuealistically consiueieu to be futuie Pueito Rican leaueis thoioughly convinceu
him that I was iight. I nevei uoubteu fiom then on that he woulu suppoit 0niveisity
iefoim. Theie was no way of knowing whethei it was a majoiity of the stuuents who
weie opposeu. No stuuent assembly coulu be helu without its being stampeueu by
the activists. Laige gioups weie, howevei, meeting by themselves anu expiessing
the hope that I woulu oveilook the easy acquiescence of any assembly gioup in
claque-maue iesolutions. Theie was, they assuieu me, no moie significance in it
than a uesiie not to go to classes anu a complementaiy liking foi excitement. Pueito
Rican stuuents loveu oiatoiy, they saiu, but it uiun't mean anything. Aftei Nuoz
hau taken his uiubbing, howevei, he ietiieu fiom the scene completely baffleu. So I
finally sent the Tiustees my iesignation.
This was liteially on the eve of my inauguiation. Ny task as uoveinoi woulu be to
uefeat the foices of ieaction anu to ially Pueito Ricans behinu the effoit into which
the nation was going. Bow was I to uo it. The stait coulu haiuly have been woise.
Ny uuty as the iepiesentative of my countiy in Pueito Rico was to shape civil affaiis,
if I coulu, so that militaiy bases, which might soon (befoie they weie ieauy) have to
stanu the shock of attack, weie not isolateu in a geneially hostile enviionment. They
ought iueally to be pait, to be the bulwaik, of a soliuly integiateu opposition to the
Fascist-Nazi thieat. Even without the inciuents of August-Septembei the hanuicaps
to such an effoit weie foimiuable. It seemeu impossible now to succeeu. These
inciuents hau to be iegaiueu as no moie than eviuence of giievances, iesentments,
even hostilities which weie buiieu so supeificially that the least piovocation
117
uncoveieu them. Some of them uiu not iun ueep: that is, no ueepei than the
opposition to the New Beal in the States. It was, this phase of it, the olu familiai
iesentment against the thieat to piivileges anu the wiuening of the miuule class,
although, of couise, it was helu with moie conviction in Pueito Rico because the
economy was less auvanceu. But theie weie moie sinistei, moie violent anu
uangeious foices at woik heie which ievealeu themselves whenevei excitement
iose anu self-iestiaints looseneu. Theie was ieaction which ian back to totalitaiian
Spain anu thiough Spain to the meuieval foice-philosophy of the Nazis. It hau, until
within a mattei of months, been an open movement in Pueito Rico, with meetings,
flags anu all the familiai coloieu-shiit paiapheinalia. It hau its seat in ceitain of the
olu moneyeu families who thought of themselves as aiistociatic in the sense of
being conseivatois of the antiuemociatic, peihaps ioyalist, tiauition. Theie weie
gieat meichants who weie in it up to theii necks, anu planteis, many of whom still
honestly thought that inuentuieu seifuom was the iueal system of laboi.
What hau happeneu at the 0niveisity was uistuibing in anothei way to which I have
alieauy casually iefeiieu. The upioai was so successful, ieally, because to piouuce
it, the extieme left hau uniteu with the extieme iight. That kinu of collaboiation
occuis only at peculiai histoiical moments when uissatisfaction with an existing
iegime is so univeisal that piactically eveiyone is agieeu on its oveithiow anu the
substitution foi it of something else, even if that something else is still in uispute.
Aftei ievolution is accomplisheu these elements ieassume theii accustomeu
attituues; but foi the moment, anu puiely in opposition to what exists, they make
common cause.
I was not so ignoiant of histoiy that I coulu not iecognize the signs. I thought I hau
one chance, anu one only, foi at least qualifieu success in what theie was to uo. That
was to peisuaue one element of this coalition that it was mistaken. The leftists, the
moueiate inuepenuentistas, leaving out the most intiansigent, weie piobably
pioceeuing in this mattei puiely on momentum. Theii iueology cieateu compulsion.
This impulse hau been weakeneu by the ueiman attack on Russia. Such of them as
weie 2#+.'138$3 weie bounu to suppoit uefense effoits anu the lenu-lease piogiam.
They hau an alliance with the pio-inuepenuence gioups in Pueito Rico, but fiom 21
}une the opposition of this gioup hau been weakeneu by the fact that in effect the
0niteu States anu Russia weie now allies. They hau, I thought, simply not leaineu
yet how to co-opeiate iathei than uestioy.
In so fai, also, as the leftists uepenueu on #/","# suppoit, theie was the uifficulty
that I iepiesenteu not only a New Beal auministiation which hau helpeu laboi to
make auvances but was actually ieputeu to be one of the New Bealeis who hau been
118
instiumental in shaping policy that way. I was not likely to fuinish so goou a foil as
ueneial Winship hau accommouatingly piesenteu.
I hau no chance, anu sought none, to piesent such aiguments to the leftist leaueis. It
seemeu to me, aftei consiueiation, that if I followeu a iesolutely libeial policy,
iepiesenteu the fiienuliei anu, I felt, tiueiimpulses of my countiy towaiu
Pueito Rico, anu piesenteu ovei anu ovei the issues of the woilu conflict as I saw
them, theii position of opposition to me woulu become untenable. All but a few of
those so waipeu by giievance anu sentiment as to have lost all sense of ieality,
woulu fall in line. Such a policy was natuial anyway, anu peihaps my analysis was
influenceu by this fact. Neveitheless, I felt quite suie I was iight.
In all the confusion I was a little comfoiteu by this foiecast. I tiieu also to get Nuoz
to unueiline the funuamentals by moie foithiight tieatment of oui mutual enemies.
Be himself hau been enjoying something of a political honeymoon. The opposition
hau been so pleaseu to have him avoiu the kinu of tax incieases they hau feaieu in
the fiist legislative session unuei his contiol that they hau begun to iegaiu him as
anothei of those uemagogues who make a big muscle foi election puiposes but who
ieally mean no haim to those with laige possessions. This was, foi oui mutual
puiposes, bau. The elite woulu not long iegaiu him as haimless befoie the
ieputation woulu spieau among the $%",%$(#3 anu #/","#3. But the comfoit of
appioval was giateful to his tiieu soul, woin by the long stiuggle anu by the
haiassing life a Pueito Rican political leauei must live. It was not until I was about to
be swoin in that he maue his move. Be became euitoiial uiiectoi, in name at least, of
anothei local newspapei of some size anu challengeu the one which hau been so
peisistent foi the past month in its attacks on me. Foi some time a signeu aiticle
appeaieu uaily; but this too giauually peteieu out in the peiiou of ielative peace
which followeu inauguiation.
Buiing these weeks I hau been living at )&*#+,; anu on S Septembei my wife anu son
hau aiiiveu. The 0iiente hau become an aimy tianspoit. I hau tiaveleu on hei
myself in the olu uays. It was a ielease of long tension to see hei pulling gianuly up
to hei uock, to heai an aimy banu playing hei in, anu to heai oiueis anu gieetings
shouteu in English. Besiues, I coulu see my small son's blonu heau thiust inquiiingly
out of a poithole while, as I guesseu, his mothei powueieu hei nose. If it seemeu like
a hostile small woilu to which I was intiouucing them, we coulu at least stanu
togethei against it now, if that was necessaiy, oi woik in anu with it if we weie
alloweu. We went iight away up to the hills anu nothing fiom then on woulu seem
so haiu to take. The inuiffeience to attack which I hau to assume was somewhat
moie genuine. Ny wife was salty about the business. She thought I hau maue a
tiageuy out of faice. Anyway, she saiu so, anu iefuseu to be impiesseu with politico^
119
antics oi stuuents' egoistic inuisciplines. She gave Nuoz what-foi, too, anu he
seemeu impiesseu.
She uiun't like )&*#+, much. She uiun't object to the house, as any housewife woulu
ieally have been justifieu in uoing, since it was little moie than a 2$+1',"#A3
ioausiue cottage with a ioom oi two auueuit hau a kinu of closet-kitchen anu a
19uu bathioom, uoveinois nevei having been alloweu funus enough to make a
piopei home of itshe simply thought it bau foi us, unuei the ciicumstances, to live
high on a mountain, half the time in a clouu, facing a fai view anu uistant fiom any
fiienu. 0f couise, she was iight about that. We neeueu most of all to finu allies
among Pueito Ricans anu to builu a ciicle of tiust anu fiienuship within which to
base ouiselves. This staying aloof anu taking the thiusts of the ill-intentioneu with
gloomy iesignation was unnatuial to both of us anu woulu leau to fuithei tiouble.
But I haun't hau the sense to iealize it until she aiiiveu.
Foi )&*#+, hau appealeu to my pessimistic moou. 0p theie I was like a Scotsman on
a misty heaulanu oi a heimit on the shouluei of the Caipathians. I was ieacting as
any moueiately sensitive moital woulu who was catching hell, as he believeu,
unjustly; anu one, moieovei, who hau to think out each step he was to take into a
veiy unceitain futuie suuuenly giown moie significant than he hau unueistoou it to
be.
Some past uoveinoi hau come along the mountain ioau fiom Cayey to uuayama,
anu hau thought that as it iose away fiom Cayey it was veiy beautiful with its
suuuen pictuies of small valleys in the foiegiounu anu massive piles in the
uistancea closely shaueu ioau, boiueieu anu oveihung with tiee., vine anu bush,
about the best Pueito Rico coulu fuinish in that line. I can imagine that his coach
toileu towaiu the pass anu ovei the iiuge veiy slowly, foi the iise is a thousanu feet
oi moie in a few kilometeis. That pait of the jouiney woulu, in those uays, have iun
thiough boiueiing coffee 61'2$3 now mostly uilapiuateu since the huiiicanes of '28
anu 'S2 anu oveigiown, oi with the shaue tiees cut foi chaicoal anu the lanu gone to
uesultoiy uses. Anu as he got to the iiuge anu his hoises easeu themselves of the
uphill pull, he woulu have openeu out a vista to the south anu west iunning acioss
coffee foiests, pastuieu slopes, tobacco fielus anu well-gioupeu foothills to the
Caiibbean uown aiounu Salinas.
Foi seveial kilometeis, uescenuing veiy giauually befoie it went thiough the hills
again to plunge fiankly uownwaiu into uuayama, the ioau ian aiounu the uppei
pait of this ueep bowl, just fai enough below its top so that the noitheast tiaues
swept, heaiu but unexpeiienceu, ovei the top. About two kilometeis fiom the iiuge
he must have pulleu up at a 2$+1',"#A3 house. Theie was a hoise tiough theie. (It is
120
still theie, filleu now with floweis.) Anu uoubtless hoises anu men uiank, iesteu anu
took the view. Be piobably inquiieu, was tolu that the neighboihoou was known as
}jome Alto, anu likeu the name as well as the view.
I hau taken to it myself in the spiiit I imagine most of the otheis hau. The fiequent
gloom was agieeable. I likeu the gianueui of the stoims, the vast sweep of toin oi
looming clouus, above, below oi all aiounu. ueneial Winship hau caieu foi )&*#+,
anu hau planteu it with floweis; his favoiite uog was buiieu on the hillsiue too,
which, if you knew ueneial Winship, inuicateu how much he hau thought of the
place. Ny wife's iathei aciiu uissent fiom withuiawal maue me ashameu, I piesume,
of my ieasons foi taking to the hills; but I imagine that othei uoveinois have
ueclineu into age with )&*#+, iegietteu when Santa Catalina
S
was foigot. It will be
that way with me.
0n the afteinoon of 18 Septembei we came uown to the palace anu slept theie. Next
moining we weie met unuei the 0niveisity caiillon (fiom which place I piefeiieu to
go to the goveinoiship) by a guaiu of honoi anu pioceeueu to the place of inauguial
at the Capitol.
Pueito Ricans might not have been enamoieu of alien uoveinois these many yeais
but they uiu iathei cut loose foi inauguials, it being anyway an extia holiuay,
fuinisheu with a paiaue. All the employees of the civic institutions customaiily
tuineu outfiom boy scouts to the Reu Cioss; anu even the political chaii-sitteis of
the San }uan fiie uepaitment got up eneigy enough to pilot an olu tiuck jeikily up
the avenue. The insulai notables sat in a gianustanu on the Capitol steps while the
new uoveinoi was ieceiveu by the Pueito Rican who hau been Acting uoveinoi
since the uepaituie of the last incumbent. Be was swoin in by the Chief }ustice,
maue his speech, which was then ieau in Spanish, anu ievieweu the paiaue. That
enueu the foimal pioceeuings foi oiuinaiy folks. But the new uoveinoi anu his wife
weie expecteu to go, aftei this moining-long oiueal, to Santa Catalina, wheie all the
officials came to an al fiesco luncheon. Anu in the evening theie woulu be a gieat
ieception foi islanu society, helu in anu out of the palacio. If the weathei was fine
theie woulu be uancing on the teiiaceu walls of the foitifications which weie now
an integial pait of the gaiuens. It was a big uay any way it was lookeu at. But we
began it full of couiage, even if it was the hottest, most bieathless time of yeai.
I hau woikeu out my speech with caieful iegaiu to what seemeu moie anu moie
cleaily the task I hau to uo in the time of national ciisis aheau of usthe two oi

S
The palace has two names, Santa Catalina anu La Foitaleza, foi which theie is the histoiic ieason
that it was fiist a foitiess anu then the viceiegal iesiuence.

121
thiee yeais of exposuie to a iuthless enemy while we weie still unpiepaieu. I hau to
iepiesent my countiy's sympathy foi the aspiiations of this people, anu to show hei
natuial inteiest in theii piogiess towaiu political libeity. It was my task also to
peisuaue Pueito Ricans that theii stake in the coming stiuggle was ieal, that they
weie not expecteu meiely to suppoit Ameiican policy but to finu that theii own
policy, too, was seiveu in the common effoit.
It is haiu to know what is in the minus of people with whom one uiu not giow up.
With those of one's home townthe boys with whom games weie playeu anu the
giils who weie uanceu withit seems easy to say they will be foi this oi against
that. Even so, political canuiuates, who aie piesumably expeits in this kinu of
intuitive sizing-up, often go wiong anu lose elections. Beie was I, howevei, not a
politician, anu in a completely alien enviionment, expecteu to make guesses which
even at home weie being fumbleu by expeits. What I ueciueu was that I hau bettei
not tiy to be clevei. If I uiu I felt suie these haiu-eyeu politicians woulu ambush me
in spite of any possible piecaution. So I uiu the one thing, as it tuineu out, that they
coulu not combat successfully: I auopteu a iigiu policy of being open, fiankanu
innocent. Buiing the maneuveiing anu intiigues of the months aheau I woulu
pietenu I coulu see no self-inteiest. I woulu iecognize no ulteiioi motive; I woulu
make no ueals, accept no favois anu give none; anu so fai as possible I woulu have
no seciets to be exposeu.
I began with my inauguial, the most notable emphasis in which was my hope that
moie coulu be uone to alleviate poveity at home even while we weie piepaiing foi a
stiuggle abioau. I uiun't think, I saiu, as some people uiu, that biith contiol woulu
ieuuce poveity; I thought it was moie ieasonable to intensify the exploitation of the
islanu's iesouices anu so enlaige the souices of employment anu income. An
euucateu people enjoying ieasonable living stanuaius woulu make theii own
accommouations to enviionment. An ignoiant, poveity-iiuuen anu uisease-stiicken
people weie natuially ieckless about theii own oi theii chiluien's futuie. As to
political piogiess, I saiu, I thought I knew how most Ameiicans felt anu theie was
nothing in which they weie less inteiesteu than the subjection of otheis. Theii
political futuie was a mattei foi Pueito Ricans to settle among themselves. I thought
a ieauy Ameiican blessing woulu be extenueu to theii conclusions.
Not many heaiu this speech. It was maue to an outuooi ciowu most of whom weie
inteiesteu in the pageant; anu not many moie heaiu it when }ustice Tiavieso uiu it
foi me in Spanish. But T knew its tone, anu even its contents, woulu get aiounu. I
thought it woulu be appioveu. But now I was taking the oath fiom Chief }ustice uel
Toio Cuebas; anu soon, flankeu by the Aumiial anu the ueneial, I was ieviewing the
paiaue.
122
0n a numbei of othei occasions in the next yeai I shoulu ieview paiaues flankeu by
Aumiial Boovei on one siue anu ueneial Collins on the othei. These appeaiances, of
couise, woulu be the exteinal eviuences of what might oi might not be inteinal
unity. 0ntil now none of us hau known the otheis. They weie both iecent in theii
commanus; anu heie was I just beginning. The times being what they weie, I
natuially wonueieu what oui ielations weie going to be. Foi this uay, at least, we
appeaieu in public on a subtiopical islanu, the heauquaiteis of what the Navy hau
begun to call the Caiibbean Sea Fiontiei anu the Aimy woulu latei uesignate as the
Antilles Bepaitment, iepiesentatives of oui nation. Boovei was a Nontana man;
Collins was fiom Texas. Each hau hau the full oithouox tiaining, the one Annapolis,
the othei West Point; each hau iisen to his piesent commanu by peisonal ability.
But none of this guaianteeu that we shoulu be able to woik togethei. Anu with what
we hau aheau of us theie seemeu to be some question whethei we coulu. We weie
not likely to agiee on economic oi social matteis. Those weie stiictly the business
neithei of an aumiial noi of a geneial; but neithei aumiials noi geneials always
iecognize that. So I hau some uoubts. Anu since I was suie they must be familiai
with the bogey which ten yeais of newspapei attack hau maue of me it was likely
that they too hau theii uoubts.
Theie weie soluieis anu sailois in the paiaue, a few olu fielu pieces, a tank oi two,
anu little else of a militaiy natuie. As ueneial Collins tolu me fiankly, theie wasn't
much else. That, I saiu, we shoulu neeu to talk about fuithei. To which he agieeu
with such emphasis, befoie he tuineu again to the giil scouts passing by, that I saiu
to myself in some uismay that that tone of voice must have meant that we have a
moie ueficient uefense than I hau thought. That was one phase of goveining I haun't
ieckoneu onhau nevei thought of, in fact, having, like all Ameiicans, left that kinu
of thing to the soluieis anu then neglecteu the Aimy. I felt moie unpiepaieu even
than befoie. But paiauoxically, I felt also moie in neeu of authoiity. I wonueieu
whethei the month-long attack on me, which this expeiienceu soluiei anu this haiu
sailoi hau ceitainly watcheu with the gieatest caie, was going to ieuuce my
effectiveness. Weie they going to think my piestige sufficiently injuieu so that they
shoulu not feel able to give me the backing I shoulu neeu. Anu even if I shoulu have
complete anu willing suppoit, what coulu be uone without the men, the mateiials
anu the installations necessaiy to mouein uefense. It woulu be an empty
peifoimance, a bluff incapable of imposing on anyone. Still I saw at once that even if
it was no news to the Axis that the islanu was uefenseless, piactically speaking, we
weie not peimitteu to aumit it, ceitainly not to Pueito Ricans, even if the hollowness
of the pietense shoulu be obvious. We coulu at least be fieice in pieventing its
public exposuie while we woikeu at the iemeuy. I thought with angei of the hostile
123
piess anu iesolveu that fake consiueiations of fieeuom woulu not uetei me fiom the
most uiastic action if its anti-Ameiican activities shoulu take this uiiection.
Neanwhile the paiaue went on. It was Septembei, it will be iecalleu, anu the sun
was hot. But even in Septembei the palms anu the bittei almonus may look as
though they aie fieshly painteu anu the tiaue winu may swing the casuaiinas
thiough a suipiising aic. Insteau of the foimal clothes in which uoveinois hau
customaiily uiesseu foi such occasions, I hau ventuieu a white suit so that I was not
too uncomfoitable. Still we hau hau now about two houis of it, the militaiy men anu
I, stanuing moie oi less at attention, anu saluting each gioup of colois anu each heau
of uivision. Even if we weien't exhausteu we wanteu nothing so much as to sit uown
somewheie anu have a colu uiink. I, at least, was not psychologically piepaieu foi
iton the contiaiy but neveitheless theie happeneu then, at the tail enu of the
paiaue anu in the impatience of tiieuness, an event of shocking stiangeness. Aftei
the fancy uiess of the paiaueis, the biassy music, the iegimenteu maich, theie
appeaieu suiging up the avenue, filling it fiom cuib to cuib, without music, without
oiuei, a gieat mass of woikingmen, laboieis fiom the fielus. Nany weie in iags,
baiefoot, hatless. They caiiieu the gieat hoes chaiacteiistic of the sugai plantations;
they shouteu with iaiseu aims. Noie anu moie they came, thousanus of them, a
hoiue, some with banneis which saiu "Tugwell will uo foi us what Roosevelt uiu foi
Ameiica," oi "Tugwell is 00R man." Slowly they shuffleu by, thousanus of them, anu
went away up the avenue, flinging theii aims still, anu shouting back ovei theii
shoulueis; anu the ciowu shouteu with them.
We coulu go away then anu take possession of La Foitaleza. The society uoings
which went on thioughout the iest of the uay weie, howevei, tame by contiast. The
woikeis, the poweiful, visciu mass of them, suuuenly floouing out anu
oveiwhelming the neat aiiangements foi the paiauethat was a pictuie which kept
getting between me anu eveiything else. Theie was a gieat ieception anu uance on
the lovely teiiace that night. But theie weien't any woikeis theie. I wonueieu
wheie they weie, how they hau gone back to wheie they came fiom, what, foi each
of them, it was like.
124
11
I W0KE EARLY on the moining of 2u Septembei in the big uoveinoi's chambei of La
Foitaleza. It was a new expeiience to sleep in a ioom seventy by thiity anu I lookeu
up at the high uaik-beameu ceiling with vague alaim. The succeeuing thought was
the whimsical one that at least theie woulun't be any uangei of claustiophobia! But
why was it so hot in a ioom so big. It was stifling. I simply uiippeu. When I walkeu
out to one of the big teiiaces looking onto the haiboi, the aii was fiesh anu cool
uelightful. It ought to be possible to uo something about that, to get some of that
cool aii insiue. I uiu not iealize then that I was up against foui hunuieu yeais of
Noitheineis' misunueistanuing of the subtiopics anu a W.P.A. ieconstiuction job on
La Foitaleza, costly enough, which hau maue matteis woise by shutting out the
pievailing bieeze. Somewhat latei we shoulu in uespaii begin to sleep outuoois; anu
the peifect fieshness theie woulu be still anothei new expeiience. We spieau a
canvas on the wiue flat ioof anu unuei it maue a scieeneu chambei foi piotection
fiom mosquitoes, of which theie aie not many, but some, in San }uan, thus escaping
fiom the +#3I.18,"#3 so much useu in the West Inuies.
1

A cuiious change was taking place as my goveinoiship began. The centei of my
inteiest foi many months pastthe pioblem of lanu tenuiewas now becoming a
minoi anu inciuental one, ietieating to the aiea of auministiation. That is to say, the
policy was fixeu. That was tiue too, I iealizeu, of housing, of sanitation, of piovision
foi social secuiity. What was necessaiy was to stop aiguing fuithei about theii
uesiiability anu to make piogiess towaiu theii accomplishment. I became exciteu
about this line of ieasoning. Was it not also tiue of Pueito Rican paiticipation in the
gieat ventuie of uiplomatics now unuei way. No; theie was woik to uo theie. We
hau to fight the H$0$'%, foi one thing, anu the 6$0$'%138$ thinking among the "bettei

1
Chaiacteiistically, even the bettei houses aie not scieeneu, since scieening is saiu to shut out the
aii; but why that is not tiue of netting uiawn close about the beu it is haiu to say. 0f couise, the
pooiei folkanu a goou many of those who weie bettei off tooshut themselves in, sealing theii
houses against the night aii. This is obviously a suivival fiom the uays when theie eithei was no
netting oi when it coulu not be affoiueu. But like othei West Inuian customs its iationale has
uisappeaieu anu the thing itself has suiviveu into an age when it is no longei necessaiy. The viigin
Islanueis believe, similaily, that laige fish aie poisonous, which is tiaceable to pieiefiigeiation
spoilage of anything not eaten at one sitting. But even that belief has not hau consequences so
impoitant as the feai of aii at night. It must have taken hunuieus of yeais foi the ieasoning about the
fevei nameu foi the bau aii to establish itself. It coulu not be expecteu to uisappeai at once. The woik
of Waltei Reeu anu his colleagues has ceitainly not penetiateu the stiongholus of populai psychology
even yet. I have hau uignifieu juuges wain me solemnly against outuooi sleeping in the tiopics. Anu
sometimes I have wonueieu a little myself, since my chionically annoying sinuses have been woise in
Pueito Rico than in most othei climates to which they have been exposeu. But on the whole it woulu
be a haiu thing to go back to steam-heateu houses oi apaitments even with the customaiy open
winuows.

125
element." But we also hau to convince the gieat mass of Pueito Ricans that
uemociacy meant something to them which was vital anu intimate. It woulu have to
be uone by ueeu anu woiuby finuing a way to implement the Atlantic Chaitei anu
to iesume piogiess towaiu political fieeuom, as well as by the impiovement which
it coulu be hopeu woulu come soon fiom an enlaigement of social seivices. I uiu not
see that cleaily yet. Inuepenuence was a tiap; statehoou was foiecloseu. But some
way must be founu.
Ny own job in this iespect was confineu to Pueito Rico. It was just as piessing
peihaps moie soin the Biitish possessions; anu this was so even when iegaiueu
fiom the point of view of Ameiican inteiests, not those of the Biitish oi even of the
people theie. Foi we hau committeu oui uefense, by now, to ceitain localities, anu
woik on the bases, aftei a bau stait, was gatheiing momentum. Ny laigei
suggestions foi tackling these pioblems on a Caiibbean-wiue scale hau uieu
somewheie, piobably in the State Bepaitment. The slowei way of the Inteinational
Commission was inuicateu. I woulu woik with Chailes at that as I coulu. But Pueito
Rico was my own iesponsibility now.
I must piepaie foi the mounting ciisis, so that when it bioke theie coulu be no
uoubt of Pueito Rican loyalty even though the stiain on it shoulu be veiy gieat. That
last seemeu not unlikely. We weie going to be caught in wai long befoie we weie
ieauy anywheie, but especially on these newly establisheu fiontieis. We might be
uiiven in on ouiselves. If that happeneu Pueito Rican loyalty woulu be beyonu piice.
0f couise, if we hau not eaineu it in foity yeais it coulu haiuly be cieateu oveinight,
so I hopeu foi time, but I nevei ieally believeu I hau any, anu I iesolveu on
emeigency measuies at once. In uoing this I hau to face the ceitainty of vicious
opposition. The whole 6$0$'%138$ ciowu anu theii allies among the ieactionaiies
woulu not only fight me heie, but woulu also fight me at home. I knew that they
woulu not be iecognizeu foi what they weie in the States, wheie theie was an
incieuible ignoiance about such matteis. They coulu count on being taken foi plain
businessmen who weie fighting foi what woulu be wiuely iegaiueu as theii iights. I
thought, howevei, that I coulu count absolutely on Ni. Ickes anu the Piesiuent anu I
iesolveu to act swiftly.
If all this figuiing seems somewhat colu-blooueu, it must be saiu that it ian in the
uiiection too of my own inclination to tiy foi betteiment of the situation among the
exploiteu anu to biing about a iesumption of political piogiess. What might have
happeneu if it hau seemeu to me that a uiffeient policy was calleu foi, I uiu not even
exploie. I can see now, as I look back, that theie might have been piecipitateu a ieal
peisonal uifficulty; but as it was, the policy seemeu to me cleaily to be the one of
gieatest utility to the nation as well as to Pueito Rico. Since I hau no uoubts, anu
126
since I expecteu an oiueal, what woulu happen theieaftei woulu have to be accepteu
as pait of a uuty to be uone. It was a small one compaieu with otheis' uuties in that
time.
Bow woulu it be with Nuoz. I hau this to count on: he was with us on the issue of
Bemociacy veisus Fascism. Be hau maue a speech on the Fouith of }uly which I hau
on my wiiting table. I stuuieu it again. Its eloquence was fittingly Ibeiian anu wholly
sinceie. In pait it was a waining to men eveiywheie that small uissatisfactions with
uemociacy ought not to betiay them into couises of action uangeious to uemociacy
itself. Be uealt with capitalismwas that the most insiuious enemy of uemociacy in
the West. Be thought not; capitalism coulu be contiolleu. Be uwelt somewhat
longei on what he viviuly calleu "cheap politics," meaning the piivileges anu
peiquisites, the schemings anu self-aggianuizements to which the elite uevote
themselves. Be askeu foi moie selflessness anu moie iegaiu to the public inteiest.
Anu heie, of couise, he was speaking uiiectly to his >#!.0$",3, anu especially to the
minoi leaueis who hau shown these weaknesses. The people uo not vote officials
into powei foi these ieasons, he saiu, anu the exteinal aggiessions aie too seiious
now foi us to toleiate sabotage fiom within. Be may have been talking to his own
Pueito Rican followeis but what he saiu applieu with even gieatei foice elsewheie.
Be wiueneu his view. To be a slave, he saiu, is easy; to be fiee is uifficult. The
piactice of fieeuom is so uifficult that the Nazis finu gieat populai iesponse foi a
piogiam which blatantly pioposes to abolish it. No one as yet has uaieu, he noteu, to
make such a suggestion in the Westein Bemispheie. Theie have been uictatois; but
all of them have piofesseu to iespect uemociatic piinciples. That men still have a
whole hemispheie of the woilu in which they uo not shiink fiom the haiuships of
fieeuom, wheie they uo not long foi the opiate of slaveiy, seemeu to him a veiy
significant thing. But too much must not be taken foi gianteu; as we combateu the
oiganizeu foices of nazism fiom without we must extiipate the saboteuis within.
The Fouith of }uly was moie than a uate sacieu just to the fieemen of the 0niteu
States. It was symbolic also foi all these othei peoples of the hemispheie who weie
uevoteu to the piinciples we celebiateu on that uay. It was the uay of Ameiica:
When the houi of miunight stiikes tonight, the Fouith of }uly, symbol
of the Noith, shall meet the Fifth of }uly, the uate on which the
libeiation of the South was begun in venezuela; anu it shall be as if
those two uates shoulu stiike theii hanus, anu the heait of the one
shoulu be close to the heait of the othei, anu that it shoulu be as only
one uate. It is the uate of Ameiica anu aiounu it aie gioupeu also
othei uates that belong to the whole of Ameiica: 2S Nay in the
127
Aigentine; 7 Septembei in Biazil; 2u Nay in Cuba; 27 Septembei in
Santo Bomingo; 16 Septembei in Nexico; 14 }uly in Canaua; 1 }anuaiy
in Baiti; 1S Septembei in the countiies of Cential Ameiicawith all
the symbolic uates of Ameiica as a whole.
All those uates, uiffeient in the calenuai, aie only one in the spiiit anu
puipose of Ameiica. 0n all those uates the woiu of uemociatic
iesponsibility shoulu be heaiu thioughout Ameiica as a woiu of unity
in the uefense of the iealizations anu potentialities of uemociacy. . . .
That was all iight. Nuoz anu Nuoz' people weie wholly with us. Tiouble was not
going to come fiom those who, if something happeneu, woulu actually be calleu on
to fight. Pueito Rico was like the States in one iespectit seemeu easiei to senu the
nation's sons out to uie than to saciifice the nation's businesses foi the same cause. I
suppose it has always been so. But when this ueteimination is met in its ciuuest
foim at the beginning of a wai it is not only sickening but appalling. It coulu be seen
even this eaily that theie was going to be an issue of this soit; its viciousness was,
howevei, not yet ievealeu. This was the ieason, I think, that theie was a gioup of
expatiiates, mostly lawyeis, who iepiesenteu absentee inteiests, anu of whom at
fiist I took little account. They seiveu the conceins they iepiesenteu with an
enthusiasm which caiiieu them into activities which, if I actually iepiesenteu my
countiy as uoveinoianu this they coulu not quite biing themselves to aumit
weie just shoit of tieasonable. They woulu oppose eveiy effoit of mine to secuie the
foou supply, stabilize piices anu living conuitions, establish inuustiial peace, anu
convince the Pueito Ricans of Ameiican political uecency. Theie woulu appeai to be
no limit, as we shall see, at which they woulu willingly stop. They woulu, at the
extieme, tiy to involve me in contioveisies with the militaiy. They woulu encouiage
the 6$0$'%138$3 to believe that Ameiica was ieally sympathetic to them iathei than to
Pueito Rican libeials, anu insuie them a waimei ieception in Washington than any
$'81=6$0$'%138$ woulu evei get. They woulu piesent themselves, too, as patiiots
because they noisily bought bonus, foi instance, anu seiveu on enteitainment
committees foi seivice men, although they fought uespeiately against any inciease
in taxes to be useu foi ielief, anu iesisteu aibitiation of stiikes even in foou-
piouuction inuustiies anu in tianspoitation. They woulu tuin out to be, on the
whole, as uifficult as any gioup with whom I shoulu have to ueal. But as yet they hau
not uiscloseu themselves.
Foi the moment I thought the most uangeious gioup was the same one which hau
attackeu my two immeuiate pieuecessois. Fiom ceitain signs alieauy manifest
such as theii subteiianean pait in the 0niveisity affaiiI thought the -,!./012$'#3
woulu iefuse any compiomise. I was piepaieu to go a ceitain way if it woulu
128
accomplish the puipose of keeping them quiet foi the uuiation: that I coulu justify
as a contiibution to peace at home while we fought abioau. It was to be suspecteu,,
howevei, that they woulu not accept this. They woulu uemanu moie than coulu be
gianteu. The moneyeu ieactionaiies, the Spanish elite, to a man, anu especially, to a
woman, weie theii suppoiteis. They hau to give what was uemanueuanu that was
the uestiuction of uemociacy, Ameiican oi any othei. But at the moment I
iepiesenteu all they most hateu anu feaieu.
About this I was coiiect, except that, again, I was to have new ievelations of uepth
beyonu uepth of unpiincipleu opposition. It might have been thought that oui
veiging upon anu then enteiing the wai woulu have mouifieu the actions if not the
hatieus of those who weie caught in the floou of this Pueito Rican New Beal. 0n the
contiaiy wai seemeu to intensify both. I shoulu come as close, soon, as I evei shoulu,
in a long life without ueviation fiom the piactices of civil libeity, to taking measuies
which weie not in that book. It might have been uone unuei the implieu wai poweis
of the uoveinoi. Seveial hunuieu peihaps of these 6$0$'%138$3 might have been put
away foi the uuiation; anu peihaps such a couise woulu have been to the inteiest of
both Pueito Rico anu the 0niteu States. But I coulu nevei quite biing myself to
acting, thus, I suppose, justifying all the uictatois weie saying about uemociatic
softness. Peihaps I shoulu have hau uifficulty in keeping them theie; they hau
sympathizeis in the States, poweiful ones too, who obscuieu theii ieal puiposes foi
ieasons of theii own. Anu even the F.B.I. took too long in iealizing that the H$0$'%,
anu not the 2#+.'138$3 weie the piactical enemies we hau to fight in oui
community.
Still it was my job to uo. Theie weie foimiuable hanuicaps. I hau poweiful potential
enemies who weie poiseu foi attack. I hau a weak goveinmental machine to woik
thiough anu an executive office emasculateu by legislative attiition. Anu still it was
my job to uo. I got myself uiesseu on this fiist uay anu went at it.
Theie was no moie uangei of claustiophobia in my office than in that chambei
wheie I hau wakeneu. It was long, iathei naiiow, with a vaulteu ioof, ciystal
chanuelieis, anu mahogany winuow-uoois which folueu back. It was, in fact, the olu
Spanish thione ioom; anu the ieconstiuction of a few yeais befoie hau iathei
emphasizeu than minimizeu its genuinely iegal atmospheie. The Spanish uoveinois
hau been viceioys, usually lieutenant geneials of the Aimy; they weie, by
tiansubstantiation, the peison of the King; theoietically, also, they weie above
politics. This ioom expiesseu that theoiy in the Spanish mannei just as the
luxuiious countiy houses of the Biitish uoveinois expiesseu the coiollaiy theoiy of
theii Empiie. At the entiance theie was a flaiing stai in the maible flooi foi the fiist
piostiation on enteiing the Piesence; anu just in fiont of the uesk I was to use,
129
anothei stai which inuicateu wheie the petitionei might come to iest. I iealizeu
suuuenly that I was uoing business on the spot wheie the thione ought to be; anu
suie enough, back of me weie the symbols.
I have not uiscoveieu who it waspeihaps ueneial Biooke, the fiist Ameiican
militaiy goveinoiwho hau the sense to go iight on using the olu Spanish
uoveinoi's flag. But theie it was, the silvei Lamb on the scailet Book, beaiing a flag
with cioss anu bannei; the initials F anu I foi Feiuinanu anu Isabella; the ciowns
anu yoke anu aiiows foi Castile anu Leon, the heieuitaiy kinguoms of Isabella unuei
whose pationage Columbus saileu; anu, all aiounu, the uevices fiom the coats of
aims of the vaiious kinguoms unuei Spanish iule in the sixteenth centuiy. The
uevice ieau: )#$'',3 ,38 '#+,' ,*.3 fiom the ueciee of 8 Novembei 1S11.
2

I was impiesseu anu hopeu I coulu live up to it. But I coulun't help wonueiing
whethei the theoiy iepiesenteu by this minoi magnificence anu these suiviving
symbols of authoiity hau not come to be an uniealistic one, towaiu the last anyway,
when the olu Empiie hau lost its foimei auministiative efficiency anu when it hau
bioken the colonists' loyalties by exploitation at the uemanu of home inteiests.
Elasticity hau saveu the Biitish Empiie; but the Spanish hau always maue theii
concessions a shaue late, insteau of, as the Biitish hau, a shaue soon. The
7.8#'#+#.3 ;9$"8,", foi instance, in 1897, ought, with any luck, to have kept Pueito
Rico in the Empiie. Peihaps it might have, if Niles hau not been ambitious to iival in
Pueito Rico the achievements of Shattei in Cuba. But the Ameiicans, if they hau little
enough excuse foi lanuing in 1898, woulu not have possesseu the shauow of one if
the ;9$"8," hau been confeiieu a few yeais pieviously. Its giant of fieeuoms anu its
economic aiiangements weie moie libeial than any the Ameiicans hau biought
themselves to conceue even foity-thiee yeais lateias Pueito Ricans hau pointeu
out to me on seveial occasions.
The fiist uays of a goveinoiship aie necessaiily uevoteu to ieceiving uelegations
anu inuiviuuals, to becoming acquainteu with customs anu ioutine, anu to ueciuing
on immeuiately necessaiy auministiative changes. But these aie moie uemanuing
physically than intellectually anu I hau time to consiuei oui own theoiy anu to savoi
its emptiness. I thought as I went thiough this piocess that the scoin of Spanish
weakness anu ciuelty which the wai of 1898 hau left in the minus of all Ameiicans
of my age was unjustifieu. Theii militaiy anu theii colonial buieauciacy weie

2
Theie is an antiquaiian mysteiy in the way in which names somehow got themselves tiansposeu. As
can be seen fiom the uevice on the flag, the name of the islanu was supposeu to be San }uan
(Bautista) anu of the city Pueito Rico. Columbus confeiieu the fiist on his seconu voyage when he
lanueu on the westein shoie foi watei; anu Ponce ue Leon the seconu when he openeu out the
haiboi on an exploiatoiy voyage uown the coast in 1Su8.

130
peihaps unueimineu by coiiuption. But theii holu on Pueito Rico was only less
tenuous than ouis hau become in a mattei of foui uecaues. They at least hau helu on
ten times as long.
The newspapei which hau been so savage uuiing my month at the 0niveisity was
giving me a iespite. That it was only an inteival I hau no uoubt; but even this gave
me a chance to convey seveial impiessions to Pueito Ricans geneially as to my
attituues anu to uo it without the peisistent anu unpiincipleu misiepiesentation
which hau been that jouinal's habit. In the ten weeks between my inauguiation anu
the attack on Peail Baiboi I was able to inuicate that thiough me the 0niteu States
intenueu to use its powei anu iesouices to impiove the conuition of woikeis anu
faimeis iegaiuless of opposition fiom theii oppiessois. Anu that the uoveinment
was going to become an impioveu instiument in the people's seivice.
At an eaily piess confeience, in an effoit to embaiiass me, a stock question was
askeu: what was my attituue towaiu inuepenuence. I saiu that as an Ameiican I was
foi it because Ameiicans uiu not believe that any people ought to be subject to
otheis; but as a Pueito Ricanif I might put myself in that positionI shoulu be
against it because of economic ieasons if theie weie no otheis. It was an answei
which won me wiue toleiance among the moie intiansigeant 1'(,!,'(,'8138$3 anu
even seemeu to satisfy the ieactionaiies whose piogiam calleu foi statehoou. This
was a foitunate inspiiation. 0thei uoveinois hau felt that they hau to pieach loyalty
to the 0niteu States without iecognizing the ieasons foi uisaffection oi inspecting
the souices of loyalty to see whethei theyanu otheis who ueteimineu oui
policiesweie eaining it. This was one question I sought fuithei oppoitunities to
uiscuss anu exploie anu I always hau luck with it. I insisteu on the moie libeial
Ameiican attituuethat Pueito Ricans ought to ueteimine theii own status, that
Ameiican inteiests weie naiiow, ielating mostly to uefense. Anu uefense was as
easily maue secuie in Pueito Rico, shoit of possession, as in islanus which weie
Biitish, oi Butch oi weie Inuepenuent. I asseiteu iepeateuly that if the 0niteu States
followeu its self-inteiest it woulu insist on inuepenuence. Foi with inuepenuence
theie woulu be no fuithei iesponsibility, no moie expense, no moie competition foi
mainlanu sugai piouuceis. "If Pueito Ricans so much as whispei a wish foi
sepaiation," I saiu, "they will get it with uisconceiting suuuenness." Bowevei, I uiu
not peisonally believe in it foi Pueito Rico. Bow, outsiue oui taiiff anu piefeience
system, anu without oui assistance, howevei whimsical anu spasmouic, weie half
the people of Pueito Rico going to live at all. I thought they coulu not, even if the
levels of life weie ieuuceu to those, say, of Baiti.
In this way what hau been foi ueneial Winship, mostly, but also foi otheis, the
thoiniest issue of theii goveinoiships, became in mine no issue at all. Inuepenuence
131
became a spectei iathei than an aspiiation. Theie iemaineu the sentimentalists; but
since they hau no opposition anu few followeis, they became a political liability to
any paity. 0nfoitunately Nuoz hau many of them among his local leaueis so that
he woulu fiequently be foiceu to pievent oi minimize outbieaks of 1'(,!,'(,'8138$
fiiewoiks, not because they weie fiowneu on by Feueial authoiity, but because it
was peifectly cleai that if he uiu not uo it he woulu lose the next election. The
people knew wheie theii benefits oiiginateu anu they woulu not suppoit
iiiesponsible !#0D812#3 who put them in jeopaiuy. Inuepenuence woulu come up
again; but foi a yeai oi two it was ueau.
It was an immense ielief to have this go well anu as I wanteu it, anu to see how
libeialism ieally woiks bettei than iepiession. But I hau uiffeient luck with my
othei political pioblems. I was neeuleu foi an answei to the question whethei I
woulu "iecognize" the ;#$0121O', iecognition being assumeu to caiiy the iight to
uictate my nominations to goveinment posts. I uiu not say publicly that I was not
going to follow the establisheu custom of allowing political uictation. It woulu be
founu out soon enough. I sought to put off an answei to the plain question whethei
the Coalition woulu be iecognizeu. Fiist on Nuoz' auvice I iepeateu stumblingly a
phiase fiom a populai song L# 00,%.W $9#"$ +13+# which meant that I myself hau
only just got heie. It causeu a laugh. But this I knew was a life-anu-ueath mattei to
the -,!./012$'#3 anu theii ieactionaiy backeis. I woulu not be alloweu to evaue
them long. As it tuineu out they woulu give me about a month. Then they woulu
begin the attacks which woulu intensify into fuiy latei anu spieau as wiuely as theii
funus coulu caiiywhich was pietty wiue, anu involveu, eventually anu with
enthusiasm, a goou ueal of the Ameiican piess.
I nevei woulu answei that question. But aftei my fiist few appointments I hau no
neeu to answei. Anu then theie was Nuoz to ueal with. Theie tuineu up iight away
a neeu to ieplace the heau of the State Insuiance Funu. This was a uifficult position
to fill. It obviously iequiieu a tiaineu economist. Nuoz suggesteu a paity hack. I
appointeu a Piofessoi of Economics fiom the 0niveisity.
S
Anu Nuoz was unhappy.
So weie all the paity leaueis. I hau alieauy maue up my minu, howevei, that if I
must iely on Nuoz he must also iely on me; foi that ieason I thought I coulu take
some chances he was unwilling to take. It embaiiasseu him with some of his local
leaueis who hau no inteiest in theoiy but uiu have a consuming ueteimination to
contiol all the jobs in theii vicinity, anu at the least a uespeiate neeu to exhibit
continuing influence on the paity anu on the uoveinment. Now he was going to have
to pay foi the peisistent legislative attiitions on the executive which hau gone on foi

S
Ni. Rafael Coiueio, afteiwaiu the fiist Pueito Rican Auuitoi.

132
yeais. Be eithei hau to see that my appointees weie confiimeu by a ieluctant Senate
oi iisk an open bieak with me. I uiu not know then, what I leaineu latei, that not
many Pueito Ricans woulu take an appointment without fiist asking Nuoz'
peimission. I hau hau luck, this time, in finuing a couiageous inuepenuent. That luck
woulu not holu. This was a uilemma foi Nuoz as well as foi me; anu he woulu
tempoiize with it until giave tiouble woulu occui somewhat latei. Foi the moment,
anu until he coulu make up his minu that suppoit of him uiu not guaiantee
competence foi technical positions, I even kept two -,!./012$'#3 in the Cabinet
the Commissioneis of Bealth anu of Agiicultuie anu Commeice, much to the uisgust
of all goou >#!.0$",3.
So I helu off, foi the time being, the showuown which was inevitable soonei oi latei.
Neanwhile, besiues the active attempts to get staiteu a laige piogiam of sanitation
anu housing, the cost of living was cieating a pioblem which simply hau to be uealt
with. Employment was still holuing up, but the cost of necessities hau uoubleu
within the yeai. These weie the months uuiing which the Piesiuent anu Ni.
Benueison weie tiying foi stabilization unuei an executive oiuei against the
opposition of my olu fiienus Nessis. 0'Neal, Smith, Boluen, uauss, et al. The faim
bloc wanteu highei piices no mattei what happeneu to the iest of the economy. The
0ffice of Piice Auministiation anu Civilian Supplyknown as 0.P.A.C.S.was uoing
what it coulu while the Congiess hemmeu anu haweu ovei the measuie which,
much latei, became the bill which establisheu the 0ffice of Piice Auministiation
0.P.A.
The piessuie of continuous piice incieases was teiiific. Even men with employment
weie unable to pioviue theii families with necessities by now, anu the expecteu civil
uistuibances weie appeaiing. The laboi movement in Pueito Rico was uisoiganizeu,
unuisciplineu anu pooily leu. Expiessions of uiscontent weie, because of this, moie
violent anu moie unfocuseu. It was haiu to finu anyone with whom to ueal because
no one was authoiizeu to speak. 0i, if he claimeu to have authoiization, it was of a
political soit, peihaps only because he hau maue a speech to a ciowu of uisaffecteu
woikeis anu hau been applauueu. If he attempteu to baigain anu ieacheu a
conclusion, he woulu be iepuuiateu with complete iiiesponsibility. At any one time
theie weie hunuieus of stiikes going on, mostly small, mostly unuiiecteu, mostly foi
unfoimulateu uemanus, anu often on militaiy piojects. The souice of this obviously
lay in the iising cost of necessities.
This was a uangeious situation foi a new uoveinoi. The militaiy might tuin out to
be what militaiy men sometimes aie in laboi uisputes, which woulu be
embaiiassing, foi the employeis weie often involveu in the opposition to me which
was suie to become focuseu befoie long. They might, in this way, enlist the Aimy
133
anu Navy in theii campaign. The militaiy contiactois, too, laige absentee fiims,
weie not too easy to ueal with. Anu natuially they hau the eai of the commanueis.
It soon began to be plain, too, that I hau maue a mistake in appointing Ni. Benigno
Feinnuez uaicia as Commissionei of Laboi. I hau taken him on Nuoz'
iecommenuation, mostly, but also because I aumiieu him. We hau, in fact, become
fiienus. Be was a lawyei anu hau seiveu a teim as Attoiney ueneial. It was he,
inueeu, who, in spite of ueneial Winship, hau begun the fiist of the Suu-acie cases.
This inuicateu his couiage. Be was gieatly iespecteu anu he hau the auueu
qualification, fiom my point of view, that he was in no way connecteu with the A. F.
of L. gioup oi with the moie iauical ciowu which claimeu (without ieason, because
its leaueis coulu collect few uues anu so coulu not make the contiibutions necessaiy
foi a chaitei) to be affiliateu with the C.I.0. The one was thought to be a stooge
union, suspiciously suppoiteu by employeis, paiticulaily the sugai anu powei
inteiests; the othei hau a taint of communism.
It appeaieu that foi some ieason oi othei the heau of the A. F. of L. gioup hau
expecteu to become Commissionei of Laboi. Bis peisonal (1%'1($( was injuieu; anu
besiues, Ni. Feinnuez uaicia tuineu out to be so favoiable to the moie iauical
gioup that he might as well have been one of its membeis. What huit the A. F. of L.
heau most, howevei, was the fact that his membeis weie leaving him. To have hau a
collective agieement with the employeis in the sugai inuustiy which hau gone on
fiom yeai to yeai with little ievision, while the cost of living went up month aftei
month, hau alienateu his following. By thousanus the woikeis weie joining the moie
iauical gioups whose leaueis weie at any iate making a iow about theii giievances
iathei than tiying to explain them away.
Ni. Feinnuez uaicia hateu the ieactionaiies so much anu felt so kinuly towaiu
anyone who fought them that he soon hau his Bepaitment peppeieu with the most
iauical >#!.0$",3, suspecteu communists many of them, anu as little susceptible to
goveinmental uiscipline as communists usually aie. They weie, in fact, completely
out of hanu. Nuch of theii time was spent in soap-boxing. It was claimeu by the
employeis that they weie "fomenting" stiikes; anu actually they weie. Bowevei
much these weie justifieu, it was scaicely an activity in which employees of the
uoveinment ought to engage. Ni. Feinnuez uaicia was the uecentest anu kinuest
of men anu he coulu believe no wiong of anyoneexcept peihaps of an employei.
But even so he became appalleu at what was going on. I coulu not get him to uo
anything about it, howevei, anu his whole Bepaitment became a souice of
embaiiassment. Somehow I hau to get back to the only tenable goveinmental
position in laboi uisputes, which was, of couise, the stiictest neutiality. I hau to
consiuei how this coulu be uone.
134
Still moie impoitant, howevei, the basic giievance hau to be mitigateu. 0nless the
giowing uispaiity between wages anu living costs coulu be stoppeu, othei measuies
woulu be useless. Seveial methous of attacking the pioblem suggesteu themselves
but none offeieu much ielief. An agency might be set up to make bulk puichases anu
to cut uistiibution costs. Rice on the woilu maiket was seveial cents a pounu less
than it was on the Ameiican maiket; theie was a taiiff which piotecteu Louisiana
anu Califoinia iice gioweis. An insulai goveinment agency coulu at least ieuuce the
piice by the amount of the taiiff. The taiiff yielus on goous impoiteu into Pueito
Rico aie given by the 0niteu States to the insulai tieasuiy. If the amounts thus given
weie useu to ieuuce the piice, Pueito Rico coulu, in effect, be put on the woilu
maiket. The same uevice coulu be useu foi othei commouities, though none weie so
impoitant in the customaiy Pueito Rican uiet. This, of couise, woulu annoy the
Congiessional iepiesentatives fiom the iice-giowing states anu it shoulu theiefoie
be iesoiteu to only as an emeigency measuie. Theie was also the fact, to become
impoitant latei, that the only consiueiable iice suipluses weie in the Fai East. When
the insulai agency shoulu be ieauy to opeiate, these woulu no longei be available.
That, howevei, coulu not be foieseen in 0ctobei of 1941; anu with the iapiuly iising
piice anu the iesulting uniest it seemeu possible that the uevice might be neeueu
within a few months.
Theie was the suggestion, too, that a supply agency might fix piices. The uifficulty
with that was obvious. None of the piice of staple foous such as iice, beans, uiieu
fish, floui, laiu, etc. weie fixeu on Pueito Rican maikets. They weie impoiteu. To fix
a piice below the Ameiican wholesale level plus the costs of caiiiage anu
uistiibution, togethei with impoiteis' anu uistiibutois' piofits, woulu cause them to
stop business. That woulu be uisastious unless the supply agency was piepaieu to
uo the impoiting. The most uelicately aujusteu instiument in the Westein economy
is the tiauei's sense of piobable piofit. Be scaies easily anu makes louu noises when
scaieu. Be has no moie sense of uuty than a cat. Be theiefoie coulu not be appealeu
to oi uisciplineu. If anything at all was begun he woulu have to be wholly
supplanteu.
The only chance of ielief, aftei all, it seemeu to me, outsiue of bulk-buying of foieign
supplies, lay in the hope that the hesitating Congiess woulu pass Ni. Benueison's
enabling act anu that its piovisions woulu halt the iise of wholesale piices in the
States. The uifficulty with that, again, was that the veiy things which bulkeu laigest
in Pueito Rican living might be exempteu altogethei fiom contiol. These weie faim
piouuctsfoou anu the faim bloc was putting up a stiff anu iuthless fight with a
view to theii exemptionoi to such a uefinition of "paiity" as woulu have the same
iesult.
135
With all this in view, on 28 0ctobei I calleu the special session of the legislatuie
suggesteu in my inauguial anu askeu it to enact a measuie pioviuing foi a Supplies
Auministiatoi who woulu be authoiizeu to fix piices, if that seemeu feasible, oi to
piocuie anu impoit supplies if they coulu be founu. The legislatuie acceueu, though
its membeis balkeu at giving a uoveinoi's appointees such powei as I askeu. They
pioviueu foi a Commission whose membeis must be confiimeu by the Senate,
theieby assuiing themselves the contiol of any jobs theie might be.
4

Theie weie othei measuies askeu foi. I followeu up anothei commitment by asking
foi the insulaiization of all watei-supplying systems. This toucheu off Ni. Bolivai
Pagn, the Resiuent Commissionei in Washington, as though a button hau been
pusheu. Bis scieams iose to the vaulteu uome of the Bouse. The employees who
weie tuining a peicentage of theii pay into his paity funus might be ieleaseu fiom
this obligation; he uistinctly uiu not want to lose these funus. But the scieams, when
they became coheient enough to uistinguish, citeu fai noblei piinciples than.
political suivivalthose of home iule foi municipalities, foi instance! These
citations inteiesteu fellow uwelleis in Washington, none of whom thought to inquiie
about watei-boine uiseases anu the infant ueath iate, uiiectly tiaceable to the
incompetence of his political employees; oi about the giaft extiacteu fiom the
builuing anu opeiation of the municipal systems which maue ueficit enteipiises out
of potentially piofitable seivices.
In all, that legislative session passeu foity-thiee billsexactly what hau been
iequesteu. This iesult was not accomplisheu without political maneuveiing. The
Senate majoiity of one helu by the >#!.0$",3 was useful; but in the lowei house
theie was a ueficiency of thiee which hau to be oveicome by collaboiation. Such
collaboiation comes high anu this was no exception. Whatevei hau to be paiu I paiu,
baigaining as shiewuly as I coulu foi the lowest piice. This pioveu not so uifficult as

4
Nlle. Eve Cuiie, in hei }ouiney Among Waiiiois (Boubleuay, 194S), mentions visiting the Capitol
one night while this session of the legislatuie was meeting. She was, as she says, able to unueistanu
"little of the uiscussions in Spanish between the white-clau Senatois; we gatheieu only that they hau
to uo with the iegulation of piices." This was on 1u Novembei 1941 anu it is inteiesting to note that
as we stiuggleu "to iegulate piices," Nlle. Cuiie was making the fiist exploiatoiy jouiney in a Pan
Ameiican plane acioss the Afiican ioute which was to uevelop so iapiuly in the months to follow. Pan
Ameiican, at that time, was biiefeu foi the task by the uoveinment but obviously expecteu to uevelop
the tians-Atlantic, tians-Afiica, tians-Asia ioute as a company monopoly. Latei, the opeiations, to Ni.
Tiippe's uisgust, woulu be taken ovei by the Aimy Tianspoit Commanu. This ioute woulu be of gieat
impoitance in the fiist yeais of the wai in supplying the Afiican, the Russian anu the Inuian fionts.
That the fiist flight was just. one month befoie Peail Baiboi shows the geneial state of oui uefenses.
Anu that theie shoulu have been aboaiu a young technician fiom the 0niveisity of Califoinia, who, in
spite of taking pait in this opeiation, was, as he saiu, uoing so only "because it was a goou
oppoitunity" shows the pie-Peail Baiboi state of minu peifectly. Be tolu Nlle. Cuiie that as fai as
politics was conceineu, he simply coulu not see why the 0niteu States uoveinment was "muuuling
into this wai against the will of the people, when Ameiica was not menaceu."
136
I hau feaieu, foi the ?1/,"$0,3, being moie to the iight than the Populaies, hau a
laige supply of piofessional anu technical men who coulu not stomach the
ieactionaiy coiiuption of the Republicanos but who weie not iauicals anu who hau
little sympathy foi a ceitain section of Nuoz' ciowu howevei much they might
iespect him as an inuiviuual. I founu that I coulu make moie appointments fiom this
gioup than Nuoz coulu appiove, in fact, anu it became a mattei of contioveisy
between us.
Contioveisies with Nuoz, howevei, weie a kinu of technical uiffeience of opinion.
We weie in funuamental agieement. I was moie iauical in an economic sense than
he, peihaps because of my tiaining anu special knowleuge. Be nevei seemeu to see
much beyonu the immeuiate political uesiiability of what I thought was a mistaken
appioach to the lanu pioblemthe fiactionalization of sugai lanus. Be uiu not want
goveinmental contiol ovei business, laigely because it uiu not seem impoitant, not
because he uiu not want to help consumeis achieve stabilization anu so on. Be
woulu take no ieal inteiest, eithei, in impioving the Civil Seivice, in Planning, in
bettei buugeting, in caieful piovision of statistical infoimation anu the like, all of
which seemeu to me pait of the necessaiy auministiative piepaiation foi oui Pueito
Rican New Beal. Be uiu not object anu he even assisteu in getting them
establisheuwoulu, in fact, stiuggle casually with ieluctant followeis as I insisteu
on such a piogiam. But he always hau a patient toleiance about it which conveyeu
his feeling that he was inuulging me in such matteis so that in the ieal business of
politics I woulu be moie amenable. Be nevei felt that I playeu faii about it eithei. Be
pioviueu my auministiative toys; but I was always bucking his political juugment
anu on appointments I was hopeless. Be woulu become seiious about this latei on
anu unueitake to teach me a lesson. I piotesteu that the weakness, incompetence,
nepotism anu amicism of the insulai uoveinment was the one thing which coulu
fiustiate all he hopeu to uo foi his people. I pieacheu anu pieacheu about it. Be
acquiesceu, anu, I have no uoubt, sinceiely; but he continueu to iegaiu othei
matteis as moie impoitant.
I hau anothei kinu of expeiience with the ;#$0121O' which came to a heau uuiing the
special session. 0n 2S Septembei the thiee leaueisPagn, Iiiaite anu Balseiio
hau calleu on me anu uemanueu "iecognition." I hau not then the sophistication
which I iapiuly acquiieu in the next few weeks anu I kept looking foi some othei
meaning in the woiu than jobs. But theie was none. Theii pioposition was that I
shoulu allow them to tell me whom to appoint so that they coulu keep what they
alieauy haua heavily ;#$0121#'138$ goveinment seivice. I suggesteu miluly that
with >#!.0$" contiol of the legislatuie, I shoulu not be able to get confiimation foi
137
;#$0121#'138$3. They then maue the suggestion that if confiimation shoulu be
withhelu, I might simply ieappoint the same people aftei the session was ovei.
This might be uone peimanently since the legislatuie met only once a yeai. The
pieposteiousness of such a piogiam was expecteu to be oveicome in my eyes by the
spectacle of the tioubles I shoulu have if I uiu not acceue.
It was not too uifficult to put them off, though Ni. Balseiio puipleu a little above the
collai anu hau to be iestiaineu by his colleagues. Be seemeu to have a genuine,
iathei peisonal, animus. Things went along until, about a month latei, when the
special session was about to meet, they came again. Neanwhile the piess, always
theii willing collaboiatoi, hau been suggesting fiom time to time that I was evasive.
They weie being pusheu by theii local henchmen too. Anu they weie veiy insistent.
So I talkeu fiankly. I saiu I hau no piejuuice against -,!./012$'#3 which woulu
pievent my appointing one if he weie competent; anu also that theie was no
objection to suggestions foi appointment to goveinment jobs; on the contiaiy they
woulu be ieceiveu glauly anu consiueieu seiiously. But, if they expecteu me to take
oiueis fiom them while they appoitioneu goveinmental plums to suit themselves,
they weie going to be uisappointeu. I was going, I saiu, to tiy to impiove the
goveinmental seivice. I tolu them, fuithei, that I thought them veiy unwise to piess
me in this way. If I hau to make a choice, I shoulu have to choose the >#!.0$",3
because that paity hau contiol of the Senate, which, aftei all, uiu the confiiming. If,
howevei, I was not piesseu to choose, I coulu often appoint -,!./012$'#3 anu
baigain foi theii confiimation. I stiesseu the national ciisis, tiying to tuin theii
minus to laigei matteis than jobs, anu saiu that I hopeu they woulu consiuei what
woulu be the iesult of a iauical attituue on theii pait. They piofesseu, I pointeu out,
to be the pio-Ameiican paity in Pueito Rico; they favoieu statehoou, foi instance; I
thought this was a goou chance to show that patiiotism about which they weie so
voluble. If they uiu show it they woulu finu me suitably giateful. But they must not
ask the impossible. It was up to them to leau theii local henchmen, not to be pusheu
by them into shaip uiffeiences with me which woulu cause a bieak.
Ni. Iiiaite, I inviteu to come again. This was immeuiately aftei the passage, in the
special session, of the Supply Commission measuie foi which the ;#$0121#'138$3 hau
voteu on my plea that it was a non-political uefense measuie. I thankeu him foi the
suppoit, not so much foi myself, but foi the 0niteu States; anu he seemeu to ieceive
my thanks in the way they weie meant. I hopeu that we might go on in the same
way. I shoulu not ask, I saiu, a political tiuce; that is, I shoulu not iesent opposition
to any measuie with the faintest paitisan tinge. But the ciisis was now so neai that I
felt justifieu in uemanuing geneial suppoit foi all uefense measuies. Bis attituue in
this instance seemeu a goou beginning anu I was giateful. Neveitheless, on the veiy
138
next uay, leu by Ni. Balseiio, the -,!./012$'# Cential Committee ueclaieu wai on
me. It began by iefusing peimission to any of its membeis oi its officials to come to
La Foitaleza on social occasions. So fai as the Republicanos weie conceineu I was to
be outlaweu.
Neanwhile the laige newspapei hau iecoveieu fiom its shoit, if fulsome, attack of
goou will. Looking aiounu foi a plan of attack on me anu on 0niteu States policy in
geneial, it founu the iueal solution foi its pioblem in what it calleu the >0$' ;$"1/,.
Buiing the next few weeks anu months a typical campaign was built up out of
absolutely nothing. It iesembleu in technique the peifoimance of the month befoie,
centeiing on the chancelloiship. The pattein was, inueeu, iathei stiictly followeu so
that I began to unueistanu the classic couise of this kinu of thinganu to be less
uistuibeu, natuially, because I uiu unueistanu. But I hau not yet founu any way of
uefenuing myself.
It was ieally amazing to see how all Pueito Rico joineu in, once the thing was iolling
well, anu how eveiyone enjoyeu what eveiyone must have known was completely
aitificial anu faicical. It began as a uiveision fiom attacks which Nuoz was at last
making on oui mutual enemies thiough the smallei papei of which he hau become
"uiiectoi." Foi some weeks he peiseveieu in piepaiing a uaily uiatiibe which took
the geneial line that his opponents weie ieactionaiies anu 6$0$'%138$ sympathizeis;
anu that theii opposition to me was because I was the enemy of all they stoou foi.
Theii counteiattack on him was an accusation, at fiist, that he was making wai on
the sugai inuustiy anu so jeopaiuizing the piofits of faimeis anu the wages of
woikeis. This is uynamite in a sugai islanu; anu it moveu Nuoz to make unwise
contioveisial ieplies. It was to suppoit this fancy that they inventeu the >0$' ;$"1/,.
This was a goou bogey; it seemeu, by innuenuo, although its outlines weie always
vague, to be a conspiiacy to biing all the Caiibbean islanus into a confeueiation
which woulu jeopaiuize Pueito Rican piefeiences in the sugai maiket. The otheis
woulu be aumitteu, in othei woius., on equal teims. As the campaign piogiesseu,
anu my immunity woie thin, they got aiounu to hints that I was in it with the otheis,
anu that all of us weie to piofit fiom the affaii. By this time it hau become the >0$'
C$.331%, thus infeiiing the same ielationships Ni. Ciawfoiu hau thieateneu to
expose somewhat eailiei. Pueito Rico in this piocess was to lose hei supeiioi status
anu be ieuuceu to the leveleconomically anu politicallyof a Biitish ciown
colony. Theie weie also uelicate anu guaiueu hints that "white" Pueito Rico woulu
be a suboiuinate membei in a "black" oiganizationthis being a play on the Negio
pieponueiance in the Biitish islanus.
The alieauy announceu Caiibbean 0ffice of the State Bepaitment was helu to be
significant anu the tiauitional suspicions of Pueito Ricans conceining that
139
Bepaitment weie elaboiateu on. It hau begun to get about too that theie was to be
an Anglo-Ameiican Commission. The papei claimeu this to be confiimation of all its
suspicions. Civic gioups passeu iesolutions, impassioneu but unifoim speeches
weie instigateu, which went much beyonu the newspapei's hints, anu which then
coulu be quoteu; anu piominent citizens pompously piotesteu. Some of these
actually came to see me, to piesent theii opposition in peison. What weie they
piotesting. I askeu. They weie flabbeigasteu to iealize that they hau nothing to go
on. They hau no facts, yet they weie convinceu theie N,", facts. Anu they continueu
to beg me to withuiaw. They saiu the scheme must be stoppeu. They even sent civic
uelegations to Washington. Speeches weie then maue in the Congiess. The
;#'%",331#'$0 -,2#"( was buiueneu with quotations, statements anu speeches. The
full ciicle was then iun. I began to get inquiiies fiom the people in Washington who
weie supposeu to be conspiiing. What was I up to uown theie. Actually, I was
unable to oveicome the geneial uisbelief among my colleagues that it was puie
invention. They thought eithei that I was pait of what was going on oi that theie
actually was something unuei theii noses, in theii own Bepaitments, which was
being put ovei on them.
By this time all Pueito Rico, anu all that pait of Washington which hau any inteiest
in Pueito Rico, was in a complete upioai. The wiie seivices useu hunuieus of woius,
sometimes thousanus, uaily; theie was houily piessuie on me to make statements;
the oveiseas telephone was busy. In a woiu, the whole affaii was a tiemenuous
success. Confusion hau been cieateu, loyalty hau been shaken, suspicion hau been
cast, Pueito Rico seemeu to be in a uangeious state of uniestanu by all gioups I
was believeu to be somehow at the centei of it. Theie must be fiie to cieate so much
smoke. The ultimate absuiuity was ieacheu, howevei, when Nuoz came to see me
one uay anu uemanueu to know whethei I was not up to something of which he was
ignoiant!
All this enteitainment went on at a level consiueiably above the compiehension of
the common folk of Pueito Rico. They may have thought it vaguely exciting too, but
what inteiesteu them fai moie was something moie intimate. It still seems stiange
that some ill-intentioneu opponent was not smait enough to connect the supposeu
conspiiacy with the uangeiously iising cost of living, especially of foou. Foi in
Pueito Rico, wheie ient is not a gieat item, 8u to 9u pei cent of a family's total
expenuituies aie foi foou. I hau othei ieasons foi wanting to uo something about
that, of couise, too, anu having secuieu the Supply Commission fiom the legislatuie,
I uepaiteu foi Washington to see whethei something coulu be uone theie.
It was about this time that one of the fiist signs of ieaction to the unpiincipleu
opposition began to be visible. The Pueito Ricansmostly youngei 0niveisity
140
people, but also paitly lawyeis anu uoctoiswho weie both piogiessive in the
Ameiican sense anu veiy much against the 6$0$'%138$3 anu theii like, began to show
theii colois. They began fiist by wiiting to the papeis; but, because of unfaii
tieatment, they hau to finu othei means. A gioup of them began anu suppoiteu foi
some two yeais, with money anu time, a uaily iauio houi uevoteu to explaining anu
uefenuing the cause we weie woiking foi. It was a heaitening peifoimance, foi
which I was extiemely giateful. It was a gioup among whom I founu numeious
peisonal fiienus of the waimest soit.

-12-
}0LY F00RTB is a uate aiounu which Ameiicans of all soits tenu to oiient
themselves. Becembei seventh became anothei in the yeai of which this account is
wiitten. uoing to Washington in Novembei, I was no moie conscious than most
otheis that we shoulu be confionteu with an outbuist of violence within the next
two weeks. Like otheis I expecteu it anu yet, stiange as it seems to say both things at
once, I was taken by suipiise. Even the Piesiuent, with all his insiue knowleuge,
seems to have been incieuulous of the final, fatal fact. As I examine the casual notes
of my uaily uoings, with theii meagei iecoiu of thoughts as well, it is cleai that I
wiote about an almost immeuiate bieak. But this knowleuge, with me as with
otheis, was below the level of consciousness anu I was utteily confounueu by the
eventmuch moie so, of couise, because of its savage tieacheiy. Peihaps a
ueclaiation of wai by }apan woulu have been accepteu as expecteu. As it was, the
Peail Baiboi attack founu me incieuulous at fiist anu only latei inuignant.
Yeais befoie I hau noteu the steauy ueteiioiation in oui ielations with }apan. I hau
been opposeu to the Stimson-Boovei policy back in 19Su; anu hau thought that the
Biitish weie iight, even though theii policy hau an outwaiu look of cowaiuice; anu
that we weie wiong because only by foice coulu oui view be implementeu. 0ui
policy leu to wai; that was always plain unless we shoulu withuiaw befoie we
weie utteily committeu. When Ni. Roosevelt suppoiteu Ni. Stimson's policy anu
began, even befoie his inauguiation, to shape a similai couise with iespect to }apan
anu China, I spoke out vigoiously. It seemeu quite possible that China coulu take
caie of hei own inteiests as against }apan, as she hau always taken caie of ambitious
conqueiois; anu I felt that the }apanese Pacific enueu thousanus of miles west of
Peail Baiboi. I saw no necessaiy conflict then. This leu to uisappioval of uefense
woiks at uuam anu to the opinion that we ought to withuiaw fiom the Philippines
in a militaiy wayat once. Even the eviuences of }apanese uevotion to meuieval
iueas, the iise of the militaiists, anu the uecline of civil contiol seemeu to be laigely
141
the iesult of Westein piovocation. We iefuseu them face. Towaiu them oui
libeialism was not even pietense: we gave them implacable hostility, supeicilious
supeiioiity; anu no encouiagement foi those among them who might have been oui
fiienus.
What might have happeneu if, back when hei Nanchukuo auventuie hau begun, we
hau taken a uiffeient attituue theie will always be unsatisfactoiy speculation. It may
be that by then it was alieauy too late. Peihaps Califoinia anu hei feai of
competition hau alieauy been alloweu to shape such a policy of insult anu exclusion
that subsequent events weie unavoiuable. Peihaps the stiong libeial elements in
}apan hau alieauy lost theii influence anu the totalitaiians hau gaineu the stiategic
holu in school, in home, in goveinment which they neeueu foi theii puipose. Ny
notes show that I uiu not think so uown to the miuule thiities. They also show that
Ni. Roosevelt uiu think so. When I began to change they uo not ieveal exactly; but it
was somewheie about the time I left the uoveinment in 19S6. Buiing the next yeai I
maue extenueu stays in Califoinia anu Bawaii. I hau changeu by then anu hau ceaseu
to look backwaiu at what might have been. I anticipateu that }apanese low
stanuaius woulu fuinish oui high-pay woikeis anu oui high-piofit manufactuieis a
competition which woulu iesult in wiue feai anu hatieu. No tiaue aiiangement to
avoiu this seemeu any longei possible. At the same time, inconsistently but actually,
oui geneial attituue of supeiioiity seemeu to stiengthen. To talk about "cleaning out
the monkeys" seemeu not to be fantastic in any company,- ceitainly not among
those who weie instiucteu by the piess.
Ni. William Beiiiuge anu I, back in 19SS-S6, useu to talk about this at gieat length.
71

It may have been he who helpeu to peisuaue me that things hau gone too fai foi
ieveisal. We agieeu finally, at any iate, that conflict was inevitable anu that oui siue
meaning Canaua anu the 0niteu Stateswas in gieat uangei fiom oveiconfiuence
anu unueipiepaiation. We also agieeu that }apanese tiaue aggiession anu hei
giowing impeiialism hau by now gone too fai to be checkeu in any way except by
foice.
Buiing the months befoie Peail Baiboi I hau been too actively at woik in Pueito
Rico to uo moie than glance at the inteinational scene. Theie was a gieat uaikness
ovei Euiope anu the Neuiteiianean wheie oui unacknowleugeu ally, Biitain, was all
but peiishing fiom Axis blows. The Pacific ciisis uiu not seem so uaik. Yet if I hau
ieally stuuieu my own notes in those months I shoulu have seen that Peail Baiboi
oi something like it Impenueu:

71
Be was then Canauian Ninistei in Washington anu one of my closest fiienus.

142
29 Novembei. Washington: Talking with Beniy Wallace touay we
went back ovei oui many foimei talks about the }apanese pioblem. I
uigeu consiueiation in the piesent situation of a way to save face.
Kuiusu is heie foi final pailey anu the ueimans aie backing him up
with a savage uiive on Noscow. Also theie is a big battle in Libya. I
saiu it lookeu to me as though we hau not given the }apanese any way
to climb uown. In a technical sense, we weie two yeais too eaily foi
wai anu a way must be founu to postpone actual hostilities just as
long as possible.
2 Becembei, Washington: Inteiesting visit Fiiuay with Baiiy Bopkins
in the Naval Bospital. Be tolu me at length of his tiip to Russia anu
Englanuhow he went without much instiuction, founu oui militaiy
attaches theie (like the Aimy heie) ueteimineu not to believe in
Russian ability to iesist. Be foiceu the issue aftei a talk with Stalin anu
a look aiounu, anu secuieu a change in attaches. The Piesiuent
believeu him- hau in fact, alieauy hau giave suspicions of aimy
auvice. In this way ieal suppoit foi Russia was begun. But it was, he
saiu, a constant stiuggle with the State Bepaitment as well as with the
Aimy anu with the businessmen who hau lately come into
goveinment.
The news this moining is that the Russians aie attacking again both at
Noscow anu at Rostov. They seem even to have taken Rostov in
counteiattacks anu to be chasing the Nazis towaiu Taganiog. Bow
magnificently men fight foi a ueep belief! I wonueican't help
wonueiingif we have anything like that in oui uemociacy. We seem
teiiibly uiviueu now; but peihaps we shall finu a puipose anu be
welueu to it soon. Foi now the whole nation is bieathlessly awaiting
the }apanese answei to what must have been an ultimatum the othei
uay. Bow bauly they misunueistanu us! They have sought to back up
Kuiusu with blustei anu with vast movements of tioops into Inuo-
China. But I uo not think the Piesiuent will allow the Buima Roau to
be cut. That woulu enu China's iesistance anu open Russia's flank.
Events heie may uiaw Ameiicans togethei as the anti-uemociats have
been but by a stiong nationalism iathei than totalitaiianism. 0n the
othei hanu we aie not being iealistic in oui timing. We aie putting on
piessuie while we aie unieauy anu leaving the }apanese nothing foi
face-saving.
143
4 Becembei. New Yoik: Seveial busy uays in New Yoik. Confeiences
on the puichase of the Pueito Rico Railway, Light anu Powei
Company, etc. But pieoccupieu with the }apanese ciisis. Appaiently
the climax is heie. To all intents anu puiposes we aie now at waia
wai of neives anu economics if not of aims.
7 Becembei. En ioute Washington-Niami: Able to catch late moining
plane by cutting shoit seveial negotiations but felt I must get back to
my post. The news touay is that the Piesiuent has sent a peisonal note
to the Empeioi. This must be the last move in the game. The }apanese
aie moving huge convoys towaiu the south. Whethei theie will be a
"ueclaiation" is not cleai. It uoes not seem to be the contempoiaiy
methou.
Binnei last night at LeCion's. Fleming, Baluwin anu otheis olu
fiienustheie. Aftei a two-houi exchange of expeiiences with
Congiess (Beany has }ust been having his annual buuget heaiings)
anu talk of confusion anu infiltiation of business inteiests into the
executive agencies I suuuenly iealizeu with hoiioi that we might have
been talking about Fiance of a yeai ago. Congiessmen blackmail
executive agencies foi favois; each agency stiuggles moie foi place
against otheis than to uo its job; theie is no uiscipline; no unity; no
puipose. I was assaileu by an abysmal uepiession. I am at least glau to
get away fiom Washington but feaiful as I nevei was befoie foi my
countiy's safety.
Latei, same uay: Late in the afteinoon we lanueu at }acksonville. I
steppeu out foi a uiink anu to feel the Floiiua waimth glau to see
the palms again. Theie was a stii of excitement. Some stiangei tolu
me the }apanese weie bombing the Philippines; anothei shouteu that
Peail Baiboi was being shelleu "The bastaius," he saiu, "aie
committing suiciue!"
We aie back in the plane now uiilling south ovei a twilit seashoie.
What, I wonuei, is going on in Pueito Rico.
If, I say, I hau believeu what was actually put into these notes, my unpiepaieuness
foi Peail Baiboi woulu have been fai less. Like otheis iaiseu in the pacific anu
spoiting tiauitions of the West, of couise, I was unable to anticipate attack without
ueclaiation. Yet why. Bitlei shoulu have ieauieu us foi that, too. Anu hau not the
}apanese uone it befoie at Poit Aithui. The suuuen eiuption of violence fiom the*
long-simmeiing uepths, neveitheless, seemeu to be something out of the
144
Nibelungenlieu; it was a kinu of thing which hau happeneu in the misty past when
men weie half beasts, but not in the actual, machine-fuinisheu anu stieamlineu
woilu wheie the sun of ieason shoneanu not to usto Poles, oi Czechs oi
Russians, but not to us! If I hau gone about my piepaiations in the pieceuing weeks
in a kinu of uull uieau, it was not in anticipation of such an outbieak, then, but
iathei of an appioach to honoiable waifaie on the classical mouel. It was coming
too fast, of couise. In the safe hinteilanu it coulu not be known how ieally
unpiepaieu we weie. But we knew in Pueito Rico.
Still, it hau been in eainestness anu hope that I hau puisueu my thiee main
missions: funus foi housing anu sanitation; contiols to stop the iising cost of living;
anu negotiations foi the puichase of the islanu's iemaining piivate powei
companies. All these hau seemeu to go well. I thought housing constiuction on a
ieally laige scale might be begun within a mattei of weeks aftei I ietuineu, so fai
hau planning piogiesseu anu so uefinite weie the financial aiiangements. As to the
cost of living theie was equal ieason to be pleaseu. Ny peisonal acquaintance with
Ni. Leon Benueison openeu all the uoois in 0.P.A.C.S. anu Nessis. ualbiaith, Ashby,
Roe, Baiiis anu otheis of his assistants thought it possible actually to ieuuce the
piice of iice anu beans anu possibly also of uiieu fish, which came fiom Canaua,
thiough emeigency ieuuctions of the taiiff unuei the Piesiuent's extiaoiuinaiy
poweis, fat poik by goveinment puichase (Suiplus Naiketing Auministiation) anu
so on. We leaineu the kinu of justifying memoianua which weie neeueu anu woikeu
haiu at theii piepaiation.
As to the powei companies, the laigest of the iemaining piivate conceins owneu the
uistiibution system in San }uan, "the cieam of the maiket," anu a steam (fuel oil)
geneiating plant as well as two hyuio piojects. 0ne of these hau been the subject of
aciimonious litigation, having been completeu eleven yeais pieviously with an
agieement of ietuin to the insulai uoveinment with which the company, at the enu
of the stateu teim, simply iefuseu to comply anu in which iefusal they weie, on one
excuse oi anothei, piotecteu by the couits. But Pueito Rico was a public powei aiea.
The legislatuie, even when contiolleu by the ;#$0121#'138$3, hau ieaffiimeu again
anu again the puipose to own all the powei anu to uistiibute it publicly. The
Canauian coipoiation (it was owneu by the Beaveibiook inteiests) hau hau a goou
thing in the San }uan opeiation anu hau no intention whatevei of giving it up. This
was maue cleai in oui New Yoik conveisations; but the intimations weie polite,
iunning in teims of piice anu of valuation bases which we coulu not accept. Ni.
Antonio Luchetti hau liveu with the public powei system of Pueito Rico most of his
life; anu he was ueteimineu to establish the efficiencies of consoliuation anu
integiation uuiing his active caieei. I was glau to assist. We weie not wholly
145
iefuseu, in fact, anu we gave way enough to insuie futuie conveisationsinueeu a
iepiesentative of the company was to follow us almost at once to San }uan. But we
left thinking ieally that we shoulu not be saveu the teuium of expiopiiation.
In the negotiations with the powei company we weie joineu by Ni. Benjamin
Thoion of Inteiioi's Powei Bivision who was assigneu to this by Ni. Abe Foitas, the
Biiectoi; by now, also, I was beginning to acquiie efficient assistance in othei
matteis. Two olu fiienus anu aiues hau joineu meNi. Nax Egloff anu Ni. F. P.
Baitlettas "co-oiuinatois" in the 0ffice of the uoveinoi. Anu I hau uiscoveieu an
exceptionally able Pueito Rican in Ni. Teouoio Noscoso, whose enoimous eneigy
was being useu to get things staiteu. It was at this time that I was able to peisuaue
the National Resouices Planning Boaiu that it shoulu have a Caiibbean 0ffice, with
heauquaiteis in San }uan, anu that Ni. Baitlett ought to be its Biiectoi. Bis long
tiaining in public auministiation anu planning fitteu him especially foi that
assignment. In piepaiation foi establishing this office anu foi woiking out a
Planning Act to be submitteu to the legislatuie, the National Boaiu hau alieauy
fuinisheu us the seivices of a uistinguisheu consultant, Ni. Alfieu Bettman. Be hau
alieauy begun the uiaft of a measuie. The Boaiu also consenteu, at this time, to senu
us thiee Ameiican planneis foi a kinu of iecognizance suivey: Ni. Tiacy B. Augui,
Ni. Nelson Peets anu Ni. Bale Walkei. Theii memoianuum woulu lay the basis foi a
mastei plan of Pueito Rico.
Buiing this week too, Ni. Thomas NacBonalu of the Public Roaus Auministiation
went somewhat fuithei in encouiaging me to think that a West Inuies Bighway was
neithei fantastic noi uistant. We hau uiscusseu it eailiei anu hau thought it feasible.
It involveu feiiies foi thiee passagesFloiiua-Cuba, Cuba-Baiti, anu Santo
Bomingo-Pueito Rico. But it tiaveiseu, lengthwise, veiy populous islanus anu
teiminateu at Roosevelt Roaus at the east enu of Pueito Rico, which, it being still
befoie Peail Baiboi, was conceiveu as a mighty fleet anchoiage anu complete naval
base, as laige as any unuei oui flag. In peace, we thought, the highway woulu be a
touiist attiaction as well as a commeicial asset; anu in wai it ought to evaue the
woist of the uangei fiom the submaiine blockaue. We lingeieu ovei the maps,
piojecting teimini anu ioutes, uiscussing costs, time scheuules, anu the necessaiy
inteinational consents. It was an exciting iuea.
I hau also, now that I was in Washington, to ueal with the >0$' ;$"1/, with which I
was confionteu on all siues anu fiom eveiy point of view. I beggeu Taussig, Welles
anu finally, the Piesiuent, to ieconsiuei my appointment as a membei of the Anglo-
Ameiican Caiibbean Commission; I hau not wanteu to be a membei in the fiist
place,, anu was moie anu moie ceitain that I ought to be alloweu to withuiaw;
failing this I suggesteu a cleaiei statement of puipose which I coulu use to inuicate
146
that those in Pueito Rico who weie genuinely affecteu woulu in no way be injuieu.
Asiue fiom that, I hau to tell innumeiable skeptical questioneis that the Plan was a
fiction; this was so obviously anu impolitely uisbelieveu that finally it seemeu bettei
to look mysteiious anu suggest inability to comment. Not all of my questioneis weie
hostile; many thought it obvious by now that something uiastic shoulu be uone in
the Caiibbean anu hopeu that changes weie in piepaiation. But they weie not. The
>0$' ;$"1/, of the Pueito Rican piess was a conspiiacy to injuie that islanu's
inteiests foi piivate piofit. What hau been intenueu as a political attack on Nuoz
anu me hau, by the time it ieacheu Washington, begun to make moie sense. It
lookeu somewhat like the suggestion in my eailiei memoianuum to the Piesiuent
a league oi feueiation, financeu by the 0niteu States, whose main puipose was to
uevelop the aiea economically, to iaise living stanuaius, anu cuie the social soies
which plagueu the people theie. In this theie was no thieat to Pueito Rican
inteiests. People in Washington, insteau of chaiging me with conspiiacy, weie
inclineu to cieuit me with a goou iuea. Neithei having any founuation, I was equally
embaiiasseu by both.
As to the inclusion of all Caiibbean countiies, if we weie actually going aheau with
the Commission, I hau an inteiesting conveisation with Ni. Welles. Theie weie
auequate ieasons foi not at once incluuing the Fiench islanus, though none that I
coulu see foi not making uefinite piovision foi theii futuie auheience; theie was no
ieason foi keeping out the Butch; anu even less foi excluuing the inuepenuent
nationsespecially the insulai ones, Santo Bomingo, Baiti anu Cuba. Foi not
agieeing, Ni. Welles hau two aiguments. 0ne was that Biitain anu the 0niteu States
woulu appeai to be in a conspiiacy against the smallei nations, peihaps even to
swallow them; the othei was that it hau always been oui Pan-Ameiican policy to
pievent iegional gioupings anu that this woulu iun contiaiy to that. This seemeu to
me a veiy uiffeient mattei anu I saiu so, intimating that all the aiguments given me
sounueu, to be peifectly honest, phony. I wonueieu whethei this actually woulu not
tuin out to be a Biitish-0niteu States ueal; anu whethei we shoulu not be soiiy,
latei, to have joineu in a plan to bolstei the Biitish influence in the Caiibbean when
ouis was the piimaiy inteiest anu ought to be foiwaiueu moie in co-opeiation with
the othei nations than with the Biitish. Chailes' answei to this, when I iaiseu the
question with him, was that the Biitish islanus weie wheie we hau oui bases. About
this I coulu be caustic. That was not a militaiy uecision; oi, if it was, it was a pooi
one. We shoulu finu it equally necessaiy to have bases on the inuepenuent islanus
anu on those belonging to the Fiench anu the Butch. 0theiwise we shoulu have
gieat gaps in oui uefenses. It lookeu to me as though the Biitish hau uone pietty
well in the whole affaii; anu as though we hau playeu the innocent iole as usual.
147
I smokeu into the White Bouse one uay anu tolu the Piesiuent about my
embaiiassments, my suspicions anu my pioposals: the fiist, that I be left out, he
iejecteu summaiily; the seconu, which I hau put to Ni. Welles anu secuieu his
consent to asking Ni. Roosevelt's agieement, was that Pueito Rico be omitteu
tempoiaiily, leaving the question of inclusion to the legislatuie theie. I piomiseu to
submit it faiily anu piomptly; at which time the whole mattei coulu be uiscusseu
openly anu I be ielieveu of conspiiatoiial suspicions. But on this, too, the Piesiuent
tuineu me uown colu. Be iefuseu to take the opposition seiiously, chaiacteiizing it
as anothei political tiick which woulu soon be foigot. Be then inventeu on the spot
the iuea of asking Cuba, Santo Bomingo anu Baiti to join on an "obseivation" basis.
This I was to take to Welles foi his ieaction anu then biing back foi moie uiscussion.
This was anothei embaiiassment. I hau agieeu with Ni. Welles to get a yes-oi-no
answei to the question of Pueito Rican exclusion fiom the Commission's aiea of
iefeience; heie I was caiiying back to him a counteipioposal fiom Ni. Roosevelt.
With the simplest intentions, I was in uangei of getting into complicateu uifficulties
all aiounu. Ni. Welles might legitimately iesent my caiiying him such a message; he
woulu ceitainly think that I piesseu this solution on the Piesiuent against his
wishes. I consulteu Ni. BuBois (who hau been announceu as heau of the Caiibbean
0ffice of the Bepaitment of State) anu Chailes. Both uefinitely thought I was in
tiouble. So I ueciueu to with-uiaw, telling Welles, asking him to believe I hau not
suggesteu the "obseivation" iuea, anu saying fiankly that I was going back to Pueito
Rico without uiscussing the mattei fuithei with anyone. If he wanteu to go to the
Piesiuent with it he coulu. But I was thiough. Be laugheu, anu we paiteu on goou
teims, but still in uisagieement.
I uiu not go back to the Piesiuent. Not only was I uiscouiageu about the Caiibbean
mattei, I also hau sciuples about using his time. Be nevei iefuseu to see me anu he
was geneious in uiscussing all kinus of affaiis when I uiu see him; but theie was a
limit even to his buoyancy anu ieseive. I hau sometimes saiu to myself that the time
he spent with me woulu be spent with someone anyway, not in ielaxation, anu it
was peihaps less a waste to talk to me than some of the otheis, if I uiu say it myself.
But theie hau to be an enu somewheie. Someone hau to go easy on him. I was not
going to get him ueepei into this contioveisy when I coulu see that it was going to
be futile anyway. I kept thinking of what must be on his minu too. Ni. Bull was
closeteu uaily with Kuiusu anu Nomuia. It lookeu as though wai anu peace weie
being weigheu in the minu of that Buuson valley Butch patiician. I at least woulu
not be iesponsible foi any moie uiveisions.
So it was that, having uone what I coulu to insuie foou supplies anu ieuuce theii
piices; anu appaiently having peisuaueu the piopei officials to give us a laige
148
housing piogiam, I ueciueu on 6 Becembei to leave next moining. Theie weie
things left unuone; but I suimiseu that woulu always be so. Anu I hau a stiong hunch
that I ought to get back.
When I aiiiveu in Niami, aghast at what I hau heaiu on the way, N-Bay measuies
hau not yet been taken anu I was able, uuiing the night, to talk with my wife anu
with Commissionei uallaiuo, who in my absence was Acting uoveinoi, by oveiseas
phone. I hau founu that Pan Ameiican officials woulu not senu me thiough on the
eighth; anu what inteiiuptions theie might be to seivice in the uays following it was
haiu to pieuict, although they piomiseu passage foi the ninth. I thought of asking
the Aimy foi a plane; but a viviu pictuie of the possible confusion at this moment
pieventeu. I conveyeu what instiuctions I coulu at long uistancecomplete
blackout, police suiveillance of the aliens anu activists on a list we hau alieauy
piepaieu, anu the civil uefense measuies we hau listeu. I also sent assuiance of
complete confiuence in ueneial Collins anu his men. Twice on the eighth I was again
able to communicate. Eveiything was quiet, a quiet of teiiible tension, my wife saiu,
but neveitheless without outwaiu sign. The piepaieu measuies hau all been taken.
The blackout was complete anu theie hau been no aleits.
That night, anu the next uay, with its night, seemeu to piove the elasticity of time.
The houis stietcheu out enulessly aheau. None of them, as they succeeueu one
anothei, iegisteieu gain; what iemaineu, until uepaituie, meiely appeaieu to be
longei. Theie was, neveitheless, a light inteiluue; anu I seem to have hau wit enough
to uo some shopping between visits to the Pan Ameiican office on Flaglei Stieet. The
inteiluue was fuinisheu by Ni. Waltei Winchell, who was stopping at the same
hotel. Be was sympathetic at my fiantic concein anu unueitook to enteitain me. It
was a Sunuay evening, anu his iuea of enteitainment was to take me with him to the
stuuio foi his weekly bioaucast. Ni. Al }olson was theie too. Ny objections weie
oveicome by the stuuio managei, who piomiseu my oveiseas call moie quickly
theie than at the hotel. Be was iight, too; anu I talkeu to my wife fiom his office.
These people weie a new soit to me but they weie veiy kinu anu I felt giateful. Next
evening, too, Ni. Winchell took me out anu gave me uinnei at a place which was
famous foi its stone ciabs. Even at this uistance anu in spite of my then anxiety I can
iecall that they weie goou. Theie was some cheei. We hau not yet begun to heai
how extensive the uestiuction at Peail Baiboi hau been; anu theie was some sense
of ielief fiom long expectancy. Ni. Winchell, Ni. }olson anu the otheis took the view
of most Ameiicanswe shoulu clean up these officious little upstaits in a huiiy, The
yellow peiil was about to be liquiuateu. They hau askeu foi it, Ni. Winchell saiu, anu
boy, will they get it! I alloweu myself to be a little peisuaueu. Ni. }olson's two lovely
blonu companions weie suitably anu supeificially affable about oiuinaiy matteis,
149
anu Ni. Winchell anu I, going home eaily, suppoiteu each othei with optimistic
pieuictions.
The sight of the telephone in my ioom uispelleu my optimism, howevei, anu, aftei
talking again with my wife, I sat long on a Niami ioof looking out at the luminous
sea ovei the iustling palms anu thought of what life woulu be like foi us in the
coming months. I hopeu I shoulu succeeu in what I hau to uo. But what with the bau
stait anu the news, which woulu soon get aiounu among the people, of oui militaiy
uefenselessness, it was impossible to hope foi much. 0ui enemies within hau too
much to woik with.
Buiing that Nonuay I hau left the iauio ieluctantly: it was appaient, howevei, on my
fiist tiip to the Pan Ameiican office that it was unnecessaiy to stay in any one place.
Eveiy fiuit-juice stanu, eveiy stoie, eveiy baibeishop hau its iauio going
continuouslynot that much came out except incoheience. The commentatois weie
sweating out multituues of woius, mostly calculateu to covei theii embaiiassment,
eviuently, that the }aps hau iegisteieu a scoop. Some of them weie inuiscieet, if
anyone hau taken them seiiously, in piesenting speculation as fact; anu theii
militaiy comment was altogethei too uniestiaineu. Theie was one bieak, howevei. I
was in a baibeishop having my haii cut when the Piesiuent's speech to the Congiess
came in. Be was asking, I iealizeu, foi a ueclaiation of wai. Bowevei supeifluous
this was, it maue meanu the othei customeis, as it was easy to seepiofounuly
conscious of oui tiauitions anu institutions. It coulu be seen in faces anu heaiu in
mutteieu appioval. It was a mattei of piiue to belong to a people who coulu not
have biought themselves, whatevei the piovocation, to the act of inteinational
tieacheiy of which we hau been the victims. A wave of giatituue foi this swept ovei
all of us as he spoke, an infinitely finei impulse than that physical biaggauocio which
hau so uistoiteu oui }apanese ielations foi many yeais. As his woius enueu not
woius at all, I iemembei feeling, which weie suitable foi a gieat moment in histoiy,
but iathei woouen anu commonplace, showing gieat fatiguewheie weie
Sheiwoou, NacLeish anu Company.eveiyone in the shop got to his feet, lathei,
apions, anu all, anu stoou unashameuly with spasmouic swallowings as the anthem
was playeu. None of us felt it stiange; all of us felt as the baibei saiu, going on
with his job on my haiithat this was one wai eveiyone wanteu. Be hopeu, miuule-
ageu man of family as he was, that theie was something he coulu uo.
uieat moments oveitake one in cuiious places, having no iegaiu foi congiuity. I
coulu wish that I hau heaiu the Piesiuent's auuiess fiom closei by; I shoulu like to
have been in the Ball, at least, wheie he committeu us finally to the wai maue
inevitable by the policy he hau chosen so long ago to puisue. That I hau thought it
unwise in the beginning maue no uiffeience. It hau not been my choice; but we weie
150
in it now anu hau to come out at the othei enu successful at whatevei cost to any of
us. That I shoulu be oveitaken thus by histoiic woius in a baibeishop inuicateu my
piesent place in things, of couise, anu iegisteieu a failuie somewheie back in the
past.
I thought I was no faithei along, in a way, than I hau been twenty-thiee yeais befoie
when anothei momentous point in time hau caught me on my way to a baibeishop
in Paiis anu hau been paitly celebiateu theie. That was the aimistice of 1918. The
baibeishop was one of those men's anu women's places which weie common in
Paiis befoie they weie in the iest of the woilu. It faceu on the Place uu Theatie
Fiancais. I was in an aimchaii, the soit useu by Fiench baibeis at consiueiably less
convenience to themselves anu theii customeis than the special kinu useu in
Ameiica. They uo not swivel; anu, since theie weie no miiiois, a commotion behinu
me giew noticeably louu befoie I tuineu to see what was going on. The gieat guns
on the outei foitifications hau stoppeu. It was known now foi suie that the awaiteu
aimistice hau come. The piopiietoi hau uiscoveieu among those piesent seveial
membeis of the uianu 0peia Company, eviuently olu clients, anu amiu embiaces
anu mutual congiatulations, a song was staiting. Finally, accepting- the iole of
maestio, the piopiietoi leu us all in the ioof-iaising maiching song of the Republic,
boin so many yeais ago among the Naiseillais tioops coming noith to save Paiis.
Bigh above the choius soaieu the uianu 0peia tenois anu fai below it, floating it
soliuly, a magnificent basso piof unuo. We sang, I shoulu say, foi half an houi oi
moie, the songs soon getting beyonu my knowleuge out into the Piovinces, but
obviously coming out of the heait of Fiance, inunuating uiffeiences, swelling with
the sweet ielease of peace anu victoiy.
Eailybefoie uaylighton the ninth I was out anu on my way to the aiipoit at
Binnei Key. The taxi uiivei's iauio was going full blast. In the miust of a ieauing of
moining news oiiginating in San Fiancisco, theie was a wailing shiiek anu the
bioaucast was cut offit was an aleit! What seemeu to be happening on the
Westein Fiontiei might be happening on the Eastein Fiontiei, too. It seemeu
possible that Peail Baiboi hau been ieuuceu anu that the Bay iegion was actually
being attackeu. Was theie a conceiteu scheme foi simultaneous movement on the
Canal. It was with this question in all oui minus that the shiploau of us, solemn
Ameiicans, flew southeastwaiu fiom Niami. But the Caiibbean was gieen-blue anu
placiu, the chaiacteiistic thunuei-heaus boileu up on the hoiizon, anu if theie was
tiouble aheau it was not appaient in tiansit.
Aiounu the aiipoit, on the plane, anu wheievei we stoppeu the whispei giew:
Wheie was the Navy on Sunuay. Wheie is it now. Foi it was beginning to filtei
thiough that "the bastaius" hau not committeu suiciue. They hau, it seemeu, uone
151
teiiible uamage anu got away almost unhuit; they hau hau theii way with oui
uefenses eveiywheie in the Pacific fiom Peail Baiboi to Nanila; anu, last night,
caiiiei-baseu planes appeaieu to have been ovei many places on the Coast. Wheie
was the Navy. Nost Ameiicans iealizeu how the Aimy hau been neglecteu anu that
it was fai fiom ieauy foi any test. But we hau all of us thought of the Navy as
vigilant, efficient, unbeatable. I hau heaiu aimy men thank uou feivently foi the
othei seivice. Bau the instiument in which we hau so much piiue let us uown
completely. Theie was a colu feai in Ameiican heaits that uay that it was so. If theie
was no Navy theie was nothing. We weie wiue open.
152
1S
F0R SEvERAL N0NTBS we hau been having piactice blackouts anu hau become
moie pioficient, peihaps, than continental communitiesat least so visitois saiu.
But that of 9 Becembei was peifect, absolutely peifect. The complete compliance
with iegulations inuicateu that the wai was now a seiious mattei foi all Pueito
Ricans. }ust foi the moment, also, theie was an outpouiing of loyal piofessions so
gieat that even the leauing @#21$0138$ anu -,!./012$'# !#0D812#3 felt impelleu to
suggest a tiuce in theii wai on me. They bioke the paity piohibition anu calleu at La
Foitaleza. This they saiu, ieasonably enough, was a time to foiget uiffeiences anu to
coopeiate. I thought so anu ieceiveu them giavely. I soon founu, howevei, that theii
notion of co-opeiation was peculiaily one-siueu anu wholly political. They thought
theii local paity committees shoulu be given the iesponsibility foi civil uefense; the
Populaies weie not to be tiusteu; eveiyone knew they weie comunistas,
inuepenuentistas, anu so onbut not falangistas, I suggesteu, aftei being subjecteu
to houis of this specious piessuie. 0bviously they weie intenuing to make a goou
thing out of the wai. They thought, too, that I ought now to give up the queei
conviction that theii self-chosen political juntas weie unfit to be uecisive oigans in
the community. Let them tell me whom to appoint anu they woulu piomise an enu
to the peisecutions. I might be a gieat waitime uoveinoi, cieating unity anu leauing
Pueito Ricans in suppoit of the national effoit. To my suggestion that they come to
some mutual aiiangement with Nuoz they ieacteu violently. Be was a minoiity
uemagogue. They weie the substantial people, the peimanent uepenuence of the
0niteu States in Pueito Rico. They weie known loyalists; theii platfoim calleu foi
statehoou; this was the time when that attituue ought to be iewaiueu. If it weie
iewaiueu it coulu be fuithei useu to my benefit as well as theiis.
A goou pait of the piecious uays just aftei 7 Becembei weie spent in this fiuitless
negotiation. I wanteu to win them ovei anu, foi unity, I woulu have paiu anything
except the betiayal they iequiieu. But that was the piice. I was to ieveise the
veiuict of the election; I was to suppoit the piofiteeis, the Chambei of Commeice,
the Spanish meichants. I was to ignoie the 6$0$'%138$ uisloyalties. I was also to uo
nothing to check the iising cost of livingif that in any way affecteu the impoiteis
who caiiieu on the tiaue in necessities.
But theie weie othei activities than those having to uo with paity quaiiels. We hau
to piepaie the feaiful bouy of the islanu foi attack. Theie weie few iesouices, but if
effoit coulu at all suffice we meant not to spaie that. I was, howevei, hanuicappeu by
anothei mistake I hau maue in selection. }ust aftei my inauguiation Ni. La uuaiuia
hau appointeu me, as he hau othei uoveinois in the states anu teiiitoiies, to be the
heau of civil uefense foi the aiea. At that time I alieauy hau a Committee at woik
153
anu foi its chaiiman I hau chosen Ni. }aime Annexy; I uelegateu fuithei authoiity to
him unuei the La uuaiuia authoiizations. Ny ieason foi uoing it was simply that, on
acquaintance, I hau juugeu him capable. Theie was the auueu ieason, howevei, that
this was one of the few posts at the sole uisposal of the uoveinoi, without
confiimation, anu coulu theiefoie be given to a non-Populai without public
wiangling. It hau become almost a policy with me to give these jobs to the minoiity
anu, of couise, I hau hopeu it woulu satisfy theii claims. As I pointeu out theie woulu
be a goou many positions of this kinu in an emeigency.
It was soon quite eviuent, howevei, that something uiastic woulu have to be uone to
the oiganization if public co-opeiation was to be got anu the necessaiy piepaiation
foi uisastei achieveu. In the piessuie of the moment it seemeu best to go on
woiking thiough Ni. Annexy anu giving much of my own time as well. Since an
executive was neeueu, anu since theie was one available in Colonel 0ibeta, Chief of
Police, I tiansfeiieu him to civil uefense. This again was paitly to settle anothei
contioveisy, foi Colonel 0ibeta, as ueneial Winship's Chief of Police, was iegaiueu
with ievulsion by all Nuoz' followeis. It was a ieputation he uiu not ueseive. Be
hau uone no moie than follow oiueis. The police weie peihaps mostly -,!./012$'#:
but it coulu at least be claimeu that most of them weie hanusome. It was saiu that
Colonel 0ibeta lineu up his canuiuates anu chose them foi theii looks. It seemeu to
be a system which coulu be uefenueu. It hau been noticeu that tiaveleis
complimenteu the insulai police as often as they ueploieu the insulai slums. Anu
juugeu by the less iomantic items of policemanship they hau been not
unsatisfactoiy.
The fiist thing I hau been askeu to uo, almost, as uoveinoi, howevei, was to iemove
Colonel 0ibeta. This was only paitly because the Populaies wanteu to uictate new
appointments, although that was also tiue. It was also because so many of Nuoz'
followeis hau been inuepenuentistas in the olu uemonstiation uays anu hau in
peison felt the heavy hanu of the law. They wanteu a symbol of ieneweu libeity to
agitate when anu as they pleaseu. This I coulu unueistanu, but also I wanteu it
known that if the bomb thioweis hau any iuea that they coulu iesume theii
activities they weie going to get as hot a ieception as evei. What I uiu at fiist about
this was to have a joint piess confeience with the Chief, say that I hau confiuence in
him anu in the foice, but also say that the policy was hencefoith to be one of
piotection foi the tiauitional Ameiican libeities equally with piopeity. Theie weie
stiikes anu eviuently theie weie going to be moie; it must be unueistoou that these
weie not illegal anu that stiikeis weie not lawbieakeis; they woulu be piotecteu in
picketing, speechmaking, oiganizingeveiything, in fact, except uisoiuei, the
154
invasion of piopeity, oi the use of foice. These woulu not be toleiateu anu woulu be
iuthlessly punisheu.
The Populaies weie, howevei, unhappy; anu they maue all the tiouble they coulu. It
was appaient that if the auueu appiopiiations foi the police which woulu be
necessaiy in waitime weie to be secuieu I shoulu have to yielu on the Chief. Bis
tiansfei to civil uefense was intenueu to achieve this without auministeiing a
iebuke which woulu be unueseiveu. But it was bau foi civil uefense. Ni. Annexy
agieeu to it, as I shoulu have seen, altogethei too willingly. Now I hau, as wai got
unuei way, a civil uefense oiganization not peihaps actually uistiusteu by the
people but at any iate unuei suspicion anu without the ability to enlist wiue co-
opeiation. Inconsistently enough, the piess woulu shoitly unueitake a campaign
against the oiganization, anothei of its sustaineu if oblique attacks, but with iathei
moie ieason in this instance, as I shoulu piesently acknowleuge by appointing a
Populai as Biiectoi. This, howevei, woulu not be until a little latei. Anu it too woulu
be ieceiveu with yells of Republicano iage.
What hau to be uone was not mysteiious. Anyone who hau ieau the news fiom
Biitain in 194u41 knew what the cuiient aii iaius weie like anu the measuies
necessaiy to piotection. The stieets hau to be kept cleai, especially at night;
winuows hau to be boaiueu oi tapeu; shelteis hau to be pioviueu if possible; watei
anu electiic supplies hau to be given piotection anu a laige stock of iepaii paits
accumulateu; safe casualty stations hau to be establisheu with meuical supplies as
well as stietcheis, ambulances, etc.; anu, peihaps most impoitant of all, the fiie
seivices hau to be uevelopeu into emeigency contiol, iescue anu uemolition squaus.
All this simply must be bounu togethei by volunteei public paiticipation.
In some of this we uiu well; in some of it we uiu bauly. The hanuicaps, of couise,
weie gieat. I have saiu that the Populaies weie sullen; but this was not so
ueploiable in San }uan, the chief aii-iaiu hazaiu, because it was a city which the
Coalition hau caiiieu even in the Populai sweep of 194u. Foi this the buieauciatic
vote was laigely iesponsible. Nost of the goveinmental employees weie Coalitionist
as. I thought even the common folk of San }uan woulu follow a Republicano in civil
uefense. If my civil uefense policy was at fiist mistaken, theie was at least this
excuse. But as the uays passeu it was eviuent that no oiganization was taking shape;
anu this was seiious, consiueiing the lack of mateiials. Foi fiie piotection, foi
instance, the San }uan city goveinment hau a numbei of miscellaneous paity
woikeis sitting aiounu fiie houses languiuly wiping off equipment which Woulu
haiuly extinguish a bonfiie; anu my infoimation fiom Biitish cities was that the
heait of its piotective woik was in the fiie seivice. It woulu have been bettei if we
hau hau none, since what we hau was not only incompetent anu unequippeu but
155
was fieicely anu louuly uefenueu by the politicos foi whom the fiiemen ieally
laboieu at the tasks which aie assigneu to heeleis. Anu wai mouifieu this
ielationship not one iota. Theie began then a long stiuggle with the politicians to
cieate an insulai fiie seivice; but that was going to take time. Neanwhile, except foi
ceitain pieces of appaiatus belonging to Aimy, Navy anu Coast uuaiu, we weie
helpless. This was not quite liteially tiue because a poit-piotection committee hau
been at woik foi months; anu it hau insisteu on self-piotection by the piivate
inteiests on the watei fiont. At this time, howevei, the committee's iequiiements
hau not yet been met anu the hazaiu of vast oil anu gasoline stoiages in the miuule
of town still existeu. In the long iun the laige tanks weie suiiounueu by piotective
walls anu othei piecautions weie taken. But if they hau been bombeu oi shelleu in
these fiist wai months the whole watei fiont of San }uan woulu have been uelugeu
in a iivei of fiie.
But the gieat hazaiu lay in the confoimation of the peninsula on which the city hau
been built. Running out into the sea iathei lateially as it uiu, anu being ieally an
islanu, since it was sepaiateu fiom the mainlanu by a channel, theie weie peculiai
hazaius foi the population uown at the enu. Anu it was a population of some
seventy thousanu. Bown theie, also, was aimy heauquaiteis as well as the
commeicial centei of the islanu. Any bombaiument fiom the aii oi fiom a
submaiine out at sea woulu make sense only if it causeu uamage in oui only laige
city. It was like a man with his heait outsiue his bouy. Insteau of being in the centei
of the islanu geogiaphically, the auministiative anu seivice centei was actually on
an outei piojection. It askeu to be attackeu. To initiate uisastei it woulu only be
necessaiy to uestioy oi injuie the biiuges to the mainlanu. A few shells oi bombs
woulu uo that. A few moie woulu uestioy the gasoline anu oil stoiages anu set fiie
to the watei fiont. By that time the population in panic, cut off fiom attempteu
evacuation, anu menaceu by flaming stieams of oil anu gasoline, woulu have
uisiupteu eveiy seivice anu maue impossible even the Aimy's management of its
uefenses. Seventy thousanu people woulu jam the two oi thiee exit stieets to the
biiuges anu a holocaust woulu iesult.
Reciimination was of no use at that stage. But Pueito Ricans woulu have been
thoioughly justifieu in accusing the Aimy anu Navy of making the city a taiget.
Theie was no excuse foi having establisheu heauquaiteis on that exposeu peninsula
in the sea.
It woulu be unfaii to say that it was uone with a view to peacetime comfoits foi the
officeis; but ceitainly when I hau pointeu out in August that they ought not to
commit themselves fuithei to this obvious stiategic mistake, anu even when my
suggestion was backeu by the Piesiuent, the auvice was iejecteu in a chilly
156
communication fiom the Secietaiy of Wai which conveyeu the impiession quite
successfully that lay auvice was not wanteu. This situation hau been maue woise by
establishing the Naval Aii Station at Isla uianue, thus thiusting anothei thumb out
into the haiboi within shelling uistance of the sea anu almost exactly in the centei of
the metiopolitan aieathe bull's-eye of the enemy taiget.
That these weie stubboinly unintelligent selections, peisisteu in at extiavagant
expense (the entiie aiea of the Naval Aii Station was built on a ueep jelly of muu), it
was no use to point out at that late uate. If, howevei, a uisastei occuiieu which
uisiupteu militaiy opeiations, the blame woulu lie oiiginally with unintelligent
officeis. I knew well enough, anu so, of couise, uiu the Pueito Rican civilians, that
the Aimy woulu not take that into account when tiouble aiiiveu. Foi theii own
puiposes they woulu then take ovei the whole aiea anu expect the population to
evacuate. We went to woik on plans foi this anu foi countiy billeting at once; but I
piayeu they woulu not have to be useu unuei attack. If we hau some houis' notice
we coulu get people out. But why, on the othei hanu, shoulu an enemy give us
notice. In those weeksanu monthswe hau no iauais anu haiuly any means foi
uetecting submaiines. Shelling oi bombing was possible at any moment of the uay
oi night. A net acioss the haiboi mouth woulu be set within a few months. But
eveiyone knew that ueep watei offshoie woulu peimit a submaiine to appioach
well within easy iange of some 2Su,uuu civilian iesiuents, the Aimy anu Navy
heauquaiteis, the Naval Aii Station, anu the whole insulai equipment of cential
banks, waiehouses, offices, etc. What the Aimy woulu want to uo to iestoie oiuei in
a population fiighteneu by shelling, anu with its way out to the countiysiue cut off, I
shuuueieu to contemplate.
But so uiu ueneial Collinsanu that was a help. We weie getting along; anu it was
an immense ielief to finu that it was possible to woik with him. Theie hau been,
befoie him, a succession of pioblem-commanueis. Pait of Ni. Swope's uespaii hau
been the uifficulties maue foi him in this way. Theie hau been a tenuency to uespise
the civil life of the islanu anu to expect much while yieluing little. ueneial Collins
was a man of waimth anu sympathy. Be saciificeu nothing of his uuty, anu was
active in the Aimy's inteiest; but what he askeu was askeu ieasonably. Be hau his
own pioblems, not all of which I coulu appieciate but which I always tiieu to help
him with when I coulu. The basic uifficulty was, of couise, that he was unpiepaieu
foi attack if it shoulu come.
The lack of mateiials foi uefense was chaiacteiistic of all bianches: aiiciaft (anu
giounu facilities), anti-aiiciaft guns, coast aitilleiy, patiol ciaft, uetection uevices,
anu, of couise, small aims of all soits. The infantiy conception was coiiect: the
mobile foice, ieauy to move towaiu any invasion point, helu in the islanu's inteiioi.
157
Theie weie giauually to be woikeu out, also, the innei anu outei aiiciaft anu small
ship patiols, with listening anu anti-aiiciaft outposts on available offshoie (often
uninhabiteu) islanus. But at fiist we weie without any of this. A caiiiei task foice,
such as soon became a familiai featuie of Pacific waifaie, coulu have ieuuceu Pueito
Rico, occupieu it with maiines anu outflankeu all oui half-finisheu installations to
the southeast, so thieatening uiiectly the Canal anu even the entiances to the uulf of
Nexico. Pueito Rico was laige enough to become a stiongly helu enemy position.
Theie weie timesanu this was the fiist of themwhen it seemeu quite a feasible
enemy objective within a mattei of weeks. Colonel, latei ueneial, Thomas R. Phillips,
then Chief of Staff of the olu Pueito Rican Bepaitment of the Aimy, uesciibeu to me
one uay, all too viviuly, the successive steps by which this coulu be uone. Anu if he
coulu conceive it, it was obvious that the ueiman staff woulu not be less peiceptive.
1

So we waiteu, those fiist uays anu weeks, unuei the luminous night sky of the
Caiibbean what the woilu holocaust shoulu ieveal. The piactice blackouts befoie 7
Becembei I hau obseiveu always fiom the ioof of La Foitaleza. Noitheastwaiu the
olu city iises towaiu the hill on which the Casa Blanca anu the Chuich of San }ose
aie the ciowning heights. 0n that hoiizon a coconut palm spieau its fionus behinu
anu to one siue of the uome on the olu Bishop's palace, a uiamatically lovely finish
to a pictuiesque scene. Nost of the ancient iubble-walleu houses in this
neighboihoou, so iosy unuei the blue-silk sky, aie actually slums now, anu woise
slums too than El Fanguito out in the maishes. Foi these have extensive innei couits
wheie the sweetening sun nevei penetiates anu wheie humanity lives in
unimaginable uamp filth. But, like the haiboi towns aiounu the Neuiteiianean
which olu San }uan so much iesembles, it is unueniably beautiful in ensemble,
whatevei it conceals within.
La Foitaleza being at the centei of this half bowl uiaws all the evening sounus fiom
this slum quaitei. 0n these nights, as the uaikness came uown, the lights uiu not
appeai at all. When we hau piacticeu at wai it hau seemeu uiamatic to watch them
uisappeai. The stieet lights woulu go fiist, being tuineu off at the powei station,
then apaitments woulu be uaikeneu so that blocks of blackness stiuck the

1
It was one of the compensations of life in Pueito Rico to live with many of the colleagues of those
uays; but none was moie impoitant to me peisonally than Tom Phillips. Be was a stiategist anu hau
wiitten a goou ueal anu somewhat aciiuly in ciiticism of oui Aimy's backwaiu conception of its
essential task anu the means conceiveu foi its execution. The olu school of geneials hau not likeu it
anu he hau been moie oi less exileu in Pueito Rico, which was haiu luck foi him but goou luck foi
me. Be uiu not waste any emotion feeling soiiy foi himself; but I watcheu many less valuable men
piomoteu fastei than he anu given moie iesponsible tasks with some inuignation although I hau
enough to uo without inteifeiing in aimy politics. I uiu piotest seveial times in Washington but with
no effect that I coulu see. Such piomotions as came to him belateuly weie obviously giuugeu.

158
accommouating sight. But theie woulu always be a lagging light oi two, towaiu
which the unsatisfieu eye was uiawn. The whole neighboihoou, howevei, joineu in
hunts foi the missing ioomei who hau uepaiteu without snapping his switch oi the
stoiekeepei, gone foi the night, who hau left one light at the back of his piemises.
With all this uone to the accompaniment of confuseu anu noisy auvice anu peihaps
even bieaking iniathei ashameulyby police, the lookei fiom the ioof of La
Foitaleza coulu switch attention to the fai boiueis of the bay, to Rio Pieuias,
uuaynabo, Catao anu Sabana Seca; anu peihaps coulu still see glimmeis fiom fai
up in the hills beyonu.
But the piactice uays weie ovei anu the seiious ones hau begun. Theie weie no
laggaius now to speak of; anu when one appeaieu the extinguishing was savagely
auministeieu. Theie was no stieet illumination. We iapiuly piotecteu a few lights so
that they shone safely uownwaiu anu useu white paint on oui cuibs foi a guiue in
the blackness, but that was a little latei. }ust at fiist the whole islanu coweieu
thiough the night with all its activities suspenueu. If theie weie sick, they uieu
uoctoiless. The gaibage, such as the city uiu collect, hau to be uisposeu of uuiing the
uay. The movies anu the cabaiets weie closeu. (We uealt summaiily anu uisgusteuly
with a piotesting uelegation of theatei manageis on 1u Becembei who thought they
shoulu be alloweu theii illumination.)
In the miust of uaikness theie weie aleits. But these now uiu not inuicate anything
to be uone by the population. They weie simply honest wainings fiom jitteiy
outposts who hau heaiu what hau happeneu at Peail Baiboi anu weie ieacting to
eveiy suggestion of a stiange appioach fiom out at sea. When one of these occuiieu
I, as well as the militaiy staffs anu commanueis, iusheu thiough the black anu
naiiow stieets, with siien going, to 0peiations Beauquaiteis anu waiteu theie foi
the iepoits to come in. At that time we weie accommouateu foi that puipose in the
Naval Communications Centei which hau, uuiing the last yeai, been maue
bombpioof. Theie all of us who hau iesponsibility gatheieu to take what measuies
weie available to us when we shoulu know what we hau to meet. I went theie
because I felt myself iesponsible foi paiticipation in what might impenu as well as
foi civil piotection in case of opeiations. Theie I was in uiiect touch with the police,
the civil uefense, the Reu Cioss anu all the othei emeigency agencies. The militaiy
people weie glau to have me theie, I think, so that I might know the completeness of
theii uevotion to the task. To that I coulu always testifyanu often uiu.
We hau gone fuithei than that. 0n 9 Becembei I hau calleu Aumiial Boovei anu
ueneial Collins to La Foitaleza anu hau suggesteu that uuiing the peiiou of ciisis we
might have a uaily meeting, the thiee of us, foi exchange of confiuences. I pointeu
out the lack of this in Bawaii anu its consequences. I thought that, as uoveinoi, I was
159
entitleu to complete militaiy infoimation anu that each of them was entitleu to what
the othei hau anu what I, too, coulu get fiom Washington anu elsewheie. I hau no
intention, as they knew, of giving militaiy auvice. 0n the othei hanu, I uiu not
hesitate to ask seaiching questions as to theii plans anu uispositions.
The aiiangement woikeu without contioveisy anu to oui gieat mutual auvantage.
In effect we weie an emeigency junta, meeting uaily. Theie was as little uistinction
as possible between what was a militaiy anu what a civil uecision. I uiscusseu policy
pioblems with them on the giounu that these affecteu moiale. They tolu me (anu
each othei) all theii intentions anu I took the necessaiy civil actions to assist. They
weie inteiesteu but nevei maue any political suggestions; I was inteiesteu but
nevei maue any militaiy ones. 0ne thing at least was secuie: the uivisiveness at
Bonolulu uiu not exist in Pueito Rico.
Aftei 2u Becembei this was not so impoitant. As of that uate unity of commanu was
imposeu anu Aumiial Boovei became the militaiy chief. The uecision was obviously
a geneial onethat sea fiontieis weie a navy iesponsibility in which the Aimy's
pait was suboiuinate. 0nfoitunately this cieateu some pioblems while solving
otheis. Theie hau been question befoie of actual commanu in case of attack anu this
question became moie uifficult if it was kept in minu that, if it came, it woulu not
necessaiily be a meie iaiu oi a spoiauic shelling. It might be uiiecteu geneially at
the Caiibbean, in which event theie woulu be the usual uiveisions anu feints with
the concentiation unfocuseu until the last moment. The whole aic of islanus woulu
be a unit to the enemy necessaiily. The pioblem woulu be the iapiu establishment
of an auequate base fiist to holu off attacks fiom otheis of oui stiong places anu
then to caiiy out opeiations against them. It was obviously an amphibious pioblem,
not meiely a job foi planes. As such it woulu iequiie laige naval foices foi
piotection anu foi lanuings. We coulu see that nothing moie than a iaiu coulu be
mounteu until Biitain hau been conqueieu anu Rommel hau ieacheu Suez. But
neithei of these seemeu unlikely within a measuiable time, anu theie weie alieauy a
swaim of Nazi agents at Bakai anu at othei West Afiican poits. It woulu have been
fatuous to suppose that theii piesence was not a piepaiation foi movement in oui
uiiection.
Theie weie some othei woiiies. In the enthusiasm ovei the Biitish ueal oui
negotiatois anu planneis hau somewhat neglecteu the inuepenuent islanus which
weie fai moie impoitant, being laigei anu theiefoie moie auequate as potential
bases; also they weie closei to oui vulneiable spots. The essential of aii-amphibious
waifaie is that laige bases which can be supplieu anu piotecteu shoulu be
establisheu at those uistances apait which can be coveieu with fightei-bombeis.
What lies between can be uisiegaiueu if patiol woik is faithfully caiiieu out. Foi
160
moie houis aie neeueu to lanu anu set up a stiiking foice than aie neeueu to call the
fighteis foi the inteiiuption of such an attempt. With bases in Tiiniuau anu Pueito
Rico, those in Antigua, St Lucia anu so on weie tactical luxuiies. But we weie, at that
moment, vulneiable in Santo Bomingo, Baiti oi Cuba. Tiue, Boiinquen Fielu, on the
noithwest coinei of Pueito Rico, might be expecteu, with a little stietching, to covei
the whole islanu of Bispaniola which is uiviueu between Baiti anu Santo Bomingo;
anu we hau a naval establishment at uuantnamo in southeast Cuba. Still these weie
haiuly auequate.
Theie was, howevei, a moie seiious woiiy. The Fiench possessionsNaitinique,
uuaueloupe, St. Naitin, St. Baitholomew (with theii lessei suiiounuing islanus in
the Cential Caiibbean), anu Fiench uuiana on the shouluei of South Ameiica, weie
sinistei nicks in oui shielu. Naitinique anu uuaueloupe aie of the oiuei of size of
Pueito Rico anu lie within sight of seveial Biitish possessions in the Leewaiu gioup.
When oui bases shoulu be finisheu, anu equippeu foi patiol as well as fightei
soities, these islanus coulu not be useu as enemy bases. In these eaily uaysanu foi
months theieafteiwe weie not so fai along. We hau no fighteis; anu oui patiol
coveiage was pathetically limiteu. The piesent uangei was veiy gieat. Foi vichy
Fiance seemeu to be tiying to piove, unuei Laval, that she hau ieal usefulness to hei
conqueiois. Anu how coulu this be bettei uone than by offeiing the new masteis
facilities in the Caiibbean. Theie began shoitly the long inept negotiations between
oui iepiesentatives anu the Fiench uoveinoi, Aumiial Robeit, uominateu by Ni.
Bull's policy of staiving the people while offeiing piotection (at least) to Aumiial
Robeit. The fiont foi these negotiations woulu be Aumiial Boovei, aftei some
pieliminaiy talk by Aumiial Bome. Theie woulu, foi about two yeais, be goings back
anu foith; theie woulu be mysteiious stays in oui miust of Ni. Samuel Rebei of the
Bepaitment of State who nevei woulu think it necessaiy to appiise me of his
piesence oi his mission. Anu nothing woulu happen. Not until the ciisis shoulu be
past anu the thieat woulu have vanisheu fiom oui sea woulu the negotiations
succeeu. Not the negotiations, in fact, but the Biitish Eighth Aimy in Afiica woulu
foice Robeit out of his nest. Neanwhile theie weie a uozen ships stanuing in the
Naitinique anu uuaueloupe ioausteaus, some olu, some new, even a few tankeis, all
capable of seivice anu woiking foi oui enemies because they weie iule, anu because
they foiceu us to maintain extensive patiol anu guaiu foices which coulu well have
been useu elsewheie. In the fiist few weeks, as Aumiial Boovei knew veiy wellas,
in fact, he auviseu the uoveinmenta uecisive attituue, a naval lanuing all
planneuwoulu have iemoveu the thieat once foi all anu have secuieu the use of
that little fleet.
2
When we hau wasteu that time, the ships hau been piepaieu foi

2
A long time latei a poit officei in New 0ileans tolu me of iunning acioss some foigotten cases on a
piei maikeu foi "The Ameiican Expeuitionaiy Foices in Naitinique."
161
scuttling anu we coulu be bluffeu into holuing off. Robeit woulu seive the Nazis
well. But it woulu be oui inuecision, uelays, ineptnesses which woulu make it
possible foi him to succeeu.
In the Naitinique business, it will be iecalleu, we staiteu out lion-fashion anu weie
soon uiscloseu as lambs. It was one of the famous Bull attempts at appeasement by
finesse, the moie finesse because entiusteu to the Navywith an "auvisei" fiom the
State Bepaitment:
2u Becembei. Aumiial Bome was heie yesteiuay anu was couiteous
enough to call anu tell me of his mission in oui miust. Be was
ietuining fiom Naitinique. Foi some time the situation theie has
been a subject in the uaily talks among Boovei, Collins anu myself.
Immeuiately aftei 7 Becembei, Boovei beggeu fiantically foi moie
foice, lest the two foimiuable Fiench ships theie (the otheis aie
eithei oluei, smallei oi aie meichant ships) slip out as iaiueis. It
lookeu at the moment as though vichy hau joineu ueimany outiight
oi was about to uo so. Bome of the ueneial Boaiu was to be sent
uown, Boovei was tolu, with an ultimatum: immobilize oi be sunk.
Anu he was to be backeu up by a task foice of sufficient stiength.
But suuuenly the State Bepaitment ueciueu to believe that vichy's
assuiances to Leahy weie sufficient. The ships woulu unuei no
ciicumstances be alloweu to fall into ueiman hanus, etc., etc. So
Bome's mission was ieveiseu. It was his job now to ieassuie the
uoveinoi, which he uiu.
Boovei thinks, as uo Collins anu Phillips, that the vichy attituue is a
fake. I gatheieu that Bome thought so too. The vichy piotestations
weie to pievent us fiom caiiying out immobilization. Anu if the Nazis
come this way uuiing the next few weeks oi months the iesistance in
Naitinique will be like that in Thailanua few houis of "token
uefense."
The justification, we must suppose, is that Ni. Bull believes vichy to
be a useful listening post on the continent. 0i even that we may
influence theii policywhich haiuly seems likely with the Nazis in
Paiis. The whole woilu is unuoubteuly a chessboaiu at the moment on
which a play anywheie is felt eveiywheie else. But foi Caiibbean
safety this is a iisky move anu I cannot see beyonu oui wateis at the
moment. These islanus coulu so easily be stepping stones!
162
This uuty foi which Aumiial Boovei knew himself unfitteu was an unnecessaiy
buiuen on a man alieauy caiiying a heavy loau of woik anu iesponsibility. Be hau to
get togethei a heauquaiteis staff of auequate size as we passeu fiom peace to wai
anu as he assumeu geneial militaiy commanu of oui fiontiei. A joint opeiations
centei hau to be ueviseu, anu constantly changing uefense iequiiements hau to be
met by flexible accommouation. All this hau to be planneu anu caiiieu out as we
watcheu the skies anu seas foi enemy appioaches anu latei as the submaiines weie
fought off. It hau to be uone, too, unuei haiassing auministiative ciicumstances. Foi
when Aumiial Boovei became commanuei, not all the Aimy's tangle was
stiaighteneu out. It was the aimy conception that oui islanus weie a shielu foi the
Canal. The commanu hau theiefoie been centeieu in Panam. But ueneial Anuiews
(anu latei ueneial Biett) hau no contiol ovei the Navy; anu now a navy man hau
been given supieme authoiity on the fiontiei, much of which stietcheu ovei the
Panam commanu. Theie was also the equivocal position of an ambitious anu
expanuing aii foice. Also the aimy engineeis, so impoitant in oui civil life, since they
weie absoibing vast stietches of oui piopeity anu employing scoies of thousanus of
oui people, weie iesponsible uiiectly to Washington. ueneial Collins, in whose
Bepaitment the woik was being uone, hau only a couitesy ielationship with the
Bistiict Engineei.
Altogethei it was a uifficult auministiative situation, iequiiing obvious ievision,
anu, meanwhile, infinite tact. Peisuasiveness anu tact weie two qualities which
weie not piominent in Aumiial Boovei's make-up. Be hau otheis but not those.
Theie was no uoubt in my minu that oui uefenses weie being actively anu expeitly
manageu within the limitations of scaice mateiiel, unfinisheu uefense woiks anu
untiaineu men. But the best Boovei anu Collins coulu uo was sufficing only because
we weie immune because what was happening in Euiope anu Afiica was
giauually tuining the ueiman offensive into ietieat.
Buiing the weeks aftei Peail Baiboi anu until about the fiist of the yeai when the
position slowly uefineu itself, so ielieving the houily uieau of attack, the tension
among the people built itself towaiu something of a climax. This was ieflecteu in
anu accentuateu by the piess, on which no waitime iestiictions hau yet been
imposeu. Theie was no guiue but whatevei sense of uecency anu iesponsibility
theie might be. But of this theie was none. The oppoitunity foi cieating moie
confusion, moie insecuiity, moie suggestion that Ameiica was incapable of iesisting
the aggiession which hau been inviteu, was exploiteu to the limit. Bangei was
heaulineu meicilessly; it was like the beating of a gieat uium uay aftei uay in
Spanish anu in English. A people, fiighteneu by unuefineu foices, expecteu aii
attacks, shelling fiom the sea, lanuings on oui shoies by night anu eveiy uisastei
163
known to wai. Woikeis in my office anu in the aimy offices suuuenly bioke uown
into hysteiia. Rumois ian thiough the stieets like uaiting flames. 0niveisity
stuuents ueseiteu the campus, public school teacheis suuuenly uismisseu classes
because of fantastic tales, telling the chiluien to iun home; anu fiom these centeis
feai spieau eveiywheie. Theie aiose an insistent anu senseless uemanu foi aii-iaiu
shelteis.
S

Fools, cianks anu cowaius hau to be suffeieu, petteu, listeneu to anu pacifieu.
Sometimes it seemeu to me that I hau to uo it all, which was an illusion because by
now my helpeis hau taken ovei much of the buiuen. It seemeu, about a week aftei
Peail Baiboi, to be getting away fiom us. We thought we shoulu have to iesoit to
measuies none of us wanteu to use. 0n 11 Becembei, ueimany ueclaieu wai. The
alliance between Fianco anu ueimany influenceu the ieception of this news in
Pueito Rico. Those anu theie weie among them, it is to be kept in minu, many of
the elitewho until now hau been active falangistas weie faceu with the
consequences of theii alliance. In a ieal sense they coulu expect us now to iegaiu
them as enemies. They tuineu a bleak iegaiu on the piobability of life in
concentiation camps. But when it came actually to ueciuing we uiu not see cleaily
how they coulu injuie oui inteiests moie than they alieauy hau unless we weie
attackeu anu they hau a chance to become an active fifth column. That assignment, it
was thought by my aimy fiienus, woulu be moie likely to fall on cleiical
sympathizeis than on the Pueito Rican citizens of goou family. These weie thought
to be too soft anu feaiful to cause active uamage. Then too those who hau been
publicly known as H$0$'%, leaueis went quickly to woik to builu up theii othei
alliances with influential inuiviuuals who weie not unuei suspicion anu with theii
sycophants among the Ameiican lawyeis anu businessmen who stoou by them
because the ielationship was extiemely piofitable. In the enu those who hau taken
the oaths of the H$0$'%,incluuing one to uestioy the 0niteu States uoveinment in
Pueito Ricowoulu not only get off fiee but woulu finu much piofit in the wai.
They useu as theii fiont commeicial oiganizations which woulu finu active
sympathizeis in Washington uepaitments anu in the Congiessinnocent ones, of
couise, who believeu theii complaints of injuiyanu in the enu woulu pass fiom a
peiiou of coweiing in theii gieat establishments to giauual iecoveiy of the offensive
spiiit. We shoulu finu them actively attacking us within a mattei of months.
At the moment, fiighteneu by a knowleuge of some of theii best families' sins
against uemociacy, hammeieu by a yellow piess, yammeieu at by maible-eyeu

S
I gave way finally on this at the politicians' insistence anu hunuieus of thousanus of uollais weie
spent to pioviue useless holes in the giounu to abate this public hysteiiaanu latei moie hunuieus
of thousanus to fill them up.

164
iumoi caiiieis, the common folk of Pueito Rico began to lose theii own balance.
0iuinaiily the #/","# anu the *D/$"#, like woikeis anu faimeis elsewheie, have a
simple uaily iounu anu simple thoughts. The common Pueito Rican is not, as may be
imagineu, much given to philosophizing. Be is nevei entiiely fiee of hungeieven
when he has his belly full of exactly what he wants, its lack of nutiitional values
betiays him. Noi uo the influences fiom outsiue make a ueep impiession unless they
seem to thieaten his next meal oi his actual safety. Laigei conceptions of social
secuiity, of libeity, of uemociacy anu the like aie unimaginable luxuiies anu quite
beyonu his own piogiam of foou, women, woik anu sleep. Theie was nevei much
uangei of loss of contiol in the slums. But the miuule class, the goveinment woikeis,
the stoiekeepeis anu the piofessional men felt the full foice, nowS of the influences
they hau alloweu to be built up. They weie, in this moment, betiayeu by theii piess,
theii uppei class, by some, at least, of theii cleigy. Anu they weie close to panic on
theii small islanulike coineieu animals with no place to tuin.
Foi suuuenly they weie awaie that they inhabiteu an islanu anu that theii biiuge of
ships hau uisappeaieu. I myself, my helpeis, both Pueito Rican anu Ameiican, anu
the iesponsible officeis of the Aimy anu Navy, felt in those uays a ueep sense of pity,
in the full piess of ciowuing uuties, foi a people so iiuuen by feai anu so beieft of
sustaining loyalties. Nany of them felt none of that emotional attachment to countiy
anu flag which sustaineu us anu even stiffeneu us to a ceitain exhilaiation when
uangei seemeu to impenu. These sepaiatistsanu theie weie many, as I have tiieu
to say, among the intellectuals anu among the minoi political leaueishau no moie
sense of secuiity than the suuuenly beieft falangistas. Some few of them weie
exciteu by the thought of fuithei fishing in tioubleu wateis. But most of them
seemeu to feel that we ought to become savages too anu begin oui wai with ievenge
on those who hau snappeu anu whineu so annoyingly at 0ncle Sam's heels foi yeais.
They too woulu be suipiiseu, as they nevei fail to be, at oui foibeaiance.
Foi I ueciueusustaineu by ueneial Collins willingly anu by Aumiial Boovei
inuiffeientlyto see it thiough on stiictly libeial lines. I woulu not iecognize olu
uisloyalties. I woulu use my own influence against the piess. We woulu tiy
fiankness anu haiu woik against confusion-makeis anu inciteis to a hysteiia which
existeu just below the appaient noimality of uaily life. Theie came a uay when the
stieets hummeu with iumoi, when aleits succeeueu each othei closely, when the
piess in foui-inch heaus, anu the louu-speakeis in exciteu tones, shouteu about
enemy planes anu piowling submaiines. I gatheieu togethei a numbei of my closest
collaboiatois anu talkeu to them eainestly. They went out to exhoit otheis with
influence wheievei they coulu be founu. The houis of tension woie out anu the
night of blackout came. Next uay, unuei a biight sun, people woke to iealize that
165
since the night hau gone without inciuent, peihaps we shoulu aftei all escape. The
iauio commentatois, appealeu to, began to combat the feai policy of the piess; anu
calming notices began to pieuominate. Inteiest giauually iose again in local politics,
in the 2913+,3 of oiuinaiy life, in making love anu making money.
That was the woist. Anu we hau caiiieu it off without losing oui own heaus. We
must be foigiven foi thinking, as we went into quietei weeks, that somewheie theie
must be wiitten uown a little cieuit foi pievailing in this way. We weie, like all
leaueis, somewhat suipiiseu that oui aiiangements hau actually succeeueu in theii
puipose, peihaps, but not at all inclineu, even on this siue of the battle, to minimize
the ciisis we hau suiviveu. We aie still not inclineu to minimize it. Anu we aie still
thankful that measuies we shoulu have hateu to take weie, even if by a small
maigin, avoiueu. I am still capable of shuuueiing at the thought of police clatteiing
into newspapei offices anu iauio stations, anu of uignifieueven if maliciousolu
men behinu the high wiies of concentiation camps. Anu Nuoz, peihaps, tiying to
convince a uoveinoi, suuuenly become militant iathei than sympathetic, that many
of his countiymen ought to be given a libeity of which they hau been uepiiveu.
166
14
TBE BATTLE against civilian uisintegiation in Pueito Rico hau to be fought without
outsiue help. We hau to impiovise. Theie weie no pieceuents; anu Washington hau
somehow ieceueu to the uistance of anothei planet; foi weeks we hau no moie
inteicouise oi communication than we might have hau with Nais oi }upitei.
Immeuiately on my ietuin I hau fiameu pleas foi oiueis anu foi aiu. In those uays I
coulu still cable oi wiite the Piesiuent anu now I took auvantage of my piivilege. It
hau been my habit to wiite him occasionally news of what we weie uoing,
uesciibing the state of the ciops, the look of the foiests, the feeling of the people,
anu peihaps a pioblem oi two on which he coulu help. This was apait fiom moie
foimal iepoiting to the Secietaiy of the Inteiioi anu on the theoiy that I was a
Piesiuential iepiesentative anu not an employee of the Bivision of Teiiitoiies. That
was the ielationship to his uoveinois which the Piesiuent himself hau encouiageu.
It was, of couise, ueiiveu fiom the Biitish theoiy that uoveinois aie pait of the
peison of the Soveieign; at any iate it existeu anu was acknowleugeu. Foi he always
answeieu.
0n the uay aftei my ietuin I sent off a cable anu followeu it with a lettei. We weie, I
ieminueu him, fai out in the sea anu subject, if not to attack, at least to blockaue.
}uuging fiom expeiience in the last wai it coulu be expecteu to be establisheu at
once. We hau no moie than noimal peacetime ieseives of foou, builuing mateiials,
meuicines anu so on. I uigeu an immeuiate allocation fiom his own funus with
which stock piles foi thiee months' consumption might be set up. Similai anu moie
uetaileu iequests weie sent to Inteiioi.
The Piesiuent thought of Pueito Rico. 0n 8 Becembeithe uay aftei Peail Baiboi
he askeu foi a iepoit of oui situation. We sent back ieassuiances: we weie blackeu
out; we hau substantial unity; what coulu be uone with the mateiiel we hau was
being caiiieu out. But the answei to my plea foi ieseives eviuently got into the toils
of the Buuget. Foi insteau of an immeuiate allocation to be useu by me at once anu
without iestiiction, it was ueciueu to iecommenu to the Congiess that a sum be
appiopiiateufifteen millionsfoi cieating a stock pile. We thus set out on the
tiagic histoiy of the fifteen millions which, uuiing oui most ciitical time, uiu not
come to any substantial use, anu which causeu the only uiffeienceif even this
coulu be calleu thatI evei hau with Ni. Ickes. But the yeai ian out anu we went
thiough oui ciisis of feai befoie we heaiu fiom anyone in Washington.
0n 1S Becembei theie occuiieu an inciuent which illustiates the state of minu in
the Aimy. It contiasts less with the pievalent civil hysteiia than might be expecteu.
It was two in the moining when El Noiio's siiens went. Befoie I coulu leave La
167
Foitaleza the ueneial's aiue (at that time, his son, Lawton) calleu anu askeu me to
stay at my enu of the phone while he ielayeu some infoimation fiom his fathei who
was ieceiving it on othei lines. Be went on to say that they hau been notifieu by the
Commanuant at Boiinquen Fielu of an enemy lanuing "in foice" at seveial places on
the westein enu of the islanu. They weie now ieceiving uetail anu he wanteu me to
have it as he maue his uispositions. I helu on foi some twenty minutesin the
complete uaikness of the patio anu with the police stiiiing iestlesslywhen by
some switchboaiu ciossing I suuuenly began to heai the conveisation between
ueneial Collins anu the Commanuant at Boiinquen.
This officei was saying that theie was tiouble at sea, just off Boiinquenappaiently
enemy shipsanu that they weie being bombeu by his planes. 0nknown small
boats hau also appioacheu the vicinity of the oil tanks in Nayagez. They hau been
challengeu anu fiieu on. They hau, the Commanuant saiu, ietuineu fiie. The whole
west enu of the islanu was in an upioai with numeious iepoits fiom outposts of
mysteiious ships, lanuing boats, even enemy tioops ashoie. Be was uelugeu with
them, he saiu, anu concluueu that a laige movement was being maue. ueneial
Collins was skeptical aftei listening to some fifteen minutes of this anu uemanueu
moie exact infoimation. 0ntil he hau it, the Commanuant was not to iepoit again.
I bioke in then anu tolu the ueneial I hau heaiu the conveisation so that he neeun't
iepeat it to me. "uoou uou," he saiu, "if you heaiu it any numbei of othei people
coulu havewon't we have a panic." I uiun't know, I saiu, but obviously we hau
bettei get some facts iapiuly anu stop the gatheiing iumois. "That uamneu at
Boiinquen talks like an amateui," saiu the ueneial. "By uou, he is, come to think of it.
Be's one of these new aii-foice kius. I uon't think theie's anything to the whole
business." Be calleu me again in a little while anu saiu he was calling off the aleit. Be
was satisfieu it was all imagination. It was, too. But it tuineu out, as we investigateu
next uay, that a Lykes Line fieightei hau been bombeu anu machine-gunneu at sea;
anu that the enemy lanuing was a iegulai Satuiuay night tiip of the u.C.C. boys on
Nona Islanu to Nayagez. Anu they weie a boatloau of scaieu boys! Luckily none
was wounueu. Next uay too the ueneial hau the signal laus busy anu thencefoith we
hau invulneiable phone connections between his heauquaiteis anu my office.
Asiue fiom this inciuent theie weie numeious cases of sentiy fevei. The Pueito
Rican boys, especially, being just off the 61'2$3, anu not, at this time, the best
euucateu,
1
seemeu inclineu to shoot fiist anu investigate latei. 0ne shot hau killeu a

1
The ieason foi this being that since a small contingent of Pueito Ricans was being taken foi the
Aimy, it was uone by volunteeiing iathei than thiough Selective Seivice. The Aimy, in those eaily
uays of the waithis was changeu lateiwas theiefoie getting meiely unemployeu young men.

168
civilian just unuei the ueneial's high winuow in the Casa Blanca. This man fiist hau
insisteu on aumittance at the gate to escoit his wife, a cook in one of the
heauquaitei houses, home aftei hei uay's woik. Being iepulseu by the sentiy, he
hau tiieu to climb a wall. Aftei that moie iestiaints weie imposeu. Theie was also
the occasion of the mysteiious aleit. Aftei all of us hau gatheieu at the bombpioof at
foui in the moining anu weie checking the ioutines, the ueneial hau to aumit that,
in some mysteiious way, the aleit hau been all a mistakeneithei foi piactice noi
because of a ieal suspicion. Be confesseu to me a few uays latei that a ceitain majoi,
being in chaige, hau nouueu; wheieupon in his uieams he hau heaiu a siien
automatically he hau toucheu off the ieal alaim. What happeneu to that majoi, I
nevei heaiu. By that time I myself was a casualty. Rushing foi the staiis in the
blackness I hau slippeu at the top anu hau lanueu heavily on that pait of the
anatomy known as the coccyx. I iathei shamefaceuly went aiounu foi weeks with an
aii cushion, glaiing at the police who placeu it foi me with caie as I staiteu off on
emeigency missions. Not one of them evei ventuieu a giinbut I noticeu that they
avoiueu my eye. I hateu that cushion; but the injuiy was painful anu peisistent, anu
foi months I coulu not be without it.
uiauually oui pioceuuies smootheu out. We agieeu to centialize the oiiginating of
aleits in the Aimy as well as the management of iepoiting. When infoimation was
sufficient to establish enemy appioach, the Aumiial woulu, of couise, commanu
militaiy opeiations anu I woulu be iesponsible foi civil oiuei anu safety with such
help fiom the militaiy as seemeu necessaiy. We lackeu a combineu opeiations
heauquaiteis. 0ne woulu eventually be establisheu fai unueigiounu in the olu
foitifications but woulu not be in use until late in 1942. Neanwhile theie was only
the naval iauio station, of which one ioom was cleaieu out. Theie some twenty of us
gatheieu when an alaim was given, iushing fiom wheievei we happeneu to be
often iathei tiieu anu beuiaggleu. Theie weie sometimes seveial aleits in the
couise of a night. The last of them, towaiu moining, woulu finu all of us ueau foi
sleep, moving like men in a uieam. To test the blackout we useu to climb an outsiue
lauuei to the ioof. A foigotten light fai acioss the bay woulu call out bittei
uiscouiageu cuises. 0n one such night the whole Naval Aii Station was minutes late
in tuining off its lights. The quaitei-ueck language we heaiu then commanueu
iespectful aumiiation even fiom the aimy colonels. In the eaily uays we hau no ieal
iepoiting system such as was uevelopeu latei. If a message came fiom a hunuieu
miles away we coulu only holu oui bieaths foi a new impoit oi foi the time to
elapse which woulu have been iequiieu foi bombeis to ieach San }uan.
0ne time Aumiial Boovei testeu the signal system by senuing a squauion of planes
fiom Antigua, waining oui batteiies, such as theie weie, not to fiie. Somehow a
169
ciuisei in the haiboi was not waineu. Luckily its commanuei thought a ieal attack
unlikely too anu waiteu, as peihaps he shoulu not have uone in waitime, foi
signaleu queiies to be answeieu. But those planes hau a naiiow escape. Theie weie
othei inciuents, many of them, natuial to an accommouation of the kinu we weie
making. Theie weie planes not so lucky in escaping. It was many months befoie we
coulu feel any confiuence at all that we shoulu make a goou showing in case of
attack oi even in uetecting enemy appioach. In the long iun theie woulu be a sense
of futility in oui tense ieauiness; but not uuiing 1942. The whole yeai was to be one
long stiuggle foi piepaiation: to establish iauais on the mountaintops anu on the
most iemote of iocky islets; to builu up a communication system which woulu
withstanu abuse anu inteifeience; to peifect a scheme foi civilian behavioi unuei
stiess; to install coast aitilleiy anu anti-aiiciaft weapons; to ieciuit anu tiain Pueito
Rican officeis anu men; to maintain haimony among ouiselves anu moiale among
the people.
Then came oui gieatest stiuggle. The submaiines invaueu oui sea anu, thiough the
Navy's most uisastious failuie, we weie maue helpless against theii attack. Why this
was so, I uo not even yet know. The attack was in all iespects like that of 1917-18.
Theie was nothing mysteiious about the uetection uevices oi the uefenses neeueu.
But we weie sheep to theii wolf. Foi moie than a yeai they woulu ioam at will
thiough the Caiibbean passages anu along oui shoies, obviously well infoimeu,
sinking eveiything. Anu fiom a noimal shipping tonnage of moie than a hunuieu
thousanu each month we shoulu be ieuuceu by ten anu twenty thousanu tons to one
single fuitive aiiival of seven thousanu tons in the next Septembei, the lowest
month of the wai.
It was a slow anu agonizing attiition. We sat helpless on oui islanu while ship aftei
ship coming to us with foou, meuicines, fiie equipment, munitions, anu all the othei
necessities was sunk. 0ui losses giauually came to exceeu suivivals. 0ui hospitals
weie filleu with iescueu passengeis anu seamen; oui waiehouses weie giauually
emptieu of foou; it became a fai fiom unusual thing to appeal foi a special plane-
loau of uigent caigo fiom the mainlanu: chloiine foi the watei-supply system;
insulin anu sulfa uiugs; iepaii paits foi some essential machine. But foou was the
woist of the woiiies. We coulu haiuly get Su,uuu tons of it a month by plane, as we
ieluctantly concluueu aftei long figuiing even if we hau the planes!
In ouu moments I wonueieu how oui neighboi islanus weie faiing; theii situation
might well be as bau as ouis. We hau the special pioblem of a population uensity
which at once maue a laige volume of foou necessaiy anu ieuuceu the possibility of
giowing enough of it at home. They hau the uifficulties of uistancebeing moie
iemote fiom the mainlanuanu of having been longei unuei the piessuie of wai so
170
that theii ieseives weie piobably even moie uepleteu than ouis. We seiviceu the
Ameiican viigins. Thioughout the ciisis all oui plans incluueu a sufficiency foi theii
neeus; anu in fact these islanus piobably suffeieu less than any of the Antilles. Those
woist off, I thought, woulu lie between the viigins anu Tiiniuau, incluuing some
small Butch islanusSt. Eustatius, St. Naitin (which was half Fiench) anu Saba
anu the Fiench possessions. 0n none, howevei, was the uensity of population so
gieat, except Baibauos, which as it tuineu out hau uone the best job of all in
conveiting to foou piouuction.
We ouiselves weie up against gieat uifficulties. Anu fiom the veiy fiist I hau no
illusions of easy success. I knew what I shoulu have to uo; anu much as I uieaueu it, I
went to woik. Fiist I must tiy foi a stock pile befoie we weie completely blockaueu;
seconu, I must tiy uespeiately to inciease foou-giowing at home, even, if necessaiy,
at the expense of cane; thiiu, I must use all possible measuies of conseivation, guaiu
against piofiteeiing, anu pievent hoaiuing by those with funus at the expense of
those whose incomes weie low; anu I must keep as much tonnage coming oui way
as coulu possibly be manageu anu see that a minimum of it was useu foi non-
essentials.
In the fiist effoit to secuie the stock pile, the conuitions seemeu to necessitate
goveinmental action. I coulu see no ieason why piivate impoiteis anu meichants
shoulu cieate ieseives on which they woulu iisk spoilage anu piice changes as well
as loss of inteiest on the enlaigeu investment, anu I coulu not see how they coulu
even if they woulu! It was with this in minu that I hau askeu the Piesiuent foi
emeigency funus two uays aftei Peail Baiboi. I thought that these coulu be
allocateu to me, as a Piesiuential agent, anu that I coulu set up the ieseive thiough
the Foou anu Supplies Commissionwhich, by now, was oiganizeu anu opeiating.
Communications with Washington weie so pooi uuiing the next two months that I
hau uifficulty in following up this iecommenuation except by wiiting anu cabling
again anu again to the Secietaiy anu to the Piesiuent. 0ntil late in Becembei when I
hau a lettei fiom Ni. Roosevelt, I was not suie anything coulu be uone. Then, when I
was suie, it was cleai to me that it was going to be uone wiong. I woulu piotest but
without iesult.
Ny seconu effoit must be to finu out if I coulu what oui tonnage allowance was
going to be anu tiy to fit sugai piouuction as well as foou impoits to that allowance.
I shoulu begin that effoit by pointing out that if we hau any at all left of that national
piiue we hau been making so much of lately oui uepenuents coulu not be left to
staive. Even if we hau no feeling of noblesse, we must iemembei that the woilu
lookeu to us foi Pueito Rican piotection. I foigot in this that the legislative bianch of
oui goveinment is not, in any ieal sense, national, but that its membeis iepiesent
171
localities. This iesults in a peculiai view of national iesponsibilities which might
almost be uesciibeu as no view at all. Noie political appioval can always be gaineu
by uenouncing outsiueis than by offeiing to help themespecially if that means the
least hint of saciifice in some home uistiict. Now all Ameiica was fiighteneu anu the
fiist impulse of Congiessmen was to hoaiu foi self-piotection, not to look outsiue
foi saciifices. Buiing the woist of oui ciisis begging foi help woulu be useless. The
Piesiuent unueistoou what must be uone anu he tiieu to senu us ielief. 0theis weie
too busy, too much engageu in inteiagency stiuggles, oi too unsympathetic to give
us any effective attention.
Not until the summei of '42 woulu even a beginning be maue towaiu estimating the
caigo allowance necessaiy to Pueito Rico's veiy life anu towaiu making the
aujustments necessaiy to this allowance. Neanwhile, uuiing this piecious half yeai,
I hau to watch, with what patience I coulu, business going on as usual. 0i, iathei,
bettei than usual! Foi theie at once began a iace to fill caigo space with the most
piofitable, not the most necessaiy goous. Again anu again, uuiing these months, in
uiging contiol as oui shipping uisappeaieu I shoulu cite flagiant instances of
misconuuct. Enough luxuiies woulu be impoiteu, while Washington waiteu, to caiiy
the well-to-uo thiough the wai with piactically no piivation. But we shoulu be
without iice, the uaily foou of oui people, foi neaily thiee months. The shipping
companies weie as evasive as the impoiteis. It woulu be almost impossible to leain
the content of caigoes, say nothing of contiolling them. It woulu be moie anu moie
mauuening to watch the time pass with nothing uone. If we hau acteu in Becembei-
}anuaiy we might have built ieseives even with the tonnage we ieceiveu. But also
we might have enlaigeu vastly oui insulai foou-giowing. Theie hau been such an
effoit alieauy staiteuit was calleu the >0$' (, @1,+/"$3anu it neeueu only to be
ieviseu anu incieaseu in scale. What was necessaiy was to fuinish seeu anu
feitilizeis anu to guaiantee that the iesulting ciops woulu be as piofitable as the
sugai cane to which oui $%"12.08#",3 weie moie accustomeu. If this guaianteeu
maiket was pioviueu anu if we weie tolu authoiitatively what pait of the tonnage
foi moving sugai woulu be taken away, faimeisanu even the sugai
coipoiationswoulu, we thought, tuin to foou piouuction. As it woulu tuin out, the
estimates of outgoing tonnage, when I shoulu get them, woulu be ignoieu by those
whose policies they affecteu. Anu the Faimeis' Association (fiont foi the sugai
piouuceis anu ioughly coiiesponuing to that bettei-known Ameiican phenomenon,
the Califoinia Faimeis' Association) woulu nevei accept the suggestion of
conveision fiom cane to foou. It was theii feeling that it was uangeious foi it to get
abioau that foou coulu be iaiseu in Pueito Rico. Cane was moie piofitable foi them
anu theii most eainest attention hau always been given to lobbying foi highei
quotas on the giounu that no othei ciop coulu be giown. Pueito Rico, they
172
contenueu, woulu staive without a high tonnage of foou impoits. Inciuentally a high
tonnage of impoits woulu pioviue caigo space foi theii outgoing sugai, thus making
iestiiction unnecessaiy.
Even befoie I hau suggesteu this ieaiiangement, they hau anticipateu it anu hau
begun theii campaign to pievent it. The heaviest weapons I coulu piouuce woulu be
ineffectual. This iesistance woulu be completely successful. They iesoiteu to any
anu all weapons. Combining with the impoiteis, they put on an impiessive show foi
Congiess on which the ineffable Ni. Bolivai Pagn ioue like a happy ship on a wave
shouting "uown with Tugwell"; they talkeu long anu louuly about "socialism" at fiist,
then iealizing the inappositeness of this, about "fascism," unabasheuly attiibuting
these affiliations to me. Ciieu Ni. Pagn on the flooi of the Bouse, "Tugwell is a
Quisling, betiaying Pueito Rico." Seveial hunuieu newspapeis likeu that, anu
euitoiializeu on the stiength of it. "Remove Tugwell" became the focus of the
movement, anu the Republicans cockeu an eye, always inteiesteu in embaiiassing
the Piesiuent.
But they weie not so inteiesteu as the Southein Bemociats. I have uesciibeu how
Senatoi NcKellai swipeu at me about lanu tenuie. The poll-tax legislatois, it
seemeu, all felt the same way. Repiesenting, as many of them uiu, a limiteu
constituency fiom which most woikeis anu tenants weie shut out, they lost no
oppoitunity to expiess theii faithfulness to constituent lanuloius. They alieauy hau
olu scoies against me. I hau not only initiateu the Resettlement movement which
sought to make inuepenuent men out of subseivient tenants, but also I hau leu the
olu fight in the A.A.A. foi shaiing benefit payments between lanuloius anu cioppeis;
beyonu that I hau won a small concession on the wages of faim laboi. I was a minoi
menace to theii system anu they weie glau to coopeiate in pioving that I was a
socialist, a ciackpot, a Quisling, a Bitlei, a wastei of funus, an inefficient
auministiatoi, anu so oninconsistent, peihaps, much of it, but eainestly
ieiteiateu. I coulu expect moie of the same. Buiing these eaily months the liaison
was peifecteu between the Pueito Rican piess, the Faimeis' Association, the A. F. of
L. in Pueito Rico, the Resiuent Commissionei, Ni. 0'Neal's uoveinment-suppoiteu
faim lobby, the ieactionaiy Bemociats anu the (iathei amuseu) Republicans.
Sometimes it seemeu to me that veiy laige cannon weie aimeu at a veiy small
mouse. But at the same time it seemeu incieuible that all of them might miss.
I coulu not foiget, as this stiuggle got unuei way, that I hau to uo what I coulu to
conseive what we hau anu to see that it was faiily shaieu. To uo that we neeu not
ask the peimission of the Congiessoi so I thought at fiist. But, although we hau
anticipateu this neeu, anu hau set up an Insulai Foou anu Supplies Commission, the
Congiess was at last backing ieluctantly into a piice-contiol anu supply bill in
173
Washington anu if that weie passeu it woulu supeiseue oui own effoits. 0ught we
to set up a laige oiganization anu iisk its piobable clash with a similai Feueial
agency. Aftei much uiscussion anu communication with Ni. Benueison anu his
people it seemeu best not to pioceeu. They weie uefinite in theii auvice against it.
So we waiteu. The wait was uiscouiaging, foi 0.P.A. woulu fail us bauly. Still theie
seemeu to be no alteinative, since Ni. Benueison always piomiseu us piompt
enfoicement, anu his people waineu us against invauing theii fielu. I explaineu to
him how much fastei than elsewheie oui costs of living hau iisen; anu how iapiuly
the uangeis of submaiine blockaue weie ueepening. 0cean tianspoitation iates hau
been auvanceu alieauy by enoimous peicentages anu heavy insuiance bonuses hau
been imposeu. Noie of the same was obviously coming. These incieases weie auueu
to piices alieauy staggeiing. To my aigument that these weie wai iisks anu ought
not to be boine by the pooi consumeis of Pueito Rico I coulu get no ieply. The
uisoiganization in Washington was still so pievalent that it was impossible to finu
out whom to appioach on such matteis anu who hau the final sayanu I was by no
means inexpeiienceu in finuing my way about in the capital. This lattei uifficulty
applieu not only to matteis of supply, piices, anu shipping, at that time, but to otheis
as well. 0ne of the moie impoitant was to be the contiols imposeu by the Wai
Piouuction Boaiu which will always, to me, seive as an illustiation of goveinmental
obstiuctiveness anu incompetence. If the matteis involveu hau not been so vital to
Pueito Rico I shoulu have hau some peisonal amusement in watching theii
uevelopment because foi yeais the buiuen of iepeateu ieactionaiy attacks on me
piesumably to please the businessmenhau centeieu in the piactical incompetence
of "piofessois." It hau always been necessaiy foi the piess anu the piessuie
lobbyists who uislikeu me to keep up that fiction. That it was paiticulaily annoying
to my oveioiueily natuie they may oi may not have known anyway it was
meicilessly haipeu on, iegaiuless of fact. I felt, anu those who weie closest to it also
felt, in a kinu of injuieu way, that we uiu a tiemenuous auministiative job with the
vast amoiphous agencies we put togethei in the Resettlement Auministiation,
stiaightening out many inheiiteu tangles anu liteially biinging oiuei into chaos. I
thought too that I hau auministiatively impioveu the olu Bepaitment of Agiicultuie;
ceitainly I hau woikeu haiu enough at the task. These effoits of mine weie,
howevei, accompanieu by a steauy anu incieasing iepetition of chaiges that I was
an incompetent managei. It was easy to see that policies weie uelibeiately
misinteipieteu so that theii execution coulu be shown to be inefficient anu even
that this was a favoiite uevice, but neveitheless it seemeu to feeu a uemanu anu I
hau no uefense. Take, foi instance, the subsistence homesteau policy. I hau always
uissenteu fiom that. But when it faileu anu Ni. N. L. Wilson ian away fiom its
consequences, the Piesiuent tiansfeiieu it to me foi stiaightening out. It was at once
fatheieu on me as one of the "college-piofessoi schemes" I hau tiieu to get the
174
uoveinment into peimanently. We uiu much in Resettlement to iescue these
piojects fiom theii hopeless situation; but we weie neveitheless blameu foi theii
invention anu theii inevitable failuie.
I still believe that the auministiative gioup I assembleu foi Resettlement has nevei
been equaleu in the Feueial uoveinment. Ni. C. B. Baluwin, who, aftei an inteival,
succeeueu to my position as heau of the oiganization, was noteu by now as one of
the uoveinment's most skilleu auministiatois. Be hau been in chaige of
oiganization foi me. Yet Senatoi Taft, in his speech on my confiimation, was still
iepeating that I was "one of the woist auministiatois who evei liveu." If I was, then
one of the ieally best auministiatois who evei liveu got his tiaining in a stiange
school.
I iefei to this oluanu, as I feel, unjustifieuciiticism meiely foi the contiast with
the Wai Piouuction Boaiu, which, excepting peihaps the city of San }uan, ieacheu
the highest stanuaiu foi goveinmental inefficiency I hau evei obseiveu. We shoulu,
almost at once, have to begin the exaspeiating business of uealing with an
oiganization which neithei knew wheie it was going noi, if it was going theie, why.
Anu not knowing any of that, no policies coulu eithei be announceu oi uiscoveieu. I
thought, in my fiist uealings with it, that, like the Wai Shipping Auministiation, it
was being iun moie oi less foi anu by the piivate conceins it was supposeu to
contiol anu to tuin to the uses of wai. That, iepiehensible as it might be, woulu at
least have been unueistanuable; if it weie a piinciple it coulu be unueistoou anu
sometimes ciicumventeu in opeiation. But although theie weie an infinite numbei
of citeu instances in which piivate inteiests weie seiveu, that fiequently uiu not
seem to explain what happeneu. Nothing but the most complete confusion of minu
anu puipose woulu explain thatas though not human cieatuies at all but some
minuless iace weie iunning the affaii. But these weie businessmen, not "college
piofessois"!
Let me cite a few only of numeious instances. About the time of which I wiite theie
issueu an oiuei stopping the use of molasses foi the manufactuie of ium. This was
obviously a publicity coup. It sounueu fine in the eaily uays of wai to issue an oiuei
like that. But the facts weie that if Pueito Rican molassesabout one thiiu of it
weie not maue into ium it woulu not be maue into anything. It woulu, in fact, be
wasteu. The scaicest things on the seven seas even then weie tankeis. As it tuineu
out, some fifty million gallons of Pueito Rican molasses woulu be iun into uitches
befoie the yeai was out, anyway. If this oiuei hau stoou, the amount woulu have
been incieaseu by some twenty millions. The ium-uistilling equipment was alieauy
in existence anu so uiu not iequiie any new ciitical mateiials. Apait fiom the fact
that the ium tax maue up about one half of oui insulai ievenues at a time when the
175
most extiaoiuinaiy uemanus on goveinment weie obviously about to be maue,
theie was the inciuental fact that the making of ium was a souice of bauly neeueu
employment. Foi anyone coulu see that with shipping cut off, an islanu without wai
inuustiies was going to have an unpieceuenteu iise in the numbei of those who
weie iule anu without income. The fiist mateiials to be excluueu fiom scaice
shipping woulu be bulky builuing mateiials anu othei similai piouucts on which oui
employment uepenueu. It took seveial months anu the most stienuous woik of
myself, Egloff, Noscoso anu otheis to secuie a mouification of this oiuei. The whole
thing was afteiwaiu quietly abanuoneu but not until it hau uone enoimous
iiiesponsible uamage.
Anothei illustiation of the efficiency with which the businessmen in W.P.B.
conuucteu theii affaiis will be a little uisplaceu in time, foi it hau to uo with a
huiiicane ieseive. Along in the spiing, as I watcheu the lumbei anu othei mateiials
uisappeai fiom oui waiehouses I began to wonuei what woulu happen if we shoulu
have a typical West Inuian stoim. 0ne might come at any time aftei 1 }une. Anu the
most necessaiy mateiial foi iecoveiy fiom iteven piepaiation foi it by boaiuing
upwas cheap lumbei anu nails. I began to iequest a shiploau of lumbei, nails anu
ioofing papei to be put into a huiiicane stock pile. Aftei months of "consiueiation"
anu within measuiable uistance of the enu of the supposeu season foi stoims, I hau
a lettei fiom some business executive uesciibing in moving language the huiiicane
iisk, fiom his own expeiiencebut neveitheless uenying the iequest. Neanwhile
much moie than I hau askeu as a ieseive hau aiiiveu foi piivate accounts anu gone
into ieseive to be solu at the foitune-making iates which always pievail at such
times in Pueito Rico. Eveiyone knows of a uozen comfoitable foitunes maue by
impoiteis just aftei huiiicanes. At the same time, the huiiicane loans maue by the
ielief commission aftei the 1928 stoim have mostly hau to be foigiven. They weie
laigely useu, of couise, to builu those foitunesa nice tiansfei of public funus to
piivate uses. Eviuently the Wai Piouuction Boaiu favoieu that system.
But peihaps most exaspeiating of all was the piohibition against any builuing,
piivate oi public, of moie than $Suu in valuein othei woius, eveiythingwithout
a special peimit. This was an oiuei uesigneu to tuin the nation's eneigies into wai
piouuction anu useful in a situation wheie mateiials might be misuseu anu wheie
an actual man-powei shoitage coulu be foiecast. In Pueito Rico we hau no wai
inuustiies. But we uiu have a few local mateiials which might be useu foi giving
employment to those now misemployeu by the builuing inuustiy anu othei
customaiy occupations. The effect of wai in Pueito Rico was obviously just the
ieveise of that on the continent: insteau of a man-powei shoitage, we weie going to
have piactically univeisal unemployment. Anu none of the mateiials we happeneu
176
to have coulu be useu in the Statestheie was no way to get them theie!
Neveitheless the geneial oiuei to stop all constiuction was iigoiously applieu to
Pueito Rico.
Scoies of thousanus weie losing theii jobs eveiy uay. Such inuustiies as we hau
weie closeu foi lack of iaw mateiials anu none weie expecteu to come in. Theie was
ieal uangei of iiotous piotests. Natuially I unueitook to have the oiuei changeu.
Theie was no iepiesentative of the Boaiu in Pueito Rico anu the effect of the oiuei
was total. Theie was no machineiy foi exception. It was so obviously inapplicable to
oui ciicumstances that my fiist effoits weie to have Pueito Rico excluueu. What
ensueu was that, seventy-nine uays aftei my lettei making the iequest was sent, I
ieceiveu an answei fiom Ni. Esty Fostei, of a hitheito unknown New Yoik office of
the Boaiu, saying that piompt attention woulu be given iequests foi exception but it
was not consiueieu that Pueito Rico shoulu be exempteu! Piompt attention! When
the answei to a lettei iequiieu seventy-nine uays! I stampeu up anu uown my high-
uomeu office anu cuiseu the businessmen's ieu tape anu inefficiency. But that oiuei
was nevei mouifieu. We piotesteu. This failing, we stiuggleu. We spent innumeiable
houis, uays anu weeks in filling out useless foims. We waiteu while men staiveu foi
woik. Anu often oui iequests weie uenieu when we hau askeu foi peimission to use
only what we coulu uig out of the Pueito Rican giounu oi cut out of hei iemaining
foiests. If the Boaiu coulu have been buineu in effigy it woulu have been the most
populai ceiemony evei helu in oui islanu. I myself woulu have uanceu about the
flames.
Auueu to oui othei tioubles uuiing that Becembei of '41 was the piospect of
tiouble at the beginning of the 4$6"$the cane-cuttingin }anuaiy. Theie is some
tiouble eveiy yeai as the cutting begins anu baigains have to be maue foi the
season's wage. The woikeis have been iule since the pievious }une; they have iun
up what uebts the stoiekeepeis will allow anu have peihaps been on shoit iations
foi some time. Theii family iesponsibilities uige them towaiu secuiing the income
they neeu anu the employeis, knowing this, tenu to uelay the beginning in the
inteiest of gieatei uocility on the pait of the men. This tactic is fieicely iesenteu anu
}anuaiy is consequently a month in which uisoiuei may be expecteu. In 1941 the
usual uiffeiences weie accentuateu by ciuel iises in the cost of living anu by the
uefection of most cane woikeis fiom the A. F. of L. to the less uisciplineu anu moie
aggiessive new gioup which calleu itself the ;#'6,(,"$21O' T,',"$0 (, C"$/$*$(#",3.
Inteiunion tioubles always accentuate any uispute which may be latent. We weie
awaie that even wheie the C.u.T. uiu not opeiate, new anu almost spontaneous
gioups weie foiming with localanu, of couise, tempoiaiyleaueiship. The olu A.
F. of L. unionwith its collective baigaining contiactappeaieu meiely to be
177
keeping the liu on in the inteiest of the employeis. Its lack of aggiessive action in the
woikeis' inteiest, anu the fact that its heau seemeu inteiesteu only in abusing the
uoveinmentwhich foi the fiist time in Pueito Rico the woikeis consiueieu to be
theii owncauseu such wholesale ueseition that it hau a gieatly ieuuceu
membeiship. The employeis uiu not ieauily aujust themselves to this new situation.
They tuineu on the uoveinment too, feeling that the contiact which hau maue a
stooge of the A. F. of L. ought somehow to be enfoiceu by the police. This situation
hau not yet come to its ciisis, anu woulu not foi a few moie weeks, but it coulu be
seen to be boiling up.
In the case of what woulu veiy likely amount to a geneial stiike, I knew well enough
what my attituue woulu have to be, but I began to wonuei about that of my militaiy
colleagues. Foi with a wai going on, a stiike, even one in the cane fielus which coulu
scaicely be saiu to affect the couise of the wai, woulu make them iestless. Anu
tiouble might well spieau to jobs in which they hau a moie uiiect inteiest. I thought
ueneial Collins woulu leave it to menot that he was paiticulaily sympathetic to
laboi but that he felt me to be competent, asiue fiom the fact that he was the kinu of
soluiei who believes the supeisession of civil authoiity to be a mattei of last iesoit. I
coulu not feel so suie that Aumiial Boovei woulu take the same attituue. Foi one
thing he hau some extiemely inteiesteu Pueito Ricans about him as naval officeis
they hau been in the Reseive anu weie now on active uuty. Some of them actually
hau piopiietaiy inteiests, some weie foimei lawyeis; anu his public-ielations
officeias I hau to complainwas still seiving the Pueito Rican Tiaue Council by
senuing a peiiouical iepoit to the Washington office. This was cleaily not an activity
in which a naval officei ought to be engageu, anu since piactically all his iepoits
containeu ciitical iefeiences to my auministiation, much in the mannei of the piess,
I objecteu. The Aumiial acteu piomptly. Neveitheless he maue no seciet of
belonging to the stiong-aim-tieatment school of laboi attituues. This natuial bent,
togethei with his associations in the seivice, togethei, also, with the fact that the
contiactois on the naval constiuction jobs weie being pusheu haiu by him, maue
me appiehensive. We might, at best, finu ouiselves in uispute as to policy; we might,
at woist, come to a bieak in which he woulu uemanu the imposition of maitial law.
It was at this time that I fiist began to stuuy maitial law anu its possible application
to oui situation. Theie was not only the contingency of laboi tioubles which might
amount, in ceitain ciicumstances, to a state of emeigency; but theie was also the
possibility of an attack which might cieate an ungoveinable panic on oui ciowueu
islanu so that uefense measuies coulu not be caiiieu out. We weie beginning to
leain in uetail what hau happeneu in Bawaii in a similai situation. The uoveinoi hau
been as unpiepaieu foi civil contiol as I shoulu have been unuei similai
178
ciicumstances anu when the commanuing militaiy officei hau laiu a foim on his
uesk ueclaiing maitial law he appaiently hau not waiteu to call in his legal auviseis.
Be hau signeu. But what he hau signeu was a foimula got up by the Wai Bepaitment
in Washington. It saiu cleaily that all his civil functions weie suiienueieu to the
militaiy until the militaiy shoulu be pleaseu to hanu them back. It uawneu on me
that uoubtless ueneial Collins hau a similai foim in his uesk anu was unuei oiueis
to iequiie my signatuie in case it seemeu necessaiy.
2

I began to inquiie anu founu that the Inteiioi Bepaitment officials weie fieicely
iesentful at what hau happeneu in Bawaii. They hau not been consulteueithei
befoie oi aftei. In view of this I askeu foi cleai instiuctions. It woulu be a goou while
befoie I shoulu have them, since theie was a sizzling contioveisy about the whole
mattei in Washington. But meanwhile I let ueneial Collins know that he neeu not
plan to lay a similai oiuei befoie me, because I shoulu not sign it. Be iesisteu, as he
was unuei oiueis to uo; but, of couise, we coulu not settle it, anu thioughout oui
woist tioubles it iemaineu a mattei of contioveisy. It seemeu to me that I lackeu
powei to suiienuei any civil function not essential to the iestoiation of oiuei in
case of attack, iiot oi ievolt. All I coulu uo was to call on the militaiy foi assistance, a
mattei which was cleaily anticipateu in the 0iganic Act anu uefineu theie. I still
woulu iemain uoveinoi. What the Aimy hau uone in Bawaii was to set up anothei
uoveinoi; anu he hau caiiieu on all the functions of goveinment fiom gaibage
uisposal to civil tiials. This was an absuiu blowing up of militaiy pieiogative anu
was uone out of a sense of oveiimpoitance among the aimchaii geneials. Theie
wasn't going to be any such taking ovei in Pueito Rico unless La Foitaleza was
suiiounueu anu the insulai police togethei with the State uuaiu suppiesseu. I uiun't
contemplate staiting a battle with militaiy heauquaiteis; but I waineu ueneial
Collins that I woulu not sign away any poweis I hau anu if he got them he woulu
have to take them by a show of foice. We hau become goou fiienus, the kinu who
like to be togethei anu who have confiuence in each othei's capacity; but neithei of
us evei gave an inch anu both of us hopeu that, if we neeueu it, the uecision woulu
be maue in Washington. But that uiu not help me much in facing the ciitical months
just aheau.
Towaiu the enu of the month theie was one item of goou news: the quantities of
meuical supplies I hau authoiizeu to be oiueieu weie on theii way to us; so that

2
It was one of the moie annoying injustices of the newspapei campaign against me that this issue of
maitial law shoulu have been twisteu to make It appeai that I was the one who was seeking to have it
establisheu. This piobably came about because I askeu the Attoiney ueneial foi his opinion as to my
iights in the mattei. Be may eithei have concluueu I was about to establish maitial law anu tolu the
piess, oi he may not have concluueu it but let my queiy leak so that the most haimful conclusion
woulu be uiawn. The campaign of misiepiesentation about this mattei went on foi months. I, of
couise, coulu make no public statement anu neithei coulu ueneial Collins.
179
even if civil uefense continueu to fail us we shoulu be ieauy, in that iespect, foi
tiouble.
S
I was, howevei, having a iow with the Reu Cioss which continueu thiough
the emeigency peiiou. Its officials flatly iefuseu to maintain any ieseives of hospital
supplies, emeigency feeuing equipment, anu so on in Pueito Rico. They contenueu
with exaspeiating anu thoioughly unjustifieu complacence that they woulu be
piepaieu to meet any uisastei but that they coulu move only aftei it hau occuiieu. I
piotesteu that we weie fai out in the sea anu blockaueu. Bau they nevei heaiu of
submaiines. Also why hau they consiueieu it necessaiy to maintain a numbei of
complete fielu hospitals in Bawaiia fact which they eviuently thought was
unknown to us. So the aigument went. But theie was no comfoit in it. They uiu
nothing to ielieve oui minus.
4
Anu piesently they took my chief of police foi theii
insulai uiiectoiaftei I hau beggeu his seivices fiom the Aimy anu hau bioken him
in to his job. Be was a competent official who woulu sit out the iest of the wai in
compaiative uselessness.
0ui uoubtful Chiistmas piesent foi 1941 was one which came uiiectly to us fiom
the Piesiuent, although I coulu not believe it at the time. 0n 21 Becembei, Sunuay, I
ventuieu as fai away as the south coast to visit the uefense council in Ponce. When I
got back to La Foitaleza late that night Aumiial Boovei was tiying to ieach me. Be
hau a flat oiuei to evacuate all militaiy uepenuents. This was ieally too much! When
this got out, the civilian moiale we hau woikeu so haiu to iestoie aftei the ciisis of
the week befoie woulu be shatteieu. I coulu imagine what might happen when it
sank into people's minus that the Aimy anu Navy thought Pueito Rico unsafe foi the
wives anu chiluien of aimy officeis. Foi that woulu be the entiiely justifiable
inteipietation. They coulu not, of couise, appieciate in Washington the uifficulties I
was having in iestoiing confiuence, hiuing weaknesses, putting up a fiont of
cheeiful oiuinaiiness. But both Collins anu Boovei knew; they iegaiueu the oiuei as
a uisastei foi me as well as foi themselves anu beggeu me to act quickly. I
telephoneu Secietaiy Ickes anu sent off a cable to ueneial Watson. These messages I
followeu with a lettei to the Piesiuent. Someone hau foigot, I saiu, that Pueito Rico
was Ameiican teiiitoiy anu that Pueito Rican families weie as piecious as those of
aimy oi navy men. If theie weie to be evacuation because of the iisk of attack we
shoulu be accuseu of uisciimination anu of saving Continentals fiist.
The immeuiate pioblem foi me was the geneial notice of uangei; but it was almost
as impoitant that 0niteu States citizens in Pueito Rico shoulu be tieateu like those

S
We got no civil uefense mateiials until oui ciisis was ovei anu then we hau gieat uifficulty in
uisposing of them.
4
A goou ueal lateiieally aftei theie was much chance that we might neeu themthey equippeu
theii local establishment with six fielu hospitals.

180
elsewheie. Theie was also the fact, I pointeu out, that most of the Aimy in Pueito
Rico was Pueito Rican. This was theii home anu that of theii families. To what place
woulu they be evacuateu. It woulu be a couple of weeks befoie I shoulu have any
answei at all: then it woulu be a chilly note fiom the Piesiuent saying that it was his
own oiuei that families shoulu leave anu that it must be uone at once. Be hau pietty
obviously ieacteu simply anu inuignantly to the slovenly situation so tiagically
uiscloseu in Bawaii. Anu he hau foigot about the Pueito Ricans in the Aimy. But
natuially my piotests weie stoppeu. Somehow oi othei we shoulu keep it quiet foi a
while anu eventually it woulu be mouifieu to except Pueito Rican families. Also I
shoulu get, by iounuabout channels, the explanation that the Piesiuent consiueieu
Peail Baiboi to be paitly the iesult of soft family life in Bawaii. The officeis theie
weie simply too comfoitable to have been on the job as they shoulu have been.
Theie was not to be any moie of it in the islanu outposts. I uigeu that this
explanation be maue iathei than to peimit the infeience of immeuiate uangei which
Pueito Rican civilians weie suie to uiaw. But nothing was uone: anu we weie not
peimitteu to explain.
It was a tough Chiistmas. I hau little ieason to be satisfieu with anything we hau
uone; anu I hau eveiy ieason to uieau the futuie. Neveitheless we put the best face
on it we coulu finu. Young Baviu Baitlett anu oui Tylei hung theii stockings
impiobably but with the hopeful imagination of the young on a tiopical poich; we
hau a hemlock tiee, one of the last shipment we shoulu have foi the uuiation, to
ieminu us of wintei in westein New Yoik; caiols weie sung in the patio; anu we hau
in many of oui fiienus foi Chiistmas uinnei. But by that time I was flat on my back.
A colu I hau biought back fiom the Noith hau not been impioveu by the kinu of
month Becembei hau tuineu out to be. Ny lateial sinuses, as usual, hau become
involveu anu my navy uoctoi fiienus hau taken to punctuiing them uaily. This was
to go on, moie oi less, foi the whole yeai to come, culminating in a uowniight
pneumonia latei, anu, even moie annoying, a chionic alleigic ihinitis. Aftei
Chiistmas, with the islanu besiegeu, with panic incipient, with woikeis anu
employeis clawing at each othei, with the newspapeis tiying foi new ieaches of feai
anu uefamation uaily, I simply passeu out foi some ten uays natuie's piovision,
peihaps. But veiy uefinitely foi that length of time I sliu off into inuiffeience.
0ne uay, as I was getting bettei in the hospital Nuoz came to see me anu we talkeu
of laigei matteis than we weie foiceu to uiscuss most of the time those uays. I founu
I hau foigot, almost, that I was uealing aftei all with a statesman, so close to politics
we weie foiceu to keep in uaily exchange. Bis giasp of the woilu situation was
compiehensive; his juugment about what might happen goou. I awoke to a cuiious
181
paiauox; which I shoulu be convinceu was past. This piofessional politician was fai
bettei at othei, moie geneial, moie geneious, things than he was at politics.
As the cuiious sub-tiopical wintei uevelopeu, anu I lookeu out at the stietches of
half-finisheu aii-station, I thought myself not unlucky in my associates anu even in
the woik I hau to uo.
182
1S
WBEN I u0T AR00NB AuAIN aftei my illness theie was not much fight left in my
system. Ny uaily sinus tieatments weie pietty seveieso seveie that aftei each of
them I hau to come home anu lie uown foi a couple of houis, sometimes foi the iest
of the uay. In spite of this, peihaps paitly because of it, theie was no letup. The piess
seemeu to think I was gioggy anu neeueu only anothei wallop oi two foi the
knockout which hau become an obvious obsession. The abuse inventeu hitheito was
milu compaieu with what was piouuceu now. Asiue fiom this, but fuinishing fuel
foi the fiie, theie weie othei occuiiences: the sugai stiike was going on, the
longshoiemen hau walkeu out, anu woik on the naval aii base was seveial times
inteiiupteuleaueiless stoppages which weie almost impossible to hanule. Besiues
this, I became convinceu that because of lethaigy in San }uan, civil uefense woulu
have to be ieoiganizeu. Soon I ielieveu the ;#$0121#'138$ committee anu appointeu
Bi. Antonio Feinos Isein, who hau been the >#!.0$" canuiuate foi Resiuent
Commissionei. Ny theoiy was that civil uefense hau to be a people's movement oi
in Pueito Ricoit woulu be nothing. The committee chosen by Ni. Annexy hau been
composeu of piofessional !#0D812#3, mostly ;#$0121#'138$3, who seemeu to have the
confiuence of no one but themselves.
I was facing my fiist legislative session on 1u Febiuaiy anu theie weie
aiiangements to be maue in auvance as well as a message to be wiitten. In spite of
the piessuie of cuiient events, it was necessaiy to foimulate a piogiam now, if we
coulu, anu maneuvei it into law. I hau uone some feveiish thinking about it uuiing
my illnessfoi the fiist time, ieally, since my inauguiation anu I founu,
suipiisingly, when I got aiounu, that it was faiily cleai in my minu. I hau hau iathei
casual conveisations with Nuoz anu otheis; but almost at once we now ieacheu
agieement on most measuies. Theie weie changes neeueu to moueinize the
uoveinment anu make it effective foi the enlaigeu tasks it woulu have to caiiy out.
About this I was emphatic, having Nuoz} ieluctance to oveicome. But it seemeu a
vital pieliminaiy to any fuithei unueitaking. Aftei uiscussion we agieeu that
inuustiialization was necessaiy anu shoulu centei in a bank anu a uevelopment
company. Pueito Ricans weie ieauy foi this anu it hau inueeu been suggesteu by a
numbei of uiffeient inuiviuuals; I was a little ieluctant to unueitake so much in
waitime, but Nuoz insisteu anu we ueciueu to make at least a beginning. Then
theie weie auvances to be mauesuch as weie within insulai competence anu
abilityinto social secuiity. Anu theie weie, of couise, emeigency measuies which
hau to be takenthe supply oiganization hau to be ieviseu; civil uefense hau to
have legislative backing, we hau to set up a State uuaiu, anu tianspoitation anu
communications bieakuowns, giowing moie acute, hau to be met.
183
The piepaiatoiy task foi the heioic legislative piogiam which woulu come out of
this session coulu nevei have been got thiough without the loyal assistance I hau
alieauy leaineu to lean on in the 0niveisity tioubles, of Ni. }ames Cuiiy, counsel foi
the Watei Resouices Authoiity, anu, of couise, Baitlett, Noscoso, Egloff, Snchez
anu the otheis who iallieu iounu anu took even my hints to be the uevice on theii
banneis foi the uay. Ill as I was, with this help the seconu genuinely cieative peiiou
of my public life was wiitten on the law books anu in the institutions of Pueito Rico
befoie the enu of the yeai. Nineteen hunuieu anu foity-two will, in local histoiy, be
iegaiueu as at once one of the most uisastious anu one of the most fiuitful of yeais.
0f the whole piogiam only one item woulu fail altogetheithe politicos among the
Populaies woulu not accept a ievision of the civil-seivice law which woulu have
establisheu a meiit system. Eveiy fibei of theii beings ievolteu. Anu they woulu not
moueinize the police foi a continental uoveinoi to manage. Noieovei, Nuoz
woulu not feel that he coulu help in this goveinmental change. But all else woulu be
uone aftei a fashionthat is to say, be begunanu we shoulu then have to uefenu
oui cieation.
This lastoui uefensewoulu be as haiu a task as any anu woulu last fai into the
futuie. The job we uiu in 1942 was maue easiei by a miiaculous concuiience of
favoiing ciicumstances. It lookeu fiom the outsiue as though we weie sufficiently
busy stiuggling against the blockaue with its cieeping thieat of staivation. But the
tiuth was that the evei piesent ieminuei that we existeu at the wai loius'
convenience establisheu the iequisite humility; anu it noticeably uampeneu local
uiffeiences. Not that the olu enemies yielueu anything. The commeicial
oiganizations, except the ietaileis, woulu make a iecoiu of almost tiaitoious
hostility; the piess woulu hammei uaily at this oi that, wheievei a neive was
exposeu; the sugai lawyeis woulu come up fiom theii unueigiounu at stiategic
times anu places foi a tieacheious blow. But it may be that the veiy violence of this
opposition uiew the iest of us closei togethei anu lent foice to Nuoz pleas foi
momentaiy uiscipline among his uniuly local leaueis. I think now that it must have
been so.
7 }anuaiy. uetting on my feet with plenty of tioubles anu haiuly the eneigy to
hanule them.
0iueis stopping sale of tiies anu automobiles not so haiu to enfoice. But we have a
senseless one now stopping the use of molasses foi ium. I shall have to fight it, since
half oui ievenues aie involveu.
184
Nanila has fallen but Coiiegiuoi holus out. Collins shows me how the campaign has
followeu faithfully staff plans maue twenty anu moie yeais ago. To ieau the papeis
one woulu think that NacAithui hau impioviseu it all.
It begins to seem that we aie somehow stiong enough to holu in the Atlantic. Pueito
Ricans aie losing theii panicky feai of momentaiy attack fiom aii anu sea. The
Piesiuent spoke yesteiuay of an expeuitionaiy foice to Biitain, thus making the
0niteu Kinguom, along with the Atlantic islanus anu West Afiica, an auvanceu base
foi oui opeiationsa new iole foi the mighty Biitish, but gieat stuff locally. It
stiengthens my hanu anu keeps the falangistas unueigiounu. The fai Pacific seems
lost. But we aie given a bieathing spell heie. 0nless anu until Bitlei takes Englanu
anu Noith Afiica, he can't auvance his thiust into this cential Ameiican sea. We may
have a spoiauic iaiu, as things aie, but nothing moie. That might, of couise, make a
iubble heap of San }uan, anu I am not excuseu fiom piepaiation.
1

9 }anuaiy. Yesteiuay oiganizeu Institute of Tiopical Agiicultuie. Beginning woik on
legislative piojects anu laboiing with the unsatisfactoiy buuget of Fitzsimmons.
Theie is one thing about goveinmental woik in Pueito Rico: eveiything iemains to
be uone. Theie is no ieciuitment oi peisonnel selection woith talking of, no
planning, no buugeting, no inspection oi investigation seivice, no assessments foi
benefit, not even any basic suiveys anu maps. Baitlett is setting up a uistiict office of
the National Resouices Planning Boaiu which shoulu be a big help. We aie
uisappointeu with the Bettman uiaft of the Planning Acttoo elaboiate anu costly
foi Pueito Rico. We must ievise anu simplify it ouiselves. Cuiiy is at woik on uiaft
of laws foi new Authoiities foi tianspoitation, communications, watei anu sewei
systems, anu a cieuit institution to be linkeu to a company foi uevelopment. If we
can't get Feueial help, although Baiti (anu otheis) can, peihaps it can be uone
without. I feai only the incompetence anu stupiuity of goveinmentwhich Nuoz,
even, will not take seiiously, say nothing of the politicos who ieally seem to believe
in it.

1
}ust at this time Ni. A. }. Liebling was getting home fiom Euiope. Bis obseivation of the cuiient
sceneanu his feeling about itin The Roau Back to Paiis (pp. 2uS-6)expiess a kinu of uoggeu
feeling most of us hau at that time:
"Peail Baiboi hau left slight tiace on the public minu, it seemeu to a man coming off a boat in miu-
}anuaiy of 1942, but it hau closeu the seconu phase of the wai. The fiist hau enueu with the uisastei
of the Ptain aimistice. The seconu hau been a negative success because oui siue hau avoiueu
collapse. The thiiu, howevei unpiomising it might stait, howevei long it might last, was bounu to enu
in the uefeat of the fascist poweis. . . ."
That phase, as we got oui seconu winu, was just beginningin Pueito Rico, as elsewheie. We knew,
against all piobability, peihaps, that we shoulu win.

185
1S }anuaiy. Still having painful anu exhausting sinus tieatments, mitigateu only by
finuing ieal fiienus among the naval uoctois. I uieau my uaily tieatment; but the fun
of seeing all the uocs is almost woith it.
Incieuible attacks in the piess anu on the iauio.
Reoiganizing civil uefense touay to get it into the people's hanus, if possible, anu
away fiom the "bettei element."
17 }anuaiy. It seems that I toie it by putting in a Populai as Biiectoi of Civil Befense.
It violateu the custom that a political paity which wins in a locality gets all the giavy
theie.
19 }anuaiy, violent Coalicion anu piess ieaction ovei civilian uefense. A committee
of politicos is being sent to Washington. All the political uistuibance has finally hau a
militaiy ieaction. Boovei half thieateneu touay to "establish oiuei." I can imagine
the piessuie on him. I ieally think Collins may have saveu us fiom a ciisis by
suggesting that civilian uefense accept "technical auvice" fiom the Aimy. I think
Boovei was on the veige of uemanuing maitial law. Well as he must know me by
now, if he ieaus the piess oi listens to the iauio he must look at me twice on his
uaily visits to see if it's the same inuiviuual. Be hasn't yet leaineu to uiscount the
liais heieabouts.
2u }anuaiy, The Coalicion is in a peifect lathei of iage anu theii newspapei foams
with nastiness. They have now set up a "Committee of National Befense"quite
high-sounuing foi politicos out foi jobs. I iecall what someone saiu of a biokei
ietiiing fiom Wall Stieet at an eaily agehe founu himself becoming sciupulous
anu that put him at such a uisauvantage that he was ietiiing to escape iuin. Peihaps
I shall be iuineu.
Singapoie going; which about maiks the enu of a centuiy of impeiialism. I long to
know, but cannot at this uistance, the gianu stiategy foimulateu uuiing Chuichill's
visit to Washington.
22 }anuaiy, Baitlett, back fiom Washington, iepoits that theie is a new categoiy of
"evacuation housing" which may have some hope foi us. I finu it haiu to give up foi
the whole uuiation my uesign foi eliminating the slums. This is tiue, also, of much
else. The question whethei we can get on at all with the piogiam we conceiveu in
peace toiments me as I wiite my message to the legislatuie. The neeu heie will be
gieatei. But I uieau the Congiessional inuiffeience anu the unwillingness of
auministiative agencies to seem to be uoing any oiuinaiy task howevei necessaiy.
They cannot unueistanu oi finu it inconvenient to aumit as they go to the
186
Congiess foi appiopiiationsthat they aie uoing anything but vital wai woik.
0nemployment is ueepening heie anu will get woise i we aie blockaueu.
27 }anuaiy, Bave finally got Fathei Baas heie to meuiate the sugai stiike. I have
ieason to be piouu of the police; anu I think we shall get thiough this tiouble
without being eithei Cossacky oi soft. Piobably neithei siue will like it.
28 }anuaiy. The Coamo has lanueu seventy-eight new suivivois. These aie fiom the
Lauy Bawkins, toipeuoeu off Batteias. I was pietty uisgusteu with Boovei foi
iefusing to take twenty-eight of them into the Naval Bospital. They weie Biitish
seamen (all but five). I calleu Collins anu he saiu, "By uou, senu 'em up heie." Anu
they aie all comfoitable in El Noiio hospital now.
NacAithui holus out on Bataan; but Singapoie is as goou as gone. The Austialians
anu the Chinese aie auuibly soie because no help is coming to them. The Chinese all
but thieaten to withuiaw. Chuichill yesteiuay maue a conciliatoiy but pessimistic
speech anu set up a Bominions Wai Council. Be is in tiouble at home just the same
in spite of ovations in the 0.S. The Laboiites know him. I hope we shall leain befoie
it is too late.
29 }anuaiy. Pagn announces, with the co-opeiation of some hunuieus of
newspapeis anu the A.P., that I am a Quisling. Refeiiing, of couise, to thiowing his
henchmen out of civil uefense.
It is announceu that Ameiican tioops have aiiiveu in Iie-lanupietty goou, at that.
Naishall must be uoing his job.
A heaity lettei fiom Baiolu Ickes expiessing complete confiuence. But the attacks
keep up anu I can't help wonueiing if I am an embaiiassment.
S Febiuaiy. Nessage faiily complete. Newspapei attacks continue. Nalice seems to
feeu on anu sustain itself.
Fiist seiious stiike inciuent. Seveial men killeu at uuayama, allegeuly by a sugai
supeiintenuent anu his men. But Fathei Baas has woikeu out a compiomise. I am to
set up the Ninimum Wage Boaiu alieauy authoiizeu by legislation but which I have
uelayeu in setting up, hoping foi amenuments. Ny appointments to it aie puiely
ministeiial, which iepiesents an attiition on the goveinoiship to which Swope,
unuei Populai piessuie, agieeu. Nuoz will consent to latei amenuments.
It seems, howevei, that although the leaueis agieeu to let this Boaiu ueciue, the
C.u.T. leaueis cannot uelivei. A big meeting yesteiuay iefuseu iesumption of woik
187
unless I woulu call in the piouuceis, get a guaiantee of iaises, etc. I iefuseu, of
couise. Anu we seem to be back wheie we weie, with a piospect of moie violence.
I have talkeu with Nuoz anu tolu him that unless he gets the stiikeis to go to woik
anu allow giievances to be settleu in an oiueily way, I shall iesign. I know that the
agitation is kept up by his local leaueis. If he has no uiscipline we may as well know
it. I have stakeu eveiything on faiiness, openness, anu piotection foi all inteiests. If I
am not to be tiusteu, I woulu iathei quit now.
4 Febiuaiy. Finisheu message. But affaiis aie so confuseu in Washington that
seveial vital issues coulu not be uiscusseu intelligently. Even now, with the wai two
months olu, I cannot finu out what pait of the cost of foou stoiage (if we evei get
any), meuical supplies, civil uefense mateiials, State uuaiu aims, quaiteis, pay, etc.,
is going to be boine by the Feueial uoveinment anu what pait I shoulu iequest fiom
the legislatuie. Inteiioi appeais to be meiely sitting on the fifteen millions I'u
counteu on. It was allocateu to the Secietaiy anu I'm afiaiu it's fallen into Swope's
hanus. Be may smothei it. I begin to wonuei if business inteiests heie aie not
pieventing action.
I have sent anothei uigent wiie to Ickes uemanuing action.
Reu uioss man heie who pompously inuicates that if we have tiouble they will step
in "to fuinish the biains" foi an emeigency oiganization. Bis iuea of co-opeiation
seems to be to steal the police chief I got fiom the Aimy. Anu I can't get any
commitment on actual stoiage of supplies on the islanu.
The stiike is still on. Yesteiuay I calleu in ceitain of the piouuceis. I'm soiiy to have
hau a nasty exchange with a couple of theii lawyeis. They will be vinuictive. The
manageis anu I founu it possible to talk sense. They agieeu, in fact, to abiue by the
Ninimum Wage Boaiu's uecisions, on the basis of which I am issuing a public appeal
to the stiikeis.
6 Febiuaiy. Now, aftei my appeal to the stiikeis, the piouuceis iepuuiate theii
agieement to abiue by the uecision of the Ninimum Wage Boaiu. This comes of
aumitting lawyeis to conveisations among piincipals.
0f couise, the uoveinoi of Pueito Rico ought not to get into laboi uisputes at all. I
am foiceu into it by the uespeiate neeu foi settlement. Boovei, foi instance, is
obviously iestless. Touay the longshoiemen went out. Fathei Baas hau haiuly left
befoie all his woik was iepuuiateu. Anu the situation is woise than evei.
188
Latei. The C.u.T. has eviuently iesponueu to Nuoz' appeal. They have voteu to
abiue by the Ninimum Wage Boaiu uecisions. But now I am on the spot because of
the piouuceis' tieacheiy.
Cabling uigently foi a piofessional conciliatoi. Also, I have sent moie appeals to
Ickes to come acioss with the help piomiseu by the Piesiuent anu authoiizeu by
Congiess. 0p to now I have not hau a cent of aiu fiom any souiceReu Cioss, Civil
Befense, Inteiioi, oi any othei.
Eveiything is going bauly foi oui siue. The }apanese aie piessing Inuia. Singapoie
goes. The gianu stiategy seems cleaily now foi the }aps anu the Nazis to meet in
miu-Inuia. 0nly the tough Russians make any heauway anu they aie sloweu uown.
Too little anu too late iuns like a iefiain thiough eveiything. Anyway we seem to
have a newanu singlepiouuction heau now anu I heai that one shipping heau is
imminent. Naybe now we shall be able to get some answeis.
1u Febiuaiy. Legislative session begins touay. Yesteiuay the ;#$0121#'138$3 issueu
anothei intempeiate uenunciation of me. In spite of all the iow, I hau a nice lettei
fiom the Piesiuent yesteiuay. Ni. Bolivai Pagn woulu not enjoy its iefeiences to
him; but then he can haiuly have enjoyeu the iecent going ovei the Piesiuent gave
him eithei, as the lettei inuicates. "Nuoz," says the Piesiuent, "is a bettei Pueito
Rican leauei than Pagn" . . . who "is wholly political."
It will be seen that the tioubles of a waitime uoveinoi in Pueito Rico uiu not come
fiom any unceitainty about what to uo oi how to uo itthese weie so plain as to be
inevitablebut iathei fiom inability to finu out whethei Washington woulu
appiove anu assist. Being faceu with uaily uecisions anu not being able to get
uiiections fiom those who make the laigei policies into which those uecisions fit is a
neive-weaiing piocess, but one which seems to be familiai to all piovincial officials.
I have founu Biitish uoveinois, expeiienceu as they aie, almost neuiotic,
sometimes, fiom this cause. The uecisions have to be maue because events will not
wait. Ny expeiience was that they weie at least as likely to be uisappioveu as
appioveu. This came laigely in my case fiom the fact that the business gioup in
Pueito Rico who weie ueteimineu to make a goou thing out of the wai hau poweiful
fiienus anu connections in Washington anu I nevei knew how they weie going to
succeeu in unueimining oi actually ieveising me theie. Theie is always an
appeasement tenuency in Washington which has to be ieckoneu with; theie is also
the inclination to feel that those out in the fielu manage things less well than home
officials coulu uo it, not having intimate anu cuiient knowleuge of policy.
Washington, besiues, nevei heais any goou, only bau; anu the impulse to be
suspicious of uistant officials is almost insupeiable. Bome offices nevei like tiouble
189
of any kinu. The view theie tenus to be that a fielu official is successful if he is nevei
heaiu ofwhich accounts laigely foi the meuiociity of auministiatois anu foi the
lack of couiage in opposing local foices stiong enough to have influence in
Washington. This involves a saciifice of the plain exploiteu folk; but they nevei
ieach beyonu the islanu with theii complaints.
It was not tiue that Ni. Ickes expecteu me to become the peifect appeasei. But my
pioblems now seluom got any seiious attention fiom him, since they natuially hau
to shaie his woiking uay with a thousanu otheis. Ny tioubles centeieu laigely in Ni.
Swope, stiangely enough, who soon began to exhibit an active hostility in spite of
the fact that he oweu his piesent appointment to my inteivention. This was paitly
because I pusheu him; anu he uiu not like being pusheu. It was also because, as he
juugeu the situation, I was iapiuly accumulating an opposition which woulu iesult in
my iemoval. Natuially he uiu not want to be the suppoitei of someone who was
maikeu foi execution; much bettei, he seemeu to feel, to be one of those who co-
opeiateu with what was going to happen anyway than to be one of those who
opposeu anu lost.
I knew well enough who was wiiting the incieuibly inuiffeient, even hostile, letteis I
began to ieceive about this time fiom the Secietaiy. I was hotly ueteimineu to get
action. Ni. Ickes seemeu to be telling me to keep quiet anu stop botheiing him.
When he got aiounu to it I woulu be tolu what hau been ueciueu. But I knew this
was not so. Be signeu hunuieus of letteis a uay wiitten by numeious suboiuinates.
These weie some of them. 0nce in a while I hau a veiy uiffeient kinu of one which,
in its shaip anu intimate inteiest, tolu me how he ieally felt. Anu once in a while he
tuineu loose on oui mutual enemies. Be useu his piess confeience on 11 Febiuaiy
as one of these occasions; he attackeu the ;#$0121#'138$s with that combination of
wit anu cutting ciiticism he knew so well how to use. The iesult was a fuiious
ieaction. The onslaught on both of us in the piess was amazing even foi Pueito Rico.
But in succeeuing uays theie was some letup anu I wiote to tell him of it, anu to
iepoit some uetaila lettei foi his eyes, not those of his suboiuinates.
The fight was going on in spite of eveiything. I neeueu no moie than to know that
both he anu the Piesiuent weie with me. The iest I coulu take caie ofeven
unceitain suppoit in the Bepaitment. This last was haiu to have to unueigo but we
weie leaining that we shoulu have to fight eveiywheie anu that theie was not going
to be any fiienuly teiiitoiy, not even any, it seemeu, which was neutial. As we
woikeu in Pueito Rico it was a constant souice of weakness that we weie awaie of
hostility in the Bivision of Teiiitoiies. Ni. Swope was eithei nave about the Pueito
Rican Chambei of Commeice oi so constituteu that he was unable to believe that the
inteiests of business coulu iun against those of the public. The impoiteis anu the
190
sugai lobbyists weie as welcome as evei in his office aftei they began theii wai on
me. I coulu iecognize the slick sheen of theii influence in the letteis which seemeu
to be the Secietaiy's because he signeu them. But theie was woise comingin the
unlikely shape of a Ni. Paul uoiuon.
It is not pleasant to make the aumission that I hau many cowoikeis in these months
who uetesteu me foi what I iepiesenteu, who woikeu haiu to uefeat all my plans,
anu who uiu not hesitate to use the piess, the opposition in the Congiess, oi any
othei means they coulu finu to fuithei theii puipose of uisplacing me. It is not
pleasant but it is neveitheless tiue. Theie weie times when I fell into the
uesponuent ceitainty that so geneial an opposition coulu only oiiginate in some
failuie of mine oi some iiiepaiable fault of peisonality. Paitly because of this anu
paitly because I saw nothing else to uo immeuiately, I tiieu faithfully to woik with
each of these nominal collaboiatois in tuin. Foi ieasons which can be unueistoou at
this uistance but which weie haiu to cieuit cuiiently, it pioveu to be impossible.
These inuiviuuals, it is now cleai, weie on the othei siue in a stiuggle which foi
them was moie impoitant than any othei. I was a menace to theii objectives; anu
they chose to make it a me-oi-you kinu of fight. Foitunately only one of them woulu
suivive the yeai. Anu he woulu not last thiough the next. This was not because I
coulu not have woikeu with them but because they insisteu on making it that kinu
of issue. The list incluueu Ni. Nalcolm, the Attoiney ueneial; Ni. Fitzsimmons, the
Auuitoi; Ni. Bakei, the Biiectoi of the W.P.A. in Pueito Rico; Ni. Neau of 0.P.A.; Ni.
Fiisbie, Chaiiman of the Bepaitment of Agiicultuie's co-oiuinating committee in
Pueito Rico which calleu itself the "Wai Boaiu"; Ni. Biown of the Agiicultuial
Naiketing Auministiation; anu Ni. Bauley, the Regional Foiestei. These weie
among the most aiuent woikeis in the cause. Theie weie otheis; but I shall not
name them because they seem only to have been chaii-waimeis, oi suboiuinates,
whose fault, asiue fiom not possessing any feeling foi the public inteiest, was a
pathetic attempt to line up with those who weie going to win.
This ciowu nevei seemeu to have any uoubt that they weie on the winning siue. Foi
this they hau the ieason that they weie allieu with the foices which always hau
pievaileu in Pueito Rico. To suggest that they might fail must have seemeu to them
the equivalent of intimating that the tiaue winus might cease anu the eaith tuin in
ieveise. Theii opposition was caiiieu on almost contemptuously; they scaicely
botheieu to conceal at fiist, anu latei uiu not attempt to conceal at all, theii alliances
anu conspiiacies. Such supeib confiuence coulu only come, of couise, fiom active
suppoit among the "bettei element" anu constant assuiances fiom Feueial officials
who weie theii supeiiois in Washington that something was always about to
happen. Then, too, it is always intoxicating to be maue much of by the piess. Foi
191
now the newspapei campaign began to tuin on "ievelations" that is, supposeuly
insiue infoimation of a uamaging soit. Bay aftei uay small items appeaieu which
weie peisonally ueiogatoiy to me anu my close associateseven, at the woist, my
familyinsinuations of the most iepiehensible conuuct. Besiues this theie was a
calculateu succession of semiofficial items having to uo with uiffeiences of juugment
between myself anu othei officials in which I was inevitably shown to be aibitiaiy,
aiiogant, mistaken anu incompetent. This kinu of thing oiiginateu in the offices of
the Attoiney ueneial, the Auuitoi anu the Chaiiman of the Agiicultuial "Wai Boaiu."
Anu the piess in ietuin pictuieu these, anu othei officials who woulu co-opeiate, as
the tiue fiienus of Pueito Rico engageu in couiageous opposition to a tyiannous,
capiicious anu extiavagant uoveinoi, hinting subtly that one of them might soon be
calleu to high uuties anu so iewaiueu foi his stiuggle against ouus. Theie is nothing
new about this impulse in the Pueito Rican piess. Continental uoveinois hau been
faii game foi this kinu of insinuation evei since the occupieu islanu hau uiscoveieu
oui incieuible auheience to a iange of piinciples which incluueu, among otheis,
fieeuom of the piessa stiange vagaiy foi conqueiois to maintain! What was new
was the flagiant anu piovocative way in which my official suboiuinates uefieu all
auministiative uecencies anu so lent themselves to a uelighteu set of peisecutois.
Theii contempt foi me was as complete as theii confiuence. Anu if they uiu not
ueiive most of theii assuiance fiom the knowleuge of similai sentiments in the
Bivision of Teiiitoiies anu in the Congiess they woulu have to be set uown as
suffeiing fiom suiciual compulsion. Foi aftei a while the situation became
intoleiableso intoleiable as to be visible even in uistant waitime Washington.
It was haiu to beai this cioss in waitime anu with a iefoim movement uepenuent
on my co-opeiation. I natuially took steps to be ielieveu of it. These consisteu
meiely in the most caieful anu tempeiate iepoiting of the situation, which was a
slow piocess but, I felt, a sounu one. I might have gone to Washington at any time
anu cieateu an issue. 0n the othei hanu I shoulu have hau to explain why the
conspiiacy was so geneial, anu I was not quite ceitain myself that I was not
somewhat iesponsible. Ni. Ickes anu Ni. Roosevelt hau not yet unueistoou the line-
up of foices in Pueito Rico anu the alliances which hau taken shape which was not
stiange when I myself was not yet suie that the conspiiacy was as well uefineu as it
appeaieu. Time hau to be alloweu foi events to make theii own aigument. Anu
peihaps I hau not been sufficiently uiligent in iepoiting oi peisuasive in aiguing.
This happeneu slowly, as it must. Neanwhile I went my way. But we weie in ieal
tiouble nownot the kinu we hau been boiiowing because of a powei anu stiategy
we attiibuteu to ueimany, anu which, as we can see now, was an exaggeiation, but a
palpable uangei which, moieovei, we hau no means of combating: the submaiines
192
weie all about us. We weie not going to be invaueu; but we weie going to be neaily
staiveu; anu we might be seiiously attackeu. At this time iesouices foi patiol weie
still so meagei as to be almost non-existent. The aimy anu navy commanus hau not
been oiganizeu effectively, as they woulu be latei, to covei the whole of the Antilles;
anu the aii foice was still in the nebulous state fiom which it woulu not emeige foi
some time to come. Theie weie no convoys in oui pait of the woilu anu inuiviuual
ships weie piesenting themselves as easy taigets in the passages between the
islanus wheie they must conveige foi tiansit. By the miuule of Naich it hau maue
inuiviuual movement so hazaiuous as to ieuuce oui tonnage by moie than half; by
}une all such movements woulu have been stoppeu. We weie alieauy paitially
paialyzeu. Still the Navy hau no visible plans foi ielief. The patiols woulu be
enlaigeu, we weie tolu; but we knew of no small-boat piogiam such as seemeu to us
necessaiy to meet the menace; anu the planes foi aii ieconnaissance weie still
lacking.
The authoiity of the submaiine in oui sea was to be complete foi the next ten
months. But it must be unueistoou that we coulu not see then a teiminal point at ten
months in the futuie. The coming weeks, each of them ages long, stietcheu out
aheau in unielieveu vistas; we hau the sensation of slow stiangulation about which
we coulu uo nothing. What was most uistiessing was the Navy's hesitation anu
unceitainty. Peail Baiboi hau shaken oui faith moie, no uoubt, than was waiianteu.
But the suuuen lessons of that uisastei weie cleai even to laymenanu we coulu
not see that they hau been leaineu. Aumiial Boovei seemeu in all iespects typical.
When the news came that the Piince of Wales anu the Repulse hau been sunk by
aeiial bombing, he ueclaieu flatly that such a thing was impossible. I aigueu in an
amateui way that it was not only possible but shoulu have been expecteu. In fact,
being an amateui, anu so not having much peispective in militaiy matteis, I coulu
not appieciate then, as I leaineu to uo latei unuei Tom Phillips' guiuance, the
alteinate ascenuancy of offense anu uefense which seems to be the iule. The laige
capital ship appeaieu to be obsoletehau been foi some time. Within a mattei of
months I shoulu be amazeu to heai Aumiial Boovei betiay his ieveisal on this
question by iemaiking that battleships weie a hanuicap because they existeu only
to be elaboiately piotecteu. I thought heanu othei navy men might have aiiiveu
at this conclusion moie iapiuly, especially those who, like him, woie the goluen
wings of flight-tiaining anu hau hau expeiience in caiiieis. Latei it appeaieu that
this was too simple a view of heavy-aimoieu ciaft when auequately gunneu.
It was to be expecteu, of couise, that the goou biains of the Navy hau not been
paialyzeu anu that somewheie in the Washington buieaus the plans weie being
maue anu the bluepiints uiawn foi piopei opposition to oui enemy. But it was
193
uifficult to maintain confiuence in Pueito Rico in the spiing of '42, with ships sinking
all aiounu anu theii suivivois lanuing in hunuieus, with foou, meuical anu
inuustiial supplies becoming scaice, with no knowleuge of actual coiiective
measuies ieaching us fiom any souice, anu with no obvious ieason foi tiusting that
the pioblems weie being solveu. Peail Baiboi hau foi the time being unueimineu
oui faith.
Anu then theie was an attack on Aiuba.
2
It was an impiessive event. At least six
tankeis weie sunk anu seiious uamage was uone to shoie installations. We hau then
to consiuei not as theoietically possible, but as immeuiately likely, an attempt to
uestioy the commanu centei at San }uan which coulu so easily be shelleu fiom the
sea, anu which hau been built up, by incieuible folly, within the laigest centei of
population in the Caiibbean. 0n 21 Febiuaiy we thought the attack hau aiiiveu. It
was Satuiuay anu I hau been cleaiing my uesk piepaiatoiy to a jouiney acioss the
islanu to inspect uefense aiiangements on the south coast. ueneial Collins calleu
just as I was leaving to say that theie weie submaiinesan unueteimineu numbei,
but moie than oneoff the haiboi anu that oui evacuation aiiangements hau bettei
be iusheu. We weie, as a mattei of fact, fai fiom ieauy foi such an emeigency. But
facing the thing hau a biacing effect. The news spieau. It was taken in a new spiiit. It
was almost, then, what it became quite uefinitely latei on, uefiant, as much as to say
that we weie ieauy anu let it come! I myself was kept fiom that feeling by the
pictuie of panic in that olu iubble-walleu town which hau painteu itself so viviuly on
my imagination. But I was piofounuly giateful to see how, in spite of piess anu
politics, the people hau shoieu theii minus against uangei.
We hau a bau twenty-foui houis while planes anu small boats hunteu anu waiteu. In
the enu the thieat was lifteutheie weie no moie contacts; anu the sun came up on
a glitteiing Sunuay moining with bieeze fiesh anu foliage seeming newly waxeu. By
that time oui uefense was as ieauy as we coulu make it, with hunuieus of police
fiom the iuial uistiicts biought into town, commeicial ueliveiy cais anu tiucks
auapteu foi ambulances, casualty stations ieauyin fact all uone that we coulu uo.
We hau hau goou piactice anu many a tiieu uefense woikei, who hau suuuenly
become a suipiiseu specialist in uemolition, bomb iemoval, incenuiaiy extinction,
emeigency watei-system iepaii, evacuation, feeuing, casualty iemoval, anu all the
uozens of jobs we shoulu have been faceu with when the fiist shell oi bomb fell,
went home a little uisappointeu anu anticlimactic. Anyway we weie getting ieauy
both in mateiiel anu moiale.

2
The gieat Butch iefining centei off the venezuelan coast, foui hunuieu miles south of us.

194
Aftei a few moie of these ciises I myself stoppeu woiiying about being ieauy. We
hau maue eveiy piepaiation it was humanly possible to make. Not one measuie
which seemeu feasible hau been neglecteu. Civil uefense was in capable hanus; anu
if uisastei came we shoulu have to suffei it as best we coulu. It was uuiing Naich,
Apiil anu latei that the new iauai system was being installeu. It woulu not, of
couise, be completeu foi a yeai oi moie: neithei woulu oui coast aitilleiy oi anti-
aiiciaft installations. But the fiist units began then to be useu. This was the system
which actually pioviueu a waining of the Peail Baiboi attack but which untiaineu
officeis coulu not cieuit. 0ui men uiu not piopose to be caught in this way, anu since
communications weie moie in a state of feaiful suspense lest the enemy inteicept
them than active because we neeueu infoimation, we hau many false alaims.
0nannounceu aiiciaft plungeu into oui aiea; unaccountable noises weie inteipieteu
as appioaching planes. Theie weie nights when we hau thiee oi foui aleits. Aumiial
Boovei was natuially ieluctant to uiscouiage vigilance. Be finally uiu wain the
iauai laus that they hau bettei impiove, but theie was iisk of injustice in that since
no iauai coulu uistinguish the nationality of a uistant ciaft.
We got useu to it. But, moie iemaikably, so uiu the people in oui cities. With
constant uiill, which tuineu out always, so fai as they knew, to be nothing but uiill,
they leaineu to go un-exciteuly into the ioutine of the aleit. Anu theie was not much
tensionunless it lasteu too long. If the mattei coulu be cleaieu within the usual
thiity- to foity-minute peiiou we hau useu in oui piewai blackouts, hysteiia uiu not
iise. Tiaffic stoppeu; people went insiue, heiueu by oui giowing coips of civil
uefense guaius with theii homemaue aim banus anu theii shiill whistles, anu sat
out the peiiou. Theie was not much of the continental custom of pioviuing blackout
cuitains anu making eveiything snug within. It was too hot. Pueito Ricans meiely
put out all the lights anu stiuck up a 8,"8.01$.
S
But they weie lettei-peifect in that.
Anu even so captious a ciitic as the Aumiial coulu seluom finu any fault.
I coulu ieally, by Naich, foiget all this; that is, I neeu no longei woiiy about it. But
othei tioubles weie multiplying. The conspiiacy gatheieu momentum; anu now it
coulu feeu on a ieal feaiat woist of staivation, at best of uepiivation. Anu it has to
be aumitteu that those who faceu the possibility of staivation behaveu bettei than
many of those who only expecteu to be uepiiveu of a few semiluxuiies. It is tiue that
most Pueito Ricans nevei knew how ieally close we weie to the exhaustion of foou
stocks. Still, they must have been able to guess what the situation was even in the
spiing months; anu by fall we shoulu have a betiaying exhaustion of iice anu of
beans, the foous all islanueis eat eveiy uaypooi anu iich, they want iice anu

S
A kinu of conveisational oigy. The woiu gets it's meaning fiom the Latin love of talk, but also fiom
an eailiei ueaith of othei iesouices foi amusement.

195
beans fiist, anu only afteiwaiu whatevei else is available! Next, of couise, /$2$0$#
(uiieu fish) which is the pooi man's substitute foi meat anu is useu foi flavoiing the
iice. These thiee aie the favoieu ingieuients of the uaily uish eaten by nine-tenths of
the woikeis in Pueito Rico as many times a uay as they can be affoiueu. We shoulu
fail to keep up the supply of iice foi seveial months; of uiieu fish we shoulu have a
chionic shoitage with black-maiket piices; of beans we shoulu have peiiouic
shoitages when piices woulu tiiple anu unpleasant inciuents occui. Into a stiuggle
with the foices which boil up in piofiteeiing times I hau to plunge whethei I wanteu
to oi not. It was the cleaiest uuty I evei hau in Pueito Ricoanu, in the natuie of
things, the most iisky.
The Fiancophiles weie back on theii feet again, faiily suie now that no penalties
weie going to be exacteu. Those of them who hau complex financial tiansactions
involving exchange between Spain anu the 0niteu States woulu be subject to ceitain
oveisight, but theie woulu be almost no iestiiction; anu, what conceineu them
most, theie woulu be no peisonal penalties. They must have been well awaie that
the F.B.I. was now taking a somewhat belateu suivey of the situation anu mouifying
its foimei concentiation on oui pietentious little banu of 2#+.'138$3. But on the
othei hanu, it soon became cleai that an appeasement policy was to be followeu by
the Bepaitment of State which woulu penetiate othei agencies. This went to lengths
which weie uifficult to unueistanu as helpful in suppoit of any conceivable policy
oui uoveinment might have, even to peisecution of those singulaily puie-spiiiteu
laus in Pueito Rico (as in the 0niteu States) who hau thought it theii uuty to fight on
the loyalist siue against Fianco. This last was the most unfoigivable featuie of a
piogiam which hau giave iepeicussions on oui islanu. Foi those who weie thus
ieleaseu fiom iesponsibility foi uisloyalty anu assistance to violent ieaction, even
those who hau swoin the oaths, weie now appaiently iequiieu only to make a
suiface change: they must not hang out Fianco flags oi publicly pioclaim theii
auhesion to the H$0$'%,. But they weie haiuly in bau enough ouoi even to be uiiven
unueigiounu; they maue only a nominal seciet of theii affiliations.
Fiom fiighteneu anu fuitive wonuei as to what theii punishment might be, this
whole gioup iapiuly became a militant opposition to libeial change in Pueito Rico.
Anu heie they founu an outlet foi theii stifleu hates anu seciet feais. Foi they weie
given eveiy ieason to believe that the most eneigetic attack on me woulu be
iegaiueu with favoi among those who weie beginning to have the uppei hanu in the
States anu weie being so conspicuously appeaseu. Anu now I was to be ieminueu*
again of the affiliations of many Ameiican newspapei publisheis. A succession of
special coiiesponuents woulu, uuiing the next six months, be sent to Pueito Rico
with uefinite instiuctions (of which they maue no seciet): they weie to wiite smeai
196
stoiies about me anu the woik I was piesumeu to have sponsoieumuch of which
hau begun, of couise, befoie I came but was, anyway, as they saiu, "Tugwellian."
It was eviuent about this time, alsoas I shall have to ielate in some uetailthat
theie was a wiue acceptance of this poison in the States among the Republicans, the
Southein Bemociats, newspapei anu auveitising inteiests anu otheis of a similai
soit. It was alieauy eviuent that fai fiom putting oui enemies in Pueito Rico on the
uefensive, we weie going to be on the spot ouiselves. It soon appeaieu that I myself
shoulu be lucky to suivive at all. Anu a kinu of piematuie jubilation, which,
howevei, was a poweiful stimulant to potential contiibutois anu to woikeis in the
cause, woulu appeai.
We weie committeu, neveitheless, to a battle on the foou fiont which coulu not be
foiegone. It was suggesteu at this time that withuiawal might enu the opposition.
But that lookeu like giving up something foi nothing. Theie was going to be
opposition anyway. Besiues, what with one manifestation anu anothei I was
beginning to seethe, in spite of myself, with a kinu of inuignation. It was unfoitunate
that the fiist ieal tiouble shoulu happen within the Bepaitment, anu that the
quaiiel shoulu be about the fifteen millions. But that was how it happeneu. The
fifteen millions, as I have saiu, hau been appiopiiateu with aumiiable speeu, but hau
then sunk into an impenetiable oblivion in the Bivision of Teiiitoiies. Ny effoits to
have it useu hau iesulteu in chilly inuications that in uue couise the Bepaitment
woulu make known its plansas though I weie not, now, a membei of the gioup at
all. I then heaiu that "a Ni. uoiuon woulu be sent." Well, Ni. uoiuon was,
eventually, sent. Anu, aftei being among us foi moie than a week, calleu on me. That
week he hau spent with the Chambei of Commeice cooking up a scheme foi the
cieation of a piivate stock pile to be "guaianteeu" by the fifteen-million funu. But it
was now well into the month of Naich.
I tolu Ni. uoiuon that he was being leu up the gaiuen path, that he was uealing not
only with oui enemies butbelieve it oi notwith the enemies of the people of
Pueito Rico. 0ui stock pile shoulu alieauy have been completeu if it was to seive the
intenueu puipose. All this he obviously set uown as "politics." This became a
favoiite iesoit, fiom then on, I may say inciuentally, of those in Washington who
wanteu to appease the business inteiests, even when they weie supposeu to be oui
fiienus. If it was against oui piogiam it was "piactical business"; if it was foi itoi
by meit was "politics." I took the tiouble to explain a few times that I myself was
not, in any oiuinaiy sense, to be thought of as in "politics." Theie was a uespeiate
situation to be met; anu it hau to be met in ways which poweiful inteiests woulu not
appiove. That, I contenueu, was not "politics." It might seem so because Nuoz
suppoiteu it. But otheis weie welcomeinueeu they weie imploieuto suppoit it
197
too. 0f couise, they woulu not, being too closely iuentifieu with ieaction, anu
ciosseu with the bai sinistei of the H$0$'%,, but that I woulu not accept as auequate
ieason foi lack of suppoit among my actual supeiiois. I thought too that they ought
to unueistanu a New Beal in Pueito Rico as not uiffeient fiom the one in the 0niteu
States of which we weie not yetofficially, at leastashameu.
But Ni. uoiuon iejecteu my pleas. Be went about making sonoious speeches to
sunuiy luncheon clubs anu being feteu with unconcealeu hilaiity by those who
iegaiueu the peifoimance as one in the eye foi me. Possibly, also, they felt, it might
holu off the bulk-puichase plan which woulu so completely cut them out of the
enoimous piofits they weie alieauy slaveiing foi on iice, beans, uiieu fish, salteu
poik, coin meal, flouithe pooi man's foou. Inueeu they became quite ceitain that
they hau won when Ni. uoiuon actually signeu an agieement with them. Anu time
was iunning on. Anu the submaiines weie gatheiing.
I coulu uo nothing as piices continueu to iise anu shoitages woiseneu. Ni. uoiuon
went off to the viigin Islanus; then he went back to Washington. I coulu not finu out
what, if anything, he hau iepoiteu; oi whethei any plan of action was in the making.
It was only too tiagically cleai that no piivate stock pile was going to be
accumulateu. But how long woulu it take officials in Washington to finu it out. Aftei
a couple of months, I began to feel that they woulu nevei finu it out, anu that, if
Pueito Rico weie not to staive, I shoulu have to stait a ievolution in the Bivision of
Teiiitoiiespeihaps even somewhat highei up. Anu even if Congiessional
uispleasuie was involveufoi that was uefinitely in the aii by nowI shoulu still
have to uo it. Ni. Pagn hau been peisistent; theie was, anyway, a ieactionaiy tienu;
anu I was a symbol of eveiything that the ieactionaiies uislikeu. Those in Pueito
Rico who weie by now violently involveu in uislikes of a similai soit founu the
fellow feeling in the Congiess most helpful. They began to woik on it.
198
16
IN TBE TELLINu of this stoiy, it occuis to me, the men of ill will have been playeu up
anu those of othei uisposition have not hau theii uue. This woulu always be so,
peihaps, since contiast makes uiama anu uiama impiesses itself on any histoiy
whethei the wiitei wills it oi not. The villain of the piece, no mattei what the
outcome, can be maue contemptible but not weak; else theie woulu be no victoiy
woith iecoiuing. But when I consult my conscience, going on with this account, it
appeais stiangely tianquil. Anu aftei all, why not. The enemy in Pueito Rico was
olu, wily, anu hitheito uominant; he hau nevei befoie been successfully challengeu
anu hau succeeueu, against the uemociatic tienu, in holuing uown anu exploiting an
enoimous unpiivilegeu mass of countiymen. Be hau uone moie; he hau all but
swung this small piece of the Westein Bemispheie back into the Euiopean oibit
wheie not mouein but meuieval stanuaius weie oithouox. It was fiightening to heai
what went on in Pueito Rico when the H$0$'%, was spieauing its tentacles acioss
the Nain anu into South Ameiica. But the most fiightening events weie those which
hau to uo with the unnatuial intimacy between some of oui own iepiesentatives
anu the men of the H$0$'%, in the yeais of the Spanish civil wai. Noi can the goings
back anu foith, the mutual honoiings anu enteitainment, be put uown to naivete oi
to the iequiiements of usage. The iepiesentatives of the 0niteu States weie
expeiienceu, fully expeiienceu, anu the extensions of ceiemony weie beyonu all
neeu. They weie, in fact, flagiant iepuuiations of uemociacy, giatuitous insults to its
moie loyal auheients.
All of this, it may be saiu with some tiuth, was of a piece with coiollaiy occuiiences
in the States. It was notoiious that those who hau fought on the Loyalist siue in
Spain weie given a bau time by officialuom at eveiy oppoitunity; anu that those who
hau been on the othei siue weie favoieu. I myself knew men anu boys who hau
followeu an iueal into uangei anu haiuship, coming out bauly bioken, anu who hau
liveu thencefoithin oui own 0niteu Statesa life haiuly moie fiee than they
might have hau if they hau stayeu in vichy Fiance on theii way home. As foi
iefugees, not many coulu finu theii way in, anu those who uiu weie only a little
bettei off than those uesciibeu by Ni. Aithui Koestlei in Scum of the Eaith. They
weie scum of the eaith in Ameiica too, we must in all shame aumit. Nen foi whom
banneis shoulu have been put out anu floweis stiewnbecause they hau expiateu,
a little at least, mankinu's infamyweie, like ciiminals, subjecteu to eveiy kinu of
humiliation. Was it because they ieminueu us too shaiply of uuties about which we
hau gone slack. 0f moial pietensions to which oui actions gave the lie. That may
explain why these atiocities weie peimitteu by oiuinaiy folk, why, that is, they uiu
not smite the uoeis of this outiage. But it uoes not explain how theie iemain among
199
us, aftei a hunuieu anu fifty yeais, men who betiay in eveiy action theii contempt
foi the piinciples of oui communal life. This is what is most uistuibing. Theie aie
those who, when we give them leave, show the same intoleiant ciuelty which }esus
expiateu on his cioss, anu the same piovocations still biing it out of the uepths of
human natuie. Is theie a man among us who is kinuei, moie just, moie vigilant than
otheis in behalf of the oppiesseu, anu who uisplays in this life what we have saiu we
believe to be the conuuct of the appioveu man. That one, given a ceitain tuin of
events, is in uangei. Be must be giounu uown into the muck, maue
inuistinguishable, iemoveu fiom his moial height. We finu men like A. Nitchell
Palmei, oi Ni. Naitin Bieswe always finu one of this soit easilyto be oui
executioneis.
This was not a much moie pievalent uisease in Pueito Rico than it was in the 0niteu
States except foi olu affiliations with Spain. It happeneu that, just as I came to
Pueito Rico, a change in the climate was taking place. The 6$0$'%138$ oigy was ovei
anu the paiticipants in it, fiighteneu at what they hau uone, weie in a new coweiing
moou aftei yeais of fascist aiiogance. But suuuenly they uiscoveieu that they hau
sympathizeis in a most unlikely place: not in Spain, not in any South Ameiican
uictatoishipiight in the 0niteu States: iight, also, wheie it woulu uo them the
most goouin Washington itself. Foi not all those who weie so helpful to oui
enemies in Pueito Rico weie fooleu into it by thinking them plain businessmen who
weie being subjecteu to an unusual anu uictatoiial iegulation; some of them weie
men of the same soit, men who weie uoing the same ciuel woik in oui States, anu
foi the same cause. In seiving the-men of ill will on oui islanu they weie seiving the
cause to which they weie shamefully ueuicateu.
The Pueito Rican piogiessive movement coulu go on because anu only so long
asmen of bettei will in Washington peimitteu it. Some lookeu the othei way;
some washeu theii hanus; some weie otheiwise engageu. The Piesiuent was one of
these last. 0ccasionally he woulu finu an excuse foi a ueclaiation of piogiessivism
oi of belief in civil libeities; but these ueclaiations weie less fiequent as the buiuens
of wai became heaviei. The 0niteu States Supieme Couit wasthe majoiitythe
best in geneiations. But between Piesiuent anu Supieme Couit at the top anu
auministiatois at the lowei opeiational levels, theie was a wiuening uispaiity. In
any laige buieauciacy policy maue at the top can be effectively uissipateu among
unwilling suboiuinates. This was notably tiue of the enoimous wai oiganizations
which weie being hastily thiown togethei in 1941-42, anu moie paiticulaily
because of the Piesiuent's toui ue foice in the piouuction anu shipping seivices,
followeu latei by a similai one in the fielu of piice contiol, when Ni. Leon
200
Benueison went out anu an auveitising man came in.
1
When he calleu in the
businessmen, he iiskeu sabotage all along the line. Foi many of them weie scaicely
uistinguishable fiom the fascists in othei lanusin fact many of them hau been
aumiieis of Bitlei anu Nussolinithe uictatois, they saiu, "kept oiuei." But theie
weie othei uevotees of fascist thought anu action at stiategic centeis: the faim bloc,
foi instance. Ni. 0'Neal's paiaue of uefense foi "fiee enteipiise" was meiely a covei
foi meiciless Southein lanuloiuism. Anu, to come uown to oui small islanu, no one
coulu honestly contenu that the Chambei of Commeice in Pueito Rico, with all its
questionable affiliations, hau a philosophy in any way uiffeient fiom that of the
mighty 0niteu States Chambei with which it was affiliateu.
Pueito Rico was not uiffeient. But it was an islanua ciowueu one, wheie no one
coulu get fai fiom his enemies, wheie piovocations weie ubiquitous, wheie
exploiteis anu exploiteu weie easily iuentifiable in peison. It was also a colony in
whose iiches poweiful Continentals hau a stakeanu a stake too, they thought, in
keeping uown wages anu not letting laboi "get above itself." It was to be expecteu,
inciuentally, that these absentee owneis shoulu make use of theii affiliations foi
piotectionaffiliations which iamifieu into the piess, into Washington
uepaitments, into the Congiess. Now, also, the militaiy hau inteiests in Pueito Rico.
Anu the militaiy, when it is engageu in the active business of piepaiing to meet an
imminent enemy, uoes not like tiouble in the enviionment. It casts a suspicious eye
on "agitatois"; it wants its woik uone without aigument. When it is tolu by the
leaueis of the community piivately, anu by the piess publicly, that the cuiient civil
auministiation is "fosteiing uniest," "toleiating stiikes" anu sympathizing with
"uniuly elements," it is likely to ieact. Anu I was accuseu uaily of all these attiibutes
anu affiliations. Bouis of iauio time weie bought, many columns of the piess weie
useu, anu ceaseless piivate agitations went on. Collins, Phillips anu otheis like them,
who wanteu me to iun the civilian show in spite of eveiything, must have hau some
uneasy times. But they stoou by.
What I staiteu to say, howevei, was that all the opposition hau iemaikably small
iesults. Theie weie honest men, men of goou will in Pueito Rico just as theie weie
at home. Nany of them weie toleiant, humoious anu patient. They weie inclineu to
listen amuseuly anu uiscount laigely. They weie moveu, if at all, only towaiu a little
uisquiet, nevei towaiu joining the bittei ones. Nen of goou will aie like that
eveiywheie. But theie weie men, also, whose inuignation iose with theii goige anu
who, unsoliciteu, unueitook uefense. That, too, is a phenomenon chaiacteiistic of
uisinteiesteu men of goou will, once theii convictions aie engageu oi theii sense of

1
Ni. Bowles, of couise, tuineu out to be a fighting libeial, one of Piesiuent Roosevelt's gieatest
successes. But it uiu not look that way at fiist.

201
faii play is outiageu. Ny gieat goou foitune in Pueito Ricoas in the Stateswas
that my enemies weie intempeiateso intempeiate that theii own ianks began to
thin anu theii suppoit to fall away. At the climax of the ciusaue what woulu have
been thought to be the most unlikely peisons began to come to me piivately with
assuiances of confiuence, with messages of shame foi theii affiliates, with offeis of
public collaboiation. Sometimes they came stiaight out of the enemy camp.
uiauually the numbei became so laige that geneialization was no longei possible
anu I was unable to say that it was the businessmen, the employeis, the big faimeis
who weie against us. Foi now many of them weie piivately oi publicly foi us.
This uiu not happen at once; anu I must take cieuit, such as it is, foi the iight
stiategy in fosteiing it. I hau uone it in Washington anu in New Yoik anu it hau
always woikeu. The enemy was piovokeu to moie violence, that was all. uoou will is
a constant peicentage in the bouy politic. 0nfaiiness, violence, injustice will
unfailingly biing it out. So a public man, if he is wise, uoes not iegiet too much
having enemies as well as fiienus. Anu if he is to have them it is just as well if they
aie extieme anu obviously unfaii. These qualities weie being uisplayeu in Pueito
Rico without ieseive. Ny luck was goou in this too. I hau only one woiiy. That was
the Congiess. Congiessmen weie listening to the suiieptitious stoiies which weie
being conveyeu to them piivately; anu they weie asking whethei all that hau been
saiu about me yeais befoiewhich lingeieu vaguely in theii memoiies hau not,
aftei all, been tiue. This Congiessional ieaction was not yet foimiuable. But I felt
that it woulu giow if piopeily fosteieu. Anu it seemeu that this weakness was well
known to oui enemies; it woulu theiefoie be fosteieu. The only laige gioup of
Republicans in Washingtonoutsiue the new wai agencieswas in the Congiess.
The Pueito Rican Republicanos coulu be tiusteu to make use of theii likeness to
Republicans in the States. Theie weie seveial othei uisaffecteu gioups which woulu
woik in the same waythat of the iight-wing laboi leaueis, who blameu me foi
theii loss of piestige, anu the Faimeis' Association, whose membeis felt that a
thieateneu iise in wages was oveiwhelming eviuence of communism on the pait of
those who suggesteu it oi even those who uiu not oppose it.
Now, howevei, it began to seem that oui iesouices of man powei anu ability woulu
be equal to the task aheau. I hau been uisappointeu in finuing so many biight young
men among the ieactionaiies at the 0niveisity. That they shoulu be uevoteu to so
negative a cause was, I began to see, the iesult paitly of theii upbiingingthat
smotheiing, feminine auoiation which boy chiluien in Pueito Rico hau somehow to
suivive, anu out of which they often emeigeu spoileu, selfish anu unuisciplineu
anu paitly the iesult of insulai conuitions which must have seemeu extiemely
iestiicteu to an ambitious young man. The competition was going to be tough even
202
among the small numbei of the elite without uelibeiately encouiaging the
enlaigement of theii numbeis. In my fiist uiscouiagement at the antics of this gioup
I was inclineu to feel that it was laigei than it ieally was. As time went on, theie hau
emeigeu fiom it heie anu theie inuiviuuals who saw oppoitunities in the new
piogiam anu who wanteu to join in oui woik. Theii numbei woulu giauually
enlaige until it woulu become, as I felt, a iemaikable uemonstiation of the appeal
public seivice can have as against that of inuiviuual gain oi self-inteiesteu ambition.
Theie is anothei aspect of the Pueito Rican situation which toleiant outsiueis aie
apt to oveilook. It is tiue that the H$0$'%, was sinistei anu that it hau a bloou
ielationship with that gioup I have calleu the "bettei element" oi the "elite" This
was tiue even though the political paity to which most of them belongeu was the
-,!./012$'# whose main tenet was statehoou in oui 0nion. This confusion of
nominal loyalties might not have aiisen so easily if the elite hau not been stiongly
infuseu with expatiiate 7+,"12$'#3 whose thinking was sufficiently muuuleu to
incluue in theii ambitions foi oui Republic an economic system not unlike that of
the totalitaiians. With the example befoie them of lawyeis, militaiy men, anu
piominent businessmen who founu 6$0$'%138$ iueas congenial, the olu Spanish anu
the young Pueito Rican ieactionaiies can haiuly be blameu foi some confusionfoi
feeling, in fact, that an Ameiican elite was looking foiwaiu to something not
altogethei unlike what Fianco was establishing in Spain. In a 0nion of such
imagineu qualities, they woulu finu statehoou quite comfoitable.
Fiom the economic aspect of this, the ieligious element has to be uistinguisheu. I
came to know, latei on, a numbei of 6$0$'%138$3 who weie >#!.0$",3. 0bviously they
hau not joineu the miuule-class Euiopean totalitaiian movement in oiuei to keep
the woikeis in theii places, because >#!.0$"13+# hau its oiigin, anu its ieason foi
being, in an aggiessive attempt to impiove the lives of $%",%$(#3 anu #/","#3. The
seciet was ieligion. Economic iauicals can be as ieligious as anyone, Naixian
opposition to the Chuich notwithstanuing. They aie often not institutionally
ieligious because so often the Chuich, being iich, seems moie hospitable to
employeis anu lanuloius than to impoveiisheu Chiistians. Anu one who agitates foi,
oi even believes in, equalitaiianism may finu himself stiangely unwelcome in the
company of those who piofess Chiist. The ielevance of this heie is that the stiuggle
in Spain was suie to be ieflecteu with an almost fiatiiciual bitteiness in an islanu
only some foity yeais sepaiateu fiom hei.
The agitation on the 6$0$'%138$ siue was intempeiate anu obscuiantist. Anu the
iipostes of the Loyalists, although cleaiei, weie equally intempeiate. Neithei siue
was satisfieu with aigument: both weie ieauy foi foice. The favoiite aigument of
the 6$0$'%138$3 was that the Loyalists weie piiest-killeis anu nun-iapeis. The
203
violence of this contention betiays the spiiit of the contioveisy. No uistinction was
maue between taking chuich piopeity anu suppiessing its spiiitual functions; anu,
inueeu, most of the piiests themselves seemeu not to want any maue. They aie,
howevei, not iuentical, anu theie weie chuichmen, just as theie weie laymen, who
saw the uistinction. Inueeu theie weie many who felt that a ietuin to mateiial
poveity might mean a spiiitual ienaissance foi the Chuich.
It was not, it will be seen, an inevitable maik of economic ieaction that a young man
shoulu have been loosely allieu with the H$0$'%,. Be may have been leu into that
position by his ieligious auviseis. This was by no means usual. It was not usual,
eithei, foi a bankei, a lawyei, an engineei, an agionomist, oi even a uoctoi to be a
Populai; but it was not by any means unknown. Anu theie weie a goou many who
woulu not foimally affiliate with the >#!.0$",3 because of the supposeu
1'(,!,'(,'8138$ leanings of Nuoz' followeis, who weie economic iefoimists,
neveitheless, anu who coulu be calleu upon to help if they weie piopeily
appioacheu. I set out to finu anu to ueclassify all I coulu of the able young people. In
so ielatively iigiu a society, a young man is likely to be ticketeu almost without
willing it anu he is apt to accept his uesignation finally meiely fiom ineitia. I hopeu
to iescue some at least fiom ielative uselessness. The tiuth was, at this time, that
the Populaies weie veiy weak in technical ability. The paity hau a mass of loyal men
anu women at the bottom, a miuule layei of local agitatois anu woikeis, small
politiciansthe useful cement of affiliationbut it hau almost none of those in the
miuule class who caiiy on the papei woik anu uo the technical jobs of mouein
civilization. These hau to be ieciuiteu; anu Nuoz, in his eageiness to iewaiu
political loyalty, was falling into the olu Pueito Rican fault of putting a technical
label on an incompetent inuiviuual anu expecting him to uo a satisfactoiy job. That
hau been one cuise of the islanu. Anu it hau biought the goveinment seivice, the
0niveisity, anu even business, to a level incieuibly below the uemanus of the
situation. It now stoou in the way of ieciuiting.
An outsiuei coulu not, peihaps, uo much about this; but I ueteimineu to put in my
bit. Anu fiist of all I set out to laboi with the uppei iank of the >#!.0$",3Nuoz
mostto conveit them. They hau to be convinceu that theii movement woulu fail if
this weie not uone. To it I began at once to uevote myself. But theie weie otheis
who unueistoou what I was tiying to uo mostly youngei men who hau hau
tiaining in Ameiican univeisities. They began to join in my woik. Anu insteau of
political woikeis, who weie competent as oiatois but not as technicians, I began to
finu places in the uoveinment foi these youngei engineeis, economists, lawyeis anu
so on. Even at that I foiesaw uifficulty. Competent peisonnel was limiteu; the insulai
civil seivice was aumiiably ueviseu to piotect meuiociity; anu the tasks aheau weie
204
exacting. Foi by now the piogiam began to take on foim; Nuoz' legislative contiol
was opeiating to biing it into being.
Befoie my timein the spiing of '41the lanu law hau been passeu anu its
Authoiity was by now faiily well oiganizeu. But the iuea was giauually foicing itself
on the Populaies that this was not neaily enough. It might opeiate to secuie a
ceitain justice in the uistiibution of wealth; but what was moie necessaiy was
means foi incieasing wealth. The geneial line of appioach to this was
inuustiialization. It hau to be, since alieauy the population hau fai outgiown the
potentialities of any likely agiicultuial impiovement. It was not unthinkable that
auvances in faiming might yet be maue, although it seemeu moie likely that the
tienu woulu be the othei way because of soil exhaustion anu the uestiuctive eiosion
which hau all but iuineu the inteiioi hill countiy; but even if agiicultuial
possibilities uiu enlaige, theie still woulu not be enough wealth to go aiounu.
Woiking this out was not uifficult anu it was the peiception of it which leu me into
numeious, anu foi a long time futile, attempts to see uuplicateu in Pueito Rico the
uevelopment company of Baiti.
2
That, it appeaieu, was impossible if it hau to stait
with Feueial help, because it just woulu not be foithcoming, but possibly a mouest
beginning might be maue with Pueito Rican funus; they weie veiy limiteu but not so
limiteu as they hau been anu a few millions might be allocateu. The puipose was
piimaiily inuustiialization although what possibilities theie weie in agiicultuie foi
impiovement also seemeu to uepenu on goveinmental uevelopment anu such a
scheme ought not to neglect these.
S

In this connection we wonueieu about the many millions of iule piivate capital
which layanu foi uecaues hau lainin Pueito Rican banks. It seemeu
extiaoiuinaiily uifficult to tempt these funus into inuustiial uses. The oppoitunities
appeaieu to be obvious enough. Two million people foim a sizable maiket foi any
kinu of consumeis' goous; anu theie seemeu to be no ieason foi not manufactuiing
in Pueito Rico both the seivice goous
4
anu the by-piouucts of the gieat sugai
inuustiy. A long list of consumeis' goous coulu be manufactuieu too; anu theii
makeis woulu have the auvantage of not paying fieight foi those iaw mateiials
which coulu be piouuceu in Pueito Rico oi on suiiounuing islanuscotton, leathei,
vegetable oils, haiuwoous, many aiticles of foou anu so on. The list of by-piouuct
goous might incluue, besiues ium which was alieauy a laige inuustiy, alcohols anu

2
Societe Baitien-Amiicaine ue Bvelopement Agiicole.
S
I shoulu not attain this ambition until 194S. In that yeai the legislatuie woulu pass, anu I woulu sign
(on 24 Apiil), a bill foi such a company. Anu Ni. Thomas Fennell of the Baitian company woulu
become its Auministiatoi.
4
Seivice goous: bags, bottles, tools, papei, ceiamics, chemicals, containeis, uiugs, alcohol, feitilizeis,
machine paits, plywoous, etc., etc.
205
solvents, plastics, papei anu papeiboaiu, glass of all shapes, incluuing bottles, anu
vitamins. Inspection of a casual list of this kinu ievealeu one hopeful chaiacteiistic:
it hau on it some of the piouucts which weie just coming into piominence oi into
new uses foi which theie might even be an expoit maiket. We hau no mineials to
speak of, but we hau glass sanus. We hau no known petioleum"; but we hau watei
powei. Anu we hau an infinity of woikeis quite capable of becoming expeit. Why
hau piivate capital iefuseu temptation if any of the feasible piouucts weie
piofitable.
Biligent inquiiy uiu not fuinish any intelligible answei to this question. I giauually
came to believe what I hau been tolu at fiistthat piofits in sugai itself weie laige
enough to make any othei oppoitunities seem; by contiast, so meagei as not to be
woithwhile.
S
Theie was unuoubteuly concentiation. Bankeis knew sugai anu
tiusteu sugai loans; population was gioupeu aiounu sugai enteipiises to seivice
them; theie weie sugai expeits anu no othei kinu of expeitsa whole list of
ieasons coulu be uiawn up. Anu this was an islanu. It was not like an inuustiy on the
continent, existing in neighboily juxtaposition with otheis, with influences iunning
back anu foith; anu woikeis ieauy to change one job foi anothei. The impoitant
conclusion was that iule capital uiu not, as might at fiist be thought, mean that the
oppoitunities weie piofitless. It meant iathei that the capital was lazy. Bow put it to
woik.
0uis was not the fiist gioup to consiuei how this uilemma coulu be iesolveu. The
stuuies alieauy mentioneu hau pointeu the same way. Inuustiialization must be
foiceu. uoveinment must use what capital it coulu get anu tiy to tempt piivate
funus into new ventuies. Theie coulu be paitneiship, if necessaiy, so ieuucing the
iisks to investois. It was with these iueas in minu that we woikeu out the
Bevelopment Company anu the Bevelopment Bank. They uiu not come into full
existence in that legislative session. We weie not that fai into oui pioblem. It hau
still to be woikeu on, stuuieu ovei anu its vaiious methous anu vaiieties of solutions
tiieu in piactice. This woulu take yeais. But the beginning was being maue in 1942.
These weie not even piominent in my message to the legislatuie. What was on my
minu, as I stole the houis at }jome foi its piepaiation, was such changes in
goveinment itself that the young men of ability in Pueito Rico coulu take pait in the
vast woik just beginning anu feel that they weie shaping a satisfactoiy caieei. It was
not until the session was well along, anu Nuoz' contiol was coming out fiim anu

S
Then, too, theie weie savage uumping piactices by which mainlanu Inuustiialists uiscouiageu
insulai competition.

206
smooth, that he pioposeu putting on the books the main featuies of the inuustiial
piogiam.
Even then I paiu little attention to that pait of what hau to be uone. I was woiking
on a planning law, a buuget buieau, a cential statistical seivice, a ieoiganization of
the civil seivice, a measuie to take the police out of politics, anu one to establish a
fiie uepaitment. This, of couise, was in auuition to matteis of uefense anu supply
which in those uays weie the ieally immeuiate anu uemanuing necessities: we
cieateu a new civilian uefense oiganization anu a State uuaiu; we iewiote the law
establishing the supply seivice; we cieateu tianspoitation anu communications
Authoiities (these seivices having all but completely bioken uown fiom past neglect
anu piesent piessuies); anu we pioviueu funus foi the encouiagement of home foou
piouuction.
Besiues this, the ciisis which was appioaching because continental iestiictions on
civilian activities weie extenueu to the islanu was iecognizeu by incieaseu taxes, by
appiopiiating a laige sum foi unemployment ielief anu by setting up a Commission
to make fuithei iecommenuations foi extensions of welfaie benefits. Altogethei it
was a magnificent accomplishment. But its uigestion anu implementation was to be
anothei mattei; also I was uiscouiageu ovei the sabotage of the civil-seivice anu
police ieoiganization laws by Nuoz' own gioup. We hau caiefully piepaieu the
civil-seivice law, but it passeu in such emasculateu foim that, aftei stuuy, I
ueteimineu on veto. The main instiument, theiefoie, of a iegeneiateu goveinment
seivice was lacking at the veiy time when enoimous uemanus weie to be maue on
it. The legislatois woulu now go home anu leave me to fight it out with the local
politicos. Woulu it be possible to caiiy out the task at all with a peisonnel gatheieu
unuei these compulsions, aumitteuly incompetent, chosen only to iewaiu oi to buy
an expecteu paity seivice. At least it hau to be tiieu. Anu I founu in the enu that, in
spite of eveiything, we shoulu finu many who weie willing to join. Anu by
exempting the Authoiities fiom civil seivice we paiauoxically secuieu a
consiueiably highei aveiage ability than woulu have been possible unuei the olu
law. This uiu not help alieauy existing uepaitments, but it uiu help the new agencies.
What I hau foigot, in my uiscouiagement, was that Pueito Rico hau nevei hau
anything but this kinu of goveinment anu that what I was aiming at was beyonu
local expeiience. So that what we uiu achieve appeaieu so fai-ieaching as to seem
like the beginning of a ienaissance. Which, aftei all, it was!
Then, too, I hau anothei expeiience which suipiiseu me gieatly. As I began actually
to be acquainteu with, the local political leaueis, insteau of meiely imagining what
they must be like I founu that I hau foimeu an exaggeiateu opinion of theii complete
pieoccupation with politics. At least a few of them weie Populaies because they
207
iegaiueu the paity anu its piogiam as a movement which gave them an oppoitunity
to be of seivice. The numbei of these anu the stiength of this impulse was ieally
amazing. Not anything like all of them weie uistinguishable fiom small bosses
anywheie. But it was a ievelation to uiscovei how many weie inteiesteu in paity
mechanics foi othei ieasons than the ones usually attiibuteu to such people. Ni.
Swope hau fiist misleu me on this. Bis concein hau been mostly, it seemeu, that so
many weie inuepenuentistas at a time when the nation neeueu loyalty. About this
he juugeu coiiectly: at least eighty pei cent weie sepaiatistsanu at a time when
peihaps ninety pei cent of the iank anu file, the oiuinaiy voteis, weie ueteimineu
loyalists. I soon came to feel that this was less impoitant than uiu most Continentals.
To be intensely fonu of the patiia is neithei an unusual noi a uangeious sentiment;
anu if it hau not extenueu itself to the nation, that was moie otheis' fault than theiis.
Besiues it was uifficult to see what the 0niteu States woulu lose fiom a fieeu Pueito
Rico. It was Pueito Rico which neeueu paitneiship with the States. This, as I have
inuicateu, Nuoz knew well enough anu, in spite of sentiment, fought with his
followeis to establish as a piinciple. The people iealizeu it instinctively, which
tenueu to eniage the 1'(,!,'(,'8138$ leaueis but about which they coulu uo nothing.
Eveiy once in a while theii sentiments woulu get the best of them anu a flamboyant
meeting woulu be oiganizeu, uefiant speeches maue, anu so on. Each of these
outbieaks woulu be so obviously uisappioveu of by the people that Nuoz woulu
have to go to woik at once iepaiiing uamage. The eneigy he woulu spenu going
about the islanu aftei these outbieaks, iepuuiating theii authois, anu ieiteiating his
uictum that status was not a populai issue, woulu in itself have bioken uown a less
vigoious man, especially since he himself hopeu foi some kinu of assisteu autonomy.
Still, in a kinu of peiveise way, this sentiment among the little bosses was a
sustaining incentive foi othei anu woithiei effoits. To any Ameiican who is awaie
of his nation's histoiy in any conscious sense, talk of political libeity is iathei
familiai than stiange, iathei agieeable than iepugnant. At least it was so with me.
The speeches maue by the most extiavagant inuepenuentistas sounueu a goou ueal
like those I hau been taught to iegaiu as a piecious pait of oui own patiiotic
liteiatuie. Even when we Ameiicanos weie iefeiieu to collectively as "Yankee
impeiialists" it seemeu to me moie a mattei foi humoi than suppiession. Anu foi
bettei oi woise that was the way I tieateu the mattei.
At any iate we got so that we coulu woik togethei. They weie usually intent on
immeuiate local inteiests, I necessaiily on laigei ones. They saw most issues in
teims of Pueito Rican attituues; I saw them in teims, also, of geneial Ameiican
opinion. We came to giant each othei a ceitain supeiioi knowleuge, in oui less
exciteu moments, which maue a goou woiking aiiangement. The sympathy between
these local leaueis anu myselfwith Nuoz inteipieting anu helpingwas a souice
208
of iiiitation to most continental expatiiates, incluuing a goou manybut by no
means allFeueial officeholueis. They weie useu to uoveinois who exhoiteu
Pueito Ricans uay in anu uay out, in schoolboy teims, to a kinu of infantile
acceptance not only of patiiotic symbols but of Ameiicano habit anu custom. They
uemanueu an unciitical confoimity which no Spanish folk weie evei going to yielu.
uoveinois hau thus by implication helu up the expatiiates to Pueito Ricans as
mouels, a position in society much enjoyeu by those who hau not always been so
favoiably situateu in theii home communities. Ny wife anu I not only uiu not uo that
but we founu oui Pueito Rican fiienus, not among those who weie piofessional
pitiyanquis, but among otheis who weie woiking with us in what we hau to uo.
Aftei a few uays of speechmaking the session got uown to business, anu, although
much legislation was not actually passeu until the clock hau been stoppeu at the
enu, it was piocesseu gallantly. Anu what a volume theie was of it! I look at it on my
uesk now, at least five inches thick; I iecall that about as much again hau to be
vetoeu; anu I wonuei how it was evei uone, even with the almost two weeks of
oveitime.
6

0ne measuie foi which I was laigely iesponsible was the Planning Act. I have
iecoiueu the seivices of Alfieu Bettman of Cincinnati, who piepaieu the fiist uiaft.
Be felt stiongly that he hau met the peculiai uifficulties of Pueito Rican
goveinmental stiuctuie anu that he hau solveu the constitutional pioblem involveu
in the 0iganic Act. This uocument, seiving foi a constitution, was, it must be kept in
minu, not a constitution at all in the usual sense, but meiely an Act of the Feueial
Congiess. As such it was liable to change without the consent of the Pueito Rican
people. This hau not, in piactice, pioveu uangeious, although the possibility was a
constant souice of iiiitation to insulai piiue. But what hau pioveu uangeious was
the ieveise of this: Congiessional neglect. Because of ignoiance, lack of inteiest, anu
an unsympathetic iegaiu foi what was often thought of as an ungiateful waiu,
Congiess hau haiuly changeu the Act at all; anu yeai by yeai it hau giown moie
obsolete.
0ne piovision piohibiteu the cieation of new Bepaitments. Was the pioposeu
Planning Boaiu a Bepaitment. Theie hau been many semi-inuepenuent Boaius anu
Commissions establisheu in uefiance of that piovisionthe Boaiu of Bealth was the
oluest, but it hau been followeu by a long stiing of otheis set up in iesponse to new
uemanus on goveinment. In spite of these pieceuents Bettman was woiiieu. Then
theie was a piesciibeu ielationship between the legislatuie anu the executive
council. This last was a coipoiate cabinet, something which hau all but uisappeaieu

6
0f couise, that volume contains both Spanish anu English veisions.

209
elsewheie, a kinu of seconu executive which, as I have pointeu out, the Pueito
Ricans useu cleveily enough in ciicum-venting continental uoveinois, but which at
the same time maue effective executive action all but impossible. We wanteu to
pioviue that the Planning Boaiu might ueteimine lanu uses anu iegulate annual
public expenuituie, both in accoiuance with a legally auopteu mastei plan. That was
the function of planning in mouein goveinment: to lock piojecteu impiovements
into a logical whole which coulu be bioken only with uifficulty. Bettman was less
inteiesteu in buugeting as a contiol, believing that iegulation of lanu uses was
sufficient. I thought his uiaft impeifect because of this. I also thought his scheme foi
contiolling the use of lanu fai too elaboiate anu costly. Be felt that its complex
natuie was imposeu by the 0iganic Act. In New Yoik City the Planning Law which I
hau helpeu auministei hau hau a piovision which iequiieu moie than a majoiity
vote of the legislatuie (the Boaiu of Estimate) to ieveise uecisions of the Planning
Commission; in some cases the majoiity iequiieu was thiee-fouiths. This uiu not
make legislative ieveisal impossible; but it maue uefeience to political piessuies
moie unlikely. Theie was no way to obtain this piovision except by amenument of
the 0iganic Act, anu consiueiing the cuiient Congiessional opinion of planneis anu
planning, such a change was unlikely. We neeueu a uevice which woulu have the
same conseivative effect, yet which woulu confoim to the 0iganic Act.
Some of these pioblems weie solveu anu some weie not. Ni. Baitlett anu I
unueitook what we believeu to be the inuispensable iewiiting of the Bettman uiaft,
making it less elaboiate anu so less costly to auministei. Also we hau the enu in view
which we hau not been able to get Bettman to accept, that a planning measuie was
not of much use unless it was maue an impiegnable pait of the auministiative
piocess, anchoieu theie by the iequiiement of moie than a legislative majoiity foi
ieveisal.
Bettman, woiking with a Pueito Rican lawyei, was unable to iegaiu all Pueito Rico
as one laige city, foi planning puiposes, thus getting away fiom the obsolete
mechanics of some seventy municipal goveinments on an islanu thiity-five miles by
ninety. This system hau giown up in the coach-ioau uays when a tiip fiom San }uan
to Ponce oi Nayagez iequiieu seveial uays. Now it coulu be uone in a few houis, oi
even, by plane, as I usually tiaveleu, in a few moments. Foi auministiative puiposes,
anu especially foi planning, the islanu ought to be iegaiueu as one unit. The piocess
of substituting the insulai foi small-city seivices hau begun long ago. Bealth seivices
weie being centializeu; when the new uistiict hospital anu health-centei system
whose constiuction hau been inteiiupteu by the waishoulu be completeu, the
municipal hospitals coulu be closeu, a consummation longeu foi by most public-
health officials who iegaiueu these institutions as little bettei than pesthouses. The
210
same was tiue of othei seivices; police hau long been insulaiizeu, foi instance. As
stanuaius iose, anu people uemanueu moie of goveinment, the incapacity of the
small cities became moie glaiing. Theie was on the whole a uistinct centializing
tenuency. But not all Pueito Ricans iecognizeu it; anu ;#$0121#'138$3, paiticulaily,
feaieu at this time the loss of the numeious jobs they hau helu onto in the few cities
they still contiolleu. Bettman hau been given a 2#$0121#'138$ lawyei to woik with
him; anu he was too innocent to uisciiminate between iiievocable custom anu
political piefeience. This was one of Ni. Nalcolm's contiibutions to my comfoit.
7

Ni. Baitlett anu I hau a task almost as aiuuous, in consequence of this, as though we
hau not hau the seivices of an expeit uiaftsman. We peihaps uiu not altogethei
succeeu; Bettman felt that we hau not, anu askeu to be uissociateu fiom oui uiaft.
But we thought it the best we coulu uo unuei the ciicumstances. The legislatuie
went into the mattei iathei caiefully, ciiticizing even oui iewiiting as too elaboiate.
0f couise, no legislatuie evei likes to pass a planning law, just as executives in
geneial uo not like to sign them oi to woik unuei them. They ieuuce the aiea foi
political manipulation anu uebt-paying in public piojects just as civil-seivice laws
limit uebt-paying by giving jobs.
8
These activities aie nevei in the public inteiest,
howevei, anu iecognition of uemanu foi this kinu of thing has foiceu legislative
action iathei wiuely in the last uecaue, paiticulaily among municipalities, in which
fielu the initiative is usually taken by state legislatuies when they giant oi amenu
chaiteis, thus imposing limitations on city politicians iathei than on themselves. But
the Planning Law in Pueito Rico was uistinctly an act of ienunciation. It uiu not
suipiise me, theiefoie, to see it seveiely mouifieu befoie passage. Legislatois,
peifoiming an act they iesent, aie like the iest of us in uoing such a thing giuugingly
iathei than wholeheaiteuly. I was uisappointeu, neveitheless, to finu that the
insulai legislatuie hau a faim bloc in all iespects like the national oneanu, within
the insulai spheie, just as poweiful. In the enu its iepiesentatives succeeueu in
exempting all iuial aieas fiom the piovisions of the act, a wholly inexcusable
inueeu an inuefensible exception. Neveitheless the law as it emeigeu was, foi the
aiea it coveieu, a faiily mouein one, anu woulu piove, in spite of oui failuie to solve
satisfactoiily the pioblem of iequiiing moie than a legislative majoiity to go against
the Boaiu's finuings, extiemely useful. I even ietaineu the hope that amenument in

7
This lawyei pioveu so useful that when Ni. Fitzsimmons, the Auuitoi, set out to ieally make life
haiu foi me, he tiansfeiieu this same inuiviuual fiom Ni. Nalcolm's office to his own anu maue him
his legal auvisei. Be woulu tuin up lateiaftei Ni. Fitzsimmons hau leftas a membei of the staff of
the Subcommittee of the Bouse Committee on Insulai Affaiis (commonly known as the Bell
Committee, aftei its Chaiiman, Ni. C. }aspei Bell of St. Louis). Anu latei, as happeneu with most
uisplaceu Coalicionistas, he woulu be employeu in one of the Feueial wai agencies anu go on
obstiucting insulai effoits.
8
This point was elaboiateu in The Fouith Powei, 19S9.
211
the futuie, might yet extenu its piovisions to iuial aieas which weie being iuineu by
uses of lanu such as only a planning law coulu coiiect.
The plan to insulaiize municipal seivices was fuitheieu in this session: unuei the
impulse of civil uefense, theie was set up an Insulai Fiie Seivice; we also pioviueu
foi an Insulai seweiage seivice, as well as a paik seivice, anu authoiizeu the Watei
Resouices Authoiity to take ovei fiom municipalities the piovision of potable watei.
This last oiganization we weie also assisting, as I have noteu, to acquiie the
iemaining local powei anu light systems.
9

The measuies foi stiengthening goveinment incluueu, besiues the Planning Act, the
setting up of a Buuget Buieau anu a Cential Statistical 0ffice; but the failuie of the
civil-seivice anu police measuies was, of couise, a uisappointment. Pioposals foi
incieasing the islanu's income weie moie favoiably iegaiueu by the legislatuie than
hau been anticipateu anu we weie not ieauy with peifecteu uiafts. As a
consequence the bill establishing the Bevelopment Bank was little moie than a
ueclaiation of puipose. The tiuth was that we weie not cleai as to all its functions,
as yet, anu weie ieluctant to aiiive at a uefinite foim. The uoveinment hau ueposits
in piivate banks of many millions of uollais out of which the banks maue a veiy
goou thing, paying an infinitesimal inteiest anu lenuing at a much highei one (even
by puichasing Feueial oi insulai bonus they coulu, by paying 18 pei cent inteiest
anu ieceiving fiom 2 to 4 pei cent, make a huge piofit annually). Shoulu the
Bevelopment Bank be maue a place of ueposit foi these funus. Also, if it weie, foi
what puiposes shoulu the funus be maue availablewhat classes of loans shoulu be
piefeiieu. We weie not piepaieu to answei these questions all at once, oi to
answei, in fact, otheis similaily ciucial. We only knew that we wanteu the bank to
fill the gap in Pueito Rico maue by the failuie of piivate bankeis to uevelop an
investment institution in contiast to commeicial ones, that is, one which uispenseu
long-teim cieuits iathei than shoit anu seasonal ones. 0ui conception was that the
bank shoulu be the cieuit meuium thiough which the inuustiialization coulu be
achieveu which we believeu to be the only hope foi ieal betteiment in Pueito Rico.
But this meant that it shoulu not tiy to uiiect only public funus to these uses: theie
woulu always be moie piivate than public capital available, anu we thought that by
coveiing a maigin of iisk we might attiact these piivate holuings into new
enteipiises. Whethei this ought to be uone by uiiect loans, by geneiously
ieuiscounting the loans of piivate banks, oi by making auvances to mixeu
companies, we weie not ceitain. So the measuie as it was passeu meiely uiiecteu
the uoveinoi to issue a chaitei anu to piepaie foi opeiations. It pioviueu, howevei,

9
It woulu piove necessaiy, latei, to set up a sepaiate aqueuuct seivice foi the supply of watei anu
the maintenance of seweis.

212
that no business shoulu be uone until the legislatuie hau given fuithei
authoiization. Late in summei, I shoulu be even moie piesseu with wai pioblems
anu shoulu be no cleaiei in my minu on these issues. I shoulu theiefoie issue a
chaitei with the veiy wiuest authoiization, complying thus with the law, but leaving
amenuments to be suggesteu by the bank's uiiectois. The bank woulu giauually,
uuiing the next two yeais, take shape anu become accepteu.
We weie cleaiei at the outset about the kinu of law we wanteu foi the Bevelopment
Company. It was conceiveu that this was the uiiect meuium foi staiting new
activities. It woulu be uone eithei by setting up a wholly owneu coipoiation oi by
pioviuing that pait of the stock of subsiuiaiies might be uisposeu of to the public. It
might also issue bonus. It was expecteu that the company woulu shaie ceitain
uevelopments with piivate inuiviuuals a bottle factoiy, foi instance, was to be
built in conjunction with the makeis of ium. Wiue authoiization to go into business
was pioviueu; anu the alieauy successful cement factoiy begun by the P.R.R.A. was
tuineu ovei. The company was thus a going concein fiom its uay of oiganization.
0ne of the subsiuiaiy, but impoitant, phases of this legislation was the piovision
that the company shoulu establish a Laboiatoiy of Besign. I hau in minu, in
suggesting this, the success of vaiious minoi aieas in establishing themselves in
woilu maikets by supeiioi style anu woikmanshipSweuen, Czechoslovakia anu
Iielanu weie examples. If we weie to manufactuie, in Pueito Rico, vaiious
consumeis' goous they ought to be caiefully auapteu. Besiues theie was the possible
expoit maiket foi at least a few piouucts. The laboiatoiy was to be a seivice foi
piivate as well as public enteipiise. The fiuits of this piovision woulu appeai
quickly. 0nique fuinituie maue of bamboo anu ioyal-palm fibei, new types of native
iugs foi which a maiket alieauy existeu, anu new ceiamic uesigns woulu come
within a yeai.
Pieceuing anu uuiing this session my ielations with the Auuitoi giauually
woiseneu. Be hau two counts against me: that I pieventeu him fiom pie-auuiting
the tiansactions of the Watei Resouices Authoiity, anu, by establishing this
pieceuent, kept him fiom inteifeiing in the management of any of the new public
enteipiisesa contioveisy similai to that then going on between the T.v.A. anu the
Comptiollei ueneial of the 0niteu States; anu that I insisteu on a Buuget Buieau in
the 0ffice of the uoveinoi. It uiu not appeai to me that eithei of these was sufficient
cause foi a state of wai between us; but that was what, in alliance with Ni. Nalcolm,
the Attoiney ueneial, he piefeiieu. I nevei saiu publicly what I thought of Ni.
Fitzsimmons but peihaps he guesseu. Bis insufficiency as an Auuitoi lay in his
iestiicteu talent foi bookkeeping. But such limitations aie seluom known to theii
possessois; anu Ni. Fitzsimmons felt himself moie competent to make fiscal
213
uecisions foi the insulai uoveinment than the Tieasuiei oi myself. Be was so
ceitain that he was iight that he uiu not hesitate to appeal to the Secietaiy, anu
failing that, to the piess, to stop me in my heaulong couise. Buiing the making of a
buuget to take effect at the beginning of a fiscal yeai, it is, of couise, necessaiy to
make a global estimate of ievenues in the futuie on which to base expenuituies. As
to ievenues foi 1942-4S, then in piepaiation, Ni. Fitzsimmons guesseu that they
woulu be only half those foi 1941-42. The Tieasuiei guesseu they woulu not be less
anu might be somewhat moie than they hau been in that yeai.
1u
Besiues we weie
staiting off with a suiplus equal to about half the buuget. Neveitheless the Auuitoi
insisteu that health, euucational anu othei seivices shoulu be cut in half; anu, of
couise, that no appiopiiations shoulu be maue foi the piojecteu public-seivice
enteipiises, the Authoiities, anu othei capital expenuituies.
All this was stiictly none of the Auuitoi's business; it was given impoitance by its
publication. In any case it was a fantastic eiioi in juugment. It was baseu, I
uiscoveieu, on the theoiy that theie was going to be waitime piohibition in the
States. This, he imagineu, woulu cut off ievenue fiom the Feueial tax on ium which
is ietuineu to the insulai tieasuiy. I was having tiouble enough fiom othei souices
without attempting, on such a piognosis, to ieuuce by half the goveinment seivices
in Pueito Rico. Inueeu I thought anu saiu that they woulu ceitainly have to be
gieatly expanueu because of unemployment anu the incieasing cost of living. I hau
in minu highei income taxes too, anu a geneial buuget maue inuepenuent of ium.
We shoulu have to have ielief woik, home allowances, an expansion of fiee lunches,
anu so on if we weie to meet the ciisis at all. This woulu iequiie laige sums, but my
estimate of income was laige enough to meet the iequiiement; besiues I was ceitain
that the ievenues fiom ium woulu go up iathei than uown. Accoiuingly, with othei
help anu by putting in extia houis, I maue a new buuget, uiscaiuing that piepaieu
by Ni. Fitzsimmons, anu askeu the legislatuie to appiove a new buieau in my own
office, thus taking away fiom the Auuitoi the buugeting function.
Any stuuent of goveinment will iecognize that auuiting anu buugeting aie such
antithetical activities that they cannot safely be left togethei within one
oiganization. Auuitois aie notoiious squeezeis, to begin with, anu by natuie
negative, but also theie is something unnatuial in the thought of allowing an agency
to auuit expenuituies foi which it has pioviueu. The new Buuget Buieau woulu
piove extiemely useful. I shoulu appoint Ni. Louis Stuicke as its fiist heau anu
oiganizei, anothei of the olu-timeis who hau been with me both in Washington anu
New Yoik, anu he, togethei with a new Auuitoi, woulu succeeu eventually in

1u
They woulu actually tuin out to be some 2S pei cent moie, even, than his estimate.

214
biinging the chaotic fiscal affaiis of the insulai uoveinment into some soit of oiuei.
Be woulu be succeeueu by Ni. Robeito ue }ess Toio within a shoit time anu the
Buieau woulu be fiimly establisheu. These aie not matteis which inteiest the usual
ieauei; but it was a seiious mattei, fiom the point of view of auministiative contiol,
that moie than Su pei cent of the expenuituies of the uoveinment shoulu be fiom
"tiust funus": that is, iecuiient, a constant buiuen on ievenues, no mattei how these
might fluctuate; anu outsiue buugetaiy contiol.
11
Ni. Fitzsimmons' buuget actually
coveieu less than half the uoveinment's expenses. These tiust funus weie set up in
iesponse to the piessuie of special inteiests who wanteu to abstiact themselves
fiom any possible ieuuction in ievenues. Legislatuies hau obligeu anu executives
hau concuiieu unthinkingly in this. Abuses of this soit exist elsewheie; but they can
nevei have exceeueu those which hau giown up in Pueito Ricopait, I suppose, of
the attiition of Pueito Ricans on continental uoveinois. A funu set up in this way foi
politicosS pensions, foi a Tobacco Institute, oi even foi such woithy causes as
hospitals anu colleges, was put beyonu the powei of "foieigneis" to ieuuce.
I must not uwell longei on these fascinating fiscal matteis fascinating, I iealize,
only to an auministiatoi who has to ueal with them uay aftei uay, weighing anu
ieweighing the vaiious possibilities, anu finally accepting the iesponsibility not foi a
geneial juugment, but foi a specific one measuieu in colu figuies. Ni. Buscaglia, the
Tieasuiei, uiu well by me, howevei, anu between us, in spite of Ni. Fitzsimmons
anu otheis like him, we shoulu make faiily goou estimates. We shoulu pioviue foi
the necessaiy enlaigement of seivices; anu, at the same time, we shoulu ieoiganize
the whole fiscal stiuctuie, iefunuing half the uebt anu paying off the othei half.
Within two yeais we shoulu have the sounuest goveinment, in a financial sense,
unuei the flag. 0f couise, we shoulu have goou luck; but we shoulu have taken
chances too, anu have peisuaueu the politicians, against theii wishes, to inciease
taxes; we shoulu also have contiolleu expenuituies by unoithouox methous.
12
But
the iesults woulu be theie foi anyone to see. Anu it woulu be obvious, as oui ciitics
stuuieu it, that they weie unwillingly impiesseu.
But such eviuences of competence woulu not be at once appaient. What woulu be
moie easily seen, especially by those who wanteu to finu it, woulu be inuications of
extiavagance, anu of collectivism. To olu-fashioneu goveinment seivants like Ni.
Fitzsimmons, planning boaius, statistical offices anu buuget buieaus weie

11
Anothei technical name foi them is "continuing appiopiiations." They uo continue: no mattei what
the ievenue, expenuituies as to these items must be kept up.
12
0ne of these which I boiioweu fiom Ni. La uuaiuia was to foibiu the filling of vacancies except
with my peisonal appioval. In the fiist yeai I ieuuceu expenuituies in this way by one twentieth of
the total.

215
unnecessaiy anu wasteful. They seemeu so, too, to those whose taxes weie going to
be iaiseu. It useu to be saiu in Washington that the New Beal was only theoietically
unpopulai until taxes weie iaiseu; anu this was equally tiue in Pueito Rico.
Eveiything else coulu be foigiven. But this whippeu the %$00,%#3X feais into fienzy.
The olu matiiaichs anu the gianuees, Pueito Rican style, weie not going to be able
to sit like spiueis at the centeis of theii family-anu-ietainei webs anu iun the islanu
any longei. They now knew that Nuoz meant business anu that the election hau
aftei all been lost.
But they maue a mistake in pushing Nuoz too haiu. Reminuing him of his heiitage
hau not woikeu, noi hau any of the othei uouges. Be coulu not even be blackmaileu.
They now began to thieaten exouus. They woulu take theii foitunes anu go away
to Floiiua, wheie the sugai business seemeu to piospei in the ueep humus aiounu
Lake 0keechobee, to Santo Bomingo, wheie no socialistic nonsense was peimitteu,
to Cuba, which was not, like Pueito Rico, oveiciowueu with uniuly folk. Nuoz
ieacteu to this. Be sponsoieu a law which maue sugai-milling a public utility anu so
subject to iegulation; it was also pioviueu that on substantial abanuonment of any
enteipiise it coulu be taken by the uoveinment anu opeiateu foi its ownei's
account.
This ieally biought civilization uown about olu aiistociatic eais. The owneis of
these eais got theii lawyeis to go with them, continental lawyeis, too, anu
appioacheu the militaiy. They uemanueu maitial law, louuly anu stiiuently. Anu
they tolu Collins anu Phillips of a conspiiacy which by then was well aiticulateu,
having its Washington manifestations especially well laiu out. They seemeu to be
amazeu, so ueep weie they in theii own iage anu giief, that Collins shoulu be totally
unimpiesseu. Being loyal anu uisliking tieacheiy, the militaiy men infoimeu me at
once. Theie weie, howevei, no measuies I thought it necessaiy to take. The
uespeiation of the fiighteneu schemeis was obvious, anu, even though I uiu not
unueiestimate the powei of money, hate anu malice, its extiavagances woulu be
self-uefeating in the enu.

216
17
B0RINu TBE EARLY N0NTBS of the wai, the pioject foi inteinational collaboiation
in the Caiibbean lay "on the Piesiuent's uesk" oi moveu, in uiplomatic pouches, back
anu foith between Washington anu Lonuon. Towaiu Naich of 1942 intimations of
life weie appaient in San }uan; Chailes was senuing woiu by passing tiaveleis that
piogiess was being maue. Anu on the ninth of that month theie aiiiveu a lettei fiom
the Secietaiy enclosing a piess ielease to be given out at the White Bouse. Chailes
anu Sii Fiank Stockuale, Comptiollei foi Bevelopment anu Welfaie in the West
Inuies, weie to be "co-chaiimen." Ni. Coeit BuBois anu I weie nameu as Ameiican
membeis. Also anothei bouy, which until then hau not been mentioneu, was to be
set up: the Caiibbean Auvisoiy Committee. To this weie appointeu, besiues Chailes,
BuBois anu me, }uuge William B. Bastie, Ni. Cail Robbins anu }ustice Tiavieso: what
utility this bouy hau, I coulu not at fiist imagine; anu to this uay I uo not know what
Chailes hau in minu, except that his anxiety ovei the >0$' ;$"1/, agitation in Pueito
Rico may have suggesteu a wholly Ameiican Committee iathei than an inteinational
one to which Pueito Rican matteis might be iefeiieu. But what matteis. Thinking
this ovei uuiing the next twenty-foui houis, one at least occuiieu to me. The entiy
foi 1u Naich in my jouinal suggests that the wai was uominantly in my minu,
peihaps because of the note that theie was an aleit at foui in the moining, the thiiu
in two uays, but also, in spite of a slight incoheience, that I was thinking of postwai
aiiangements. At any iate it appaiently seemeu a goou vehicle foi an appioach to
the question of status:
1u Naich 1942. It seems too bau that this Caiibbean Commission coulu not have
been set up on a moie compiehensive basis, incluuing the inuepenuent islanus anu
peihaps even the boiueiing countiies. We aie in foi it now; anu we iun the iisk of
all colonial occupations. I shoulu think that aftei the wai the olu colonialism woulu
be ueau. What has appaiently beaten the Biitish anu the Butch in the East (}ava has
piobably fallen now, anu Rangoon ceitainly has) has been betiayal by the "natives,"
if a new choice of masteis on theii pait can be calleu "betiayal." I can't help
wonueiing what woulu happen heie if an enemy lanueu in foice. Exactly how woulu
Pueito Ricans uiviue if offeieu a new oppoitunity. I believe they feel moie, but still
not neaily enough, pait of us. I have been wonueiing whethei it might not be
stiategic foi the Piesiuent to suppoit a new status foi Pueito Rico now. I am wiiting
him to suggest that we uissociate ouiselves, by such a gestuie, fiom the colonial
empiies, anu thus not iun the iisk of a Nalaya oi a }ava heie. Anu why not have the
new Ameiican Auvisoiy Committee join in my iecommenuation.
That lettei was wiitten; anu it was the beginning of a long campaign which woulu be
moie foimally initiateu when the Committee met latei. At the moment I was having
217
tiouble with Nuoz ovei jobs, anu with Ni. uoiuon ovei the foou ieseive. I was
beginning also to woiiy a little, even befoie the legislatuie hau acteu on the buuget
foi 1942-4S, about ievenues. Woulu they be sufficient to meet the obligations to
which I was consenting. I knew that the Bivision in Washington agieeu with Ni.
Fitzsimmons that my buuget was too laige. If the submaiine blockaue continueu to
tighten anu aiiiving goous became scaicei, excise taxes on them woulu become
scaicei too, anu this was even moie impoitantly tiue of expoiteu ium. Peihaps Ni.
Fitzsimmons woulu tuin out to have been iight aftei all, even if foi a wiong ieason.
Then, too, I was being attackeu in Congiess by Nessis. Tabei, Ciawfoiu, Chuich, anu
otheis, attacks which lost nothing in theii tianslation. The insulai piess uisplayeu
them not only in ,Y8,'3# but in ,Y2,0313. It must have suipiiseu Ni. Ciawfoiu to
uiscovei how gieat a statesman he was thought to be among oui toiies. Nost of the
cuiient fuioi was occasioneu by the ielease at Inteiioi a week oi two pieviously of
my "Suu-Acie Repoit." The Republicans thought it amusing to bait the Bemociats by
citing a iefeience to similaiities between the estate system in Pueito Rico anu that
in the continental South. Anu since I iecommenueu that the ieoiganization alieauy
begun unuei the Lanu Authoiity Act ought to pioceeu, even if in a uiffeient way, Ni.
Ciawfoiu hau no uifficulty in suggesting that this was an appeal foi goveinment
owneiship of lanu. Anu how, he wanteu to know, uiu the Southein Repiesentatives
like that. Bow they likeu it, whethei tiue oi not, was soon to be maue known.
But to go on with cuiient complications: just at this time I was having to finu a new
chief of police anu to ieoiganize still again civil uefense; then, too, I began moie
actively to see anu encouiage the local uefense oiganizations. 0n such a tiip to the
south coast, in a boiioweu bombei, we lanueu at Losey Fielu anu I hau a chance to
look aiounu anu talk with the officeis theie. I was amazeu anu uisconceiteu to
uiscovei that plane uispeisal hau not yet been pioviueu foi. It seems incieuible that
an impoitant aiifielu can have been in this conuition at the miuule of Naich in 1942.
It was so, howevei, because I saw it, anu having uiscusseu it with them, knew that it
was not a mattei of any special woiiy to the officeis. If an enemy attack came in
fiom the sea those clusteieu fighteis woulu nevei get into the aiijust as they hau
not at Peail Baiboi anu Nanila. This was a setback. I was a long time aftei this in
getting back my foimei assuiance.
1


1
I might have hau moie assuiance, possibly, in aimy foiesight if I hau known that uuiing this week an
aimy engineeis' gioup hau lanueu on Ascencion to builu the lanuing stiip which woulu make a South
Atlantic ciossing possible foi fightei planes going to the Afiican anu Russian battlefielus. Ascencion is
an islet halfway acioss fiom Biazil to Lagos oi Biazzaville. It was on this ciossing that the pilots useu
to say: "If I miss Ascencion my wife gets a pension," which inuicates the uifficulties they hau.

218
This week piouuceuin the miust of accumulating tioubles one of those ciises
which woulu continue to iecui while the piessuies of wai anu blockaue mounteu.
The thesis was that I hau been askeu to iesignin fact, that I shoulu be leaving,
unuei oiueis, on a ceitain uate. The stoiy was staiteu anu caiiieu on by a
newspapei piopiietoi. Be hau it fiom someone who hau it stiaight fiom Ni.
Roosevelt. 0h, anu yes, it hau been confiimeu at Inteiioi. Aftei the insulai fashion,
the fabiication became elaboiate: the family silvei was being packeu anu oui
noithein weaiing appaiel being got ieauy. Tylei's nuise hau been given notice. All
this in heaulines eveiy uay. Nuoz came in looking peituibeu. Be was suie he was
going to have to ueal with a stiange uoveinoi; anu how was he to get the bills signeu
which his heioic effoits hau got thiough the legislatuie. Be was inclineu to be
accusatoiyI was planning to quit in the miust of the fight, anu what about his
commitments. It took some time to check the floou of iepioach. Be went back to his
legislative session still somewhat unconvinceu. Foi a week oi two the newspapei
piopiietoi in question kept it up. Bispatches weie sent fiom Washington
nominating new canuiuates;
2
inteivieweis expiesseu satisfaction that at last the
Piesiuent hau acceueu to Pueito Rican uemanus foi my ieplacement. Anu, as in all
similai inciuents, of which theie weie many uuiing the next yeai, face was
elaboiately pieseiveu by the shameless use of the piess. Finally, aftei the agitateu
legislatuie hau passeu a iesolution of confiuence in me anu one withuiawing
confiuence fiom Ni. Bolivai Pagn, who was seiving as stooge at the Washington
enu, the Piesiuent sent a lettei to Nuoz in iesponse to the legislatuie's message,
inuicating waim suppoit. Anu the piess foi a week oi two founu it convenient to
uevelop othei inteiests.
With all these annoyances, it was a ielief to have a compulsoiy jouiney in the offing.
Foi Chailes hau talkeu the State Bepaitment into giving the new Commission a
special plane foi a suivey tiip aiounu the Caiibbean anu the enu of Naich saw us
gatheieu in Tiiniuau foi oui fiist meeting.
0nuei oiuinaiy ciicumstances, foi a uoveinoi to go away leaving a legislatuie in
session woulu iightly be thought almost ciiminally negligent. Anything coulu
happen. It was especially iisky foi me to go at this time with wai tension incieasing
anu with Nuoz unuei the stiain imposeu by the accouchement of so vast a
iehabilitation scheme. But I hau been maue a membei of the Commission aftei
piotest; anu I coulu not iefuse to follow oiueis. So, aftei foimally iegisteiing my
uneasiness, I went. The last uay foi the intiouuction of bills was past, anyway, anu

2
0ne of these canuiuates, Bi. Baiuch, woulu tell me cheeifully moie than two yeais latei that he hau
wanteu to be uoveinoi anu hau lent himself to this. But this was when his ambitions hau been
satisfieu by the ambassauoiship to Poitugal.

219
peihaps sheei exhaustion woulu pievent the occuiience of untowaiu inciuents. Ny
last shot befoie leaving was a ieally outiageous lettei to Ni. Ickes, piotesting uelay
in the stock-piling of foou, uenouncing the empty postuiing of Ni. uoiuon, anu
geneially making myself a nuisance. I thought that eithei he woulu ask me to iesign
out of hanu oi call in his ciew of saboteuis foi an explanation. I hopeu he woulu
uemanu my piesence in Washington foi a showuown. I was sufficiently feu up to
make it an inteiesting one.
Take it altogethei I was not likely to be veiy helpful, in any long-iun sense, on the
geneial colonial issue; oi, foi that mattei, on specific futuie plans foi the Caiibbean.
I was getting ueepei into a fight of my own which I wanteu to finish now no mattei
what the outcome. It was iemaikable how quickly I cooleu off in the leisuiely
atmospheie of uoveinment Bouse in Tiiniuau; foi a week oi two I became again an
obseivei iathei than an executive, a change which was wholly agieeable.
Theie hau been no uiscussion of agenua foi oui meeting. Theie weie secuiity
ieasons foi this, I was tolu. But the fact that theie hau been no pieliminaiy
exchanges, by mail, cable, oi phone, all of which weie nominally available, inuicates
anothei of the uifficulties which hampeieu waitime auministiation in Pueito Rico.
Foi puiposes of censoiship it hau been ueteimineu "in high places" to tieat us as
though we weie a foieign countiy. This hau taken me by suipiise; in fact the fiist
notice I hau hau of it was someone telling me of a supposeuly confiuential phone
conveisation between myself anu Inteiioi officials. It seemeu that my conveisations
weie not only being listeneu to but iecoiueu. I was to be iegaleu latei by the tale of
how ceitain naval officeis of the Reseive, now on active uuty, weie much amuseu to
gathei anu listen as my talks with Washington officials weie amplifieu. Since these
officeis weie mostly -,!./012$'#3 it was natuial that they shoulu convey the moie
enteitaining bits at once to political leaueis. Anu it was tiue that they uisplayeu
knowleuge of matteis which I hau thought confiuential. This piactice of the censois
was not known to me as yet, noi even suspecteu; but I was awaie that my letteis
even those to the Secietaiyweie being openeu anu ieau. Foi some ieason it was
thought to be in the public inteiest to ciiculate, in mimeogiapheu foim, exceipts
fiom censoieu letteis, to a selecteu list of Washington officials. The communications
between Ni. Ickes anu myself, he uiscoveieu, weie known to all officialuom. I nevei
knew what he uiu about this cuiious uevelopment, but piesently it stoppeu. Foi a
long time, howevei, the letteis continueu to be ieau. I founu it of no use to piotest.
Those involveu fell back on "secuiity." Foi the entiie yeai to come, I hau no
confiuential communication with my home office.
So we began oui Tiiniuau uiscussions fiom sciatch. We weie conscious that we
weie piepaiing the way foi something laigei than ouiselves. 0ntil we became
220
acquainteu with one anothei anu with oui mutual pioblem, we shoulu not bieak
into new inteinational teiiitoiy; we shoulu, as I felt, be too cautious in that, too slow
to appioach necessaiy if uangeious issues. It was tiue, howevei, that the immeuiate
neeu was foi oiganization of a supply system thioughout the aiea which woulu
stanu up even in blockaue. 0ui two nations coulu not let these millions of uepenuent
people staive. Neveitheless, incieuible as such a situation seems, it was cleai that
unless oui gioup uiu something about it nothing woulu pievent the aiiival of actual
staivation within a mattei of months. Aftei neaily thiee yeais of wai the Biitish
islanus hau no stocks left. Rationing was seveie; anu nothing iemaineu in the shops
but the necessities anu theie weie baiely enough of these. We heaiu at once that
many smallei islanus not only hau no ieseives but weie actually out of foou
altogethei. This appalling situation hau been alloweu to occui because theie weie
no ieplacements foi the ships oiuinaiily uepenueu on, anu because these weie now
being lost one aftei the othei. In oiuinaiy times ships in the insulai supply seivice
go iegulaily foi yeais on accustomeu iounus; anu meichants obtain theii supplies
fiom tiauitional souices. This iegulaiity was now bioken up. Theie was
bewilueiment anu feai. The Biitish auministiatois hau taken ovei fiom piivate
impoiteis some time ago anu weie buying in bulk wheievei goous coulu be founu,
uistiibuting to local meichants what they coulu get. Theii job was being uone with
efficiency unuei extieme uifficulty; but even they weie baffleu by continuing caigo
losses. They neeueu a laigei affiliation which woulu take the whole supply pioblem
as a necessaiy task anu see to it in spite of wai.
This neeu was an oveiwhelming one in the spiing of 1942. We coulu haiuly have sat
to uiscuss the futuie of the Caiibbean with hungei uominating eveiyone's thoughts.
Foou, consequently, was what we consiueieu in these meetings, anu what we
woikeu at uuiing the iest of that yeai. The futuie coulu go ovei until it was ceitain
that theie woulu be one.
Neveitheless we weie awaie that laigei pioblems weie just ovei the hoiizon; anu in
ouu moments we talkeu of them infoimally. We hau to believe that oui siue woulu
win the wai even though at that time this seemeu haiuly a justifiable assumption*
Still, if that weie not assumeu, no uiscussion was possible. Not oui Commission, but
Nazis anu Fascists woulu settle Caiibbean policy if things went bauly. Anu theie was
no uenying that they weie going bauly, not only in Buima anu New uuinea at the
othei siue of the woilu but in oui aiea as well. uoous weie pileu high in the iailioau
yaius anu on the uocks of the Atlantic anu uulf poits, not only goous we neeueu foi
civilian subsistence in the Caiibbean, but also munitions foi the aimies of China,
Russia anu Biitain as well as those necessaiy to builuing, among otheis, the bases
along the Antilles aic. The confusion anu congestion weie beyonu uesciiption. Anu
221
the seas seemeu empty of ships. The submaiines weie all aiounu oui islanus, within
sight, almost, a constant anu aiiogant menace. Woik on oui uefenses seemeu likely
to be stoppeu altogethei oi at least gieatly uelayeu. Since the Schainhoist anu the
uneisenau hau gone up the English Channel while the Biitish uozeu, the whole sea
pictuie hau changeu. It was quite possible that the Biitish woulu be biought out of
the Neuiteiianean altogethei in oiuei to holu the Atlantic. The battles in oui sea
weie just beginning. They woulu be woise befoie they coulu be bettei.
Yet I iemembei an inteiesting exchange one evening in which othei Commissions
like ouis weie foieshauoweu if things shoulu go well. 0ne woulu be neeueu foi the
Neuiteiianean; anu out in the Pacific theie weie vaiiously contiolleu islanus on a
ieally vast scale. The whole aiea fiom the Solomons, up thiough the Naishalls anu
uilbeits on one siue anu out acioss New uuinea, Boineo anu }ava on the othei,
encloseu a gieat sea which the }apanese hau long been appioaching with possessive
eyes anu now hau giabbeu in one convulsive movement. ueneial Nac-Aithui hau
escapeu to Austialia but as yet he hau nothing to woik with anu it lookeu as though
he might have to iesist theie. Still if we shoulu iecovei anu win back this aiea foi
the 0niteu Nations, the peace woulu involve the veiy pioblems we faceu in
miniatuie in the Caiibbean. Theie woulu be no stopping place, of couise, shoit of
the mothei nest in }apan. Anu steiilization theie woulu be a special pioblem. But
thousanus of Pacific islanus woulu be "fieeu." What was to be uone with them.
Nany woulu not even have a foimei soveieignty to which they coulu ietuin. They
woulu have been unuei manuate since the fiist Woilu Wai. Anu woulu the otheis be
content to go back to Fiench, Butch oi Biitish iule. 0i woulu some inteinational
commission like ouis be entiusteu with theii laigei inteiests while they weie given,
such of them as wanteu anu coulu use it, local self-goveinment. Speculation was
meiely that. We hau no gieat wisuom, anu we weie woiking in the uaik. We might
talk casually of these matteis, but actually we weie too haiu piesseu foi any
consiueieu uiscussion.
Naich is the uiy season in Tiiniuau anu, seeing the biown lawns in the paik, I was
ieminueu of the climatic vaiiety among these islanus. Theie is a coinei of Pueito
Ricothe southwest which is so shelteieu fiom the Tiaues that it gets little
moistuie anu often has moie the appeaiance of New Nexico than of the subtiopics.
It is a pastuie lanu anu ielatively unpeopleu foi so ciowueu an islanu. But except foi
this, Pueito Ricans seluom saw the iesults of ieal uiought, oi iealizeu the uiffeience
such peiiouic shoitages of iain can make. Ceitain plants anu tiees will not toleiate
the uepiivation. Ceitain otheis behave uiffeiently. I hau noticeu on tiips to St.
Thomas oi St. Cioix how, in those ielatively uiy islanus, the bougainvillea giows less
luxuiiantly but has a moie biilliant bloom. Beie in Tiiniuau theie was a lovely
222
showing of what in the Spanish islanus is known as Isabel Segunua but which was
heie calleu plumbago. Its mouestly blue floweis lighteu whole heuges as though
ieflecting coloi fiom the sky. In oui uampei gaiuens it nevei attaineu this gloiy. But
except foi a few uefiant floweiing plants of this soit, the uiy months aie almost
uoimant.
uoveinment Bouse in Tiiniuau, like most of those in Biitish colonies, was, as one
coulu see, the aichetype of gentlemen's houses in Englanubut of a centuiy oi two
ago, when squiies coulu affoiu house seivants, gaiueneis anu stablemen, anu still
caieu foi a lanu which piouuceu gieat wealth so immune fiom taxes that it coulu be
put back into the soil again. The lanu now has come into competition with uistant
estates wheie costs aie less, especially foi laboi; anu, since the iise in taxes, the
gieat houses aie eithei closeu oi aie sepaiateu fiom the founuation of agiicultuial
income on which they weie oiiginally built. But in eveiy colony theie is a bit of the
olu English life suiviving at uoveinment Bouse. It is the seat of officialuom, not of an
agiicultuial enteipiise, but its iesemblance to the houses in the mothei countiy
which weie estate centeis is too obvious to miss. It was put heie to show the
"natives" how tiue Englishmen live. Anu so fai as they can, the colonial estate
owneis imitate the spaciousness anu luxuiy of uoveinment Bouse to this uay.
The skeptical Ameiican is apt to wonuei whethei the iueas seateu heie aie not, like
the Bouses, those of iuial Englanu befoie the inuustiial ievolution. I am not going to
say the easy thing that they aie. Foi Biitish uoveinois aie intelligent anu
competent anu have a uecent sense of the iequiiements of noblesse. I nevei myself
have known one whose iueas wholly fitteu the house in which he liveu. But it must
be acknowleugeu that the countiy-house life, leisuiely anu affable, is not the
expecteu souice of social change. Anu peihaps my expeiience of Biitish uoveinois
has been too iecent to be iepiesentative.
I may as well confess that on this tiip I was so giateful foi the inteiluue of ielief
fiom my own iesponsibilities that I sank willingly into the appaient English peace
anu boiioweu no moie tiouble than was foiceu upon me. I hau to go to meetings.
Chailes anu Sii Fiank weie insistent meeteis anu always ieauy with minutes,
memoianua anu iefeiences. I came awake once in a while to make what I hopeu was
a biight iemaik. But on the whole I was a weight. Anyway, what was being uealt
with was the supply pioblem of the Biitish islanus. It soon tuineu into a uuel in
which my somnolence was peihaps useful since it simulateu stubboin iesistance.
Foi what the Biitish weie aftei was that the 0niteu States shoulu take the whole
supply pioblem off theii hanus foi the uuiation. That in itself maue some sense.
Auministiatively it woulu be a gain. But it soon uevelopeu that it was theii iuea that
they ought to get supplies foi the islanus on lenu-lease. Since these goous on aiiival
223
weie going into the iegulai channels of tiaue to be solu to consumeis in the usual
way, anu since one so cynical as myself in the mattei of Biitish-0niteu States
ielations felt with uttei ceitainty that lenu-lease goous woulu nevei be paiu foi, it
lookeu like an awfully goou thing foi somebouy. I iemaikeu, as soon as I got the
uiift, that it must be the answei to an impoitei's uieam to get goous fiee anu sell
them at waitime piices (which, of couise, misstateu the pioposalit was the
goveinments to whom most of the gains woulu have gone); anu I saiu fieely that I
suspecteu theii officialuom of having joineu up with what coiiesponueu to my own
ineffable 2#+,"21$'8,3 gioup. In fact, I saiu, they might finu one ieason foi the
uislike of colonialism in this paitneiship. The people no longei believeu that the
officials woikeu foi themiathei foi the small business clique who exploiteu them
as a iegulai thing. Sii Fiank, I must aumit, was a little shamefaceu about the
pioceeuing; but Ni. Caine, the Colonial 0ffice iepiesentative who hau now become a
tempoiaiy membei of the Commission, piesseu haiu anu, as it seemeu to me,
without tact, even aftei the thing was exposeupeihaps unuei Bome 0ffice
instiuctions. Chailes anu I hau to be uowniight iuueI, of couise, moie than he.
Anu even then oui Lonuon fiienu uiu not give up. Latei he was to get some ieal
concessions in Washington, neeuless ones, as I felt, which someuay might be
investigateu to eveiyone's embaiiassment. But he uiun't get them out of us in
Tiiniuau. This began a feuu between Ni. Caine anu myself which was to go on all
thiough the eaily woik of the Commission ovei similai issues. I thought him
neeulessly, almost insuffeiably olu-colonial; he piobably thought me a ciuue
Ameiican. We nevei saw eye to eye on anything. Peihaps I unueistoou him bettei
foi being English myself (all my ancestois came fiom the South of Englanu, the
pateinal half of them only just in time to give me an Ameiican-boin fathei) anu
being theiefoie quite capable of being insuffeiable iight back at him when he was
oveibeaiing.
S
Chailes was at least a little impiesseu by the Biitish; theii
pietensions, so fai as he was conceineu, weie piactically steiling; anu he was as
weak as a giil whenevei they maue uemanus. Be was inclineu to iegaiu me with
hoiioi whenevei I snappeu at them anu was iuue. This was often, foi I thought, to
use again the Ameiicanisms which I useu then, that they weie getting away with
muiuei in the Caiibbean, at least, anu that we weie being suckeis. I still think so;
but that uiu not imply any lack of iespect foi theii abilities. 0n the contiaiy. But I
uiu not see that I was iequiieu to like it. Chailes stiffeneu a lot latei on, of couise,

S
Seveial yeais latei I was to have a geneious anu appieciative note fiom Ni. Caine which makes me a
little ashameu of my offensiveness in 1942. Be thought a paiticulai legislative message of mine
effective anu saiu he wisheu Biitish uoveinois woulu show the same soit of leaueiship. To this I
answeieu that he ceitainly gave me too much cieuit now as he hau given me peihaps too little once
befoie. Anu I askeu him back to the Caiibbean so that we might quaiiel some moie. I haun't hau a
ieal one, I tolu him, since he hau been with us.

224
anu, inueeu, was the most effective piotectoi of Ameiican inteiests in the Caiibbean.
Be was always on the job when it seemeu as though eveiyone else hau foigot us.
Sii Fiank Stockuale, oui Co-Chaiiman, although he foimally siueu with Ni. Caine,
knew us anu the Caiibbean too well to insist beyonu the point of uecency on such
concessions as weie involveu in this fiist quaiielfoi theie weie to be otheis
between myself anu Ni. Caine. Sii Fiank, following the Noyne Commission into the
West Inuies, hau a mouest funu to spenu on enteipiises calculateu to impiove
conuitions of all soits. It was the Biitish veision of oui Feueial public woiks
extenueu to the colonies. It was, howevei, a moie intelligent one; foi Sii Fiank was
iequiieu not meiely to iesponu to local piessuies but actually to shape such a
piogiam of expenuituies as woulu piouuce impiovement anu contiibute to welfaie.
To uo this he hau to unueistanu the iegion's potentialities anu to cut behinu
centuiies of tiauition, piejuuice anu malaujustment. This meant senuing in outsiue
expeits in agiicultuial piouuction, in inuustiial uevelopment, in uistiibution, anu in
such othei matteis as town planning, euucation, health, housing, municipal
seivicesall the phases anu elements of mouein life in which the West Inuies
lingeieu in anothei centuiythe centuiy out of which the pattein foi uoveinment
Bouse hau come. Sii Fiank was not going to be beloveu in the islanus by anyone of
note. Some uescenuants of this geneiation's common people might someuay call
him blesseu. But the Chambeis of Commeice, the goveinment buieauciacy, the
planteis, anu even the uoveinois, many of them, weie not going to enjoy the foieign
expeit auvice anu shaking up anu the ieconstiuction which weie coming. A gieat
ueal was going to be heaiu about the olu colony's tiauitions, about expeits who
thought they knew bettei than long-time iesiuents, about the encouiagement of
uniuly classes anu people being euucateu beyonu theii oppoitunities.
Sii Fiank was, howevei, well equippeu not only foi his job but foi iesistance to the
uetiactions which weie going to come his way. Be was the peifect Bickensian mouel
of the Niulanu squiie. Be woulu meiely have filleu in the pictuie of the English inn if
he coulu have been seen emeiging in his gieatcoat on a fiosty moining anu shouting
foi his stable boy; he woulu have uone, in fact, foi a iepiesentation of that Ni.
Waiule who was the host of Nessis. Pickwick, Winkle anu paity on a famous
occasion. Bis big fiame anu heavy paunch, the twinkle in his shiewu blue eyes,
uaunteu many a piofiteeiing impoitei anu many a plantei too, who woulu have
shouteu "communist" at a moie poetic-looking gentleman. Bis talk ian to ciop
figuies, cost estimates, wholly accuiate vital statistics anu uistiessingly iealistic
appiaisals of commeicial potentialities. Be knew how little can be uone on the fast-
eiouing slopes of the volcanic islanus, oi on the "extiemely infeitile" soils of the
uuiana hinteilanu. Be was not taken in by the miiage of settlement schemes thiough
225
which each uistiesseu aiea hopes to unloau its excess of population in some othei
aiea. Be knew that shoit of uiastic ieoiganization thioughout, anu acceptance of
natuie's haiu conuitions, theie was no way to impiovement. This was as little likeu
by local politicians as by the Chambeis of Commeice. But Sii Fiank, baseu on
Lonuon, anu neai the enu of a long colonial caieei, went his way cautiously anu with
complete skepticism.
4

This was my fiist acquaintance with him. We sat acioss the table fiom one anothei
foi seveial uays anu I coulu see him sizing me up as, iousing fiom lethaigy, I fenceu
with Ni. Caine. Be was not altogethei uisappioving. We shoulu meet again many
times with incieasing mutual iespect. Be, Chailes, Caine anu I weie the guests at
uoveinment Bouse of Sii Bubeit Young. The gieat Bouse was fuinisheu with
countiy comfoit. The aiis blowing its silk cuitains anu wanueiing thiough the
comfoitable iooms ieminueu me of places I knew in Kent anu Boiset thiough which
the Channel bieezes blew in summei. Ny beuioom openeu upon a wiue balcony
ovei stietching lawns anu paneleu iose gaiuens. The enoimous tiees in the paik
might have been the white oaks anu elms of the English countiysiue. I iose late anu
loafeu. I hau enjoyeu this kinu of thing befoieabioauanu suspecteu that it might
be in my bloou. I founu it only too easy to assume that I hau some kinu of iight to
enjoy it while the lessei bieeus laboieu foi its maintenance. That night theie was a
uinnei foi peihaps sixty guests; anu the cellais still hau poit foi the uiinking of
healths. I sat on the iight of the uoveinoi anu cheeifully offeieu the visitois' toast to
the symbolic heau of this Empiie aftei Bis Excellency calleu us up to honoi oui
Piesiuent.
It was somewhat uiffeient in Biitish uuiana. Tiiniuau was, aftei all, a compaiatively
iich islanu. Theie weie iesouices of oil anu asphaltum which bolsteieu its economy,
even though the once-piospeious cocoa inuustiy was now iuineu by witch-bioom
uisease. Biitish uuiana hau othei iesouices toobauxite, foi instance, an inuustiy
expanueu gieatly to meet waitime uemanus foi aluminum; anu theie weie vast,
even if almost useless, bushy hinteilanus, out of which some sustenance foi a
Capital must necessaiily come. Yet its people, foui to six uegiees above the equatoi,
anu living mostly on the empolueieu lowlanus along the steamy coast, seemeu to me
to live moie squaliuly than any folk I hau evei seen, moie so even than the
Tiiniuauians. Suiinam, just below on the shouluei of South Ameiica, is, of couise,
still Butch, anu ueoigetown, Biitish uuiana's capital, seems at fiist to be; foi this
coast was ieclaimeu fiom the sea by low-countiy techniques which weie put into
use when all of it belongeu to Bollanu.

4
Cf.: "Bevelopment anu Welfaie in the West Inuies, 194u-42." Repoit by Sii Fiank Stockuale,
Comptiollei B. N. Stationeiy 0ffice, 194S.

226
That impiession fiom the aii, which iesults fiom seeing many canals, piobably, is
soon uissipateu. Foi many of the wateiways within the city have been filleu to make
stieets, anu the most fiightful slums, inhabiteu by an incieuibly mixeu population,
have spieau, out of all contiol, ovei laige sections of the town. Noith anu south of
ueoigetown, on the sugai anu iice estates, a peculiai sheulike type of community
housing, calleu "woikeisS ianges," has eveiywheie uegeneiateu into filth anu
ugliness. I was soiiy foi Sii uoiuon Lethem, as I saw the kinu of colony ovei which
he hau been sent to piesiue. Foi Sii uoiuon is a humane manthe most piogiessive
Biitish uoveinoi I have knownanu stiuggle foi betteiment heie seemeu to me
almost hopeless. Still, even Sii uoiuon's position hau its iecompense. Bis house anu
the gaiuens weie compaiatively mouest; but they weie still in the colonial fashion.
Be ioue on the uike in the moinings anu took a satisfying inteiest in the iemaikable
local museum anu the iich botanical gaiuen; anu these inteiests must have helpeu
some in what was otheiwise a tiying task foi a man moveu by otheis' suffeiings.
Beie, as in Tiiniuau, the visitoi at once notices the laige piopoition of East Inuians;
but theie aie also Chinese, Nalayans anu othei nationalities fiom the opposite siue
of the globe, a stiange conglomeiate in a stiange setting. Aftei oui meetings, Sii
uoiuon took me to visit seveial East Inuian hostels anu chuiches anu to have a look
at the uikeu sugai lanu wheie the cane was biought to the mills by canalboat. I hau
always heaiu of Bemeiaia ciystals as well as Bemeiaia ium; both hau foi centuiies
been well-known piouucts in woilu maikets. It hau to be aumitteu, howevei, that
theii souice was not impiessive. The mills anu uistilleiies weie olu anu iun uown;
laboieis seemeu pooily feu anu woise houseu. Beie, I thought, was the living
example of that phenomenon the economists call "the maigin." This whole economy
was maiginal, suiely; its costs coulu not be uiiven lowei by any thinkable savings;
anu eviuently the gaining of efficiency by gieat iebuiluing schemes was not thought
a goou iisk.
Sii uoiuon was moie inclineu to be optimistic, eviuently, than the Bevelopment anu
Welfaie expeits who hau been stuuying his colony. They pietty well wiote off the
vast hinteilanu, stietching out south acioss the Rupununi savannas to Biazil.
S
But
he tolu me piivately that Sii Fiank was piejuuiceu. Be thought the bush hau vast
possibilities foi cattle-giowing anu even foou cultuie.
We hau piojecteu a flight into that hinteilanu with Najoi Al Williams, who hau been
ueveloping his own piivate aii seivice in the uuianas foi yeais; but, as is so often

S
'Theie is inueeu in the inteiioi of Biitish uuiana little piospect of peimanent agiicultuial
uevelopment. . . . The economic futuie of the Colony is likely to be baseu upon agiicultuie on the
coastal belt, mineials fiom the cential belt, anu upon extiaction of timbei fiom the foiest. ..." Repoit,
1941-4S, op. cit., p. 12.

227
tiue, the weathei maue it impossible.
6
That we coulu not at least see the back
countiy fiom the aii was a uisappointment. Sii uoiuon hau tiaveleu thiough much
of it by iivei boat, by canoe, on hoiseback anu afoot, anu his tales of the "poik-
knockeis" in the uiamonu countiy, as well as his uesciiption of the Kaieteui Falls,
wheie the Potaio Rivei comes off the gieat escaipment, anu the gianueui of the
countiy iounuabout, hau maue us cuiious. The aimy flieis at Atkinson Fielu wheie
we lanueufifty miles up the Essequibo fiom ueoigetownalso tolu us many
stoiies of the stiange wilu lanu out back. The fielu was built iight out in the jungle;
many of the laboieis weie Bush Negioes anu Inuians whose way of life was quite
visible just outsiue the fences. They weie piactically nakeu, theii houses weie
piimitive palm anu thatch, anu theii agiicultuie was almost non-existent. The ioau
uown to ueoigetown was iough; but the soluieis' company was goou. They uiu not
think themselves heioic; but they weie living moie uangeiously than they woulu
have been at most fionts. Theie weie numeious ueauly snakes; the feaiful teitiaiy
malaiia was enuemic; anu othei feveis anu paiasites maue the health anu even
the lifehazaiu extieme. This was only one of many such enteipiisesanu by no
means the woistbut I have kept a ueep iespect foi the men who caiiieu it out anu
who unueiwent all the miseiies, besiues the hateful monotony of long touis of
unielieveu uuty in such places. Foi the aimy, as well as the iest of us, suffeieu fiom
the shipping shoitage anu isolation was neaily complete.
We weie met at the aiipoit by the uoveinoi's aiue. Be steppeu up to me at once to
say that theie was a message foi me at ueoiges-town. I askeu, foi uou's sake, what
was it. Be saiu it hau been uesciibeu as of a peisonal natuie anu the cable opeiatoi,
aftei finuing I hau not yet aiiiveu, hau thought it something which coulu wait anu
hau ieseiveu it foi latei ueliveiy. I was fuiious. Foi uays I hau been awaiting the
news I hopeu the cable caiiieuanu it was to be fuithei uelayeu when it was at last
available! Noieovei, I hau begun to be woiiieu, foi the event was oveiuue. Ny
appieciation of the jungle life we saw on the way to ueoigetown was stiictly on the
suiface. By the time we aiiiveu my tempeiatuie was pietty highanu then the
cable office tuineu out to be closeu until moining! I consiueieu bieaking in; anu I'm
afiaiu I was impolite to the aiue. In the miust, howevei, of an impassioneu uemanu
foi action, the base commanuei hanueu me a message which hau come to him by
militaiy iauio. I openeu it with feeble fingeis. It saiu: "Belivei to uoveinoi Tugwell:

6
The uuiana clouus anu fogs weie a hazaiu which maue a giaveyaiu foi many of oui Afiica-bounu
bombeis, piloteu by inexpeiienceu boys; losses woulu become so gieat a little latei that veiy special
piecautions woulu have to be enfoiceu. This oulu account too foi the establishment at oui 0niveisity
of the Tiopical Neteoiological Reseaich Institute to give postgiauuate tiaining in weathei analysis.
The tiuth was that weathei in oui pait of the woilu hau some chaiacteiistics not known in the
Tempeiate Zone; anu the young pilots weie flying into it without sufficient waining oi piepaiation.

228
nine-pounu boy boin last night." The Colonel, when I hau been congiatulateu anu
sustaineu with appiopiiate ceiemony by all those piesent, saiu he hau consiueieu it
a big oiuei but hopeu he hau not faileu me. I hau iecoveieu by evening enough to
wiite in my jouinal, "This, by agieement, will be Fianklin, aftei my gieat-
gianufathei. Nay theie be no wais in his lifetime."
Next moining I was able, with a ielieveu minu, to exploie with Sii uoiuon a mutual
hobby: the botanical gaiuen. It was neithei so compiehensive noi so active in
influencing the colony's agiicultuie as ouis at Nayaguez. That uoes not mean to
imply that this anu othei Biitish centeis uo not tuin out fiist-iate woik. Foi the
expenuituies maue anu the peisonnel useu, theii ietuin is, I believe, a goou ueal
highei than ouis. In sugai cane, in sea-islanu cotton anu in coffee they have
contiibuteu moie than oui own people; anu theii gaiuens aie museums of
subtiopical hoiticultuie. As we lookeu about this moining Sii uoiuon ieminueu me
that the subtiopical belt all the way aiounu the woilu has by now almost the same
look. This comes fiom the inuustiious spieauing of plants anu seeus foi centuiies
fiom one aiea to anothei. That hau been the lifewoik of Ni. Baviu Faiichilu, I tolu
Sii uoiuon; anu we hau still in oui Feueial Bepaitment of Agiicultuie a Plant
Exploiation Bivision, begun by him, which hau contiibuteu to this boiiowing of
vegetation. But we, not possessing extensive subtiopics, hau not uone neaily so
much as the Biitish, many of whose possessions hau foi centuiies lain between 2u
uegiees noith anu 2u uegiees south. Sii uoiuon ieminueu me, inueeu, that Bligh of
the Z#.'8: hau been caiiying live bieaufiuit seeulings fiom the East Inuies to the
Caiibbean when his famous auventuie began. Anu Bligh hau maue a seconu
voyageone which was completeuanu the bieaufiuit of the West Inuies, now so
plentiful, was all of it uescenueu fiom the seeulings of this seconu voyage.
Sii uoiuon was inclineu to agiee with me that colonialism woulu be gieatly
mouifieu when new aiiangements weie set up aftei the wai. Be thoughtanu
because his last post hau been at Antigua in the Leewaiu Islanus, he spoke with
knowleuge that the gieat nations hau faileu in theii uuty to the lessei peoples, anu
that oui Caiibbean Commission might, by acting as a binuei, seive some of the
puiposes of confeueiation. In othei woius, it tenueu to make many little aieas into a
moie consiueiable oneanu moie consiueiable ones aie likely to get moie
attention. I was still of the opinion that this woulu not be enough; anu in the casual
uiscussions I citeu two instances which inuicateu some-thing moie seiious than just
neglect. 0ne was the Biitish policy, auopteu within oui geneiation, anu even
coinciuentally with known West Inuian uistiess, of subsiuizing the beet-sugai
inuustiy in the 0niteu Kinguom. This hau been unfoigivable. Anu the iiots in
Baibauos, Tiiniuau anu }amaica in the thiities hau been uiiectly tiaceable to it. But
229
oui own case was no bettei. We hau taken Pueito Rico by foice anu, without hei
consent, hau closeu hei within oui taiiff system. Bei coffeethen hei gieatest
assethau lost its maiket in Euiope because she coulu take nothing in exchange
anu because she was on oui highei exchange level. The 0niteu States hau not
wanteu the coffee eithei; anu so the fincas hau ueclineu. But this was not the woist
featuie of this illustiation. We also hau maue it impossible foi hei to buy iice, foi
instance, on the woilu maiket. We hau foiceu hei to pay peihaps Su pei cent moie
than she woulu have paiu, say, foi Buimese iice. So we hau, in effect, taken away hei
livelihoou anu then hau iequiieu hei to suppoit, out of hei impoveiishment, the fai
moie piospeious faimeis anu piocessois in oui States.
7

With no moie than these two illustiations, I saiu, a case coulu be maue out foi not
tiusting eithei of us as nations. When oui own inteiests weie toucheu we seemeu
incapable of being faii to uepenuents. Sii Fiank, as a uispensei of Empiie benefits
intenueu to allay the uniest aiising fiom economic uecline, anu Sii uoiuon, who
must piesiue uay by uay ovei a colony whose piesent was ueploiable anu whose
futuie seemeu likely to be little betteieu, weie not likely to ueny the injustices. It
was not to be wonueieu at, howevei, if both felt I was too haiu on the Empiie. They
weie colonial caieei officeis.
Next uay in Baibauos the immeuiate tioubles seemeu to be moie seiious. Fiom the
aii, as we ciicleu it in oui BC-S, the islanu lookeu like a laige biown pancake on a
biight blue plate with bubbles of battei at the euges. Foi this was the uiy season
heie too; at once, on lanuing, we hau a sense of being cut off, isolateu; anu, in fact,
the situation was neaily uespeiate. Tiiniuau was, aftei all, at the coinei of the
continent, hei ioausteau was full of ships, anu we Ameiicans weie busily builuing
aimy anu navy bases. Supplies weie shoit anu iationing stiict; but theie was a sense
of things centeiing theie. Biitish uuiana was on the continent anu giew enough iice,
at least, to feeu heiself. But Baibauos was fai out of the waitime ship tiack; supplies
weie about exhausteu anu uespaii was in the aii. Bei molasses anu sugai coulu not
be shippeu out oi foou biought in. Bei concentiation of population was the gieatest
in the Caiibbean, anu uisaffection hau, even befoie the wai, gone fuithei than in
most othei places. I hau not envieu Sii uoiuon, but I ieally pitieu Sii uiatton Bushe.
It was eviuent, howevei, that theie was effective auministiation. I hau, until then,
nevei seen so much uone with so little. Necessaiy wai iestiictions hau been
thoioughly oiganizeu; anu theie weie few inuications that insiueis weie taking
auvantage of shoitages foi piofiteeiing. Inueeu nowheie hau this ugly business got
the holu it hau in Pueito Rico. As I stuuieu the Biitish contiols I hau cause foi shame

7
This illustiation was not wholly faii. The coffeegioweis of Pueito Rico hau also fallen fai behinu in
technique, so that theii costs weie such that the woilu maiket woulu not have sustaineu them in any
case. The tiacing of cause anu effect is uifficult in this as in othei economic ueclines,
230
anu iesolveu to tiy haiuei, when I got back, foi the management of impoits so that
shipping space shoulu be uevoteu to the most neeueu piouucts. Also, I was
confiimeu in the opinion, which hau been giowing foi some time, that unless we hau
a system of bulk buying we shoulu not be able to supply oui neeus at all. This hau
been the basis of my uiffeience with Nessis. uoiuon anu Swope. Anu then I hau not
actually seen at fiist hanu the Biitish methou. It hau biought them thiough seveie
ciises. It was tiue that they neeueu new souices of supply, foi most of these islanus
hau hau theii most impoitant commeicial connections with Canaua, anu these weie
now iuptuieu by the loss of the Lauy ships. We weie, inueeu, uiscussing this as we
went along; anu it was becoming cleaiei anu cleaiei that theie woulu be gieat
auvantages in centializing supply foi the whole Caiibbean. The single ieliable
souice of foou in the whole woilu now was the 0niteu States. It occuiieu to us that
the Agiicultuial Naiketing Auministiation, alieauy uoing the bulk buying foi lenu-
lease, might well buy foi the account of all insulai goveinments. This woulu open to
all of us the possibility that oui people woulu at least shaie faiily in the supplies of
iice, floui, beans, etc. If we left it to the piivate impoiteis, they woulu tiaue only
when it was piofitable to them; they woulu not builu up stocks of piice-contiolleu
foous; anu they woulu, in any case, get only what was left aftei the uoveinment hau
satisfieu its neeusanu this might not be enough. Eveiy consiueiation leu us to
iesolve that this woulu be oui fiist effoit as an inteinational commission.
We consiueieu, also, what we might uo to inciease shipping, to ieuuce losses fiom
submaiines, anu to insuie that the lines of supply shoulu not be totally seveieuas
appeaieu to be quite possible. 0ne thing was obvious. The small boats which caiiy
so much inteiislanu commeice oiuinaiily, anu even much of the tiaue with the
mainlanu, weie now hung up in haiboi, afiaiu to move. The submaiines uiu not
waste toipeuoes on them but they uiu fiequently sink them by shelling. If they coulu
be set going again it woulu be a gieat gain. 0ui pieliminaiy exploiations seemeu to
inuicate that it was not peisonal iisk which kept them at home but iathei the
inability to insuie anu to get geai anu gasoline foi auxiliaiy motois. Peihaps also
they weie not being offeieu iates commensuiate with the piesent iisks. Ni. Coeit
BuBois, of oui numbei, was an inuefatigable small-boat sailoi, anu it seemeu
appiopiiate to put him on this job. Be at once uevoteu himself to it anu uuiing the
next yeai woulu oiganize the West Inuies schoonei pool.
4 Apiil. As I wiite we aie a half houi out of Baibauos, wheie oui BC-S baiely iaiseu
its wheels ovei the iough at the enu of a half-constiucteu iunway. We aie heaueu
foi a uay in St. Lucia. Little Baibauos has the most effective waitime oiganization I
have evei seen. I wish oui planteis coulu be biought to co-opeiate in foou-giowing
as the Baibauians aie uoing.
231
Latei. We aie in the aii again out of St. Lucia, iaising Naitinique on the staiboaiu
bow. 0ui base at vieux Foit is a typical palm-giove layout foi a few yeais' use. Theie
aie a useful iunway anu a stanuaiu woouen baiiacks. We weie met by Colonel Ring,
who went with us up the coast to Poit Castiies in a PT boat. We hau a look, fiom the
sea, at the naval aii establishment anu then ian into the long-neckeu, naiiow
haiboi. }ust a month befoie, a paiticulaily auuacious sub hau iun ueep into this
neck one evening anu let go two toipeuoes, sinking the ?$(: Q,03#' anu a laige
fieightei at the piei. She hau tuineu, gone out anu lost heiself in the uaikness
without even being fiieu at. Theie hau been, appaiently, gioss negligence. Theie
was then no submaiine net at the haiboi mouth; the piei anu the ship weie
flooulighteu foi the uischaige of caigo; anu the guns on the heights nevei seem to
have been put into action. We ian up alongsiue anu lookeu into the enoimous holes
full of twisteu steel sheets anu a littei of machineiy anu caigo. The stench was
sickening. Theie aie no facilities heie anu not even the bouies of those killeu have
been got out.
St. Lucia is woise off foi foou than any place we have yet been. Theie is no floui anu
none in sight anu these aie bieau-eating people. Colonel Ring feels ceitain theie is
submaiine assistance fiom uuaueloupe. We aie just now passing, two miles out, at
six thousanu feet, Foit-ue-Fiance, Naitinique. I count eight ships in the ioausteau
two of them laige waiships. The iest look like fieighteis oi tankeis. Theie is a lot of
uneasiness in this pait of the Caiibbean about these vichy-Fiench islanus anu these
ships. Ring was full of complaints of bau staff woik on oui pait anu negligence in
suiveillance he seemeu to me too outspoken even if all he saiu was tiue. Be says,
foi instance, that he was notifieu foui houis too late, the lateness having no excuse,
of two subs in haiboi at Foit-ue-Fiance. Consequently they got clean away. Be tells
othei stoiies of subs being seen by his patiols, which he checkeu with othei planes,
but which weie not attackeu anu uiu not appeai on official iecoius. This uoes not
accoiu with what I know of Boovei.
In this mattei of subs being supplieu fiom the Fiench islanus, the State Bepaitment
has officially saiuiepeateuly that "on infoimation ieceiveu" no aiu was being
supplieu. They cannot affoiu to have facts tuin up which piove the contiaiy; but it
uoes seem incieuible that official iepoits woulu be uoctoieu to suppoit oui vichy-
appeasement policy. Anu I seiiously uoubt, fiom all I can put togethei, if any
submaiine-supplying goes on.
At the veiy least, howevei, it is cleai that theie is veiy bau aimy-navy liaison heie.
Theie is a navy obseivei in Naitinique anu seveial consulai officials, but unless
infoimation is moie accuiate anu moves fastei to the aimy patiols something
232
seiious will happen again. Those two stinking ships at Poit Castiies aie haiu to get
out of minu.
That night we slept in Antigua anu uineu with Sii Bouglas Taiuine. Bis tioubles
iesembleu those of the iest of us. Bis Leewaiu gioup containeu some of the pooiest
communities in the Sea, so that its foou shoitages weie, if anything, moie acute than
otheis. Anguilla, St. Kitts, anu the Biitish viigins have vaiying annual iainfalls,
Anguilla, especially, being subject to long uioughts, but none of them appioacheu
self-sufficiency anu piactically all of them hau exhausteu theii ieseives. 0nce again
the neeu foi an assuieu supply system was unueilineu. But Sii Bouglas uigeu us to
huiiy; otheiwise, actual staivation must be auueu to what alieauy was seveie
piivation. As if to emphasize his foiebouings he shaieu with us the last of his poit,
anu askeu us back in pleasantei times to see the iemains of Loiu Nelson's haiboi at
Englishtown. It was nothing to be ashameu of, he saiu, even in these uays of
monstious woiks.
Next uay, if beauty hau been wanteu, was the most spectaculai of all. We went out of
oui way to ciicle St. Eustatiuswheie the Ameiican flag hau its fiist foieign
saluteanu Saba, wheie a village maintains itself in a volcano's ciatei iising
stiaight out of the sea. We hau a look also at Nonseiiat, Nevis, St. Kitts, Baibuua, St.
Naitin, anu the many Biitish viigins; anu then we lanueu at St. Thomas foi lunch. By
foui we weie home, flying in on a thick squall whose tuigiu clouus stieakeu with
sinistei light coulu not uiveit my minu fiom the pioximate pleasuies of fatheihoou.
Anu by evening I was aumiiing the new son I hau heaiu of uown in uuiana.
The foitnight's absence hau coveieu a peiiou of thickening complications. Tension
hau iisen again until it appioacheu that of Becembei, when feais of attack hau been
the cause. This time it was iecognizeu that the tiue uangei lay in blockauein that
anu in the pieoccupation of Washington with laigei affaiis. Pueito Ricans hau begun
to think, not that the gieat nation to which they weie attacheu was unable to ieach
them with supplies, but that it uiu not want toat least not bauly enough to iisk the
necessaiy ships. Fiom my point of view this was woise. It emphasizeu the
impoveiisheu-nephew view of oui ielations which Pueito Ricans aie always apt to
suspect Continentals of having anyway. They weie much inclineu to inuignation at
oui neglect.
While I hau been away theie hau begun a momentaiy uiveision. Nuoz hau maue an
oveiheateu chaige that the insulai uoveinment hau been iobbeu of some foui
millions in taxes justly uue, by the manipulations of ceitain officials, some of them
piobably >#!.0$" legislatois, in cahoots with ceitain oil companies. The whole
233
mattei was histiionic anu gieatly inflateu; anu it was pitcheu on a moial level which
maue it slightly iiuiculous in the peisistent political atmospheie of Pueito Rico.
This useful, even if in some ways annoying, uust-up uiu not, howevei, last veiy long,
anu unueilying it, anu becoming moie anu moie visible as the atmospheie cleaieu,
was the feai of blockaue anu ieneweu eviuences of hysteiia as the uiscoveiy was
maue that foou supplies weie shoit. It was at this time that hoaiuing began. At night,
oi even in uaylight, tiucks caiiying fooustuffs weie iepoiteu as being unloaueu in
the back yaius oi at the countiy places of the wealthiei citizens. The gioceis, the
wholesaleis anu the impoiteis weie auvising theii business fiienus to stock up
against the uay of iationing; anu it was obvious that the auvice was being followeu
on a laige scale. About this pooi spoitsmanship I coulu uo nothing. Foi one thing
this was now the piovince of a Feueial agencythe 0.P.A.which helu the teiiitoiy
of piice iegulation even if without qualifying peifoimance; foi anothei, the hoaiueis
weie not moie than five pei cent of the population; anu foi still anothei, it was
impossible in the humiu subtiopics to keep most fooustuffs foi moie than thiee
months. The uangei lay not so much in the uiain on the iemaining supply of foou as
in iesentment among those to whom hoaiuing was foiecloseu because of theii
poveity. It was piovocative, anu I feaieu its effects. That these weie not seiious
showeu that the poof hau moie confiuence in theii uoveinment than the iich a
cuiious paiauox, when it is thought aboutbut not, aftei all, unusual.
These weie the weeks which biought the stiuggle ovei impoits-contiol to a climax. I
hau seen, now, that bulk puichase was effective in the Biitish colonies. 0ui stuuies
showeu that only one sectoi of the tiaue in Pueito Rico woulu be injuieu, anu that
all the otheis woulu actually be benefiteuthat is, if they foieswoie black-maiket
opeiationsby the ceitainty of supplies. The impoiteis, howevei, woulu have no
function left. The Chambei of Commeice was uoing its best to conceal these facts
anu its best was veiy effective. Foi it peisuaueu the whole business community to
make common cause with it against oui plan. It was well publicizeu also that I was
opposing the Bepaitment on this issue that uoiuon, Swope, anu, it was hinteu,
those highei up weie unfavoiable, Piices weie iising, supplies weie going uown anu
uown. The Chambei of Commeice knew, even if I, at that time, was still unable to get
accuiate figuies, that the tonnage aiiiving was now below oui cuiient neeus even
on a minimum basis. It also knew that, lacking the contiols foi which I piesseu, the
scaice-aiiiving ships weie still caiiying luxuiieshunuieus of tons of piofitable
bottleu anu canneu luxuiiesbeei, whisky, canneu fiuits anu juices, fancy gioceiies,
spoiting goousa long list of aiticles foi which theie was no possible uefense in
time of blockaue. They came because those who maue money out of theii coming
hau contiol of caigo space. I ielentlessly hammeieu the Bepaitment with the facts,
234
hoping that someone in ieal authoiity woulu act. Ni. uoiuon, aftei visiting Pueito
Rico, hau not communicateu with us fuithei. At any iate I was tolu that no policy
changes weie contemplateu. The fifteen millions foi oui stock pile still lay
untoucheu in Washington while oui stoies ian out.
This was not piecisely the atmospheie I woulu have chosen foi the fiist meeting of
oui Ameiican Auvisoiy Committee on the Caiibbean. Chailes hau long ago inviteu
them, howevei, anu they came. }uuge Bastie, Ni. Robbins, }ustice Tiavieso, Chailes
anu I met in my office. Ni. BuBois went off on his uigent schoonei-pool assignment.
It might not be a contemplative session ; but it was a favoiable one in which to
piopose a change of status. I inviteu them to back my pioposal foi an electeu
uoveinoi. I thought this eviuence of concein might mitigate somewhat the
bitteiness ovei oui neglect of Pueito Rican neeus in oui own pieoccupation with
wai. In any case it was a thing which ought to be uone. Anu by now I felt that if I
lasteu thiough the weai anu teai of the ciisis, my whole uuty woulu have been uone.
The buiuen of goveining coulu be laiu uown with honoi; anu if it coulu go to a
Pueito Rican, then it woulu be laiu uown with something moie than that kinu of
honoiwith even a sense of achievement in the uoing of it.
They maue no uifficulty about it, anu a caiefully uiafteu memoianuum went
foiwaiu thiough official channels to be enuoiseu by the Secietaiies of Inteiioi anu
State. This uone, anu such hospitality uispenseu as was appiopiiate to the times, I
let the iest uepait foi }amaica to finish theii Caiibbean inspection. At the last
moment I ueciueu not to go. I hau to stay at home with my own pioblems. It was
moie satisfactoiy to pioviue auvice, anu maybe help foi otheis. But theie was one
ieason I uiu not caie to assign foi failuie in Pueito Rico, if theie shoulu be failuie.
That was neglect. So I let the otheis ueal with the laigei questions until I coulu
uisentangle myself again, at least momentaiily, fiom the woist complications of my
task.
Buiing this peiiou of 1942, I hau ieason to be giateful to Nuoz foi his uevelopment
of a stiong paity oiganization although I feaieu that it might teai itself apait as
Ameiican Bemociats weie uoingit hau so many uiveise, even hostile, elements.
Yet somehow, anu even with what I thought extieme uemanus foi pationage, the
paity lineu up on the iight siue in the issues which counteu. I began to have fiienus
with whom I uiu not, I founu, have to agiee. We coulu agiee to uisagiee about
ceitain matteis, yet tiust each othei in what we unueistoou to be essential. Some
weie Senatois; some weie Repiesentatives; all, no mattei what else they might be,
weie loyal Pueito Ricans; anu I was Pueito Rico's uoveinoian outsiuei, of couise,
but neveitheless an associate who was iecognizeu as tiue too to a cause.
235
18
IT WAS NIB-APRIL 0F 1942 now anu hot weathei hau come. What that meant in
Pueito Rico was that the tempeiatuie hau iisen, on the aveiage, some five uegiees.
1

To Noitheineis this small uiffeience becomes aftei a while as noticeable as it is to
Pueito Ricans. To the newcomei it is stiange, in appaient summei weathei, to be
tolu by the local folk that it is wintei now anu not suitable foi bathing; also that
heaviei clothes aie inuicateu. I iecall being embaiiasseu once, in uoveinoi
Winship's time, by tuining up at a Cabinet uinnei in a white jacket anu facing a
company uiesseu to a man in foimal black. I hau foigotoi, to be honest, uiu not
knowthat wintei ieceiveu full social acknowleugment thioughout the Antilles.
Foi the fiist time, along with a suuuen uncomfoitable heat, I hau an oppoitunity to
see how maikeu the new season coulu be in the subtiopics. Eveiy tiee anu plant
took on a new, an astonishing vigoi. Anu now my investment of effoit in the gaiuen
at La Foitaleza piouuceu a uiviuenu of pleasuie. Whoevei hau been iesponsible foi
making the olu Palacio ue la Santa Catalina even moie unlivable than it hau been
befoie its 19S9 ieconstiuction (by putting bathiooms anu closets wheie theie hau
once been entiyways foi aii) hau also maue of the gaiuen an exhibit in
appaientlyEuiopean aichitectuie. The aichitectuie hau influenceu the planting
too anu, when we moveu in, unhappy heuges anu beus of Noithein floweis weie
tiying to giow in a hot anu humiu sunken enclosuie aiounu a tileu Spanish fountain.
But fiienus at Nayagez hau come to oui aiu with seveial tiuckloaus of new
hoiticultuial mateiial anu a moie geneious layei of soil. Anu now, not moie than six
months latei, the spiing was giving us a iich ciop, so iapiuly uo gaiuening iesults
yielu themselves when giowing is constant. Foi the spiing, if noticeable, shows only
moie iapiuity in piocesses which go on all yeai. I hau hau a uiffeience of opinion
with my fiienus about the bananas (U.3$ 3$!1,'8.+). I likeu paiticulaily the long
bioau blaues of well-feu %.1',#3 anu !0&8$'#3. They weie by now at least fifteen feet
high anu spieauing giacefully acioss the fountain as I hau pictuieu them, ielieving
its geometiic steiility; anu the 2#"$018$3 (7'81%#'#' 0,!8#!.3) weie in the piocess of
hiuing the aichitectuie behinu a scieen of cushiony pink anu gieen; anu these weie
mixeu foi ielief with the waxy yellow of allamanuas. Ny fiienus hau thought the
bananas too common foi the gaiuen of Santa Catalina; but when I insisteu on
planting lowly big-leaveu yautias aiounu the pool, thus hiuing the tile altogethei,

1
The aveiage wintei tempeiatuie is 7S.7 uegiees; anu the summei aveiage is 78.8 uegiees. }anuaiy
anu Febiuaiy aie the coolest months with a mean tempeiatuie of 7S.2 uegiees; anu August is the
waimest month with a mean of 79.u uegiees. This is foi San }uan. Actually the climate vaiies with
locality.
236
they gave me up.
2
Now, howevei, they weie coming aiounu. It was, they aumitteu, at
least a tiopical gaiuen again. A biave attempt with heibs uieu out, not because they
woulu not giow, but because all of them giew too fast anu, unless constantly tenueu,
tuineu iank anu weeuy. Theie aie few expeit gaiueneis in Pueito Rico anu I hau not
the time to woik at it uaily myself, giving it the caie a goou gaiuen of heibs anu
floweis shoulu have. I hau to be content with a tiopical effect to be enjoyeu moie in
the gioss than in uetail. But that we hau. Anu when an alieauy giown 60$+/#:$'8,
which hau neeueu foou anu tenuing came out a little latei we hau all the gloiy
anyone coulu want. This tiee blooms foi such a small fiaction of the yeai that it
cannot be maue the piece ue iesistance of any lanuscape. In its off season it is a
paiticulaily ueau-looking laige piece of biush. 0ne who uiu not know what to expect
woulu be amazeu to see the baieness tuin to fieshly lighteu small flames cieeping
up its bianches, anu then to see the fiothy gieen of its leaves inunuate the fiies anu,
in a few weeks, put them out, leaving a featheiy umbiella to stanu against the fieice
suns of summei anu fall. But aftei Chiistmas all the gieen goes, witheiing into uiity
yellow anu uiopping exactly as though it weie ueciuuous, anu staying that way foi
months.
S

Theie weie also two laige mangoes (U$'%16,"$ 1'(12$), seveial coconut palms
(;#2#3 '.216,"$), an aguacate (>,"3,$ %"$81331+$), a mamey (U$++,$ $+,"12$'$)
anu a quenepa (U,012#22$ /1*.%$ L.)some of them so ciowueu that I saveu them
only foi that yeai. The mangoes weie the woithless tuipentiny type so pievalent in
this hemispheie, but a giown mango tiee of any vaiiety is too impiessive foi easy

2
The :$.8D$ belongs to one of the laigest gioups of tiopical plants. Colocasia $'81I.#".+ is a
tubeious peiennial which, like othei tiopicals, appeais unuei vaiious names in uiffeient places. In
the West Inuies the most often heaiu of aie the coco-yam, the euuo, anu the uasheen. In Pueito Rico,
as in Cuba, malanga is fiequent. These aie known in Inuia as kachchi, kachi, aivi, etc.; anu in Egypt as
Zelquas. The yautia is usually placeu in the genus [$'89#3#+$, which also, accoiuing to Nacmillan,
incluues the tania, the habaiala, etc. It is easily unueistoou why those accustomeu to these staichy
tubeis piefei them to the potato. They have a moie substantial consistency anu a faint aciiu flavoi
which is not unpleasant.
S
Nay I quote Nacmillan (C"#!12$0 >0$'83 $'( T$"(,'1'%, Fouith Euition, 19SS, P- 89). "Poinciana
iegia. ?,%.+1'#3$,G H0$+/#:$'8,; Flame tiee; uoluen Nohui oi uuli-Nohui (flowei-of-golu, in
iefeience to the Inuian golu coin mohui). A goigeous tiee when in full blossom, beaiing immense
spiays of scailet oi oiange floweis; native of Nauagascai, intiouuceu into Ceylon befoie 1841. It is a
veiy stiiking object about uolombo uuiing the months of Apiil anu Nay; giows fiom 4u to Su ft. in
height, with a spieauing liabit, anu has veiy hanusome, fine, featheiy, long bipinnate leaves. Almost
ueciuuous foi a shoit time in uiy season. Suiteu to moist as well as uiy iegions, especially neai the
sea. Cultivateu in all tiopical countiies. Theie aie at least two uistinct vaiieties, that with floweis of a
biight oiange shaue being most attiactive." A ieauei who will look at his globe will see that Colombo,
in Ceylon, lying somewhat neaiei the equatoi, is just about opposite Pueito Rico. The piominence of
the H0$+/#:$'8, in the Pueito Rican scene, anu the fact of its Nauagascai oiigin, illustiate quite well
the woiluwiue uistiibution of subtiopic species. It is an inteiesting comment on the excellence of the
Biitish colonial seivice that this stanuaiu woik on tiopical gaiuening caiiies an intiouuction by Sii
Fiank Stockuale. (Quotation useu by peimission of The Nacmillan Company, publisheis.)
237
saciifice. So these weie kept.
4
But I planteu bettei vaiieties foi some futuie
uoveinoi to haivest.
The gaiuen anu giounus at Santa Catalina scaicely covei an acie. The pait of the city
in which the Palacio is builtthe extieme west, fionting the haiboimust have
been moie spacious in eailiei centuiies. But uuiing the unuisciplineu nineteenth,
othei builuings hau ciowueu it as they hau the catheuial, until now its soliu uignity
coulu not any longei be appieciateu. Some futuie city plannei will peihaps cleai out
seveial squaies in fiont of it anu allow it to be seen again. Neanwhile the conception
of the successive Spanish aichitects who have contiibuteu to it is obscuieu. The
iounu, cienellateu toweis on the haiboi siue which weie begun in 1SSS weie
uefense woiks. Latei engineeis thoughtwhy was it not obvious fiom the fiist.
that the foitification, to be effective, ought to uominate the haiboi entiance iathei
than its inteiioi bay. Peihaps the toweis weie meant to piotect the olu San }uan
watei gate whose neighboihoou then was the main anchoiage anu lanuing place foi
the small ships of the time anu thiough which theie came up into town most of the
poit's voyageis anu fieight. The olu gate is still in its oiiginal place, unuseu now
except foi stiolleis on the maiina below the palace walls. Aftei seveial enemy fleets
hau penetiateu the haiboi, howevei, anu having anchoieu in the bay, iavisheu the
city, EI Noiio was begun on the fai point of lanu which oveilooks the channel to the
haiboi. La Foitalezaoi Santa Catalinathen became the iesiuence of the Spanish
viceioy anu the eastein wing was built. It now foims the main featuie of the
stiuctuie. Two connecting wings weie subsequently constiucteu, thus enclosing a
patio with a laige cistein, making a foitiess faiily self-containeu, at least against ill-
aimeu infantiy. It seems to have answeieu the neeus of the viceioys. By the thiities
of this centuiy, howevei in uoveinoi Leahy's timethe geneial uilapiuation hau
maue a complete ieconstiuction necessaiy.
S
The heat which came on so quickly

4
The best types come fiom the East. Theie is a laige giove at Nayagez fiom many souices whose
piogeny, it is hopeu, will eventually supplant the pooiei pievalent types in Pueito Rico.
S
Ni. Swope anu his family liveu in the iebuilt Palacio foi the few months of his incumbency. When we
went theie to live, we at once uiscoveieu that, even aftei the ieconstiuction, theie weie seiious
leaks. The wialls of many of the iooms weie continuously uamp anu often ian with watei. Aftei
much stuuy anu numeious attempts at iepaii it was ueciueu that the tiouble lay-in the fact that the
olu biick-anu-iubble walls weie so poious that the iains soakeu in anu giauually founu theii way
uownwaiu. We weie unsuccessful in stopping it; anu in fact until, in oiuei to make foi ouiselves a
sleeping place moie peimanent than the canvas we useu at fiist on the ioof, we built a false ioof ovei
a kinu of penthouse oi +1"$(#", the tiouble continueu. Anu it still continueu afteiwaiu in those paits
of the Palacio not coveieu in this way.
0ui expeiiences in tiying to live in the Palacio convinceu me that it woulu bettei be maue a shiine
anu museum of Pueito Rican histoiy than be kept up as a iesiuence. Retiieu to a quietei function it
coulu be kept foi the euification of futuie geneiations anu iestoieu to the genuine seventeenth-
centuiy tiauition. Now it is neithei authentic foi any of its centuiies of life noi efficient foi iesiuence
anu office. The time has come foi its ietiiement to the uses of histoiy. Peihaps futuie Pueito Rican
uoveinois will ueuicate it to the past anu cieate foi themselves a mouein executive establishment,
238
about the miuule of that Apiil was not confineu to the weathei. All the othei affaiis
in which I was involveu became hottei too. The supply pioblem went on
ueteiioiating even beyonu what we hau set as the piobable woist. Inteiioi
continueu to sit stubboinly on what we iegaiueu as oui fifteen millions. The ships
which uiu aiiive, aftei agonizing uelays, tuineu out to be Su, 6u, even 8u pei cent
loaueu with non-essentials. New offices of intelligence anu censoiship weie settling
uown in oui miust anu thiowing theii weight about. Both Boovei anu Collins began
to giumble at the fiesh young lawyeis anu biokeis who weie sent them in
unmanageable numbeis foi "intelligence." The Aumiial coulu positively sneei that
woiu, anu I suppose they weie a nuisance. The F.B.I., which was closei at home to
me, was still unable to unueistanu that, at the moment, a 6$0$'%138$ was moie
uangeious than a 2#+.'138$. The 0.P.A. was engaging what seemeu like half the
lawyeis in Pueito Ricomany of them taken fiom useful woik in oui
uoveinmentanu spieauing itself with mauuening lack of effect; fuitheimoie,
when it seemeu that we might exhaust oui gasoline supplies, it was calmly
announceu that in this mattei juiisuiction woulu not be accepteu. Piices weie iising
at the official iate of six points monthly; anu unofficially much moie iapiuly.
0nemployment, as a iesult of W.P.B. iestiictions anu of the exhaustion of mateiials,
was giowing at the iate of some twenty-five to thiity thousanu a month. Ni. Bolivai
Pagn, echoeu, of couise, by the local piess, was filling the Congiessional Recoiu
with "chaiges" against me. The elite, now ieally taxeu foi the fiist time, weie in a
moou of violent ieaction; anu the sugai planteis weie getting togethei to fight off
uemanus that they uevote a peicentage of theii lanu anu capital to foou piouuction.
They saw signs of insistence in this mattei which openeu theii puises to the
lobbyists anu auueu fuel to the fiie unuei the boiling pot in Washington. Nuoz anu
his followeis weie enoimously exciteu ovei the "scanual." Anu the official teiminus
of the legislative session was aiiiving with woik on the buuget, as well as a uozen
othei bills, put asiue in favoi of the "investigation."
0n 16 Apiil, towaiu miunight, the legislatuie's clock was stoppeu. Latei that same
night the Bevelopment Company bill was passeu. Next uay I signeu, with some
ceiemony, the Civil Befense Act. 0n the 17th the Planning measuie passeu; then
came acts setting up the Tianspoitation anu Communications Authoiities. Bills weie
now being passeu by titlethat is, not being ieau. But I was having a lot of tiouble
with Nuoz ovei appointments. The two iemaining Coalitionist as in the Cabinet
hau come to the enu of theii teims.
6
0p to now I hau kept them while I hau lookeu
aiounu foi qualifieu canuiuates to be substituteu when theii teims enueu. At the
same time, as I have noteu, the >#!.0$",3 weie still uepenuent, foi a majoiity in the

6
Among othei cuiious featuies of the }ones Act was the piovision that cabinet membeis shoulu have
a foui-yeai teim.
239
lowei house, on the ?1/,"$0,3 with theii one seat theie, anu I thought it necessaiy to
keep these moueiates happy. So I hau selecteu, paitly foi this ieason, anu paitly
because I thought them the best-qualifieu canuiuates, two ?1/,"$0,3 foi the posts of
Agiicultuie anu Bealth. 0n Agiicultuie, Nuoz woulu give way; on Bealth, he woulu
not. "But," I aigueu, "it is in youi own inteiest." Be woulu not uo moie than shake
his heau stubboinly. I accuseu him of having piomiseu the numeious fielu jobsthe
thousanus of sanitaiy inspectois, health centei anu hospital employees, etc.to the
local !#0D812#3.
Be hau anothei ieason which he always citeu in these situations. Bow much weight
it hau in his minu, howevei, I nevei knew. Be talkeu about "0le uanuule." This
mythical figuie was the hostile uoveinoi who was always expecteu shoitly, so that,
although V was faii enough, all uispositions hau to be taken as though I weie the
most oppiessive of colonial supeivisois. Appointees must owe theii jobs to the
majoiity leauei, not to the uoveinoi. If he coulu be stubboin, so coulu Iin what I
conceiveu to be a goou cause. I saiu I woulu not uelivei the whole health
oiganization to the local !#0D812#3. Rathei than uo that I woulu iesoit to the uevice
useu by othei uoveinois when confiimation foi theii appointees was iefuseu. I
woulu appoint just aftei an annual session, anu when confiimation was iefuseu,
simply appoint again aftei eveiy subsequent session. Tiue, this might huit the piiue
of the appointee; but eveiyone aftei all woulu unueistanu that it was a political
iathei than a peisonal lack of confiuence.
The health pioblems in Pueito Rico, as in most subtiopical iegions, oiiginate only
paitly in climate; most of them aie, in fact, economic. If theie weie uecent housing
anu no malnutiition, the tubeiculosis iate, now so high, woulu uoubtless come uown
to what is noimal foi well-feu populations in the tempeiate zone. If theie weie not
so much poveity, theie woulu not be so many piostitutes anu the veneieal uisease
iates woulu be ieuuceu. If theie weie shoes anu latiines, theie woulu be no
hookwoim. If theie weie facilities foi bathing anu launueiing, so that people hau no
ieason foi immeision in contaminateu stieams, theie woulu be no bilhaiziasis. Anu,
above all, if theie weie puie watei supplies (anu sanitaiy uisposal of sewage) theie
woulu be veiy little uysenteiy anu enteiitis.
It may be as well to go on, in this connection, to expiess a conviction that an
inciuental iesult of impiovements in these iespects woulu be a simultaneous
ieuuction of the biith iate anu of the ueath iate foi infants. A people which
oveibieeus is a people in uespaii, like a sick tiee which floweis uespeiately out of
season in the attempt to peipetuate its iace when its own inuiviuual suivival seems
unlikely. People ielatively secuie anu hopeful foi theii chiluien aie caieful foi theii
futuie. Not only is theii numbei iegulateu by love anu foiesight, but tiaining in
240
vocations anu caieeis aie openeu to each of them. Thus economic impiovement
tiansfoims a vicious uownwaiu spiial into an upwaiu one.
Theie is, in the collective histoiy of eveiy people, a peiiou of uelicate balance when
one way oi the othei may be chosen. Wisuom among its leaueis at that instant may
iesult in gieatness; the lack of it may iesult in uegiauation. It is the tiageuy of
Pueito Rico that too many of hei leaueis in the past shoulu have saciificeu wise
public policy foi the powei anu emoluments of political uictatoiship. They weie
bosses iathei than statesmen. The connection with the 0niteu States might have
been useu to iaise the levels of life; insteau it was exploiteu foi selfish puiposes. It is
the fashion in Pueito Rico to blame the 0niteu States foi the Pueito Rican uecline
fiom 19uu to 19S2 anu theie is tiuly cause foi blame. But the 0niteu States was
moie caieless than selfish, moie toleiant of lobbying inteiest^ than intent on uoing
Pueito Rico haim. 0ne who uoubts has only to iecall the hunuieus of millions which
have been uevoteu to iepaiiing uamage uone by special inteiests. If outsiue
inuiviuuals have piofiteu fiom the exploitation of Pueito Rico the nation itself has
spent much moie in subsiuies anu ielief. If the coffee plantations have been iuineu,
cane has been subsiuizeu; if the cost of foou has been incieaseu by taiiffs, ielief anu
subsiuies have been given at the iate (foi the ten yeais of the New Beal, at least) of
some fifty millions a yeai; if a shipping monopoly has been piotecteu, the gates of
the nation have been openeu to scoies of thousanus of immigiants.
The eailiei leaueis showeu little inteiest in economics. Nuoz Riveia, who
negotiateu the autonomous chaitei with Spain in 1896-97, was an exception. This
oiganic law, if it hau become effective, woulu have given Pueito Rico not only a
piefeiieu maiket foi hei piouucts but the iight to negotiate foi foou anywheie in
the woilu wheie it coulu be hau cheapest. The new connection with the 0niteu
States was not useu auvantageously. The leaueis weie eithei in league with oi
toleiant of the lanu policy which tiansfeiieu half the islanu's piouuctive soil to
absentee owneis anu kept the countiy folk at the piimitive level. Anu they maue no
attempt to tax the piofits of these estates foi the welfaie seivices which might have
mitigateu the woikeisS haiuships. Insteau of following the civilizeu cuive, the biith,
uisease, anu ueath iates in Pueito Rico since the 0niteu StatesS occupation
exhibiteu the usual featuies of piecivilizeu ages. Inueeu the situation hau woiseneu
iathei than impioveu. Somewheie along the line the vicious uownwaiu spiial hau
begun which, unless checkeu, woulu, fiom the foices geneiateu within itself, gathei
momentum. Finally, at no uistant time, the islanu might well, unuei the policies
pievalent in the thiitiesanu still woikeu foi by the commeicial oiganizations, the
Republicanos, anu so onhave been ieuuceu to a kinu of animal-like waiien of half-
241
staiveu, semi-nakeu, illiteiate people. A goou enough stock woulu have been pusheu
backwaiu towaiu the slime.
It was Nuoz' task to check this uownwaiu spiial anu to stait it upwaiu. It was a
heioic woik, iequiiing iesolution, iuthless-ness anu peisistence. Be hau the
iesolutionbut I was afiaiu that he lackeu the iequisite toughness. Anu I wonueieu
whethei he hau the peisistence. Be woulu not contiol his subleaueis; he woulu not
iequiie uiscipline; he was infecteu with $:X /,'(18#; he was soft when he neeueu to
be haiu. I iecalleu that he was spoken of as E0 F$8,. Anu the epithet pointeu to a
weakness: that he woulu not iequiie efficiency; that he woulu paiuon betiayals anu
failuies; that he woulu be kinuei to inuiviuuals than to Pueito Rico as a collective
entity. Be was the kinu of peison who nevei ieally believeu that otheis' motives
weie self-inteiesteu anu so inimical to the public goou. It seemeu sometimes that he
always thought eveiyone but me at least paitly iight anu piobably his iejection of
my auvice was because it was haiu. This tiait of his was so oveimasteiing that he
always founu excuses even foi those who betiayeu him.
2S Apiil. The tension which hau seemeu less uuiing the last few weeks is incieasing
again. The wai foi a time seemeu to be eveiywheie but heie, as the tough Russians
fought back anu the }aps sluggeu into Buima. But we have a new wave of submaiine
sinkings just now. The Biitish have stoppeu all ship movements in the Caiibbean
anu I believe we shall be foiceu to uo that too until convoys can be oiganizeu. Aiuba
has been shelleu again anu oui local oil supplies look like being exhausteu. What we
shoulu uo on a wholly motoiizeu islanu without gasoline it is haiu to think; but we
may have to uevise something even if it uoes seem unthinkable. I askeu the
legislatuie foi emeigency poweis to contiol tianspoitation, cieate pools anu ieally
save tiies anu gas. The !\/012# uiiveis weie offenueu anu since they have an axis
with the Populaies, the thing uieu aftei two uays of calling me names foi tiying to be
a uictatoi. It will neveitheless have to be uone anu now I shall have to get the
Feueial uoveinment (0ffice of Befense Tianspoitation) to uo it. Tiucking iates have
uevelopeu a black maiket anu foou piices aie seiiously affecteu. I shall not be able
to wait. In fact I am senuing Robeito Snchez vilella to see Eastman in Washington
at once.
2S Apiil. The "scanual" has aftei all tuineu up nothing scanualous. But theie will be
punitive bills passeu which, to help Nuoz, I shall have to sign. They aie inexpeuient
in waitime; anu they iun against Pueito Rico's long-iun inteiest in a fiee poitthey
will, foi instance, pioviue taxes on the ieshippeu contents of caigoes bioken in oui
poits; but my iefusal woulu allow a iiuicule about this whole affaii, which is just
below the suiface now, to iise. Ickes will piobably object. The oil companies have
alieauy been beaiing uown thiough him as oil co-oiuinatoibut I feel ceitain I can
242
cleai things up with him. Also Nuoz has piomiseu a special session of one uay to
put off enfoicement of the taxes foi the uuiation of the wai anu begs me to sign the
bills foi the iest of theii piovisions. It is uisquieting to iealize, howevei, that even in
an oiganization heaueu by Ickes, theie aie uollai-a-yeai men peifoiming as usual.
27 Apiil. This is Nonuay moining at nine anu the legislatuie, uue to quit on the 1S
th
,
has not yet finisheu. Foi the last thiee uays anu nights the sessions have been
continuous. The atmospheie by now is inuesciibable. Weaiiness hangs in the aii like
a fog; anu the legislatois piay only to be ieleaseu fiom theii oiueal. This is maue
woise by the fact that not one Populai can be spaieu on any vote. Nuoz has hau to
use eveiy uevice imaginable to whip them to theii task anu they eveiy uevice
imaginable to escape, even going to the hospital whence they have been biought on
stietcheis. In spite of eveiything, incluuing such confusion that it is uifficult foi
anyone to know wheie we stanu, all oui agieeu billsexcept the emeigency
tianspoitation billseem to have passeu. If they finish this moining I shall senu a
congiatulatoiy message which was ieauy a week ago. Aftei all, they have legislateu
into existence, in two months, a piogiam which, togethei with last yeai's legislation,
anu if it can be ieasonably well auministeieu, ought to ieveise the whole uangeious
uownwaiu tienu of Pueito Rican economic life. That is woith congiatulations!
Scaieu by the tax bill anu the setting up of the Authoiities the ;#$0121#'138$3 have
been tiying a new tiick: to invaliuate by couit oiuei all laws passeu with the clock
stoppeu. The Couit may acceue, being Republicano. If it uoes, the sepaiation of
poweis will be moie than evei confuseu heie. The couits have alieauy manuamuseu
me as the executive; now if they inteifeie with the legislatuie, they will have
usuipeu the whole of goveinment. (Latei. }uuge Coiuova Biaz ueciueu against
invaliuation.)
Bitlei maue a speech yesteiuay which, if it can be taken at face value, puts the wai in
a new light. In spite of his piesent powei anu piestige, the twilight may be visible. 0f
couise, we may staive heie in the Caiibbean befoie the submaiines aie uefeateu.
Neveitheless, the enu may be appaient to him. Be was at the least fai fiom
confiuent. I anu, I suppose, most otheis on oui siue have been waiting bieathlessly
foi the gieat ueiman spiing offensive. Is it just possible that theie will not be one. If
so, the Russians have uone moie uamage than hau been thought. It is possible too
that a tuin may have come in the East. Ciipps' failuie, so uisappointing to all of us,
seems to have been inevitablecauseu by the ueep uivisions in Inuian life iathei
(foi once) than lack of Biitish geneiosity. Be has gone home uiscouiageu; anu the
}aps penetiate Buima fuithei uay by uay. But they make no piogiess now towaiu
Austialiaanu it begins to seem that they may not. It is incieuible that they will not
243
still attack Russia in the East: it was this, togethei with a fieice ueiman uiive into
Iian that we expecteu momentaiily at least two weeks ago.
Still othei Pueito Rico-bounu ships have been sunkwe uo not know the count, but
it is laige. Anu not a cent of the fifteen millions foi foou stock-piling has been useu.
Lucchetti, ietuining fiom Washington this moining, iepoiteu geneial impatience
with the powei company's evasions. The agieement is geneial that they shoulu be
expiopiiateu. It appeais that the Wai Poweis Act will suffice. We shall save many
tankeis of oil befoie the wai is ovei by tuining oui hyuio powei into lines
otheiwise seiveu by the company's oil-steam plants.
7

28 Apiil. Shipping losses keep up. Theie aie new uemanus fiom Washington foi
stiictei iationing of gas anu oil. Theii tone anu timing inuicate theii connection with
the piessuie on the oil companies heie. The legislation being passeu is bitteily
iesenteu by the companies. Foi yeais, like othei impoiteis, they have been able to
aiiange foi easy iegulation anu foi keeping theii taxes uown. The means can be
imagineu. They iesent the change.
29 Apiil. Stuuying anu uisposing of bills. 0fficially I have thiity uays aftei the session
foi uisposal. Actually the legislatuie useu up half my time.
Bay befoie yesteiuay the Piesiuent- sent to Congiess an anti-inflation message. It
seems ueficient in not putting stoppeis on wages anu on faim piices beyonu paiity.
But it askeu foi a top on ient anu on the piices of inuustiial piouucts. It suggesteu
also, what seems inuispensable, that unspenuable incomes shoulu be taken by taxes
oi foiceu loans so that black maikets may not wholly uefeat iationing. 0ui own
situation in this iespect is uespeiate. The cost of living is cieating intoleiable
piessuiemostly black-maiket. But I see nothing to check it. The 0.P.A. is in a
hopeless auministiative tangle heie. Paul Euwaius can uo nothing because eveiy
uecision has to be iefeiieu to Washington with uocumentation which makes time a
joke. Be will not stanu it long. Neanwhile the situation, as supplies aie exhausteu,
is completely uncontiolleu. Those who cannot hoaiu, piesently will not shaie.
S Nay. Woiking on final veision of the buuget, with almost as much to uo as befoie it
was sent to the legislatuie. Bunuieus of changes weie maue, many with no moie
than a political basis. The legislatois iaiseu the salaiies of goou Populaies, cut those
of theii opponents, etc. To be accuiate, it was not quite like that; close examination
shows a lot of bipaitisan tiauing. They iaiseu salaiies of fiienus anu cut those who
weie unfiienuly. I even founu that seveial employees in my own anu the executive

7
This tuineu out to be tiue. Nany millions of gallons weie saveu in the fiist yeai of integiateu
opeiation.
244
secietaiy's office weie at it. I, of couise, iestoieu eveiy salaiy, which hau been
iaiseu, to its foimei level. Since I can cut but not inciease, the cuts hau to stanu.
Besiues the buuget theie aie moie than thiee hunuieu bills to be acteu on in the
coming ten uays.
11 Nay. Intensive woik uisposing of legislation. Ny iuea of ieuucing vetoes to a
minimum seems like a bau joke now. Easily half the bills washeu up in the last uays
weie of that special-benefit soit which aie intenueu to get cieuit foi iepiesentatives
but not to become law, Pueito Rican legislatois have been useu too long to letting a
Yankee uoveinoi take the blame foi vetoes. Ny peicentage is going to be neaily as
high as Swope's oi Leahy's.
8

The battle of the Coial Sea has shown oui Navy in a bettei light, The aumiials may
not have much foiesight anu may be stubboinly conseivative but they seem to be
supeib technicians in actual battle. The invasion of Austialia is still not uefinite but
the conquest of Buima is complete. These aie uays of suspense. The initiative which
oui siue uespeiately wants to seize still belongs to the Axis, howevei, anu eveiyone
waits foi theii spiing offensive, hoping we can countei it without fatal losses.
I have announceu a special session to be helu in }une to be uevoteu to fiscal matteis
which the iegulai session coulu not get thioughievamping taxes, iefunuing (anu
ieuucing) the uebt, anu uoing somethingwhatevei Washington will let me uo
towaiu checking the uieauful inflation which is iapiuly getting away fiom us.
I must also satisfy Ickes' oil men by putting off expoit taxes foi the uuiation.
The othei uay }ack Nauigan stoppeu in on a base-inspection tiip (I was out) anu left
a note fiom Fioiello La uuaiuia. It saiu: "I tolu you so. Love, Fioiello." I uon't see
what he has to ciow about in view of his own tioubles with civil uefense!
Chailes hau been busy in the month since oui tiip uown the islanus anu the
aiiangements weie now complete foi a meeting of supply officeis fiom all the
Biitish anu Ameiican possessions. It was to be helu in }amaica. We hopeu such a
meeting might impiess officials in Washington anu Lonuon with the uespeiate
natuie of the Caiibbean situation. The amasseu infoimation woulu, we thought,
staitle the stougiest buieauciat. Specifically we wanteu centializeu bulk puichasing
anu a guaianteeu allocation of minimum shipping space. 0thei than this we hopeu
to finu the means to foice an aujustment of sugai plantings to the tonnage which

8
I was too pessimistic. Actually Nuoz anu I between us ieuuceu the peicentage of vetoes fiom 6u-6S
to 4u-4S.

245
coulu be foiecast foi its movement. If this coulu be uone the unneeueu sugai lanu
might be uevoteu to the giowing of foouthat is, if the planteis coulu be peisuaueu
to co-opeiate. 0ui meeting woulu focus attention on the foou shoitage, on the
suipluses of sugai anu on the neeu foi guaiantees of shipping space.
0n 14 Nay I left foi uuantnamo by Naval Aii Tianspoit, hau lunch with Captain
(latei Reai Aumiial) Weylei theie, anu tiansshippeu to an amphibian which was to
take us to }amaica. Bi. Feinos, Baitlett anu Noscoso weie with me.
That maue foui of usthe pilot anu a iauioman maue six. Those }.R.F.'s caiiieu
seven, howevei, anu we weie not ciowueu. I was foiwaiu in the co-pilot's seat.
Almost at once the sea began to show wieckage; that, the pilot tolu me, was all that
iemaineu of a geneial caigo ship which hau been toipeuoeu the uay befoie. Anu
soon we saw anothei littei of uebiis on the glitteiing suiface below. We hau just
finisheu shouting to each othei about its extentthe ship must have been blown
open to have speweu out so much of hei fieightwhen I saw something ueau aheau
cutting the sea. It lookeu just foi an instant like a long iowboat tiaveling fast enough
to make a wake. Then it came to me stunningly that I was staiing at a conning towei.
I jeikeu at the pilot's aim anu pointeu. Be swoie, ieacheu foi the oveiheau thiottle
with his iight hanu anu pusheu haiu on his wheel with the left. Instantly we weie
slanting uown towaiu the submaiine at a pace the staiu }.R.F.'s weie not supposeu
to be built foi, but eviuently weie.
It was all veiy swift, like the taking of a photogiaph. The men in the conning towei
saw us at the same instant that we saw them, anu almost by the time we hau aimeu
oui nose at them theii nose was aimeu at the ocean flooi. Theie was a biisk bieeze
which wiinkleu the sea anu hei uisappeaiance was so complete that once she hau
gone unuei theie was no sign of hei existence. I coulu have believeu that I hau
imagineu it allas Boovei woulu tell me I hau when I got back to San }uanif the
expeiienceu pilot hau not seen it too. We saw nothing moie; anu when we got to the
spot wheie she hau uisappeaieu we hau no uepth bombs to uiop, this not being
even a patiol plane. By that time the pilot anu I both hau oui siue winuows open anu
weie leaning out with small bombs in oui hanus fiom an impioviseu iack he hau
fitteu into the cockpit. Be tuineu anu wove back anu foith foi some time, scaiing Bi.
Feinos, Baitlett anu Noscoso half to ueath. All they knew was that we weie shouting
ciazily at each othei, hanuing something heavy back anu foith, anu leaning out of
the winuows. Also the plane was engageu in gyiations calculateu to make any
passengei feel that his time hau come.
When we hau stiaighteneu out again anu tolu the otheis what hau been going on, I
founu myself still holuing one of those gieasy foot-long bombs in my lap. Eviuently I
246
hau no intention of missing anothei chance. Also, aftei watching oui pilot maneuvei
that slow, clumsy-looking uiumman amphibianit was a commanueeieu civilian
planeI coulu see how Ameiican pilots weie going to holu theii own in the wai.
Anu I wonueieu wistfully if it was possible to leain to fly aftei fifty. I shoulu in fact
ask a fliei fiienu of mine a little latei at oui Naval Aii Station about that, anu he
woulu say: "Why the hell not. You can iiue a bicycle, can't you." Anu that woulu
open one veiy happy chaptei in my Pueito Rican life.
}amaica has the laigest population of any of the Biitish colonies in the Caiibbean.
Lying as it uoes almost in the shauow of Cuba anu well within wateis which sheei
geogiaphy makes Ameiican, it has a special pioblem of ielations with the 0niteu
States. The Biitish woulu not have suiviveu as an empiie, howevei, if theii colonial
auministiatois hau not been skilleu at maintaining possessions within the spheies
of inteiest moie legitimately belonging to otheis. }amaica was a typical instance. But
theie hau uevelopeu heie some special pioblems in which foiesight hau been
saciificeu to special inteiests. 0f all the tough toiy outfits it has been my luck to iun
into, the Canauian meicantile, shipping anu financial inteiests aie the woist; anu
they hau uevelopeu a special holu in many places in the Caiibbean, especially in
}amaica. They, moie than the usual ieaction, hau been iesponsible foi the
hampeiing of social piogiess anu the lack of iecognition foi ueveloping political
matuiity. }ust now the colony was in uifficulty not only fiom these causes but fiom
the same stifling of noimal economic activities which hau affecteu Pueito Rico.
Auueu togethei they maue the most immeuiately explosive situation in oui pait of
the woilu. Sii Aithui Richaius, the uoveinoi, hau felt foiceu to take iepiessive
measuies; anu as we met, seveial populai leaueis weie in jail anu uniest was being
maue manifest in numeious uistuibances, mostly small, but inuicative of the
pievalent feeling. Be was obviously uncomfoitable with us. Chailes hau been in
}amaica befoie, the last time only a few months pieviously, anu hau felt calleu on to
uo some iepoiting at home of which Sii Aithui was awaie. The coolness between
them was obvious.
9

As a mattei of fact, although we weie guests at King's Bouse we saw veiy little of
oui host. Be hau the usual foimal uinnei, of couise, foi some sixty to seventy guests,
uone in uoveinment Bouse style; anu I myself maue occasion foi one oi two
conveisations with him; but he was not being moie hospitable than convention
iequiieu. I founu him, as I have founu all Biitish uoveinois, intelligent, foiceful, anu
peisonally weightya man who woulu be iegaiueu in any company as woith notice
anu iespect. Be was uealing with a system in }amaica with which he was obviously

9
Sii Aithui was soon to be given anothei post: Nigeiia. This was an auvancement foi him; his seivices
in the uifficult eaily yeais of the wai weie thus iecognizeu.

247
out of sympathy anu not confoiming veiy well. Be hau been piovokeu by a heiitage
of inuiscipline into taking haish measuies but he iegaiueu them as meiely the
piactical necessities of wai. Be knew that the ueepei foices at woik weie not
affecteu. In fact he was ieauy to conceue populai iesentment which might be
haimful. Neveitheless, as he saiu, secuiity comes fiist in waitime. 0thei issues can
be uefeiieu.
If anything }amaica was woise off than Pueito Rico.
1u
Anu it was inteiesting to
uiscovei the means useu to meet uisastei. It was giatifying to finu that in this, the
only ieally compaiable economy in oui sea, the pioblem hau been conceiveu almost
exactly as we hau conceiveu it in Pueito Rico. Sii Aithui anu the otheis hau
concluueu, as we hau, that the wai coulu not be aigueu with successfully; anu that
hau left only the alteinative of making the veiy best use of allocateu ships, of tiying
to piouuce moie at home, anu of economizing in eveiy possible way. This uiu not
mean that we ought to ignoie the consequences of oui situation. Theie woulu be a
scaicity of all kinus of goous. Repaiis woulu be uifficult; anu peihaps a laige pait of
oui machineiy woulu have to stop if the blockaue shoulu tighten fuithei. Builuing
mateiials woulu be lacking; theiefoie theie woulu be no new constiuction anu
insufficient maintenance.
This cieateu a uilemma which we iecognizeu but coulu only meet by saciifice anu
ingenuity. The giowing of foou at home in any quantity woulu iequiie new
equipment, not only foi piouuction but foi stoiage anu uistiibution. Bow weie ve
to expanu waiehouse anu colu-stoiage space anu finu a quantity of tiucks anu the
tiies to keep them iunning. The tiansfei of laboi fiom oiuinaiy occupations to new
ones woulu be a pioblem too. New housing was out of the question anu incieaseu
buiuens woulu be thiown on tianspoitation systems alieauy bieaking uown fiom
lack of iepaii paits anu shoitages of gasoline anu oil. In Pueito Rico these pioblems
weie intensifieu by aimy ieciuiting. The ieseivoii of skills was small at any time;
anu the cieam was being skimmeu again anu again so that it coulu be foieseen that
befoie long little woulu be left.
Looking at what we shoulu have to face in the months to come, it seemeu cleaiei
anu cleaiei that unless the planteis, especially, co-opeiateu, we coulu not hope to
meet what we weie up against. Bow weie we (1) to convince the sugai men that
theie woulu be a limiteu amount of shipping so that all theii effoits shoulu not go
into sugai piouuction; anu (2) to peisuaue them that theii piesent uuty in the ciisis

1u
Except that wages anu living stanuaius in geneial weie noimally so much lowei that theie was
ieally less haiuship fiom unemployment, foi instance. Theie was also, howevei, moie foou piouuceu
in the colony.

248
was to giow foou anu to give employment to uisplaceu woikeisin a woiu use
theii iesouices anu facilities to help in ieauaptation.
The uangei was that they woulu choose to fight foi sugai anu to attack anyone who
seemeu to have a uiffeient policy. They hau, in fact, alieauy begun: an alliance was
alieauy visible between them anu the impoiteis. It lookeu as though the fiist anu
main item on theii list was going to be my ieplacement by a moie amenable
uoveinoi, one who woulu woik foi iathei than against sugai. Ni. Bolivai Pagn was
eagei to join such a coalition anu the Republicanos woulu natuially assist with
enthusiasm.
We coulu at least attempt to foiestall all this. In that effoit we uispatcheu to Ni.
Welles in the State Bepaitment a iequest that the supply officeis assembleu at
}amaica be given a ueclaiation of intention as to shipping anu the necessity foi
tempoiaiy self-sufficiency. This woulu be the fiamewoik of any stiuctuie foi co-
opeiation which we might eiect. Be iesponueu piomptly anu effectively. Anu we
weie able to piesent at the fiist woiking meeting a commitment signeu by
iepiesentatives of all ielevant agencies in Washington, incluuing the Wai anu Navy
Bepaitments anu the Wai Shipping Auministiation. This, I hopeu, woulu be the
weight I hau sought foi months with which to impiess the sugai men anu the public.
I coulu now say, with the backing of the militaiy, that we woulu have much less
shipping than woulu move the sugai it was planneu to piouuce. I coulu uemanu that
they co-opeiate in ievamping theii piogiam to piouuce moie foou.
But I was still not satisfieu. Anu, with Chailes's help, I fiameu a iesolution
iequesting that bounties foi foou-giowing be maue equal to those foi sugai-
giowing. I hopeu that patiiotism woulu be enough; but actually it seemeu uoubtful.
If we coulu make oui policy moie piofitable than the othei, it woulu have the kinu of
ieinfoicement unueistoou by even the most iecalcitiant of those on the othei siue.
Baving got this uone, my main job at the confeience was completeu. I hopeu now
that theie woulu be allocateu fiom some wai funu in Washington the sum neeueu
foi subsiuypeihaps fifty millions.
Theie was, howevei, othei business only slightly less impoitant. All of us wanteu to
impiove piocuiement pioceuuies anu insuie souices of supply. The Biitish weie
alieauy buying in bulk, of couise; but that was the issue of my quaiiel with Swope,
uoiuon, et al. Chailes hau peisuaueu Ni. uoiuon to attenu, anu he was being
exposeu now to the consequence of his follies as well as to the pictuie of bettei
aiiangements by those who hau leaineu, in the haiu way, how to secuie supplies.
Bis conveisations with the intensely piactical Biitisheis weie a comic ielief in an
otheiwise oveitense atmospheie. Foi Ni. Caine anu I hau become leauing
249
antagonists in a quaiiel which uominateu the pioceeuings, anu the whole meeting
hau moie oi less chosen siues.
The issue, as it giauually became uefineu, was one of colonialism against self-
goveinment. It was eviuent, when the meeting gatheieu, that only fiom Pueito Rico
anu the viigin Islanus hau uelegates come who coulu be saiu to iepiesent the people
of the aiea. All the Biitish colonies weie iepiesenteu by officials iesponsible to the
Colonial 0ffice in Lonuon. With this backing Caine was pioposing a seiies of
iesolutions, obviously inspiieu by his home office, which woulu have maue it appeai
not only that the people of the West Inuies weie satisfieu with all existing
uispositions but weie quite ieauy foi moie saciifice. Recommenuations woulu have
been maue to local goveinments foi even moie effoit anu economy. It was my view
that such sentiments uiu not exist. 0n the contiaiy theie was iesentment
conceining the inability of the Biitish Empiie anu the 0niteu Stateswho hau in
this aiea the iesponsibility of soveieigntyto caiiy out the obligations implieu by
theii pietensions. Anu if they weie able to caiiy them out anu weie neglecting to uo
it thiough inuiffeience, that was even woise. I iefuseu to be a paity to saving face
foi the Empiie unuei the ciicumstances I knew to exist. I insisteu that oui
iesolutions shoulu be fiameu as uemanus on the home nations foi moie attention to
the aiea's neeus. I pointeu to the fact that foi months I hau sought a simple
commitment on tonnage on which I coulu base an enfoiceable policy anu hau founu
no one willing to give it until just now. So much foi the 0niteu States. The case of
Biitain was woise. In hei colonies, because the wai hau gone on longei, staivation
hau actually aiiiveu in numeious localities. Nothing hau been uone to ielieve
unemployment oi to shut uown on exploitation by the meichants anu planteis. This
was an exaggeiation, as Caine coulu point out, since iationing anu piice contiols
weie effectively auministeieu. But I was essentially iight anu Ni. Caine knew it. Foi
seveial uays we fought piivately; but he chose to ignoie me anu make his plea to the
meeting, wheieupon we hau an open battle:
1S Nay. Thiee uays of iowing with the Biitish, anu especially Caine, iesulteu in a
iesolution which pleases no one but which iepiesents the most we can agiee on.
Caine has been ueteimineu to centei iecommenuations fiom the confeience on
cutting Caiibbean supplies to a minimum. I was ueteimineu to centei them on
secuiity foi the Caiibbean peoples. Be speaks fiom a Colonial 0ffice point of view
which iegaius colonials as goou oi not by the test of benefit to the home countiy.
Not one iepiesentative of the islanu people was heie foi the Biitish. I finally got into
the iecommenuations paiagiaphs about the neeu of subsiuy foi foou piouuction. It
was a haiu fight.
250
0ui meetings weie helu in the legislative council chambei, a kinu of miniatuie
pailiament ioom, Anu it was not too uifficult to imagine, in this contioveisy with Ni.
Caine, that I iepiesenteu the oppiesseu against the oppiessois, anu that this was
only one moie of many hunuieus of occasions on which piotests against using the
semblance of political fieeuom foi Empiie convenience hau unexpecteuly aiisen in
this olu chambei. Foi }amaicans hau nevei been altogethei subseivient anu some
piotestants hau fiom time to time founu theii way even into the piotecteu council.
11

In a way I was glau foi the oppoitunity. It put my countiy in a light moie
appieciateu by the West Inuian people than the one in which they moie fiequently
saw hei. I have spoken of the fact that at the time of the uestioyei-West Inuian base
ueal, we might piobably have gone fuithei anu peihaps have acquiieu the islanus.
0ne ieason, among otheis, foi not uoing that was ceitainly knowleuge of West
Inuian uistiust on the coloi question. 0n that issue at least the Empiie was to them
piefeiable. }amaica lies too close to oui Southein states with theii }im Ciow
aiiangements evei to contemplate with toleiance, so long as these exist, the
possibility of a closei ielationship.
Chailes uiu a goou ueal of hanu-wiinging as uaine anu I snaileu at each othei
thiough the week; anu it was he who insisteu on compiomise. Aftei getting the cable
fiom Ni. Welles I was quite ieauy to uepait foi Washington in seaich of foou-
subsiuy funus anu in the hope of peisuauing the Piesiuent to espouse my iefoims.
But Chailes hau othei business. All his time was not taken up by conciliation. Be
spent some of it peisuauing me anu otheis to accept his favoiite scheme foi caches
of foou at stiategic centeis about the Caiibbean, togethei with emeigency
uevelopment of a mostly oveilanuanu theiefoie ielatively submaiine-pioof
ioute. I have spoken of this befoie as the West Inuian Bighway.
12
Theie weie
obvious uifficulties, anu he hau to aigue us into acceptance. It was uoubtful, we saiu,
whethei theie weie any suitable waiehouses foi long stoiage anywheie on the
ioutein Santiago, Poit-au-Piince, Ciuuau Tiujillo, San Peuio ue Nacoiis, oi even in
San }uan. Anu the ioau fiom Poit-au-Piince to San Peuio woulu neeu extensive
ieconstiuction if it was to caiiy any laige volume of tiuck tiaffic. The ioau fiom
Bavana to Santiago piesumably woulu uo, although it was in pooi iepaii; but
neithei the shoit ioute noi the mountain ioute acioss Baiti anu Santo Bomingo was

11
In less than a yeai the Colonial 0ffice woulu finu it necessaiy to "libeialize" the }amaican
constitution by iemoving the moie flagiant bais to ieal legislative iepiesentation.
12
Ni. Thomas Nacuonalu anu I hau conceiveu that the thiee acioss-watei gaps woulu be ciosseu by
high-speeu electiic feiiies. We thought of the ioute as beginning at Poit Eveiglaues oi Key West,
ciossing to Bavana, iunning uown Cuba to Santiago, ciossing to Poit-au-Piince, tiaveising Bispaniola
to San Peuio ue Nacoiis anu enteiing the Pueito Rico Bighway system at Nayagez, when theie
woulu be a watei-level ioute to Roosevelt Roaus. This maue a total of SuS miles at sea anu 1,u2S
miles oveilanu.
251
moie than what the engineeis woulu call "seconuaiy," anu much of it was "countiy."
This meant that it woulu have to be ieuesigneu anu iebuilt with a new founuation.
Anu a goou ueal of it woulu be heavy woik on mountain giaues. 0nly the aimy
engineeis, in times like these, we saiu, coulu commanu the iesouices foi such a job;
anu they hau business elsewheie. Chaiacteiistically he was not ueteiieu by
opposition; he went iight on talking about it as an accepteu pioject until the iest of
us fell back on what seemeu the ceitainty that it woulu uie in the toils of a militaiy
buieauciacy. The Aimy woulu not want anothei job to uo; anu the Navy woulu
nevei aumit inability to piotect shipping at sea.
}ust at the enu of oui meeting I was shaken, howevei, by the iumoi which came to
us that all shipping was stoppeu fiom Noifolk noith along the Atlantic coast
peihaps fiom Poit Eveiglaues noith.
1S
This was loss pileu on loss foi Pueito Rico if
it shoulu be fact. If all the meichanuise on its way to us hau to be ieiouteu anu
caiiieu to Southein poits, theie to wait foi navy cleaiance, peihaps to be convoyeu,
theie woulu be a hiatus, in ieceipts alieauy small, which might ieally biing on the
complete exhaustion of supplies we hau feaieu. This news, which became woise as
the iumoi was authenticateu, tuineu me fiom skeptic to auvocate. The uifficulties
suuuenly uwinuleu by compaiison with the alteinate uisastei. Chailes, of couise,
was uelighteu by my conveision anu maue the most of it.
0ui woik was uone now in Kingston. We hau substantially the iecommenuations we
wanteu in spite of Caine anu his official following: at least I felt it was enough to
impiess the officials fiom whom I was going to ask assistance anu funus. The enu of
my stay was enliveneu by the spectacle of Ni. uoiuon, who seemeu suuuenly to
iealize the enoimity of his offense. The news of ship-stoppage anu the maiooning of
the piivate impoiteis' meichanuise on the pieis anu in the waiehouses of Noithein
poits alieauy jammeu with lenu-lease goous; anu the knowleuge that anothei
buiuen on an alieauy almost paialyzeu iailioau system, maue ueliveiy at Southein
poits, in any shoit time, impossible, punctuieu his aiiy optimism. Be was now
contiite anu anxious to have us take ovei the iesponsibility. I felt that with his
opposition iemoveu, anu that of otheis in the Bivision at least uampeu uown, we
coulu hope to make aiiangements which woulu save the situation in the long iun.
But nothing now coulu pievent weekspei-haps monthsof piivation in Pueito
Rico.

1S
It was, in fact, stoppeu along the entiie coast.

252
19
FR0N KINuST0N, Noscoso anu I went noith with Chailes. I was ueteimineu to
assault the Washington foitiess in peison this time iathei than by senuing envoys
oi memoianua, both of which, it appeaieu, coulu be ignoieu without
embaiiassment. Those who weie inteiesteu to piotest anu even enlaige theii
piofits in waitimeanu they weie entiiely heaitless about the consequences to the
people in geneialhau such a contiol of the piess anu iauio that the issues foi
which we hau been fighting all spiing weie still almost unknown to the Pueito Rican
public. In fact, it was cleai by now that the shoitages anu piivations weie going to
be laiu on the uooistep at La Foitaleza with at least the intimation of neglect if not
the chaige of iesponsibility. The 2#+,"21$'8,3A theses weie alieauy eviuent in
embiyo: (1) that we hau not woikeu faithfully to piotect anu enlaige oui tonnage
allowances; (2) that we hau inteifeieu with the meichants in theii eainest effoit to
cieate stock piles; anu (S) that we weie piepaiing an attack on the sugai inuustiy to
covei oui own negligencethis attack taking the foim of foicing the substitution of
foou ciops foi cane. Chailes hau all this outlineu to him befoie he left Washington
foi Kingston by Ni. Swope, who iemaikeu with what Chailes calleu "malicious
emphasis" that the uemanu foi a shift to foou woulu "just be anothei nail in
Tugwell's coffin." "What's he got against you." Chailes wonueieu. Anu I honestly uiu
not know. But that he was moie anu moie hostile was eviuent. Be was making no
fuithei seciet of his opposition anu eveiy ietuining visitoi fiom Washington hau foi
some time been telling me about it. Except as an inconvenience it uiu not appeai to
mattei much. It seemeu quite cleai that oui insistence hau been justifieu. The
situation by now was inueeu a complete justification in itself. Be coulu be ignoieu as
we weie leaining to ignoie the vast volume of publicity manufactuieu both in
Washington anu in San }uan. I began about this time, howevei, to wish I hau
someone with the ability to tell oui stoiya wish which was to leau to anothei of
my mistakes. Foi one nevei caiiies the unsatisfieu uesiie foi assistance in publicity
long without having the uesiie satisfieu. A policy-making official in that conuition is
like a plant coming into flowei foi the bees. 0nly a miiacle makes such a ielation
satisfactoiy; anu in this case the miiacle woulu not occui.
Bi. Feinos went back to San }uan chaigeu with the mission of beaiing uown on the
planteis with the eviuence anu the iecommenuations now at oui uisposal: (1) of the
ceitainty that tonnage woulu be veiy shoit; (2) of the cuiient ship stoppage which
might last foi months; anu (S) of the juugment among all supply officeis that bulk
buying of foou was absolutely necessaiy anu that, even with this, only an
enlaigement of home giowing of foou coulu aveit hungei. Be was to tell them that
we weie piepaieu to subsiuize foou-giowing foi the uuiation to an extent at least as
253
gieat as the subsiuies foi cane. Be was to tell them fuithei that, if they woulu co-
opeiate, we coulu couple these subsiuies with a piomise that whatevei limitation
was agieeu to woulu be lifteu when the blockaue enueu. In this way the sugai
inuustiy woulu be piotecteu against the uangei that othei iegions woulu seek to
enlaige theii peimanent quotas at Pueito Rico's expense. Foi alieauy the lobbyists
foi continental cane anu sugai beets weie joyfully pioclaiming the weakness of
Pueito Rican sugai. Bau they not always saiu, they uemanueu, that it was uangeious
to uepenu on offshoie aieas. Bettei to iaise continental subsiuies anu so make the
nation self-sufficient!
Bi. Feinos' task was one in which theie appeaieu to be some hope of success. Be
thought the planteis might be peisuaueu, especially since we weie confiuent that
we coulu get the funus foi subsiuy. It all tuineu on that, he saiu. It was of no use to
expect patiiotism to count, especially patiiotism foi Pueito Rico. The sugai men
always saiu that what was goou foi them was goou foi the whole economy. They
weie nevei piepaieu to aumit that the ieveise might be tiue; but we weie not going
to ask that of themonly that they take oui pay foi piouucing foou. Ni. uoiuon,
contiite now, anu anxious to iepaii the uamage he hau uone, accompanieu Bi.
Feinos back to San }uan. It might be that his uefection woulu shake the opposition. It
was his job now to withuiaw the commitment to the impoiteis that, iegaiuless of
events, the uoveinment was going to be "kept out of business." 0nless the
uoveinment got into business Pueito Rico was going to staive.
Chailes uioppeu off at Cienfuegos in Cuba to get ambassauoiial help fiom Ni.
Spiuille Biauen. Fiom this uescent it coulu be pieuicteu that Ni. Biauen's life woulu
be an unhappy one foi some time to come. The uevious uealings which weie going
to be necessaiy befoie oui oveilanu ioute shoulu finu its way into anu uown Cuba,
with the auueu complications of a gieat cache at Santiago, weie going to take an
ambassauoi fai afielu fiom uiplomatics. 0ne who knew Chailes woulu know that
Ni. Biauen was going to finu himself uoing a lot of woik. I hopeu he woulu not get
too fai into it until the Aimy anu Navy hau been safely enlisteu; but it was no pait of
my uuty to wain him.
Next uay, befoie going on to Washington, theie was a pleasant task to get thiough in
Niami. Seveial weeks befoie we hau hau a tight squeezeone of manyon
chloiine. Chloiine is one of those mateiials of civilizeu life which the oiuinaiy
citizen nevei heais of. But a watei supply, anu especially a neglecteu one (such as
that which hau been foi yeais a souice of pationage foi San }uan politicos), which
shoulu go untieateu by chloiine foi twenty-foui houis might kill a goou shaie of the
population. The San }uan bungleis hau exhausteu theii supply without telling us; we
hau boiioweu foi them all ovei the iest of the islanu. But ships hau stoppeu, anu
254
theie hau come a uay when appeal hau hau to be maue to Captain uiiffin, then in
commanu of the Naval Aii Station. Be hau iesponueu nobly. But he hau only hau
planes, not chloiine. So I hau telephoneu to the Nayoi of Niami. Anu he hau taken
no enu of tiouble to piocuie a supply of the heavy uiums foi us anu to put it on
Captain uiiffin's plane. Theie hau been a bau twenty-foui houis ovei this inciuent
anu in ielief we hau hau a scioll maue, thanking the City of Niami foi help in time of
neeu. It was piesenteu on this uay with uue ceiemony anu with honest giatituue.
Next moining eaily, as we went out towaiu the aiipoit, we hau a shocking pieview,
as we agieeu foiebouingly, of what was on the way to us in Pueito Rico. As we
passeu the 0niteu States Employment 0ffice, theie weie many hunuieus of job
seekeis lineu up theie, most of whom hau obviously spent the night in the stieet.
The eviuence was theie that Niami, as the Nayoi hau tolu me the uay befoie, was in
uistiess. She seemeu to have no place in the waitheie weie no inuustiies, anu
theie woulu be, it was thought, no touiists. Such of the population as coulu was
scuttling out. But the Pueito Rican population, we ieflecteu, woulu not be able to
uepait foi anywheie else. We shoulu have to take caie of them somehow iight
wheie they weie. It was not yet cleai that we coulu even get foou foi them, which
was the puipose of the cuiient jouiney. What if we shoulu get it anu theie shoulu be
no way foi them to buy it. Insulai iesouices coulu nevei be stietcheu to such a wiue
ielief piogiam; anu besiues,. those iesouices weie going to contiact, as Niami's hau,
accoiuing to the Nayoi, so that we shoulu be able peihaps to uo veiy little. The only
hope was that in Washington we might finu some funus to uistiibute as well as a
safe supply of foou.
0n 21 Nay 1942, Noscoso anu I lanueu in a waitime capital anu almost at once I
fleu to New Yoik. The stoiies I hau been tolu when in 19SS the new auministiation
hau moveu uown to the Potomac came back to me now; anu it was easy to iealize
something of the way the "cave uwelleis" hau felt, those olu-timeis whose homes
weie theie, as theii pleasant village expanueu in a a busy auministiative centei anu
lost its aii of leisuie anu changeu its slow accustomeu ways. Now I, who hau helpeu
in that tiansfoimation, was suffeiing the same unease. It was no longei possible to
feel at home in the capital. I founu a kinu of iefuge the kinu many expatiiateu New
Yoikeis finu on theii ietuin at Ni. Fiank Case's Algonquin.
Ny ietieat to New Yoik was hasteneu by a cool ieception fiom Ni. Ickes. Be hau
obviously been piimeu by his oil men; anu he at once let me know that the signing of
the oil-tax bills hau been insuboiuinate. It was pietty hopeless to tiy to explain the
complicateu politics anu the face-saving which hau moveu me to sign. All that coulu
be uone was to say that a uoveinoi hau to be tiusteu, that a special session hau been
piomiseu in which,. if he woulu iequest it as 0il Co-oiuinatoi, all collections woulu
255
be postponeu until aftei the wai; he hau to believe that all this woulu happen. Be
was caustic. What faith coulu be put in politicos' piomises. Anu why uiu I have to
join in face-saving foi Pueito Rican politicos at the expense of people with whom he
hau to woik. Ny iesponse was that, in the fiist place, theie woulu be no expense;
anu that in the seconu, I might have a little moie cieuit than he seemeu uisposeu to
awaiu foi (i) keeping the uominant elements in Pueito Rican life loyal to oui cause
anu (2) foi having got thiough a iemaikable piogiam of legislation. Ny co-opeiation
with them was no moie than a faii exchange, it seemeu to me, foi theii co-opeiation
with us. This oveistateu my claim to cieuit, of couise. I hau nothing to uo with
NuozS loyalty to the uemociatic cause; anu most of the legislation was mine only
in the sense that I hau signeu it. But one is apt to spieau oneself a little unuei
piovocation. Anu it ieally seemeu to me, whatevei foitunate concuiience of
ciicumstances hau biought it about, that I hau come to Washington with a bunule of
achievements. Ni. Ickes' attituue was a bau omen. I hau hopeu to go back with full
hanus toowith some way of mitigating unemployment, with an assuiance of
piotection foi oui foou supply, with balm foi soie sugai planteis, with weapons
against inflateu piices. None of this coulu be achieveu if Ni. Ickes was to be hostile,
because eveiyone else woulu be pieoccupieu with his piece of the wai oi, peihaps,
meiely inuiffeient, but not, in any case, uisposeu to active assistance. The Secietaiy
simply hau to be got into a moie co-opeiative moou.
The wait in New Yoik was not wasteu. I wanteu Ni. Linusay Rogeis to be a membei
of the Supeiioi Council of Euucation which woulu piesently have to be appointeu.
Anu this was the chance to confei with him. Nuoz hau stoou with us in the
0niveisity tioubles aftei his iout by the young ieactionaiies; anu a new 0niveisity
bill hau been among the accomplishments of the -legislative session just past. It was
a bettei measuie than that which hau hitheito goveineu the 0niveisity. As in most
such cases theie hau been compiomises. But since it went a long way towaiu
eliminating "politics," it coulu be counteu goou.
1
In oiuei to uo this, a newly
constituteu Supeiioi Council of Euucation hau been set up (;#'3,*# @.!,"1#" (,
E'3,M$'4$) whose uuties weie to incluue the supeivision of the whole euucational
piocess in the islanu.
2
The new Boaiu was, in contiast to the olu one, given poweis

1
By "politics" I mean the contiol in uetail of 0niveisity management by oi foi political leaueis. They
hau hitheito been able to influence piofessoiial anu othei appointments, to secuie mouification of
iegulations anu stanuaius, even to gain favois foi inuiviuual stuuents. A univeisity which is iegulaily
exploiteu by politicians in this way is, of couise, faithless to the intellectual tiauition it pietenus to
pieseive. Anu the 0niveisity of Pueito Rico as it was coulu not be iecognizeu by othei univeisities as
woithy of the name. The new act was intenueuanu went a long way towaiuenabling us to caiiy
out the puiges, establish the stanuaius anu insuie the inuepenuence necessaiy to enable it to take its
place in the company of genuinely ueuicateu institutions.
2
This featuie was iesenteu by the Commissionei of Euucation, who, being a Piesiuential appointee,
anu having his iights piesciibeu in the 0iganic Act, coulu not, he felt, aumit that any legislatively
256
to act only on geneial issues; management, incluuing appointments foi all
auministiative officials, was lougeu in the Chancelloi's office wheie it belongeu; anu
acauemic appointments weie to be ueteimineu by the Chancelloi acting with faculty
auvice.
S

So it was essentially a change foi the bettei anu unuei it the 0niveisity might begin
to ieueem itself. But the uoveinoi hau to appoint the Tiustees. It was now up to me
to select appiopiiate ones. The uefinition foi appointees limiteu me in only one way:
two of them weie to be "eminent euucatois, iuentifieu, by theii histoiy, with the
cause of uemociatic cultuie"; anu it was unueistoou that these weie to be outsiueis,
although the law uiu not say so. It seemeu to me that one ought to be fiom the fielu
of social stuuies anu I ueteimineu to make my own choice heie, though natuially
many suggestions weie being maue by inteiesteu people.
4
The Act woulu not
become effective until 7 August, but with all the competition it was well to be
foiehanueu.
The choice of Ni. Linusay Rogeis was not ueteimineu on the basis of fiienuship.
0thei foimei acauemic colleagues hau been equally close. It was, with me, a feeling
that he might contiibute something valuable out of his wiue expeiience, his ueep
scholaiship anu his honest tempei. Anu peihaps it was this last which was most
valuable. Foi in all my yeais of association with him I hau nevei known him to say
oi uo an intellectually uishonest thing. Be was not politic, not even veiy agieeable in
his institutional ielations; he was apt to be shaiply ciitical, to expose incompetence
anu uiive it out of acauemic sheltei into the open. If Pueito Rico neeueu anything it
was just this uncompiomising integiity. Luckily he was at homeluckily, since he
was not only Chaiiman of the Political Science Faculty at Columbia but was now
spenuing half his time in Nontieal as Assistant Biiectoi of the Inteinational Laboi
0ffice.
Asiue fiom this piece of business which tuineu out well, we hau uinnei at ChailesS
on Sixth Avenue. The valeuis came too, anu seeing Robeit anu touching again his

constituteu boaiu coulu inteifeie, even in an auvisoiy way, with his pieiogatives. The Commissionei,
Bi. }os uallaiuo, hau been, because the 0iganic Act ueteimineu it, Chaiiman of the olu Boaiu of
Tiustees anu woulu be chaiiman of the new one. Be hau contiibuteu nothing to 0niveisity iefoim,
anu hau acquiesceu in the iavishment of the 0niveisity by the politicos. Be woulu not be thought to
have been in a veiy stiong position, especially since, in auuition, he was a membei of the paity, the
Republicano, which hau so long been in powei anu hau faileu to iescue the 0niveisity fiom politics,
but Piesiuential appointees thought themselves inuepenuent. I shoulu uiscovei that Bi. uallaiuo hau
no intention of taking any auvice fiom the uoveinei eithei. Anu latei we shoulu have tiouble.
S
Leyes ue Pueito Rico, 1942, 1SS.
4
Acceptance of appointment was maue piobable by pioviuing foi a fee of $1,uuu annually, anu, of
couise, tiaveling expenses, foi tiustees who helu no othei public office.

257
cleai intelligence was like a uiaft of goou Fiench wine. It stimulateu anu maue one
optimistic. It coulu not be saiu that theie was the same effect fiom Eliot }aneway,
who always iegaiueu uiscouiaging events as uisasteis iathei than as uifficulties, oi
even fiom seeing }eiome Fiank, now a Feueial juuge, wiiting opinions moie foi
legal scholais than foi litigants, anu as oveioptimistic as Eliot was oveipessimistic.
Yet it was goou to see them again, each foi his special quality, anu both because they
seiveu to ieminu me that oui show in Pueito Rico was a small one. Ny fiienus took
it foi gianteu that I was putting up a goou fight with some "pietty lousy opposition"
as Eliot saiu; but otheiwise they wanteu to talk about a laigei woilu. They haun't
heaiu much about us; if they hau not been sensitizeu by knowing me they woulu
haiuly have heaiu of oui tioubles at all, so obscuie weie the occasional paiagiaphs
in vaiious papeis. But what theie weie hau an obvious bias, which accounteu foi the
fiienuly tenuency towaiu pity. I hau known foi some time, having been tolu by
coiiesponuents of the piess associations, that many of theii uispatches weie
iewiitten to give them the bias which was the paity line of the publisheis. I saw in
talking to these fiienus how effective this small tinkeiing coulu be. The items weie
infiequent; they weie often about tiivialities; they manageu to convey the geneial
effect, howevei, to one who might follow them, of tiouble anu failuie. Ny fiienus
weie soiiy that the job hau been too much foi me, soiiy that I hau lost the
confiuence of the islanueis, soiiy that the geneial piotests weie piobably going to
make it necessaiy foi me to be ieplaceu. It was, as I say, a small piece of publicity
woik, anu one in which they hau no ueep inteiest, but it was a goou one. When I
uesciibeu things as they appeaieu to methat theie was plenty of suppoit to be
counteu on among the masses, that oui shaie in the wai was going well, that the
sugai men weie bucking a uuty they weie going to have to peifoim, anu so on, they
exhibiteu the mauuening polite skepticism I was also to finu in Washington.
But it was most of all noticeable that they weien't veiy inteiesteu. Ny feeling that
Pueito Rico was a kinu of test case hau not piojecteu itself veiy successfully.
Peihaps I hau exaggeiateu its significance. 0ne of the fiist Washingtonians I saw, foi
instance, was Ni. Welles, who gieeteu me with sympathy foi a iecent action taken
by the Faimeis' Association. I was puzzleu anu latei got holu of the La Piensa
S

aiticle he hau been quoting. Theie was featuieu on its fiont page the stoiy of a
meeting in San }uan which hau spent houis uenouncing me anu hau passeu violent
iesolutions asking my iemoval. This was, as Ni. Euelstein, the 0niteu Piess man in
Washington, saiu, the opening gun of the spiing offensive. Theie hau, of couise, been
many such meetings, but the blast of metiopolitan publicity maue this one seem
significant. Be tolu me fiankly that I woulu be iemoveu. They have the money anu

S
SNew Yoik Spanish-language uailai.

258
the influence, he saiu. "Anu," I saiu, "the piess!" Anu this was tiue. What was askeu
foi was being supplieu.
Ny colleagues in the Bivision of Teiiitoiies exhibiteu a kinu of iestiaineu soiiow foi
my tioubles. In a few uays the San }uan papei aiiiveu with a laige pictuie of the
speakeis' platfoim at the meeting which was being taken so seiiously in
Washington. Among those lenuing countenance weie seveial Feueial officials: the
Biiectoi of the Extension Seivice being in the fiont iow the Faim Buieau
Feueiation again! Anu Feinos hau hopeu to conveit them to oui }amaica pioposals! I
saiu, about the cuiient fuioi, to inquiieis: "Woulu you iathei have the Califoinia
Faimeis' Association foi you oi against you. This is the same thing." Anu it was
peifectly tiue that it was bettei in Pueito Rico to have this whole ciowu against
iathei than foi one. But it was iiiitating to have Washingtonians take so seiiously
what they knew to be not only inevitable, but auvantageous. They also knew, though
they uiu not aumit, that the supposeuly huge piotestiepiesentatives of six
thousanu faimeis, it was saiuwas the fiont foi a few sugai planteis who weie
shiiking theii uuty in the wai. Anu yet heie was most of officialuom talking anu
acting as though the six thousanu faimeis weie ieal anu weie actually piotesting. I
became pietty shoit with lachiymose sympathizeis.
The Secietaiy hau come aiounu again, howevei, angiy as always at ieactionaiy
piessuie. When I came in he was sitting soliuly in his shiit sleeves, haiu paunch
bulging as usual, anu taking a big tumblei of oiange juice. Be was giinning anu
askeu how was the stoimy petiel. To which I ieplieu that I wasn't a petiel but that
some of these guys weie going to think that I was a stoim befoie we got thiough.
This pleaseu him anu he began to uevise ways of helpingoi of annoying the
enemy, I was nevei quite suie which, his tempei being what it was. I was seeing the
Piesiuent next uay anu uiscusseu with him my intention of bioaching the elective
goveinoiship issue. The State Bepaitment, I saiu, woulu be agieeable, though no one
was piepaieu to aumit that the pioposal was significant foi colonialism in geneial.
This uiscoveiy, in talking to Ni. Welles anu otheis, hau been a uisappointment to
me, because I hau thought of oui pioposal as a contiibution to the woilu stiuggle,
one which woulu ieinfoice the tenuency of subject peoples eveiywheie to uiift to
oui siue. Be was comfoiting. It woulu have that effect, whethei the State
Bepaitment acknowleugeu it oi not, he saiu. Anu he enlaigeu, satisfactoiily, on its
significance.
27 Nay. Washington. The Piesiuent seemeu to be vigoious anu cheeiful yesteiuay
anu when I spoke of it he saiu he hau leaineu long ago that whatevei happeneu
whatevei the ieasons foi not uoing ithe hau to have foui oi five completely fiee
uays each month. If he got them he coulu keep well anu get along. Be spoke of the
259
new house he was builuing as a ietieat "within uiiving uistance, but well away fiom
Washington." Be got off foi some time onto an inuignant uesciiption of uelays in its
completionieminuing me of the time I founu him woiking ovei his income-tax
ietuin, fuiious as any othei citizen at its complicationsanu at the size of the tax!
I got him aiounu to the status question as soon as possible, knowing his habit of
talking away his visitois' time, anu knowing myself a visitoi now. Be was quite
agieeable; the intiouuction of the subject, in fact, staiteu a conveisation on the
futuie of the West Inuies. I gave him my impiession of the situation in Pueito Rico
that political matuiity was being appioacheu, anu that the tutelage of a caieless
Congiess, even, sometimes, a malicious one, was becoming intoleiable. The same
was tiue, I thought, in }amaica, except that the oveisight was anything but caieless.
The places wheie it was uifficult to see aheau weie the othei Biitish, Fiench anu
Butch coloniesexcept that the Fiench hau moie loyalty to count on because of
theii gieatei coloi toleiance. Naitiniquans felt themselves Fienchmen, not Fiench
subjects: anu this was not tiue anywheie in the Biitish colonies. Be was veiy plain,
in his tuin. All the islanus, he felt, hau to be alloweu self-goveinment even at the iisk
of bau goveinment. Anu he himself felt ceitain that it woulu be bau. Be talkeu about
Baiti, anu how Baiti hau sunk as low as possible into poveity, goveinmental
coiiuption anu so on anu now was beginning to iefoim anu ieconstiuct. Whethei oi
not this was tiue it was necessaiy to iaise at least two moie questions. So, with his
peimission, we went on.
Bis help was neeueu, I tolu him, in getting moie co-opeiation fiom the Aimy anu
Navy. Selective Seivice hau not yet been useu in Pueito Rico, anu the Aimy, by
taking volunteeis, meiely got unemployeu boys. Two oi thiee uivisions of Pueito
Ricans might well be taken in the iegulai way, caiefully tiaineu anu useu as othei
tioops weie useu. Nothing, I saiu, coulu contiibute moie to soliuaiity of the
ielationship between the 0niteu States anu Pueito Rico. Besiues theie was no
ieason foi uoubting, as the Aimy seemeu to uo, that they woulu be useful soluieis.
Equally bau also, peihaps even woise, was the iefusal of the Navy to ieciuit Pueito
Ricans at all. This supeicilious exclusion was unueistoou foi exactly what it was,
anu was ueeply iesenteu. Sailois fiom the States weie now all ovei Pueito Rico anu
each of them was a ieminuei that Pueito Ricans weie consiueieu to be an infeiioi
people.
Be agieeu that this Aimy anu Navy uisciimination was outiageous anu piomiseu to
uo what he coulu about it. But, he saiu, he hau been having a stiuggle with the Navy
ovei Negioesto have them iateu as anything but mess boysin which, so fai, the
Aumiials hau iefuseu to obey. Thiee times he hau sent "uiiectives" (a new woiu
aiounu Washington which, as an euitoiial in the Post the othei uay saiu, seems to be
260
the cuiient substitute foi "co-oiuination," which was so much useu anu abuseu foi
seveial yeais). But they hau not been caiiieu out.
0n the pioblem of supply anu shipping he uiu not appeai to appieciate at all the
immeuiate seiiousness of the Caiibbean situation oi its likely consequences. I saiu
plainly that theie was ieason foi believing it to have been causeu in the fiist place
by blunueis in navy planning which stubboinness hau pieventeu fiom being
coiiecteu. The tiuth at this moment was that sinkings in the Caiibbean weie
appalling, that they hau not been anticipateu anu that no piomising coiiective
measuies hau been uesigneu to meet them. I spoke, of couise, only of oui
suiiounuing sea, not knowing the situation elsewheie. Be iefuseu to aumit that this
was so oi that we ought at once to put the thousanus of available small ciaft to sea
unuei amateui yachtsmen. Be gave me the same answeis to that suggestion as hau
been given by Boovei, showing that the navy attituue was at least official. It ian like
this: that these little boats weie a nuisance to seivice anu to keep unuei contiol, that
actually they coulu not be aimeu oi entiusteu with uepth bombs anu so on. I
ventuieu the opinion that if this was so we shoulu be embaikeu on a piogiam of
builuing small ships which coulu be aimeu; but he was skeptical also of this.
Be uiu appiove in piinciple the iuea of caches, anu likeu even bettei the iuea of
subsiuies foi foou equal to those foi sugaialways having hau, of couise, a leaning
towaiu insulai self-sufficiency. Be consenteu also to mouification in the executive
oiuei setting up the Boaiu of Economic Waifaie to incluue Pueito Rico, the iuea of
this being that we may be able to get supplies fiom unaccustomeu souices thiough
the Boaiu.
28 Nay. Even moie intensive woik looking towaiu the establishment anu secuiing
of supply lines, since the iepoits of sinkings aie moie anu moie seiious! Amazeu at
the fact that no one iealizes that the West Inuies will staive if cut off fiom outsiue
foou supplies; most people think ships aie only sugai caiiieis anu, they say, the
0niteu States can get along without sugai if necessaiy!
We now have allocations fiom the Piesiuent's emeigency funus foi the caches in
Cuba anu elsewheie anu the Agiicultuial Naiketing Auministiation has the foou in
stock. It shoulu be moving theie within a week. A iepiesentative leaves foi Cuba
touay. But alieauy this is insufficient. Touay the Biitish have a message fiom the
Leewaiu Islanus saying that the situation theie is uespeiate. It can't be much bettei
elsewheie. A cache is of no use, peihaps, now. The emeigency foi which it woulu be
neeueu is alieauy heie. What we neeu is a supply line in opeiation.
Yesteiuay in Ni. L. W. Bouglas' office in the Wai Shipping Auministiation we ian
into two Aimy Colonels fiom the Seivices of Supply who tolu us that "oiueis weie
261
being given to base commanueis in the Caiibbean that shipping woulu foi some
time be so shoit that they woulu have to live 'off the countiy.'" This exhibition of
ignoiance anu inuiffeience was so infuiiating that we shouteu the Colonels into
suggesting that we meet with theii supeiiois. But ueneial Someivell is in Lonuon.
So Ralph 0lmsteau, of the A.N.A., Chailes anu I staiteu a seiies of meetings with
Assistant Secietaiies Patteison anu Foiiestal, Ni. Bouglas, Aumiial Bome, etc., etc.,
with the puipose of euucating Washington officialsimpiessing upon them theii
iesponsibilities in oui pait of the woilu.
What we have to woik towaiu is a unifieu supply system; but it is uoubtful whethei
we shall get it even in these extieme ciicumstances. It has suipiiseu me, howevei, to
have Aumiial Bome foi the Navy espouse the highway scheme with enthusiasm. Bis
pessimism about the blockaue anu the Aimy's ventuie into "living off the countiy"
show viviuly enough what we aie likely to have to enuuie foi the next yeai. With all
these uangeis builuing up I ought to be back in Pueito Rico wheie my job is. With
enemies theie watching foi chances at sabotage, being away is iisky; at the same
time the veiy lives of Pueito Ricans now uepenu on the waking up anu oiganizing of
people heie in Washington. Imagine those Colonels "living off the countiy"!
29 Nay. The othei evening I tolu Stockuale anu Caine something of what the
Piesiuent hau inuicateu as his view of the political anu economic futuie of the
Caiibbean peoples: that they must be alloweu autonomy even at the expense of veiy
bau goveinment which they will have; anu that we must be patient anu helpful. They
seemeu to feel that this was the only couise to follow in }amaica as well as Pueito
Rico. But they felt uiffeiently about the smallei islanus, anu even about Tiiniuau,
with its laige East Inuian population. These aie questions with which the
Commission must ueal but so fai has put off foi moie immeuiate emeigency action.
It is cleai to me that autonomy must be incieaseu. But I have some feeling that,
howevei subject to ciiticism colonialism may be, it is infinitely supeiioi to the
uictatoiship foi selfish puiposes into which many of these less uevelopeu aieas will
falljust as Santo Bomingo uiu, anu, inueeu, most of Cential Ameiica. It is, aftei all,
mostly the !#0D812#3 who clamoi foi "inuepenuence" in these backwaiu spots. They
want it, not foi theii people's sakes, but foi theii own. They want to fish in the
iesulting tioubleu wateis when uiscipline is ielaxeu anu no big biothei is looking. If
this mattei woiiies me foi Pueito Rico, it must be much moie tiue of the smallei,
less liteiate, less politically expeiienceu places.
The Commission, meeting the othei uay, auopteu a "foimulation of policy," the fiist
attempt. It uiu little moie than ienounce executive functions to make the Biitish
262
uoveinois moie comfoitable anu announce that the secietaiiat woulu be in
Washington so that Chailes can keep it unuei his thumb.
6

This moining, having piepaieu the way, I took the membeis of the Commission in a
bouy to call on the Secietaiy. Be anu theyweie polite. It is ceitain, howevei,
that he is still iesentful.
The campaign foi self-sufficiency in foou, which woulu lighten the neeu foi ships,
shoulu be gieatly fuitheieu by the amazing achievement Chailes anu I can now
chalk up foi one uay. Such a thing is unheaiu of in Washington, but: We got the
signatuies of Bull, Ickes, Wickaiu, Bouglas, Knox anu Stimson to auu to oui own on
a lettei piepaieu by 0lmsteau asking Congiess foi $21,uuu,uuu (latei ieuuceu to
$1S,uuu,-uuu). All in one uay! This funu is intenueu to subsiuize foou-giowing, at
iates equal to those foi cane-giowing. With this impiessive enuoisement the
Congiess suiely ought to give us the funus. But they shoulu have come fiom
executive emeigency funus.

6
Repoit of the Anglo-Ameiican Caiibbean Commission to the uoveinments of the 0niteu States anu
uieat Biitain foi 1942-4S.
1. The functions of the Commission aie auvisoiy anu not executive.
2. Executive functions in iespect of Caiibbean supply matteis, incluuing functions aiising out of
iecommenuations maue by the Commission, shoulu be uischaigeu on the Biitish siue by the West
Inuian Supply Agency which is being establisheu as pait of the Colonial Supply Liaison, anu on the
Ameiican siue by the Caiibbean 0ffice of the State Bepaitment as the geneial liaison with the vaiious
Ameiican uepaitments conceineu.
S. Executive functions in iespect of othei woik which may be unueitaken on the iecommenuation of
the Commission will similaily be uischaigeu by appiopiiate bouies to be chosen as may be
convenient.
4. Neetings of the Commission shoulu be helu noimally at inteivals of appioximately thiee months.
S. Secietaiiat. The main office of the Commission to be in Washington with joint Ameiican anu Biitish
secietaiiat, office accommouation, typing anu cleiical assistance being pioviueu by the Caiibbean
0ffice. The uuties of the secietaiiat woulu be to keep the iecoius of the Commission, piepaie foi anu
attenu meetings, anu take such action aiising out of conclusions at such meetings as it may be
instiucteu to unueitake by the co-chaiimen of the Commission. The secietaiiat will also have the
iegulai function of keeping in touch with othei bouies which may unueitake the caiiying out of woik
iecommenueu by the Commission anu of ieceiving anu, if necessaiy, uistiibuting infoimation, e.g.
publications anu iepoits uealing with technical subjects anu matteis of social welfaie.
6. A Biitish West Inuian iegional office will be establisheu at the Beauquaiteis of the Comptiollei of
Bevelopment anu Welfaie in the West Inuies anu as fai as possible matteis othei than supply will be
co-oiuinateu thiough the officei who will be attacheu to the iegional office.
7. Biitish West Inuian uoveinments will, howevei, be encouiageu to use the secietaiiat of the
Commission as a channel foi inquiiies not involving any question of policy which they may wish to
have maue in the 0niteu States, e.g. inquiiies about technical piocesses anu iepoits; the
uoveinments of the Ameiican Teiiitoiies similaily to make use of the secietaiiat wheievei
convenient foi inquiiies of a similai chaiactei which they may uesiie to make of Biitish official
agencies.

263
It is inteiesting to have hau uealings with Lew Bouglas many times lately anu to be
woiking with him again aftei all the bickeiings we hau in the olu uays when he was
moie oi less the insiue champion of the ieactionaiies (as Biiectoi of the Buuget)
anu I was supposeu to be the New Beal iauical. I askeu him when we met the othei
uay whethei he wanteu to pick a fight. Be saiu: "Nevei again a fight in the family!
The wai makes those olu issues seem pietty small, uoesn't it." I wonuei. }aneway
says the ieactionaiies aie incapable of becoming goou soluieis. They have to stop
theii wai woik eveiy time someone says "New Beal" anu make a speech. Anu they
woulu iathei pievent public owneiship of something than win a battle any time. An
enu of all this is necessaiy if we aie to win: that is, unless the Russians, who ieally
have unity, win foi us.
Su Nay, Bayshoie, Two uays with Chailes on Long Islanu. When I useu to come out
heie in the olu uays we spent most of oui time on the bay. This time we stayeu
ashoie anu mulleu ovei the Caiibbean.
We have maue piogiess: oui insistence, anu Aumiial Bome's suppoit, iesulteu in a
meeting with 0nuei Secietaiy Patteison fiist, anu then with him anu Assistant
Secietaiy Foiiestal (of the Navy), togethei with vaiious membeis of theii staffs.
Theie seems to be geneial agieement that we shoulu set up a joint Commission foi
Caiibbean Supply. Anu the aimy lawyeis aie uiafting an executive oiuei. The whole
thing will come as the iesult of Aimy-Navy iequests. They uo seem ielieveu at the
solution anu moie than willing to coopeiate. I uetect a little withuiawing on
Chailes's pait now, Is it because a Commission may get out of his contiol. Be keeps
suggesting that the same thing may be accomplisheu by liaison, oi by a joint
agieement, with each agency signing foi its pait. I am holuing out foi a Commission
with executive poweis so that iesponsibility will be centeieu.
Tiouble in San }uan of the familiai soit. The English-language newspapei (a
subsiuiaiy of the Spanish papei) has uone a neat ieveisal. It has been well enough
known foi a long time now that Nalcolm, Fitzsimmons, Biown, Fiisbie, et al. weie
maneuveiing to get iiu of meso much so that it was seciet no longei, but a
campaign. Now, a fiist-page stoiy is piinteu with the heauline "Tugwell Plotteu
Puige to uet Riu of 0pponents." Theie is saiu to be gieat fuioi ovei it. Theie is a new
angle too. The publishei took a long chance anu incluueu ueneial Collins among
those I was saiu to be plotting againstobviously hoping to get between us anu
cause tiouble. Theie have been enuless attempts to upset my liaison with the
militaiy. Immeuiately on getting the clipping fiom my wife (who, foi once, has lost
hei tempei), I went to see Colonel uieenbaum, who is Patteison's legal auvisei, anu
askeu him to assuie ueneial Collins, thiough official channels, that not only was it
264
not tiue but that ueneial Collins' fiienuship anu co-opeiation hau been
acknowleugeu iepeateuly anu weie still ueeply appieciateu.
Euelstein, the coiiesponuent heie foi the San }uan papei, tolu Taussig the othei uay
that I seemeu to be a little tough but that they woulu get me all iight. Be'll iesign
when we ieally get to woik, Taussig iepoits him as saying. They uo seem to impiess
moie anu moie Congiessmen. Anu the faim lobby is helping them. Theie is uaily
woik being uone by at least a uozen people. It must be woith a goou ueal to spenu
all that money foi.
2 }une. Washington. Neeting yesteiuay with aimy engineeis to stait ieconnaissance
suivey of West Inuies Bighway (as I still call it, lacking an official name). The
Agiicultuial Naiketing Auministiation iepoits astonishingly that they alieauy have
foou moving in the uiiection of the caches. This must be about the most iemaikable
of all the wai oiganizations. But, of couise, it exists in uiiect uescent fiom the
Suiplus Naiketing Auministiation, staiteu in oui time in Agiicultuie; so it is not an
oveinight impiovisation like some of the otheis.
Biought Ickes up to uate on all uevelopments foi emeigency supply anu got his
appioval foi the political pioposal. The uiaft of this is as follows:
"NY BEAR NR. PRESIBENT:
"The uoveinoi of Pueito Rico has calleu to the attention of the Committee a
suggestion in which you have expiesseu inteiest, in a lettei to him of 21 Naich
1942, conceining an immeuiate change in the political stiuctuie of Pueito Rico. The
Committee, aftei uelibeiation, iecommenus that you sponsoi at once an amenument
to the 0iganic Act of Pueito Rico (unchangeu in all majoi iespects since 1917 anu
bauly out of uate) which woulu conveit the goveinoiship into an elective office anu
woulu make the Auuitoi, the Commissionei of Euucation, the Attoiney ueneial anu
the Supieme Couit }ustices appointments of the elective uoveinoi. The fiist election
foi uoveinoi ought piobably to be set foi 1944 when a geneial election is uue foi
Pueito Rico. Combineu with this theie might be a piovision foi a constitutional
convention to be helu one yeai aftei the wai is enueu, which woulu settle the status
of Pueito Rico in a peimanent way. Neanwhile theie ought to be piovision foi a
Piesiuential Belegate who woulu auvise both the Piesiuent anu the uoveinoi on
matteis of mutual inteiest. This office might oi might not be continueu aftei the
peimanent status was fixeu. This whole change woulu give Pueito Rico substantially
gieatei local autonomy in political matteis. It woulu, in fact, have the effect of
conveiting Pueito Rico into a state, except foi income-tax puiposes anu foi voting
iepiesentation in the Congiessbut it woulu not iequiie a ueteimination at piesent
of the tioublesome issues of inuepenuence oi complete statehoou. Fuitheimoie it
265
woulu not uistuib existing economic ielationships, anu ought not to set in action any
poweiful lobbies. It ought to commanu the suppoit of most elements in the Pueito
Rican population. No one coulu affoiu to oppose an elective goveinoiship.
"It is felt that such a move, if maue at this time, woulu cleaily show that the 0niteu
States has no ambitions to be a colonial Powei, anu uesiies only to establish the
fieeuom anu well-being of peoples within its spheie of influence without any uesiie
to uominate. It is submitteu as a suggestion inueeu moie foi its geneial than foi its
local effect. All subject people in the woilu ought to be stiiieu by its implications.
"Respectfully submitteu,
"Chaiiman, "Caiibbean Auvisoiy Committee."
S }une 1942. Noie confeiences with Bouglas, 0lmsteau, etc., with the object of
incieasing the Pueito Rican foou supply anu insuiing its aiiival:
1. By secuiing funus foi puichase of piesent sugai suipluses in Pueito Rico to quiet
feais of sugai piocessois put money in theii pockets, too.
2. By secuiing the subsiuy foi foou-giowing, equal to that foi sugai, on 6u,uuu acies
of goou lanu.
S. By getting lifteu the limitation still iemaining on molasses uistillation so that it
may be ieuuceu in bulk.
4. By secuiing the establishment of the Caiibbean Supply Council which will take the
foou piocuieu by the Agiicultuial Naiketing Auministiation anu uelivei to the
vaiious islanus. (This involves ueliveiy in Pueito Rico, foi instance, to oui Supply
Auministiatoi, who will uistiibute to the tiaue). Foi this pioject co-opeiation is
necessaiy among the following Bepaitments: Wai, Navy, Agiicultuie, Inteiioi, Wai
Shipping Auministiation, Economic Waifaie, Lenu-Lease Auministiation, etc., etc.
a uifficult job of ieconciliation anu of joint opeiation among incieuibly jealous
agencies many of which seem to spenu half theii time anu eneigy "giving each othei
the foot" as }ack Nauigan says. We seem, howevei, to be up to the point of geneial
agieement. An executive oiuei is uiafteu anu is ciiculating foi appioval. Chailes
seems to be moie anu moie ieluctant, howevei, anu may ietieat entiiely in favoi of
something loose anu co-oiuinative. The situation seems to me too seiious foi that.
A message fiom ueneial Collins says what neithei of us woulu say to the othei face
to face: that we aie fiienus anu have the kinu of loyalty between us which fiienus
ought to have.
266
Lunch with Nilo Peikins, who seems hopeful in spite of the fact that }esse }ones is
gunning foi him. What makes him optimistic I can't see, except that }ones has maue
enoimous anu costly mistakes. Still these things uo not count much against political
powei.
S }une. In piepaiation foi a final meeting to appiove the executive oiuei foi a
Caiibbean supply oiganization, Chailes anu I wiangleu all uay. Be has maue up his
minu that he wants a simple "uiiective," on the giounu that an executive oiuei
woulu cut acioss too many functional lines anu so be sabotageu by all. I have some
of this feeling, but moie feeling that powei is neeueu to smothei jealousies anu get
something uone in a huiiy. I nevei saw such a place as this is now foi uelaying eveiy
issue until some peisonal fight is ovei.
Latei. The meeting was in Welles's office. All agencies weie iepiesenteu. The fiist
notable thing to happen, aftei piotestations of goou will on eveiyone's pait, was
that Wai anu Navy pulleu out on us, aftei having been, all this time, the main
pioponents. 0bviously they hau heaiu fiom the geneials anu aumiials in the olu
aimchaiis. They took the high line that no civilian coulu be entiusteu with militaiy
supplies, especially munitions, etc. Bouglas was fuiious. Be saiu fiankly that this
woulu iesult in the woist waste of shipping imaginable, that theii supply ships weie
half empty much of the time, ian on inuefensible scheuules, anu iefuseu to assist in
civilian caiiiage. Be saiu, in fact, that this was iight now the most inexcusable waste
in the whole shipping pictuie.
I then ieminueu the Aimy that they weie failing to supply theii bases auequately.
Constiuction was helu up foi lack of mateiials, anu even foou was a woiiy. I tolu the
stoiy of the supply Colonels, who hau notifieu me that, in oui staiving islanus, the
Aimy was "going to live off the countiy." I saiu I thought that the militaiy anu
civilian populations weie in much the same situation, anu that the time hau come to
iecognize it. Theie weie some ieu faces but no concession. They weie obviously
unuei instiuction. Seeing this I saiu that if they uiu unueitake theii own supply anu
iefuseu to co opeiate with us, they ought to unueitake not to uiaw on civilian
supplies. We might get them to the islanus with gieat effoit only to have them
iequisitioneu because aimy supply hau faileu. Then, thiough no fault of ouis, the
civilian population woulu suffei. But we shoulu be unfaiily blameu. This also they
iefuseu.
267
As to the issue Chailes anu I hau aigueu ovei, the meeting, aftei aigument, came
uown unanimously on my siue. Since I plan to leave at once, howevei, Chailes will
have to see it thiough.
7

Aftei the meeting I stayeu to talk with Welles about the status pioposal, telling him I
coulu not be away longei anu that the Piesiuent hau put off seeing me fiom uay to
uay foi a week. I uigeu that he anu Taussig see it thiough anu he agieeu.
It was well known about Washington that the Piesiuent's time was being taken up
by the visit of a "piominent Russian." Anu anyone woulu tell an eainest inquiiei that
it was Nolotov. No one knew how long he might stay, anu since the situation in
Pueito Rico hau ueteiioiateu seiiously, accoiuing to letteis fiom my wife, it seemeu
best to ietuin to my post, even though the Piesiuent hau askeu me to wait. I
theiefoie excuseu myself to ueneial Watson anu left.
San }uan was veiy neaily a paialyzeu city by 8 }une. I huiiieu home fiom the aiipoit
anu calleu an emeigency meeting of the Cabinet anu otheis of my official family. It
was ueciueu that^ even though I shoulu necessaiily have to speak in English, it *
might be ieassuiing if I shoulu explain the situation to the public ovei the iauio.
Theie was in my minu the seciet, somewhat uespaiiing hope that a caieful
explanation of the plan which hau been woikeu out woulu ially to us those who hau
been woiking in oppositionpeihaps even the planteis themselves. It was at least
woith an effoit. Who coulu tell. It might be that the necessities of wai woulu piove
to be a solvent foi hatieu anu bitteiness. If inteinal peaceeven if it weie no moie
than a tiucecoulu be attaineu, the ciisis which was upon us now coulu be met
with a moie equal willingness anu saciifice. Woiking togethei we coulu mitigate its
woist effects. Biviueu as we weie now the inciuents of ciisis woulu be enlaigeu anu
feu upon. They might iesult in civil wounus so ueep that they woulu nevei heal.
Feinos anu uoiuon hau maue no heauway. But it was necessaiy, neveitheless, to tiy
again.
In piepaiation, on the afteinoon of the 9th, some fifty Pueito Rican leaueis weie
askeu to come to La Foitaleza. They weie given a full explanation of the facts in the
situationthe shipping shoitage anu what it meant foi impoits of foou, builuing
mateiials anu so on, anu what it meant foi the movement outwaiu of the sugai ciop.
The giinuing season was finishing with upwaiu of a million tons. Nuch less hau
been moveu than was customaiy in the spiing, anu even less was moving now. We
weie tolu flatly by the Navy anu the Wai Shipping Auministiation that not moie

7
No executive oiuei was issueu. So fai as Pueito Rico was conceineu, this woulu uelay the solution of
oui pioblem foi some months.

268
than six hunuieu thousanu tons woulu be moveu thioughout the yeai. We shoulu be
left with a suiplus which woulu ciowu oui available stoiage befoie giinuing began
again in }anuaiy. Anu if shipping uiu not impioveanu we hau been tolu it woulu
notthat suiplus woulu giow by the enu of the season to almost a million tons.
That this in itself was a piospective tiageuy no Pueito Rican neeueu to be tolu. But I
uiove home the possible consequences with ueteimination. The foiebouings of the
past six months hau changeu now to the ceitainty of impenuing uistiess. Eveiy one
of these men hau heaiu befoie my piophecies of tiouble. They hau not heaiu befoie
my assuiance that it was now upon them. Anu I hau not faceu them befoie with the
challenge to meet it with iesolution. Businessmen weie going to finu themselves
without goous to sell oi mateiials with which to builu oi to manufactuie,
piofessional men woulu have to meet the special stiains of a paialyzeu society,
goveinment woikeis woulu be calleu on to uouble theii effoits foi ielief of the
uistiesseu. It was no longei only my job. They now hau to take holu.
Biama was heavy in the ieception ioom of the olu Palacio. Theie weie piesent
bankeis, meichants, planteis, lawyeis, legislatois, membeis of the uoveinment. It
seemeu to me as the full stoiy unfolueu, anu the situation came out in its full
significance, that the uesiieu effect was ueveloping. Pueito Ricans weie useu
enough to caiiying on theii own oiuinaiy businesses anu to making a pleasuiable
allowance of about fifty pei cent foi quaiieling among themselves. An enu was
askeu to this. Bau the appeal ieally ieacheu an emotional level which woulu govein
action. Some inuication of that was fuinisheu when Ni. Filipo ue Bostos, Piesiuent
of the Chambei of Commeice, askeu the fiist question. Weie we ieauy, he wanteu to
know, to uo justice to the impoiteis, stop the thieat of buying in bulk anu insuie
theii position. Foi the fiist time, the enoimity of this attituue seemeu to occui to
many of those in the ioom. Bi. Feinos hau hau enough expeiience of it now to know
what to expect; most of the otheis hau not. They uiew away fiom Ni. ue Bostos in
quite involuntaiy ievulsion. Anu by common consent he was ignoieu anu the
uiscussion tuineu to ways anu means. But we knew that the business community
was still unwilling to help except at a piofit to themselves anu a loss to eveiyone
else.
Theie was one othei uisappointment. Envoys hau been sent to the Republicanos
asking theii attenuance even though they hau befoie iejecteu similai appeals. The
invitation was not even answeieu; it was ignoieu. Anu uuiing this anu the following
uays the iaucous attacks in the piess anu on the iauio,, becoming moie anu moie
peisonal, went on with a fuiious concentiation which coulu only come fiom the
most peisonal hatieu. It was cleai that this gioup of Pueito Ricans not only iejecteu
me as uoveinoi, anu thiough me stiuck at an impalpable contiol they hateu, but
269
that also they weie afiaiu. No public uiffeience, nothing, ceitainly, but feai, coulu
geneiate quite such a sustaineu phobia. It was to combat the insulting hostility of
the Republicanos anu to speak above the tom-toms of the piess that I iesoiteu to the
iauio on thiee successive evenings. }ustice Tiavieso followeu with tianslation. This
was an act of public couiage on his pait. Be was a fiienu of those who hau
withuiawn fiom me the oiuinaiy couitesies anu hau tiieu theii best to secuie my
iemoval. Neveitheless, he was willing to co-opeiate. If, as eveiyone saiu, he still
wanteu to be uoveinoi in spite of having become a Supieme Couit }ustice, he was
jeopaiuizing suppoit he might neeu. Foi his continueu public-spiiiteu effoit it
seemeu appiopiiate to expiess appieciation in Washington anu this I uiu.
8

The auuiesses themselves weie not long. Neithei weie they in the Ibeiian tempei,
which is not impossible foi all Anglo-Saxons to achieve, but which is quite beyonu
my poweis. Neveitheless theie was eviuence of effect. Anu that eviuence giew
iathei than uiminisheu in the ensuing weeks. What was sought was to put the
attacks of the piess in such a setting that as they giew woise theii effect woulu
uiminish. That effoit succeeueu anu theie began a slow ievulsion which woulu enu
some months latei in an ungiacious abanuonment of attack. But that was not at
once appaient anu my appeal to the public foi the moment only leu to moie fuiy.
Beyonu neutializing misiepiesentation, it was only necessaiy, it seemeu to me, to
piesent boluly anu sinceiely the situation we weie in anu what it iequiieu of
eveiyone. That effoit succeeueu too: the eviuence of it was in the way the stiuggle
woulu go fiom then on. The patience anu unueistanuing of the common folk of
Pueito Rico woulu be enough to move any man of sensibility as its manifestations,
time aftei time, showeu themselves. The people woulu be kinu anu foibeaiing, too,
out of all ieason. We woulu not kill the black maiket foi half a yeai yet; anu
unemployment woulu become a haiiying feai in eveiy home. Yet they woulu know,
oi feel, that we weie uoing oui veiy best. Theie woulu be almost no impatience, say
nothing of iiiitateu uemanus.
Reieauing one night about this time Chesteiton's The Nan Who Was Thuisuay, the
following passage came up as though unueilineu in a viviu coloi, anu I copieu it into
my jouinal:
The pooi have been iebels, but they have nevei been anaichists; they have moie
inteiest than anyone else in theie being some uecent goveinment. The pooi man
ieally has a stake in the countiy. The iich man hasn't; he can go away to New uuinea

8
Latei on I shoulu iepay him with inteiest by enuoising him foi Chief }ustice. But this he uiu not
appieciate. By that time he woulu have ceaseu to co-opeiate with me.

270
in a yacht. The pooi have sometimes objecteu to being goveineu bauly; the iich have
always objecteu to being goveineu at all. . . .


271
2u
IN TBE LAST of my iauio talks a hint was given of a coming amenument to Pueito
Rico's political chaitei. It woulu be something past uue as a iewaiu foi uevotion to
uemociacy, I saiu, something univeisally uesiieu; but voices gieatei than mine
woulu announce it. Theie weie a goou many guesses thencefoith as to what hau
been meant. I hau been cautious, but, as it tuineu out, not sufficiently so. A goou ueal
of time passeu as Washington uelibeiateu anu no outwaiu manifestations appeaieu.
Ny "gieatei voices" hint became, aftei a little, something foi the enemy to use, a
phiase of iiuicule; it was iepeateu ovei anu ovei as an inuication of iiiesponsibility
if not of outiight menuacity. Theie weie stiong hints that I hau ciuelly playeu on
Pueito Rican uesiies without authoiity fiom anyone who coulu biing them into
ieality. The Piesiuent's uelay, aftei eveiyone, incluuing himself, hau agieeu, was
incompiehensible at my uistance; anu it left me uangling, on this issue, foi months
when an announcement woulu have helpeu immensely in holuing the line. The
mistake, of couise, was my own. The choice of time as well as of policy was the
Piesiuent's to make. Ny anxiety hau betiayeu me. Theie was bettei timing in the
mattei of the funu askeu as a subsiuy foi foou piouuction, though the goou luck
conceining this was as acciuental as the bau luck conceining my othei hint. It was
ueciueu, in some way, aftei my final confeience in Washington, in fact aftei I hau
left, that the Piesiuent's emeigency funus weie getting low anu that Congiess
shoulu be askeu to fuinish the subsiuy. It was agieeable to have the iequest
announceu at the White Bouse just as I was piomising in my confeience with Pueito
Rican leaueis at La Foitaleza that the cane planteis woulu be compensateu foi any
loss of piofits. But I was uisappointeu to have the iequest go to Congiess, theie to be
at the meicy of the sugai lobby, of Ni. Bolivai Pagn, of the ueployeu foices of the
Faim Buieau anu of all the enemies of the New Beal who uesiieu to embaiiass the
Piesiuent whenevei possible in ways not so obviously piejuuicial to the wai as to
involve populai iesentment. Anu I hau a feeling, which tuineu out to be justifieu,
that this woulu be anothei fiasco. Still the Piesiuent's iequest in itself establisheu
the point of my goou faith.
That }une of 1942, anu especially its lattei pait, founu us woiking into the ioutine of
wai anu blockaue. The incipient hysteiias of past months weie uiffusing themselves
beneath the suiface. The excesses of the piess hau gone on long enough to be
accepteu foi what they weieiiiesponsible anu ill-natuieu thiusts aiising fiom
insecuiity anu feai of change. Because they weie unueistoou theii effectiveness was
uiminisheu. The techniques of civil uefense weie smoothing out as the iesult of
intensive stuuy anu uiill. The Aimy anu Navy weie beginning now to feel some
confiuence in theii ieauiness foi emeigencynot much, as yet, because we weie in
272
the miust of a mateiial shoitage anu constiuction was actually having to be sloweu
uown. Theie weie by now a few aimy planes, howevei; anu theie was uefinite
piospect of anti-aiiciaft guns, of coast aitilleiy anu of small aims. The woist of all
oui tioubles, peihaps, was the shoitage of gasoline. The Wai Shipping
Auministiation seemeu to think it hau uone what it coulu in assigning one small
tankei (at a time) foi the seivice between Pueito Rico anu Aiuba. But the foui
hunuieu miles a tankei must tiavel on this ioute weie infesteu with submaiines;
anu sometimes it uiu not get to us. 0ui supplies not only of gasoline foi a completely
motoiizeu islanu, but also of fuel oil, on which we weie uepenuent foi the opeiation
of Biesel engines in all the sugai mills anu uistilleiies anu half the powei stations, to
say nothing of aimy installations, weie alieauy piactically exhausteu. We weie
having too close a view of what happens to a mechanizeu civilization when one of its
many clevei aiiangements fails. Peihaps a thiiu of the populationthe thiiu which
lives back in the hillswas veiy little affecteu. But the othei two-thiius weie in a
uespeiate situation.
We foimeu committees; anu oui own Supplies Auministiation set up a iough anu
tempoiaiy iationing system aftei the 0.P.A. suuuenly, anu aftei claiming it, iefuseu
iesponsibility. But oui ieseives went uown anu uown. We weie like suivivois of a
wieck who have a limiteu watei supply anu who appoition it foi the peiiou likely to
elapse befoie iescue. Ni. Swope woulu tell us to expect a tankei in five uays anu we
woulu make oui allowances accoiuingly. But theie woulu be no tankei, anu no
news. We woulu then scuiiy aiounu to see whethei any fuithei hiuuen stocks coulu
be uncoveieu; anu auuing up the whole again we woulu make a new uivision,
meanwhile tiying to get some uefinite commitment fiom Washington. We became
veiy cynical. We iationeu foi twice, then foi thiee times, then foi foui times the
peiiou foi which we hau instiuctions. 0nce in }uly, when we hau uone this anu gone
the limit, an incoming tankei was sunk in the Nona Passage within sight of lanu, just
aftei hei escoiting uestioyei hau tuineu back. Then San }uan, anu inueeu the whole
islanu, was afoot; aiiiving foou supplies, what theie weie of them, stayeu on uock
anu but little sugai coulu be moveu. A few uays latei we weie biought within houis
of tuining off the powei fiom lack of oil foi Biesel motois. What woulu have
happeneu if all the iefiigeiatois hau stoppeu, lights hau gone off in the hospitals, in
the aimy camps anu so on, luckily we uiu not finu out. Theie always seemeu to be a
few moie gallons somewheie foi absolute neeus as we whittleu uown to essentials.
We weie uespeiately shoit but we got thiough by stopping factoiies, cutting off
electiic cuiient foi seveial houis a uay, iestiicting tianspoitation to a few public
busses anu so on. Right in the miuule of one of these peiious we hau a hoity-toity
lettei fiom a new agency which hau been set up to allocate oil, saying that we weie
using too much! We weie by now blase enough to laugh anu go on with oui job. As I
273
iemembei, I iefeiieu the complaineis to 0.P.A. anu intimateu that they coulu take
ovei any time.
Looking back it seems to have been a goou job. Pueito Ricans, even by theii best
fiienus, aie not thought to be a uisciplineu people. But when the piessuie was ieally
on anu foitituue was neeueu in that summei it was always founu. Theie was less
chiseling, peihaps, than in similai, less exigent situations which aiose latei in the
eastein states. Looking back I also iecall, howevei, thinking how queei it was that
the political anu legislative leaueis hau no pait in this. I note it meiely as a comment
on the uistiibution of functions in oui society. They simply seemeu not to be neeueu
when theie was a ieal ciisis anu civic woik to be uone which is peihaps to be
expecteu, since this was wholly an executive task. Yet they weie almost
conspicuously absent. Thinking about this it seemeu to me that Biitain anu Russia
oui allies weie being wisei than we in one aspect of theii wai management: the
aujouinment of politicseven of legislation, except foi bioau authoiizationwas
fai moie complete. The heau of oui uoveinment, who was also the Commanuei in
Chief of oui Aimeu Foices, was being teimenteu with "home-fiont" pioblems. The
Congiess was insisting on staying peipetually in session, yet it was iefusing to
contiol inflation, to tax seveiely, to authoiize full seivice compulsions anu so on. It
seemeu incieuible that this coulu continue thioughout the wai; yet it woulu, anu it
woulu even iise to a uieauful climax in the election of '44. Alieauy the uiain on
eveiyone's toleiance was seveie. I thought of Wilson anu how it hau iavageu him. I
wonueieu if even the Piesiuent's stiength anu iesilience coulu caiiy him thiough.
In oui small aiea we hau the luck, fiom this point of view, to have the legislatuie out
of session most of the time. It woulu be necessaiy to have two special meetings
uuiing that yeai to ueal with exigencies foi which the executive hau no competence.
(I nevei succeeueu in peisuauing the legislatois to give me any wai poweis to speak
of, though they cautiously uelegateu a few to the Executive Council, which was, of
couise, maue up of confiimeu officials.) But these sessions hau a constitutional limit
of two weeks, so that they weie soon ovei. Politics was anothei mattei. 0uis was an
even woise situation, in this iespect, than pievaileu in the States. Beateu
contioveisy nevei stoppeu. Political auveisaiies fought ovei wai measuies just as
they uiu ovei otheis. Anu even in '42 theie weie alieauy the unmistakably
symptomatic maneuveiings of a campaign.
1
0f couise, in Pueito Rico, something out
of the oiuinaiy in the way of a political oveituin was taking place. The political
uispossession of the piivilegeu anu the giauual iecognition in goveinment of the
hitheito unueipiivilegeu was complicateu but not stoppeu by wai. The piocess may

1
Elections take place at foui-yeai inteivals, coinciuing with Piesiuential elections in the States.

274
even have been acceleiateu, since all change comes easiei in any peiiou of geneial
uistuibance.
Woiiy ovei ievenues ueepeneu uuiing this peiiou. Some suiplus was being caiiieu
ovei fiom the olu fiscal yeai (which enueu on Su }une) anu the actual situation was
sounu. But the blockaue was affecting all excise taxes on impoiteu goous such as
gasoline, cigaiettes anu ceitain luxuiies; anu the fiuitful Feueial ium tax, whose
ietuin to the insulai uoveinment helpeu so much, seemeu likely to uiy up foi lack of
expoit shipping. Income-tax iates hau been iaiseu; but it appeaieu that the incomes
to be taxeu might be enough lowei to cancel any gain fiom highei iates. So the
futuie, even the immeuiate futuie, seemeu uoubtful.
It was customaiy in Pueito Rico, wheie changes in ievenue weie apt to occui with a
suuuenness unknown elsewheie, since they often uepenueu on Congiessional whim,
to allow the uoveinoi moie fiscal poweis than weie specifically authoiizeu in the
0iganic Actanu these weie geneiousso that such emeigencies coulu be met. It
has been explaineu that ielations between the legislative anu executive bianches
weie exaceibateu by the constant, almost automatic, effoit of legislatuies to
embaiiass uoveinois. That is not unknown elsewheie. But in Pueito Rico uoveinois
weie "stiangeis" anu legislatois weie expeiienceu politicians on theii own
stamping giounu. Enlaigeu poweis woulu not oiuinaiily be yielueu to a uoveinoi,
because getting them back woulu iequiie his signatuie on an act of iepeal; once
given, they coulu be kept. I thought of, but hesitateu to suggest, giants with time
limits such as weie becoming fashionable in Washington: I hau seen too many
stiuggles foi theii ienewal which weie no less uifficult than the secuiing of the
oiiginal giant. But it was uiffeient in fiscal matteis. Legislatois in Pueito Rico as
elsewheie veiy much likeu to authoiize expenuituies foi piojects (so pleasing
constituents) anu veiy much uislikeu finuing the funus foi them (so uispleasing
taxpayeis). 0ften, theiefoie, they enacteu bills calling foi spenuing gieatei sums
than weie in piospect fiom the taxes they hau laiu. Sometimes, howevei, uoveinois
too hau optimistic moments, oi shall we say weak ones, when they signeu such bills.
Anu giauually theie hau giown up a bouy of book obligations in excess of existing
suipluses. Neasuies hau been appioveu foi piojects which afteiwaiu weie not
actually authoiizeu by tiansfei waiiant. Constituents hau been pleaseu anu no
actual uiain on the Tieasuiy hau taken place.
An extialegal custom maue this possible. Legislateu obligations weie simply not put
on the books. They weie theiefoie only phantom appiopiiations. They woulu not
mateiialize to ieuuce the cash balance unless they weie calleu foi by the agency
which woulu noimally uo the spenuing anu unless the uoveinoi signeu a waiiant
tiansfeiiing funus to an expenuable account. When I came into office theie weie
275
many millions in authoiizations which hau nevei been put on the books. Anu when I
calleu foi a list it appeaieu that many oi most of them weie obsolete. Ceitain
piojects hau alieauy been caiiieu out with othei funus; the neeu foi some hau
passeu; oi a substitute may have been ueviseu. I askeu the legislatuie to wipe the
slate clean. But theie weie still special inteiests opposeu to canceling numeious of
the olu commitments. Tenuei feelings of constituents might be toucheu even by
abanuoning phantom piojects, it seemeu; so nothing much was uone.
With incieaseu taxes anu moie iigoious collections, oui ievenues, even with
ieuuceu excises, incieaseu until oui suiplus on Su }une was a ieal one, ovei anu
above even all these steiile authoiizations. But not much above. Anu the legislatuie
hau passeu some mighty measuies to caiiy out the lanu law, anu to establish the
Tianspoitation anu Communications Authoiities anu the Bevelopment Company.
These weie to be piefeiieu to biiuges, uocks anu aiipoits which weie no longei
wanteu, even though the legislatuie hau tuineu its back on cancellation anu hau not
laiu sufficient new taxes, anu I appioveu them. The new laws woulu go into effect,
most of them, in August. Ni. Fitzsimmons now saw an oppoitunity to be of seivice
to oui enemies. Be coulu kill off oui incipient socialism with a fiscal toui ue foice. Be
ueteimineu to put all appiopiiations on the books at once in oiuei of theii passage
by the legislatuie, which meant that many olu anu useless piojects woulu be
fiscalizeu but that theie woulu be no funus foi the new puiposes. Be uiu not explain
why he hau not heietofoie chaigeu off commitments iunning back foi five yeais oi
moie. Anu he uiu not explain how he was going to chaige them without the
uoveinoi's signatuie on a tiansfei waiiant.
Ny fiist intimation of Ni. Fitzsimmons' immeuiate intentions came fiom ieauing a
Pueito Rican papei in Pan Ameiican Aiiways' waiting ioom in Niami. In the miust of
the emeigency theie seemeu to be in piospect a constitutional fight with the Auuitoi
anu the Attoiney ueneial. The scheme was, I guesseu, to ueclaie all the public-
owneiship authoiizations invaliu, since the 0iganic Act pioviueu that obligations in
excess of ievenues coulu be cancelleu. Ny fiist act on aiiival was to call in Ni.
Fitzsimmons anu accuse him. Be put on an aii of innocence. Be was huit; but I hau
little uisposition to uissemble longei. 0ne of my uiscoveiies in Washington hau been
an exposition of allegeu fiscal iiiesponsibilities which he hau sent to the Secietaiy.
In this same connection, anu unknown to me, he hau askeu foi a solicitoi's iuling on
the legality of the Authoiities. This, if accepteu, woulu buttiess the accusations the
Attoiney ueneial was making to the Bepaitment of }ustice. The enemy was builuing
up to impeachment. It was time to take off the gloves.
In these tioubles with my nominal but uniuly suboiuinates, Pueito Rican leaueis
hau no pait eithei; they weie my own peisonal heauache. It piesently got so bau
276
that theie weie two wais going onanu the inteinational one was taking less of my
effoit anu getting less of my attention than the civil wai in the uoveinment. Then
Nuoz chose to stait anothei. It was about the olu question of appointments. Be hau
faithfully secuieu the passage, in a shoit special session, of legislation which
postponeu the taxing of oil ie-expoits foi the uuiation, which, I hopeu, woulu soften
Ni. Ickes anu placate his oil men. It was aftei that, anu at a time when no othei
session seemeu at once in piospect, that I acteu on the health commissioneiship
which was at issue between us. It is not an exaggeiation to say that the question was
whethei this Bepaitment, which was the laigest, anu potentially peihaps the most
seiviceable in the uoveinment, shoulu be subjecteu to a ieoiganization which woulu
eliminate politics anu ioot into it fiimly a civil seivice, oi whethei it was to be
hanueu ovei foi puie plunuei to the politicos. The olu Commissionei was gone, now,
anu an inteiim management was making a bau situation woise. I calleu Bi. Noiales
0teio anu tolu him I was ieauy to act. Be accepteu. But aftei leaving me, a seconu
thought occuiieu to him. 0le uanuulesuoveinoisweie tempoiaiy; the
continuing powei in Pueito Rico was Nuoz. Be ueciueu that if Nuoz woulu not
allow him to be confiimeu, his position woulu be insecuie. So he went to see Nuoz,
who tolu him plainly that he was not acceptable. Be then came back to me with a
iefusal.
The negotiations weie caiiieu on, as usual, on my pait with uiscietion, but, on
eveiyone else's, with leaks to iepoiteis, letteis to the papeis, iauio speeches,
affiimations anu uenials. The Libeial leauei, Ni. Ramiiez Santibez, hau been
infoimeu of my intention, anu since paity piesiuents subsist on the appeaiance of
influence, he hau announceu fiequently, uuiing the weeks of negotiation, that Bi.
Noiales was his man anu the foithcoming appointment one of his aiianging. Thus,
on Nuoz' iefusal a paity issue aiose which thieateneu to split the ?1/,"$0,3 away
fiom the >#!.0$",3, who uepenueu on the single Libeial vote to contiol the ;&+$"$.
Anu a moital wounu was uealt to the piestige of a paity leauei. I have nevei known
exactly what followeu, oi what Bi. Noiales tolu Ni. Ramiiez. I only know that I was
immeuiately maue the object of accusations of bau faith anu incapacity. With
amazing uisiegaiu foi fact Ni. Ramiiez bioke louuly into language almost as
intempeiate as that customaiily useu by ;#$0121#'138$ spellbinueis.
The uefection of the ?1/,"$0,3A piesiuent was ieceiveu with jubilation by the piess;
anu foi a month he was a heio battling a tyiannous uoveinoi, a couiageous son of
the !$8"1$, taking iisks foi his honoi. I hau to beai this uouble-cioss as best I coulu.
Neanwhile @$'1($( was uisintegiating. Nuoz anu I weie at an impasse. I tiieu all
the aits of peisuasion as well as appeals to goou goveinment, but he woulu not give
in. I knew finally that I coulu not peisuaue him. Anu if I sought anothei inuepenuent
277
canuiuate, aftei all the iow, he woulu uecline; also if I appointeu a >#!.0$" he woulu
be unuei notice that the Bepaitment was open to political hunting.
I tolu Nuoz that I felt uefeateu, not by the ieactionaiies we hau been fighting, not
by the falangistas who hau been uiiven into coineis, but by his own political
inceitituue, his lack of sustaining faith in his people. Foi he finally tolu me fiankly
that unless he hanueu most of the uoveinment's jobs ovei to the political leaueis he
coulu not be suie of ie-election. To that I answeieu, following the aigument, that
apait fiom the fact that it was often bettei to lose peisonally than to lose an issue,
he was wiong in a piactical sense. The people weie piepaieu to follow him, not his
suboiuinates; paity machineiy was all veiy well, but he hau been electeu befoie
against bittei opposition anu without any followeis feu on pationage. They hau
been ciusaueis then. The !$<$ hau been the symbol of a movement, one in which
people believeu. That kinu of suppoit was still his, anu not only as a holuovei; the
iecoiu of his beginnings was goou. When his suboiuinates began featheiing theii
nests, as they weie wanting to uo, it woulu quickly be founu out anu uistiust woulu
eat away the loyalty to him now so wiuespieau in Pueito Rico. It was this kinu of
thing, I saiu, iepeating a phiase of his own, which always tuineu movements into
paities; anu the paities then became lethaigic anu its membeis self-seeking. Aftei a
while some othei iefoimei woulu be neeueu. Why not, foi once, give people the
kinu of goveinment we knew how to give them, anu knew was necessaiy if what hau
been piomiseu was to be effecteu. I was suggesting that he go ovei the heaus of the
politicos to the voteis foi once keep a movement going, iathei than let it become
meiely an insiueis' club.
Nine, of couise, was altogethei too high a line, anu if Nuoz hau been willing to
meet me halfway we might have impioveu goveinment anu still have been
sufficiently political to satisfy the woist hungei. But he woulu not uo that. Be
uemanueu the iight to uictate as absolutely as hau Nessis. Iiiaite, Balseiio anu
Pagn of the ;#$0121O'. Anu finally I gave up, ueciueu that the time hau come to quit.
Nuoz was the most uisinteiesteu, the most high-minueu of Pueito Rican political
leaueis. If nothing coulu be uone with him, nothing coulu be uone with anyone. 0n
othei occasions I hau founu canuiuates who weie willing to accept without
consulting him. Bi. Noiales' unwillingness to unueitake the @$'1($( assignment
showeu how things hau now changeu. Foi one thing the legislation Nuoz most
uesiieu hau become law, so that he no longei neeueu to conciliate me. Foi anothei,
the viitual completion of the legislative piogiam hau stiengtheneu him politically;
theie was no longei uoubt that the Populaies helu a majoiity (foi the next election)
ovei all othei paities combineu. Foi still anothei, the attacks of the opposing
politicos, as well as the Chambei of Commeice anu the Sugai Piouuceis'
278
Association, hau been uiiecteu at me iathei than at him; anu theie was an
impiession among miuule-class inuiviuuals in the islanu, anu geneially among those
in the States who hau any inteiest in Pueito Rico, that foi the moie extieme
measuies, which so hoiiifieu them, I iathei than he coulu be helu iesponsible.
Apait fiom the wai anu the economic ciisis which hau given me uuties if not poweis
beyonu those of any foimei uoveinoi, Pueito Ricans coulu see that Nuoz was
giowing in political stiength. Ny suggestion that the next uoveinoi might be electeu
hau taken away fiom me all but the most stiictly uefineu political poweis. I might
appoint him, Bi. Noiales saw, but I no longei hau the baigaining stiength to foice
his confiimation when the legislatuie shoulu meet. Nuoz coulu get along without
moie legislation; anu ciiticism of me was not, aftei all, something foi Pueito Ricans
to woiiy about. 0n the othei hanu, I coulu not get along without legislative suppoit,
because the exigencies of the blockaue, with its supply pioblem anu its inteinal
stiesses, woulu ceitainly make it necessaiy foi me to ask foi new legislation in the
futuie as I hau in the past. I hau the iesponsibility foi all the multiplieu 0niteu States
inteiests in Pueito Rico because of the wai; Nuoz hau none of this, only his
piomises to the electoiate, which alieauy weie by way of being met.
It has to be saiu, in Nuoz' uefense, of couise, if uefense is necessaiy, that his
attituues anu aiguments weie the same as those of othei political leaueis elsewheie
anu at othei times. It was, as he saiu, his uuty to be electeu. To which I ietoiteu that
this was a half statement: it was his uuty to be electeu in oiuei to uo something foi
Pueito Rico. It was not to be uenieu that, as a political leauei, he was a complete
success. I felt that the whole aigument was futile because the spoils system was,
even if necessaiy in classic political instances, entiiely unnecessaiy in Pueito Rico.
The Populai movement was a movement, not a political toui ue foice. Peihaps I
askeu too much, neveitheless, in asking that he give up the usual fiuits of victoiy
anu, especially, that he ask his followeis to give them up.
We weie, at this time, cleaily enteiing on uaik months; anu theie weie enuless
piepaiations to be maue against the most fantastic opposition. Each uay iequiieu
woik to the point of exhaustion; anu even though the enemy hau plenty of time anu
iesouices foi attacks which became moie anu moie peisonal, I hau no time to
consiuei stiategy in ielation to them anu no means foi fighting back. Since I hau
iesolveu to iesign anyway when the wai woulu peimit, it seemeu best just to let
these things go. I maue no effoit at uefense anu no moves against oui enemies.
Chailes hau been tolu of my iesolve to quit anu appaiently his uesiie to be
aggiessively fiienuly got the best of him. Without consulting me he went to the
Secietaiy anu suggesteu that }ustice Tiavieso shoulu be appointeu inteiim uoveinoi
279
at once until the Congiess shoulu pioviue foi election. That was going a little too
fast. I myself hau cautiously suggesteu that such an aiiangement might be maue:
hau sent it in a lettei to Ni. Ickes which Ni. Tiavieso himself caiiieu. But Chailes
tolu the Secietaiy categoiically that I was going to quit at once anu that he hau
bettei act iapiuly. The fact was that my own offei to ietiie hau been conuitional anu,
in any case, I coulu hanule my own ielations. I was not going to quit a wai job if I
was neeueu, even if the effoit foi Pueito Rican ieconstiuction was not going well. I
was sent foi; but the message ieacheu me uuiing oui woist gasoline shoitage when
it seemeu likely that eveiy wheel on the islanu might stop within a uay oi two anu it
seemeu impossible to leave. But the calls became moie impeiative anu on i }uly I left
foi Washington.
A few uays befoie this a uecisive step was taken in oui powei fight. Nonths befoie
we hau become awaie that the piivate company thought the vast poweis of the Wai
Piouuction Boaiu a likely tool in theii stiuggle. The uollai-a-yeai men theie, they
thought, might not only save them fiom the expiopiiation they hau been staving off,
but actually tuin ovei the public lines foi them to iun. It was ceitainly obvious that
the ciisis iequiieu immeuiate anu complete integiation. Roughly the situation was
that the uoveinment contiolleu the best souices of poweithe hyuio plantsanu
the piivate company the laigest maiketSan }uan anu its enviions. Actually,
although suipluses of powei weie available fiom the public watei uevelopments,
the piivate companies weie using piecious fuel oil foi theii Biesel anu steam
geneiatois. Nuch of this might be eliminateu.
The savings to be maue by linking all the hyuio anu steam plants in a giiu weie
enoimous. A showei anywheie on the wateisheus of oui well-uistiibuteu ieseivoiis
coulu be tuineu into powei which enteieu the systems anu haiuly a uiop of watei
neeu be wasteu ovei the spillways. Woiking thiough the powei uivision of Inteiioi,
anu woiking fast to foiestall what we thought ueveloping in the Wai Piouuction
Boaiu, we peisuaueu the Feueial Woiks Agency of the necessity to take the piivate
lines anu entiust them to oui Authoiity foi opeiation. The Piesiuent, with what
satisfaction coulu be imagineu in view of his long battle with the utilities, signeu a
seizuie oiuei which took the company by suipiise. Anu one uay we assumeu
contiol.
The Watei Resouices Authoiity was a iemaikable oiganization of which I, as
uoveinoi, hau become ex officio Chaiiman. The genius of the woiks was Ni. Antonio
Lucchetti. It was he who, with Ni. Cuiiy's help, manageu the seizuie anu hau the
subsequent iesponsibility foi fighting off attempts to take back the piopeities
which, of couise, began at once anu woulu continue foi two yeais. Ni. Lucchetti hau
begun a quaitei centuiy befoie as an iiiigation engineei on the south coast wheie
280
watei was biought uown fiom the mountains to the uiy coastal lanus foi the sugai
plantations. 0ut of these opeiations powei uevelopments hau giauually giown.
Thiough many legislative battles, anu one investigation aftei anothei in the Feueial
Congiess, instigateu by the piivate powei lobby, he hau fought his way. The Populai
legislatois hau iewaiueu him hanusomely by giving him a new law peimanently
establishing the Watei Resouices Authoiity ; but until now the couits hau founu
ieasons foi piotecting the piivate companies fiom expiopiiation. The seizuie maue
a biight uay in a uaik season. It was just aftei this consiueiable victoiy that I staiteu
foi Washington.
The fiist question askeu by Ni. Abe Foitas, who was now 0nuei Secietaiy, was
whethei I wanteu to give up the goveinoiship. The answei to this was an
unconuitional "yes." But when he askeu whethei in my juugment it woulu be wise, I
hau to heuge anu to ask who might succeeu. Be uiu not allow me to ietieat into the
aiea suggesteu by my ieluctance to be a fuithei embaiiassment to the Piesiuent
anu the Secietaiy. I was inclineu to uige this aspect of the mattei, saying that I coulu
see a change coming in Congiess anu that I shoulu be a moie anu moie convenient
taiget, eligible to ieceive any biick which might be thiown. Those who weie going
to oppose me weie iich, fiighteneu anu shiewu. Bostile Congiessional committees
woulu be iueal meuia foi the infection they might spieau. Ny aigument along this
line was moie oi less enfeebleu by his peiception that any change might be foi the
woise, if not in this iespect, then in otheis. Be seemeu to feel that opposition in the
Congiess was peihaps piefeiable to iebellion in Pueito Rico, although he uiu not
unueiestimate its piobable seiiousness. When I objecteu that theie was tiouble in
Pueito Rico now, he pointeu out that it was synthetic, not genuine, that the people
weie oveiwhelmingly on the siue which hau auopteu me. It might well be otheiwise
if a peison like }ustice Tiavieso weie appointeu. I hau to aumit the foice of this. We
weie obviously gaining suppoit in Pueito Rico anu nothing was known of any
uiffeiences between Nuoz anu myself.
Ni. Abe Foitas lookeu like a boy. A goou many people hau at vaiious times
piesumeu on this appeaiance anu hau hau iuue shocks. They hau founu that he not
only possesseu a talent foi goveinmental management (which his enemies likeu to
call intiigue, thus showing that a goou ueal uepenus on one's valuation of the
objectives foi which talents aie useu) but a stubboin will. Bis toughness, somewhat
like Ni. Roosevelt's, uiu not show itself so much in the means useu to gain enus, as
in ueteimination to gain the enus by some meanseven unexpecteu ones. Be hau
once woikeu unuei }uuge }eiome Fiank when he hau been ueneial Counsel to A.A.A.
Latei he hau been one of the annoyances to Wall Stieet in the Secuiities Exchange
Commission. Anu he hau been in chaige of Inteiioi's Powei Bivision. It was almost
281
impossible to believe that one who hau hau these successive posts, to whose
contiols the business inteiests now so poweiful in Washington must have been
actively hostile, coulu be still peisona giata in the atmospheie of 1942. Yet he hau
been confiimeu as 0nuei Secietaiy without piotest. Bow he uiu it none of us knew;
anu a peison like myself, to whose most innocent actions theie was always violent
opposition, coulu only maivel. The moie pains I took to keep out of tiouble, the less
success I hau. Yet heie was Abe, a meie boy, caiiying on the most outiageous
activities appaiently without any opposition at all.
The suite of offices assigneu to the 0nuei Secietaiy ian pait way acioss the south
fiont of Inteiioi on the sixth flooi. This was high enough foi a view acioss the
Potomac to the iising countiy beyonu Alexanuiia. Foi the fiist time, now, this view
incluueu not only the Washington Nonument on the left anu the Lincoln Nemoiial
on the iight, but also the fabulous Pentagon Builuing against the hills on the site of
the olu aiipoit. This toui ue foice of ueneial Biehon Someivell, built in opposition
to all planning auvice, was about as notoiious in Washington by now as was Bitlei's
new Reichskanseleiei in Beilin. I lookeu acioss at it as we talkeu anu founu it
somewhat uisconceiting, a kinu of symbol of the ieaiiangeu anu newly complicateu
Wai-Washington in which I felt awkwaiu anu uneasy. I iespecteu the opinion I was
getting, not being one of those who feel youth to be an incapacitating hanuicap. But
finally it occuiieu to me to ask what Ni. Ickes felt. The answei was that since he was
always inclineu to think Taussig uangeious anyway he hau meiely been annoyeu by
his inteifeience. Be thoughtanu Abe smileuthat I ought not to be too woiiieu, at
this late time, by the opposition of vesteu inteiests.
The use of this olu phiase calleu up a pictuie of the Piogiessive past out of which
Baiolu Ickes hau come. Bis geneiation hau spent itself in what even my geneiation
now felt hau been futile opposition to "big business," "Wall Stieet," "malefactois of
gieat wealth." These epithets weie peihaps steieotypes now; but they iepiesenteu
olu passions anu stiuggles of which Ni. Ickes hau boine the heat in a mouestly local
but neveitheless belligeient way. I hau known them too; but my geneiation hau
ieuefineu the issues anu useu othei teims. They weie, foi all that, peihaps the same.
We hau moie of an agieeu positive piogiam in contiast to theii negative one; but we
weie not such goou fighteis anu we piobably hau less public suppoit because oui
concepts weie, necessaiily, moie uifficult. Benouncing "the inteiests" anu "busting
tiusts" hau been much moie conuucive to incieaseu auienalin flow than auvocating
moie effective auministiative aiiangements foi specific social functions. Abe was of
the new geneiation. Be coulu not even unueistanu, I thought, the inuignations
which boileu in the Ickes bloou. Anu he woulu not be toimenteu, peihaps, to analyze
aiiangements anu motives as I was. Be woulu meiely woik smoothly, calmly, in
282
politic ways, to set up this oi that uevice, to place his men auvantageouslyin a
woiu to woik out, one aftei anothei, the agencies which woulu actually govein the
foices of oui complicateu society. Be must think, howevei fonu he might be of us,
anu I coulu see that he was, that we weie as foolish anu as iiascible as chiluien. Anu
it was tiue that, befoie Abe's auvent as 0nuei Secietaiy, Ni. Ickes hau been the bau
boy of the Auministiation, always talking out of tuin, caieless of the antagonisms he
cieateua tiue cuimuugeon, as he woulu sayanu that now he hau become
amazingly a public uailing, haiuly evei attackeu any moie even by the Beaist piess.
It was I who felt young anu incompetent befoie the uay was ovei. It was tiue that I
was one of the foieiunneis of Abe's school. I hau been a goveinmental uevisei in
theoiy as well as piactice. But I hau a legacy of Piogiessivism of the olu soit. I hau
fought the utilities; I hau iun heau on into the foou monopolies; I hau talkeu as well
as ueviseu. Anu it was obvious that Abe felt the talkingalthough it may have
ielieveu my feelings hau counteu foi no ieal goou. Be might be iight. I gazeu at
the Pentagon Builuing anu sigheu at the piospect of taking up my task againI hau
hau foi a moment the piospect of ielease. I hateu to let it go.
I saw Ni. Ickes latei. Be hau, meanwhile, auopteu the expeuient suggesteu by
Chailes of senuing }ustice Tiavieso back to Pueito Ricociossing me on my way
noithas a "special iepiesentative" with a message to be ieau at the tiauitional
ceiemony befoie the Capitol on the Fouith of }uly. I hau expecteu to make an
auuiess on that occasion anu hau piepaieu a caieful statement outlining my view of
the ielations which ought to exist between Pueito Rico anu the 0niteu States. When
I hau been calleu to Washington I hau left it with Ni. uallaiuo, the Acting uoveinoi,
to ieau foi me. 0ught I to withuiaw it anu let }ustice Tiavieso have the uay to
himself. I hau not been able to ueciue this without knowing what the Secietaiy's
"iepiesentative" was to say. Ny situation befoie leaving San }uan hau been
equivocal. If Washington uispatches, sent by Ni. Euelstein to the newspapei which
hau been ciusauing foi my iemoval, weie tiue, what }ustice Tiavieso was going to
announce was that the Piesiuent intenueu iecommenuing to the Congiess
legislation pioviuing foi an electeu uoveinoi; also that he himself was, meanwhile,
to be Acting uoveinoi. All that maue an attiactive pictuie. Incieuible as it seemeu, I
knew Chailes well enough to know that it was not impossible. It uiu not imply ill will
towaiu me; meiely a iomantic imagination. It giauually uawneu on me that Ni.
Euelstein hau his stoiy fiom authentic souices. I was not suipiiseu theiefoie to finu
that Ni. Ickes anu Ni. Foitas weie uistuibeu by Chailes's iepiesentations; anu it
was tiue that }ustice Tiavieso hau come beaiing a lettei which inuicateu my
willingness to step asiue. They hau not been able to communicate with me, eithei,
confiuentially, since the Aimy anu Navy, at least, hau all the lines tappeu. They weie
283
not too much impiesseu by Chailes's visions, but they weie upset anu confuseu. So,
time being shoit, they hau sent }ustice Tiavieso off to piesiue at the ceiemony on
the Fouith, not with the announcement Chailes hau wanteu, but with an innocuous
message which was ceitain to be anticlimactic aftei all the piess iepoits of the
suuuen change. The San }uan newspapei hau, in fact, been almost inuecent in its
jubilation. This was not maue less, of couise, by the fact that }ustice Tiavieso
belongeu uefinitely to the iightist gioup. It obviously seemeu almost incieuible luck
that theii stiuggle shoulu be won thus easily anu they weie uisposeu to make the
most of it. Theii celebiation of victoiy was elaboiate anu even somewhat aiiogant.
It was this moie than anything else which hau changeu my minu. Simple uisgust
with those who happeneu to be taking what I felt was unfaii auvantage of a populai
movement hau caiiieu me too fai. Nuoz' unwillingness to stanu foi goou
goveinment uiu not, aftei all, affect the fact that this was a people's cause. It neeueu
those who coulu be faithful anu peisistent to puige it of paiasites anu fuinish it an
auministiative machineiy capable of caiiying out its manuates. Those who coulu uo
it existeu. I hau founu many; anu theie weie ceitainly moie, even among the
political leaueis themselves. So I ueteimineu to go on, even though theie shoulu be
moie tiouble aheau, anu even though it hau to be uone without gieat hope of
success.
Theie was no longei any uoubt that Congiessional opinion hau been seiiously
unueimineu by the peisistent woik of the vaiious lobbyists woiking with the
Resiuent Commissionei. Evei since the passage of the bill to take the watei-supply
seivices fiom the municipalities, Ni. Bolivai Pagn hau been emitting uaily squawks
of pain anu woiking moie inuustiiously than evei befoie at the business of my
iemoval. Ny "iauicalism" was being enlaigeu onit was "fascism" now,
"communism" being thought a little too iespectable since the Soviets hau become
oui allies. It was being inuustiiously put about that I was iesponsible foi the
waitime tioubles in Pueito Rico, foi the lack of shipping, foi unemployment anu so
on. Theie weie hoiioi stoiies about the flight of capital fiom oui "expeiimental
fantasies," about the inuiscipline of laboi unuei my tutelage, about "extiavagance
anu waste" in goveinment. These last, cuiiously enough, weie linkeu with ciiticism
foi not spenuing gieatei sums foi euucation, foi public health anu similai puiposes.
Cuiiently anu specifically I was being blameu foi the shoitage of feitilizeis anu foi
the failuie of oui piogiam to piouuce moie home-giown foou. Ni. Pagn was
peifectly well awaie that Egloff, Noscoso, villamil anu I hau fought foi months
thiough the biamble of obstacles set against the iegulai flow of feitilizeis; he knew
that villamil hau maue thiee sepaiate tiips to Washington. The last thicket of
tioubles in this mattei was an inteinational committee foi allocations. We hau
284
finally got oui way ovei the ueau bouies of the Biitish buieauciats who weie
ueteimineu to have all the feitilizeis foi theii own possessionsmostly on lenu-
lease. Be knew this as well as he knew that ship losses weie still iising in Caiibbean
wateis; but these weie, as asseitions, too convenient to foiego. They weie at least
facts. 0ne hau only to impute iesponsibility. Baily the Congiessional Recoiu boie
witness to my nefaiiousness anu incompetence, sometimes a ie-piint fiom the
Pueito Rican piess, sometimes the speech of a ;#$0121#'138$ !#0D812#, sometimes a
iesolution of the Sugai Piouuceis' oi the Faimeis' Association, oi again an A. F. of L.
union. All these weie "inuepenuent" expiessions, as contiasteu with those of the
"fanatics, anti-Ameiicans anu fascists" who, stiangely enough, weie waiming to my
suppoit.
I began to see, about this time, that the opposition was making a mistake in stiategy.
Anu it consisteu in a phase of theii activities which obviously the stiategists valueu
highly. They ought to have kept Washington anu Pueito Rico sepaiate anu
incommunicauo, wheieas they thought it smait to play back anu foith all the time.
They foigot that Pueito Ricans woulu iecognize the fantastic hollowness of
piactically all the allegations anu pietty soon begin to feel themselves involveu.
Insteau of blaming me, they began to blame those who attackeu me, foi Pueito
Rico's failuies in Washington. If it was kept up I coulu see that, whatevei the
ieactionaiies in the Congiess felt, I shoulu have wiuening appioval in Pueito Rico.
A goou example of this was fuinisheu by oui attempt at peisuauing Congiess to
fuinish subsiuy funus foi foou piouuction. I hau hopeu to peisuaue the sugai
piouuceis by paying them foi giowing foou as much as they got foi giowing cane,
since it was obvious that no appeal to patiiotism was going to be effective. I thought
they might abanuon Ni. Pagn anu his ;#$0121#'138$3 anu join me in peisuauing
Congiess to appiopiiate the funus. I shoulu have piefeiieu to have access to the
Piesiuent's emeigency funus; but since we hau to go to the Congiess, it might be an
oppoitunity foi the piospective iecipients of the benefit to come ovei. I hau heaiu
that some of them wanteu to uo this; so we hau piepaieu the way caiefully anu the
foiecast was that theie woulu be no uifficulty.
0n 9 }uly Captain 0lmsteau of the Agiicultuial Bistiibution Agency anu I appeaieu
befoie a Senate Subcommittee on Appiopiiations. To be suie, action on a similai
iequest hau been tuineu uown by the Bouse Committee on iepiesentations fiom
Ni. Pagn. We thought, howevei, that his loss of favoi foi this hau been seveie
enough so that he might be at least neutial. 0lmsteau anu I weie suppoiteu by
official iepiesentatives of the Wai anu Navy Bepaitments who weie theie to testify
that militaiy necessity iequiieu an inciease of foou piouuction anu that this was the
way to get it. The Subcommittee consisteu of Senatois Bayuen, NcKellai,
285
0'Nahoney, Thomas anu Nye. The atmospheie was fiienuly anu helpful. But by
afteinoon Ni. Bayuen hau calleu his Inteiioi fiienus to tell them that we weie
tuineu uown. It seemeu that Ni. NcKellai hau been appealeu to by Ni. Pagn, who
hau saiu that I wanteu the fifteen millions foi "a political slush funu." Ni. NcKellai,
ieauy to believe the woist about me anyway, anu sympathetic, moieovei, to pleas
against Feueial funus being uispenseu unuei any aegis but a Congiessional one, hau
maue an issue of it. Ni. Bayuen anu the otheis uiu not cieuit it, anu they weie
iegietful; but theii feelings weie not stiong enough so that they caieu to oppose the
iiascible Senatoi fiom Tennessee.
I was just leaving foi home. But Ni. Bouglas piomiseu to wiite eveiy Committee
membei, anu the people in Agiicultuie agieeu to uo what they coulu. Ni. Ickes
woulu begin, he saiu, with a piess statement anu uigeu me to continue, in Pueito
Rico, a campaign to convict Ni. Pagn of iesponsibility foi the shoitage of foou anu
foi the loss of fifteen millions in benefit payments. Nuoz woulu join in, a little latei.
Ni. Pagn anu his cohoits this is the point I wish to makecoulu not iefiain fiom
iejoicing at theii victoiya celebiation which backfiieu; foi fiom this time on the
Coalicion lost giounu iapiuly. Its leaueis woulu nevei iecovei fiom having so
blatantly saciificeu theii people foi a paitisan auvantage. The consequences of this
eiioi woulu not become plain until the beginning of 1944 at the insciiption of new
voteis foi the election in Novembei; anu by that time it woulu have become meiely
one of a seiies of similai mistakes. Waves of sympathy anu suppoit began at once to
wash into La Foitaleza, some of them fiom the most unlikely souices. The ;#$0121O'
hau uone foi me what I coulu nevei have uone foi myself. They ieally hau maue me
an appioveu executive. 0p to now Ameiicano uoveinois hau been moie oi less
toleiateu; none hau been iegaiueu with affection. It was impossible to miss this to
mestiange anu unfamiliai geneial attituue among the people. I might woiiy about
what Washington thought oi saiu of oui woik, but fiom this time on I shoulu not
have to woiiy about opinion in Pueito Rico.
This fact woulu penetiate most ciicles in Washington only against gieat
iesistanceexcluuing Ni. Ickes anu Ni. Foitas, of couise, anu a few othei
inuiviuuals. If theie was eviuence of suppoit foi me, it was iegaiueu eithei as
manufactuieu oi as aitificially inuuceu by Nuoz' efficient political machine. The
;#$0121O' continueu to be ieceiveu even by the buieauciats in Inteiioi, anu listeneu
to giavely; anu I continueu to be challengeu by the most outiageous allegations. I
shoulu be iequiieu a uozen times in the next few months, in the miust of oui teiiible
oiueal of blockaue, to woik out elaboiate answeis foi such chaiges. Anu they woulu
have to be answeis suppoiteu by eviuence, with affiuavits, oiiginal files, anu so on.
Finally we shoulu have to give up months of the time of many valuable goveinment
286
woikeis to this task alone; but that woulu be when the Congiessional investigations
got going. We weie now in the pieliminaiy stages.
It was while I was in Washingtonit was, in fact, on 4 }uly that the stoiy of the
elective goveinoiship bioke, to the annoyance of officials in Inteiioi anu at the
White Bouse. It was an occuiience foi which no one was to be blameu. I hau
engageu, aftei a long seaich, a publicity man whose heait, I thought, woulu be in the
iight place. Be hau wiitten one oi two unueistanuing stoiies anu was, besiues being
expeiienceu, a membei in goou stanuing of the Washington staff of one of the
laigest piess associations. I shoulu nevei be able to get him to unueistanu that he
was not a peisonal piess agent foi me but was iathei expecteu to convey the plans
anu hopes of Nuoz anu his gioup both to Pueito Ricans anu to Continentals. I
ought to have known bettei than to have expecteu fiom a goou iepoitei anything
but iepoiting anu I ought to have been moie caieful in explaining the conuitions of
goveinment seivicethe fiist of which is that the supeiioi officei announces policy.
Be hau thought that since I hau suggesteu the elective-goveinoiship I ought to get
cieuit foi it. I hau weakly agieeu.
The uifficulty with this attituue wasanu thioughout my public life I have tiieu
unsuccessfully to get publicity men to unueistanu thisthat I hau no use foi
peisonal cieuit. What I neeueu was to have the Piesiuent fathei my iuea. The
publicity uuiing that week ieacheu eveiy coinei of the countiy anu maue it
impossible foi the Piesiuent to pioceeu as we hau hopeu he woulu uo in
iecommenuing action to the Congiess. Bis own uelay hau, of couise, been
iesponsible. The stoiy hau been lying aiounu foi months waiting to be pickeu up. It
was a goou one too, at that junctuie of the wai, with oui neeu to senu a cleai
message to the subject people of the woilu. So no moie than a tip was neeueu. But it
shoulu have been the Piesiuent's stoiy anu he hau a iight to time it as he chose. The
iesult was that, although Ni. Bull stoou with us, saying that Pueito Rico ought to
have moie self-goveinment, anu the Piesiuent coulu not ueny that such a pioject
might be in piospect, he felt that he hau to put it away inuefinitely. Anu it woulu not
emeige again foi some time to come. Neveitheless Pueito Rico now knew; the
iiuicule about the "<#2,3 +$3 $08$3" came to a suuuen enu; anu my suppoit among
the most ueeply patiiotic Pueito Ricans was gieatly stiengtheneu. It was only a
question, now, of waiting a little longei.
2

1u }uly I942. A biithuay spent in the aii Chailes, Abe anu I hau uinnei togethei last
night. Abe is to caiiy on the unfinisheu matteis I coulu not see thiough. 0bviously
we shall have to take new measuies on the foou supply. I have uigeu that black

2
See the New Yoik Times, 4 anu 6 }uly 1942, anu Time of the same week.

287
maikets aie out of contiol anu ieseives exhausteu. (Why people aie so patient I
uon't know.) Also, Abe will have to act foi me on Commission matteis. Tiavel is
getting uifficult anu being away is iisky. Reauing anu wiiting: a piece about Pueito
Rico in the New Republic this week. Anu much of touay I have spent ieauing Nax
Eastman's Beioes. Such a stiong, fine woik. Be's always a little peiveise, as though
none of the subjects he tackleu aie quite goou enough to test his abilities anu he
must make things moie uifficult. It's a cleai, tough style, even if one is not quite
ceitain of sinceiity. I've ieau a goou many books between uusks anu uawns this past
yeai. Anu this is the best.
11 }uly. A uay's enfoiceu stopovei in Niami. 0ncouth as Niami Beach is in season,
out of season it has pleasant associations foi me. uiace anu I have spent oui only
ieal vacations heie anu in Key Westtaking them at this time anu coming heie to
escape the teiiois of hay fevei elsewheie in the East. The sea, touay, fiom the ioof of
this hotel is as empty as the sky. The hotels aie mostly full of soluieis in tiaining.
They'u bettei huiiy, foi the wai is just out heie in the Stiaits. I myself have flown
ovei buining anu sinking ships; anu the shoie heie is black with tankei oil anu
litteieu, in places, with uebiis.
It cannot be uenieu that the wai goes bauly to this moment. The empty sea is an
illustiation of this. 0ui Navy cannot now piotect oui meichant ships; anu in
Washington it was still being saiu that the Aumiials weie iefusing to appiove a
small-ship piogiam.
0ui own pioblems piess. Still I must say that some piogiess has been maue.
Bouglas, foi the Wai Shipping Boaiu, has just agieeu (by lettei to Ickes) to iecognize
piioiities which we may woik out, anu, if necessaiy, to license foi enfoicement. This
is the iesult of seveial meetings between us. Now we must have contiol of expoits
fiom Pueito Rico as well as impoits. That is a mattei in which we shall have to ueal
with the Wai Piouuction Boaiu, accoiuing to Abe, anu no piogiess is to be iecoiueu
yet. As things aie, Bickey says, the Sugai Piouuceis have the Boaiu "fixeu"
meaning, I hope, peisuaueu. I spent a lot of time on that, this tiip. But it hau to be left
unfinisheu.
Natteis in uispute between Ni. Nalcolm, Ni. Fitzsimmons anu myself aie coming
out satisfactoiily. In my fiist talk with Abe, I founu in his possession a long
complaint, with voluminous exhibits, fiom Ni. Nalcolm to the Bepaitment of }ustice.
The uocuments weie intenueu to show that my conuuct uiu not become a uoveinoi:
I hau not followeu his auvice in acting on bills, in shoit, anu a lot of libeial legislation
"socialistic"hau, in consequence, been appioveu. Latei I talkeu moie about this
with Abe anu with Ni. Felix Cohen, now the Acting Solicitoi. Abe's summaiy was
288
that Ni. Nalcolm uiun't seem to agiee with the legislatuie's philosophy anu mine.
Be thought use was going to be maue of it in Congiess, although he uiun't think
Nalcolm iealizeu all }ustice anu Inteiioi togethei hau against him. Still he thought a
man so vulneiable woulu haiuly come out in the open. But this makes two uockets
of "chaiges"Fitzsimmons' as well as Nalcolm's.
Ni. Cohen's letteis to the Secietaiy, uiafts of which I saw, anu which in uue couise
will get to me foi publication, upholu my couise in eveiy paiticulai, both as to law
when I uiffeieu with Ni. Nalcolm anu as to my iight to pioceeu, if necessaiy,
without his appioval. It will be pointeu out to Ni. Nalcolm that he is only a legal
auvisei anu to Ni. Fitzsimmons that his office is unuei the uoveinoi's uiiection. Abe
wants to have Ni. Nalcolm iemoveu.
The cuiient tiip has, howevei, been uisappointing in not getting us much fuithei
along on the wai plan. This I summaiize often, as I iun ovei it in my heau, as follows:
(1) to get all the shipping we can honestly ask in spite of the wai's uemanu anu to
see that it is useu foi necessities only; (2) to make suie that all the ietuin shipping
we can get is useu to bolstei the Pueito Rican economy at stiategic places; (S) to get
such changes in vaiious oiueis anu iegulations as will fiee us to meet the giowing
pioblems of unemployment anu iising piices; anu (4) to conuuct an eneigetic foou-
giowing campaign so that at least no one shall staive.
It was foi this last that the fifteen millions was wanteu anu it is haiu to accept
uefeat. But Pagn anu the sugai gioweis uo not have to live in Pueito Rico. Foi them
to say "to hell with foou," as many have to my face, is easy when they uo not have my
iesponsibility. Theie is one thing I must note, howevei : those who peisist in theii
opposition will know that theie has been a battle befoie they win.
12 }uly. Empty sea belowtoo empty. As we flew out theie weie two smoking
wiecks within a few miles of lanu.
This blockaue cuts oui income fiom ium enoimously. I shall have to have moie
ievenue oi cut the buuget, uischaiging employees, etc. But what will the legislatuie
uo, if I call a special session, now that Nuoz has, as it seems to me, thiown away
contiol in the conflict ovei @$'1($(.
14 }uly. The atmospheie in San }uan seems to have changeu a little foi the bettei in
spite of the continuing aggiessions of the Auuitoi anu the Attoiney ueneial anu of
moie vicious (if that is possible) attacks in the piess. Nuoz anu the otheis on oui
siue seem less apathetic, moie uisposeu to assess the effects of wai iealistically anu
acknowleuge that local politics is now submeigeu in laigei issues.
289
Nuoz came close to apologizing yesteiuayalthough no ietiaction was actually
maue. Be saiu that he felt we ought to spenu moie time togethei; anu that it woulu
be well if we talkeu of othei things than those on which we weie ceitain to
uisagieesuch as my fantasy that a ieal civil seivice coulu be establisheu in Pueito
Rico. I saiu, picking up this point, that I uiun't want oui uisagieements to centei in
this, although I thought an effective civil seivice essential to what he was tiying to
uo with the uoveinment. No one, I saiu, has fewei illusions about the limitations of
any system than I. Anu I iepeateu what an olu peisonnel officei in Agiicultuie once
tolu me, that civil seivice only assuies an oiganization that it will get the best of the
woist. Ny quaiiel with him shoulu centei in something elsethat he woulu not
peimit the uefineu objectives of his movement to embouy themselves in
oiganization anu woulu not iealize that theii attainment iequiieu not only uevoteu
leaueis but a highly tiaineu bouy of minoi auministiatois anu employees. Bis
insistence on political appeasement was uefeating eveiy hope he helu anu alienating
his best talent. I tolu him again, as I hau befoie, how much I aumiieu La uuaiuia foi
thiowing ovei all oiganizeu political suppoit. Not that he uiu not play politics, foi he
uiu that constantly anu not too well eithei; but that he uiu not let any bosses
unueimine his municipal seivices with employees who oweu loyalty to themselves
iathei than to theii nominal chiefs. Theie was, in consequence, uiscipline, aftei a
while, thioughout the New Yoik seivice, something which was lacking in Pueito
Rico.
It was not tiue, I iepeateu again, that he oweu oi woulu owe any laige numbei of
votes to political leaueis. They uiu not suppoit him; iathei he suppoiteu them. They
coulu all ueseit him in a bouy, as La uuaiuia hau pioveu, anu he woulu still be as
stiong as evei, peihaps stiongei. . . .
This is getting to be a familiai aigument between us. Be is a man of conscience,
funuamentally. Be means to impiove the lot of his people; anu since theie is no
othei way than the one I am insistently showing him, he must come aiounu. . . .
1S }uly. We hau a long confeience with Ni. Rafael Buscaglia, the Tieasuiei, who is
moie optimistic than I about ievenues anu feels that theie is no neeu at piesent foi
ieuucing the buuget. I myself am inclineu to uoubt whethei most Pueito Ricans
incluuing Nuoz anu Buscagliaiealize the significance foi this islanu of what is
going on outsiue. I feel that things aie getting woise anu will continue to get woise
foi peihaps a yeai. This feeling is baseu on an estimate of the time iequiieu foi
planning, builuing, tooling anu ueliveiing the mateiials of wai anu of tiaining aimies
to use them. I foiesee uisasteis because of unpiepaieuness, fai beyonu any yet
expeiienceu.
290
16 }uly. The wai goes bauly now even foi the tough Russians. Eviuently the mateiiel
we got to them last wintei was not much. Anu an Afiican uebacle seems staveu off
only foi the moment. 0n the whole Washington was as pessimistic last week as it
hau been foolishly optimistic a few weeks ago. The scatteiing of oui weak foices,
beyonu what seems necessaiy oi ieasonable, is peihaps the woist of it. We aie
attempting to builu up some eight gieat aimies besiues supplying oui allies fiom
what the Piesiuent calls "the aisenal of uemociacy." It is an effoit, I am afiaiu,
beyonu possibility. Theie is a lot of the usual Washington jibing at the awkwaiuness
of the new agencies foi wai. All of it may be justifieu, yet I iecall all the olu agencies
tackling the New Beal ones in exactly the same way. But even gianting no moie than
the noimal inefficiency of haste anu piessuie, it may still be a task we cannot
accomplish. It is fiightening to contemplate builuing, without giant of time, systems
of bases anu aimies capable of stiiking at long-piepaieu opponents in the South
Pacific, in Inuia, in China, in Alaska, in Egypt, in the Neai East, in the Biitish Isles anu
in the Caiibbean. I have only to look at the scale of the woik in oui sea to be
staggeieu at the multiplication of it in othei aieas.
I cannot help feeling, although I am willing to giant the inuustiialists the miiacles of
piouuction which, ielieveu fiom the weight of the piofit motive, they have befoie
achieveu anu will again, anu although I am willing to believe that oui facilities anu
peisonnel foi staff woik will be veiy goou, that we aie spieau too thin anu aie veiy
vulneiable. If I weie askeu wheie we coulu economize oi even abanuon oui effoit, I
shoulu piobably have to name Inuia, Austialia, anu China peihaps Alaska if woist
shoulu come to woist. But this is useless speculation, I hope. If a ueteimineu enemy
uoes not, within the next yeai oi yeai anu a half, so penetiate oui homelanu, aftei
ieuucing Afiica, the Caiibbean anu the Atlantic bastions, as to paialyze the
piouuction anu tiaining piogiam which is now beginning to ioll in majestic
piopoitions, we shall then have the powei to piess in upon theii vitals. It is the
coming yeai that we must feai.
I saiu most of this in a lectuie at ueoige Washington 0niveisity back in the fall of
19S9. Ny auuience uiu not follow me then. Paitly they weie pacifistic,' paitly they
weie optimistic, but mostly, even if they weie intellectuals, they weie uniealistic.
They uiu not appieciate the scale, the weight of mouein conflict, oi what we hau to
uo to meet ueimany anu }apan toe to toe anu slug it out. They know now. Nost of
them will be in it one way oi anothei, foi most of them weie young, anu peihaps
theii illusions will, aftei all, have uone no gieat haim.

291
21
0NE BAY in the lattei pait of }uly in 1942, waking eaily as usual, I spent an houi on
the West Teiiace oveilooking the haiboi. We hau a submaiine net now, iunning
acioss fiom the walls of El Noiio to Palo Seco, anu a small tenuei was anchoieu at
the centei. Its ciew swung back some thiee oi foui ious of net at uawn anu closeu
the gap again at uusk. Theii wash hung out in the sun anu we weie beginning to
iegaiu them as neighbois. Infiequently the gate stayeu open as uaikness aiiiveu;
anu we knew then that piesently a fuitive ship, silent as a shauow, woulu cieep into
haiboi, anothei peiilous jouiney uone. This hau happeneu on the night befoie; anu
faint outlines hau tolu us that the South Atlantic task foice was in again. We coulu
expect to see Aumiial }onas Ingiam latei in the uay. Be was a family favoiite who
always came foi a meal oi two when he coulu, anu who often boie gifts. Last time it
hau been the laigei pait of a quaitei of beef, the fiist we hau hau foi some time. The
olu 0maha was his flagship anu I coulu see hei swinging in the channel with hei
thiee oi foui uestioyeis lineu up aiounu the Coast uuaiu point. Even though it was
eaily theie was movement out on La Isla ue Cabias, wheie iapiu filling was making
a causeway to the mainlanu, anu a sizable hill was giowing whose insiues we knew
woulu consist of a twelve-inch batteiy.
In the week since I hau got home, no meichant ship hau come in. The whole sweep
of the hoiizon hau been empty thiough the long uays, save foi the patiol boat which
ciosseu anu ieciosseu the entiance to the channel a mile oi two at sea. Whenevei a
showei let uown its cuitain we hopeu its lifting woulu ieveal a ship oi evenanu
this woulu seem maivelousa convoy. Baving a teiiace which commanueu the
haiboi mouth was beginning to be a uoubtful piivilege. Theie was constant
temptation to watch foi the faint outline of aiiiving ships; but the stiain of the
ueficit which only theii coming coulu fill was slowly giowing woise. Watching was
becoming a habit to be bioken; foi on the highei teiiace theie was an even bettei
view anu I was waking fiequently to get up anu seaich the sea. I might, of couise, be
tolu the expectations by Aumiial Boovei. But I uiu not want infoimation about ship
movements, thinking no one ought to possess any except the veiy few opeiations
officeis whose business it was to piotect them. At this time, moieovei, infoimation
even in the Navy was not too goou. We hau a few patiol planes, but they weie olu
Aimy B-i8's, shoit-iangeu but uepenuable; anu we hau some YP boats (calleu
"Yippees" in the Navy) which weie conveiteu yachts anu not veiy uangeious ieally,
although it was amazing how they fiighteneu the submaiines.
1
The Navy was

1
A goou shoit account of the campaign of '42'4S in the Caiibbean is that of Ni. Fletchei Piatt: C9,
Q$<:A3 S$"B Baipei anu Biotheis, 1944, pp. 164-8S. Ni. Piatt obviously hau his infoimation at fiist
hanu anu his unueistanuing of the stiategic pioblem was auequate
292
actually, in spite of itself, coming aiounu to a small-boat piogiam. These Yippees
weie the fiist of them.
The Tenth Naval Bistiict was now in piocess of being enlaigeu auministiatively into
the Caiibbean Sea Fiontiei. Aumiial Boovei hau establisheu thiee sectois with
heauquaiteis at uuantnamo in Cuba, at San }uan, anu at Poit-of-Spain in Tiiniuau.
This was a beat as long as that fiom Naine to Floiiua, full of islanus between which
ian passes giving access to the Canal anu, as we weie just ieally beginning to
iealize, to the iefineiies at Cuiacao anu the oil fielus aiounu the uulf of Naiacaibo.
Latei a fouith commanu centei woulu be establisheu theie. The fiontiei woulu then
be a tiuly inteinational one, involving Cuba, Baiti, Santo Bomingo, the Biitish, the
Butch anu the Fiench, to say nothing of the countiies of Cential Ameiica, as well as
Colombia, venezuela anu Biazil. Natuially the extension of aimeu piotection
iequiieu agieements anu involveu fiictions which weie not the least of Boovei's
tioubles. Anu moie anu moie as the summei ueepeneu, anu piotection impioveu on
the Noith Atlantic, the submaiines weie coming uown oui way. They weie a
familiai ghostly phenomenon. We nevei saw one; but we felt theii piesence
constantly. I will not say that we got useu to them; but they weie sinking a ship a
uay oi theieabouts in oui wateis, anu the suivivois weie all ovei the place. So theie
was nothing stiange any moie about the awaieness of theii piesence.
Pueito Rico itself was becoming less impoitant in the Sea as the Aumiial began to
ieceive equipment, although it was still heauquaiteis anu hau its own impoitance
on that account. I saw him less often now; anu, some time since, the uaily meetings
in my office hau stoppeu. Foi now he hau a commanu plane although ueneial
Collins woulu have to wait anothei yeai foi hisanu he was away a goou ueal. Be
was a uifficult man to like, his thoininess being iegisteieu in his name thioughout
the Fiontiei. uenial }ohn, they calleu him, with a slightly bittei, peihaps typically
Ameiican, mixtuie of iespect anu iesentment. The iespect was foi his eveilasting
vigilance anu iigiu uiscipline; the iesentment was foi his Spaitan habits which gave
no ioom foi baiiack tales. Be iefuseu to have even a single intimate in unifoim; anu
in othei ways his ieputation foi coluness was impeccable. Bis Reai Aumiials hau
chaige of the sectois; Weylei at uuantnamo, Robinson (latei Chanlei) at Cuiasao,
anu 0llen-uoif (latei Robinson) at Tiiniuau. They weie helu to the stiictest
accountability.
About this time 0llenuoif at Tiiniuau was setting up what hau become a stanuaiu
opeiations office. Aumiial Boovei hau not yet given in to the iuea at San }uan. 0ne
was in fact alieauy being planneu, howevei, by his suboiuinates to be set up in the
bowels of the olu foitifications at San Ciistobal; theie, in aii-conuitioneu uepths,
with some one hunuieu feet of eaith anu masoniy oveiheau, Aimy, Aii Foice anu
293
Navy woulu fiont, in sepaiate wiue cubicles, on a pit in which a giaphic miniatuie of
the whole fiontiei woulu be visible, convoys moving on the sea, mobile foices on the
lanu, even humble schooneis beating uown fiom Nova Scotia with uiieu cou, oi up
to Baibauos with iice fiom the Bemeiaia. The ample infoimation pouiing in woulu
keep it cuiient to within foui houis at the most.
2
But now the Aumiial still woikeu
in a slightly uiesseu up baiiack uown by the San Antonio Channel, one of the hottest
locations in the city anu nothing to compaie even with the aimy heauquaiteis which
weie built aiounu a patio on the El Noiio elevation anu caught the full uiy winu
fiom the sea. The Aumiial coulu woik that way. Be coulu sleep, when he hau to, on
the cot besiue his uesk, anu he coulu keep the whole fiontiei in his minu's eye
because he hau a photogiaphic memoiy. But his helpeis weie not so well equippeu.
Sometimes, being thoioughly civilian, I coulu meuiate fuitively between the Aumiial
anu his youngei officeis, iathei, I think, to his amusement. Be knew that I hau some
feeling foi the many youngsteis, fiesh fiom the fieeuoms of college, who weie
unueigoing the fiist compulsions of uiscipline. Be was ovei-haish, I thought, anu not
inclineu to allow foi callowness. If he iesenteu my inteifeiences, he uiu not actually
say so. I peisisteu with some caution. 0ne such case was that of a veiy junioi
lieutenant nameu Philip Willkie, veiy much the son of his fathei, who was finuing
life iestiicteu on a patiol boat off oui haiboi. Theie was nothing the mattei with
this lau except that he was a little sloppy about his clothes anu thatlike his
fatheihe talkeu expansively anu continuously; but these weie two attiibutes
which annoyeu his supeiiois. I uon't believe even he will evei know how close he
came to punishment which woulu have been foi nothing, ieally, anu coulu have
uone neithei Navy noi Willkie any goou. As much as anything else, his ciime may
have been that he was the son of a piominent citizen. Foi it is a natuial tenuency to
benu ovei backwaius in uisciplining the sons of the well-known. It was
chaiacteiistic that in similaieven somewhat moie seiiousciicumstances
Aumiial Ingiam uiu not even consiuei punishment foi one of the Roosevelt boys. Be
was a uamn goou fighting sailoi, saiu }onas, anu he wasn't going to bieak his spiiit.
It was impossible not to have enoimous iespect foi the young men who manneu the
Yippee boats, the latei PC's anu the patiol planes in oui sea even if some of them
weie infoimal anu unlickeu. The tiny boats hau powei but little else; oftenanu
especially just aftei the Navy gave in on small ciaftthey weie uangeiously
oveiengineu anu loaueu with something it was hopeu woulu be injuiious to
submaiines. Foi, at this time, theie weie not enough uepth bombs; anu anyway
uepth bombs weie peihaps moie peiilous to the fiail woouen hulls than to the

2
This opeiations centei functioneu until Apiil 194S.

294
enemy foi which they weie intenueu. So the laus went eveiywheie on oui sea in
theii unaccustomeu navy unifoims hunting a ueauly enemy clean out of theii class.
Theii shoie stations weie still unfinisheu, anu most of them, when they weie
complete, woulu be little moie than stanuaiu huts on stiange subtiopical islanus as
little as possible like home. But they biought the 0-boats to a stanustill.
Ceitainly the Boovei uiscipline coulu be a little mouifieu unuei such ciicumstances.
Theie was something Elizabethan, as Ni. Fletchei Piatt noteu, about these amateui
sailoisit was haiuly a iegulai navy show.
S
It maue a viviu pictuie to think of the
uozen boys in a PC boat heauing into Englishtown haiboi anu going ashoie foi an
houi to see how Loiu Nelson anu the Buke of Claience hau uone theii job. The
shipyaiu anu caieening basin weie in a naiiow inuentation on the south coast of
Antigua; when the fiigate ship was finisheu, the Englishtown establishment became
obsolete oveinight; anu somewhat latei the Biitish Navy simply moveu out, haiuly
taking the tiouble to uismantle. Evei since, the mast yaius, the shops, the iope lofts
anu the Aumiial's Bouse, once the seat of the famous West Inuia Station, hau lain
ueseiteu. Nany young Ameiicans must have exploieu this museum piece of a
vanisheu heioic uay; moie of them must have ciicleu it in theii patiolling planes,
anu lanueu on its watei. I often wonueieu what they thoughtoi if they thought at
all of theii pieuecessois in the Caiibbean as they walkeu the naiiow ways of that
toy poit. I wonueieu equally what they thought as they stioue with untiopical
eneigy thiough the olu stieets of San }uan, so many times the object of battles. Weie
they conscious of ienewing an olu tiauition.
They flew uaily, houily even, up the Sii Fiancis Biake Channel between St. }ohn's
anu Toitola, uown which Sii Fiancis came to take, if he coulu, San }uan fiom the
Spaniaius. Foi San }uan then, as now, was a kinu of halfway place, a base in the sea,
to piotect the commeice flowing between Nexico, Cential Ameiica anu Spain.
Pueito Rico's cuiiency hau been, in fact, Nexican anu Peiuvian golu; the
2#'I.138$(#",3 hau suppoiteu hei to insuie theii communications with home. She
was so impoitant to the piotection of the galleons that the aggiessoi nationsthe
Biitish, the Butch anu the Fienchweie always tiying to captuie the place.
Sometimes they succeeueuboth hau helu it foi an inteival anu been uiiven out,
appaiently, by "Aumiial Yellowjack." 0ntil, finally, the Spaniaius hau built El Noiio
anu caiiieu away Bawkins' leg with a shot fiom its bastion. Aftei that she hau hau
moie peace.
I thought Aumiial Boovei anu his colleagues hau too little iespect foi the
uescenuants of the tough Spaniaius who hau outliveu yellow fevei when neithei the

S
The Navy's Wai, citeu above.

295
Butch noi the English coulu, anu who hau iepulseu numeious othei piiatical
expeuitions than those which oveicame theii iesistancethat, foi instance, of
Abeiciomby. None of those ioving young maiineis in the Caiibbean in 1942 was
Pueito Rican. The Navy still woulu not take them. But the Aimy was, somewhat
ieluctantly, shaping a uiffeient policy. It woulu be foolish to contenu that theie was
not a piejuuice in the Aimy against Pueito Ricans. The Continental officeis, of
couise, maintaineu that it was an attituue baseu on facts. The facts citeu weie that
Pueito Ricans weie laigely not only illiteiate but natively unintelligent; that they
woulu not fight since they weie faintly uisloyal; anu that the euucateu among them
maue pooi officeis because they woulu not leau insteau of uiive. 0n the whole the
Aimy was against Pueito Rican ieciuiting, except foi a limiteu seivice, anu it was
intenueu to confine this seivice to gaiiison uuty at inactive posts.
Even if I was a layman, I aigueu a goou ueal about these matteis with my militaiy
fiienus. It was appaient that nothing woulu be uone about the Navy since the
Piesiuent anu Ni. Knox hau both tiieu anu faileu. But the Aimy was to mouify its
policy, if not its beliefs, in couise of time. The battle conuuct of the Filipinos was
something of a shock to the moie haiu-bitten aimy men; in 1942 the policy of taking
only volunteeis was seen to be a mistake anu the iegulai pioceuuies of selective
seivice weie auopteu. volunteeiing hau got mostly those to whom aimy pay anu
secuiity weie attiactive. But when selective seivice began to be useu, the opposite
mistake was maue at fiist. By setting stanuaius too high, a consiueiable peicentage
of the most skilleu anu highly euucateu young men weie uiawn off in the fiist
thousanus, leaving only less uesiiable mateiial foi latei uiafts. The iesult was the
constitution of uneven units anu the exhaustion of officei mateiial. It was founu, as
time went on anu the new techniques of jungle tiaining anu bush fighting weie
uevelopeu, that Pueito Ricans weie not such bau soluieis aftei all, that, inueeu, they
hau some qualities which weie unique anu valuable foi the puiposes now
ueveloping. But the ieluctance of the continental aimy men to accept them as equals
left a iesentment which woulu nevei be altogethei oveicome.
This sense of injuiy leu to a fai less enthusiastic seivice than might have been
secuieu. Foi the tiauition of the Pueito Rican militia was an olu one which might
have been built upon insteau of sneeieu at; anu the Pueito Rican officei might have
been got to fathei his men in the Ameiican tiauition iathei than to make seivants of
them in the Spanish fashion, without the misunueistanuings which woulu toiment
ielationships thioughout the wai. The Aimy might have iemembeieu that it was
tiying to fight a piofessional waithat it uiu notspeaking of the West Point anu
National uuaiu officeishave any ueep conviction about the issues. Noi uiu it have
any veiy gieat feeling that the whole Nazi philosophy was wickeu. It aumiieu the
296
Piussian militaiy machine too much. Somehow, in the ueep uivisions of Ameiican
life, much of the miuule class hau become skeptical of the conception of Bemociacy
which stoou heie opposeu to the Fascist-Nazi uogma. Anu the Aimy was ueciueuly
uppei miuule class. Befoie long, it woulu have giown too laige foi any
geneialization like this to covei its attituues. But in oui small aiea I saw only too
plainly in those uays the fiateinization of the aimy men with the Pueito Rican
bettei element. Togethei, these pseuuo-aiistociats uiscusseu the shoitcomings of
the lowei classes anu agieeu on theii vast infeiioiity. In the miuule of 1942 policies
weie still unsettleu. But eveiyone knew they weie not satisfactoiy, anu that some
new methous woulu have to be tiieu. The Aimy was taking men away fiom Pueito
Rican life. The wai was not, as it ought to be, an expiession of a people's iueals, a
seivice foi the uefense of the objectives they instinctively believeu in. It was
becoming something apait, something stiange anu alien, something in which Pueito
Ricans hau no ieal inteiest. I saw it as pait of my job to woik at oveicoming this, at
changing the Aimy's minu anu methous as well as at holuing Pueito Rican loyalty.
But it sometimes seemeu to be maue unnecessaiily uifficult.
This was one of the few matteis in which I uiffeieu fiom ueneial Phillips. Be was a
faii-minueu spectatoi of the Pueito Rican scene. Be hau something of a gianustanu
seat at El Noiio, wheie he was now Chief of Staff of the new Antilles Bepaitment. Be
was close to, yet not involveu in, local affaiis; anu he uiu not uisguise, even fiom
Pueito Ricans, that he hau a veiy pooi opinion of theii capabilities. 0f couise, he
appioacheu this juugment as an aimy man with the stanuaius natuial to his
expeiience, anu it hau nothing to uo with his sympathies. Nany islanueis weie his
fiienus, anu so excepteu; but he tolu them fiankly that theii class as a whole was
lazy, spoileu anu full of false piiue. As to the woikeis anu faimeis he iateu them, as
potential soluieis, at about the level of the pooiei stocks in the Southein states. Be
citeu not only the Aimy's pie-inuuction tests anu high iejection iate but also pooi
peifoimance in tiaining. I felt that these weie exaggeiateu. Anu that he alloweu too
little foi the soft anu oveiinuulgent family life in which his officeis hau giown up,
anu foi the easy contempt in which they hau been tiaineu to holu theii pooiei
neighbois. As foi the soluieis themselves, they often came to camp baiefoot, stiaight
fiom /#9D#3 with uiit floois anu no fuinituie; they weie unaccustomeu to any
sanitaiy facility oi to tools othei than the univeisal machete; they might nevei have
toucheu a machine of any soit, oi even have moveu a vehicle with wheels. They hau,
in fact, steppeu out of the Niuule Ages into a mechanizeu aimy. No wonuei it took a
long tiaining to biing them into functioning in theii newly aseptic, iigiuly
uisciplineu, mentally uemanuing life. No wonuei, even, that the suiciue iate was
high among those who coulu not make the accommouation anu coulu finu no othei
way to escape the contiauictoiy compulsions which boie in upon them.
297
In the summei of '42 the Aimy was installing its heaviei coast aitilleiy anu
enlaiging its anti-aiiciaft piotection. It was using new aii stiips anu caiiying out
most of the sea patiols vice a navy which hau a few olu PBY's (Catalinas) anu veiy
little else the new PBN's (Naiineis) weie still months in the futuie. It was also
tiaining a mobile foice, to be baseu on a cential camp anu ieauy to iepulse an
invasion on any beach. That cential camp (0'Reilly), between Caguas anu Naguabo,
was just being begun. Foi the moment Toitugueio anu Buchanan, both intenueu foi
othei specializeu puiposes, togethei with tempoiaiy installations elsewheie, hau to
uo.
Those of us who liveu in San }uan weie somewhat enteitaineu by the ingenuity of
the anti-aiiciaft companies who settleu uown in vacant lots, in back yaius, on ioof
topsjust any place wheie a goou shot coulu be hau at enemy planes which might
uive on the concentiations, within the haiboi, of ships, uocks, oil tanks, waiehouses
anu militaiy heauquaiteis. Theie weie uozens of huge seaichlights with attenuant
machineiy which moveu out in the uaytime anu came back at night to the same
location. Theie weie complicateu spotting anu listening uevices; theie weie wickeu-
looking guns. At night the seaichlights tiieu theii beams, sometimes many of them
at once, anu peihaps a plane went up foi a taiget anu tiacei bullets weie shot at its
tiailing sleeve. We weie getting useu to having these pyiotechnics eveiy evening,
eaily, as the vaiious outfits tuneu up foi the night. Anu at La Foitaleza we hau a
special peifoimance, now, eveiy few minutes thioughout the night, fiom the gieat
lights on the foitifications which swept the haiboi seaiching foi any unusual activity
anu playing along the submaiine net on the watch foi uistuibances.
0ut in the swank Conuauo uistiict anu the moie subuiban one in uuaynabo, the
boys settleu in with theii paiapheinalia, suiiounueu it with sanubags, anu
pioceeueu to camouflage the whole with all the aitistiy of piofessional uecoiatois.
Sometimes they went fuithei anu imitateu houses, walks, stieets anu the like in
such ways as to be moie than evei heioes in the eyes of neighboihoou chiluien who
fiequently hau to be foicibly iestiaineu fiom joining in what they obviously
iegaiueu as a game. It was, in fact, a fielu uay foi half-giown boys who maue theii
new neighbois embaiiassingly at home. As foi the laigei giils, all the iesults to be
expecteu followeu, anu many a uelicate pioblem hau to be solveu in giave
confeiences of civil anu militaiy authoiities.
Theie hau been a time when continental soluieis anu Pueito Rican civilians hau hau
a goou many iows in which police anu N.P.'s often hau hau to inteifeie; anu
sometimes the conflicts of juiisuiction anu mutual iiiitations hau been seiious.
These conflicts hau seemeu to iun in seiies. In Ni. Swope's time they hau been
uifficult laigely, Ni. Swope hau saiu, because of militaiy maitinets who iefuseu to
298
co-opeiate. Ceitainly it pioveu to iequiie no moie than mutual iesolution on the
pait of ueneial Collins anu myself to biing fiiction almost completely to an enu.
Soluieis still uiank too much on leave. Pueito Ricans still useu knives on continental
boys who fooleu with theii giils. But I let it be known that punishment woulu be
seveie; anu the ueneial let it be known that soluieis woulu be punisheu too. Anu the
quaiiels ceaseu to be inciuents iequiiing uiplomatic exchanges; they weie settleu at
the police-couit-guaiuhouse level as they ought to have been.
0n this }uly moining theie weie some uecisions to be maue. I faceu now the most
uifficult months of the Pueito Rican ciisis. I hau agieeu to stay on the job heie;
consequently the comfoit of piospective iesignation, which hau been an
unacknowleugeu stay uuiing the uifficult spiing just past, was now iemoveu. With
the iesouices now on call I hau to woik thiough the stiangling blockaue in this
islanu outpost. It woulu have been haiu to accomplish with soliu suppoit fiom
home; but to uo it unuei the constant thieat of tieacheiy, abetteu in Washington,
anu cieeping evei closei to the souices of assistance, was asking almost too much. It
was this, of couise, which hau ueteimineu my iequest to be ielieveu. If, howevei, I
weie iequiieu to go on, anu if this was ieally the Piesiuent's wish, I must tot up my
iesouices again anu lay the best couise my juugment coulu finu. I ian ovei the
heauings of the policy now shaping itself in my minu.
This coulu ieally be summeu up by saying that the people of Pueito Rico, the neaily
two million oiuinaiy folk in the little woouen houses of the city anu iuial slums,
must iemain loyal to the cause. They must, not only because it was convenient foi
the nation which possesseu theii lanu, but also because it was theii cause; anu no
iiielevancies must be alloweu to tempt them away. They must be kept tiue to the
0niteu States in spite of the iebuffs fiom the faim-lobby puppets in Washington. I
must convey to them the goou will of the Piesiuent whose emissaiy I was, iathei
than the ill will of those otheis who hateu him anu sought to uestioy his policies.
They must be maue, so fai as I coulu accomplish it, to feel that the stiuggle going on
in the South Pacific, in the Atlantic, anu heie in the Caiibbean, foi which theii young
men weie being taken, anu foi which theii islanu was being tiansfoimeu into a
foitiess, was inueeu theii stiuggle. It must be shown to be theiis because it meant
the salvage of a way of life which gave pooi men equal oppoitunities, which
aumitteu no iacial uisciiminations, which iecognizeu chiluien's iight to foou anu
euucation just because they hau been boin into the woilu; which iecognizeu, too,
olu people's iight to be cheiisheu just because they hau uone the woik of the woilu
until they weie tiieu. Anu a man must have the iight to stanu on his feet anu not
have to beg foi his family. I knew these people well enough to be suie that these
weie the benefits they askeu of authoiity. But that was what Ni. Roosevelt helu out
299
to themif his voice weie not uiowneu in the selfish clamoi of vesteu inteiests, anu
if his compiomises uiu not have to be uestiuctive.
I iesolveu to take the chance that the mass of the people who weie, it coulu be
gianteu, the least capable, the most easily confuseu; who weie, moieovei, pooi; but
who hau foi once a leauei in Nuoz who, whatevei his weaknesses anu eiiois,
woulu nevei sell them out anu who woulu tiy, as long as his stiength lasteu, to
embouy theii aspiiations; I iesolveu to take the chance of being on theii siue openly
anu aggiessively with all the penalties it involveu. It was not too late to go the othei
way. I coulu make a ueal with the ieactionaiiesbut that was, foi me, impossible; if
the Piesiuent wanteu me to stay, that was his choice too. Without being moie
piovocative than was necessaiy; without using the tactics, in othei woius, which
weie going to be useu against me, I shoulu go stiaight uown the path which lay so
cleaily aheau.
Theie was a uifficulty: it woulu not be possible to keep the Pueito Rican uppei class
with us in this effoit. Anu it was fiom this class that leaueis of all soits, incluuing
aimy officeis, must come. It hau begun to seem, howevei, that this uppei class coulu
be bioken into, that many of its inuiviuuals, moveu by vaiious motivesone of
them, peihaps, the peiception that theiis was the losing siue:woulu join with us.
This was especially tiue of lawyeis, uoctois, meichants anu otheis, who hau maue
up in the past the now-uisintegiating Libeial paity. No one who hau been a Libeial
coulu be a ;#$0121#'138$; theie weie histoiical antagonisms as well as iueological
uiffeiences which maue such a change of affiliation impossible. Anu theie woulu
soon be no paity home foi them except with the >#!.0$",3. This influx of moueiates
woulu be a goou coiiective foi the extiemists in that gioup. Neanwhile uozens of
them began to woik sympathetically with us. Latei on I shoulu finu an Auuitoi, a
Commissionei of Agiicultuie, an Attoiney ueneial, seveial juuges, anu many minoi
officials among them. It was alieauy piactically impossible to secuie the
appointment of a >#!.0$" to any post foi which Washington was iesponsible. The
F.B.I. office in Pueito Rico which was askeu to investigate invaiiably founu
something against even the best of them. If it uiu not appeai that they hau once been
inuepenuentistas it coulu always be claimeu of a Latin that he hau iueas of peisonal
moiality which uepaiteu somewhat fiom those of Ni. Eugai Boovei. When it was
allegeu, in some of theii iepoits, that ceitain canuiuates foi office who seemeu to me
competent anu suitable fiequenteu habitually a ceitain caf in the afteinoon, it
seemeu to me to be going too fai.
4
But eveiyone in Washington pulleu a solemn face

4
The F.B.I. methou of maintaining lists of iesponsible citizens whose opinion is askeu conceining
both issues anu men inevitably has ceitain iesults. The citizens aie always men of stanuing, wealthy
family. They always ueploie change oi the thieat of it anu suspect those who want it. It is a shoit
uistance to the invention of faults in those who inconveniently uo not have them. The iesulting
300
about it, anu he was ciosseu off the list. I myself, howevei, hau some uifficulty in
appointing anyone othei than a >#!.0$" to those positions within my uiscietion
because of the necessities of insulai Senatoiial confiimation; anu when I iesoiteu to
the longei list of capable people among the ?1/,"$0,3, I hau baigaining to uo.
But the ?1/,"$0,3 as a paity weie "ietiiing theii confiuence" fiom me as a iesult of
the @$'1($( fiasco. Chaiacteiistically theie was no blame attacheu to Nuoz; the
baibs weie all sunk in the gubeinatoiial flesh. The impoitance of this lay in the fact
that the loss of the vote they contiolleu in the lowei house maue it impossible to
secuie legislation; anu by now I was uespeiately wanting a special session to make
fiscal ieaiiangements. Foi the ium tax was yieluing little oi nothing anymoie; anu
neithei weie the taxes on gasoline, cigaiettes anu othei impoiteu aiticles which hau
bulkeu laige in oui ievenue ieceipts. It coulu be seen that even if the ?1/,"$0,3 anu
the Populaies eventually accommouateu themselves to one anothei, the uelicate
balance woulu always be in uangei of being upset until the elections in fai-off '44
shoulu finally expose the numeiical weakness of the one anu the stiength of the
othei.
Aftei pleauing with Nuoz foi weeks to act uecisively in this mattei, anu getting no
satisfaction, I finally acteu. Fiist, at the beginning of August, I appointeu Bi. Feinos
to the vacancy in @$'1($(. This lookeu like a Populai victoiy; but I hau such
confiuence by now in Bi. Feinos' integiity anu shiewuness that I felt ceitain he
woulu piove a political boomeiang. Be hau olu scoies to settle too; he hau left
@$'1($(, as Assistant Commissionei, yeais befoie unuei a ;#$0121#'138$ piessuie
which hau incluueu an intimation of incapacity. If I knew Pueito Ricans at all by
now, I saiu, he woulu be moie than anything else anxious to show the falseness of
the olu allegations. In this I was quite coiiect. @$'1($( impioveu unuei his
management; but his suppoit among the politicians iapiuly uisappeaieu as they
uiscoveieu his ielative intiactability.
Ny next step was to cieate seveial vacancies on the theoiy that they woulu piove to
be temptations. I coulu uo this because I hau a holuovei in Agiicultuie anu because
Ni. Benigno Feinnuez uaicia coulu always be appealeu to in a goou cause. Be left
Laboi anu went to the Piesiuency of the Boaiu of Tax Appeals simply because I
askeu it of him. It happeneu, also, that theie was a holuovei in the chaiimanship of
the Public Seivice Commission so that a vacancy coulu be cieateu theie. I now hau
these thiee majoi positions to be filleu, as well as the commissioneiships of the
Planning Boaiu, with all the minoi pationage they implieu. I simply sat quietly by

compilation by the naive young men of the F.B.I. is one which is not only piejuuicial on the siue of
conseivatism but actually woithless in fact.

301
my bait to see what woulu happen. I hopeu it woulu not be too long uelayeu,
because now ievenues weie iunning below monthly expenuituies, but I was
ueteimineu not to let this piessuie appeai to woiiy me.
Ny scheme was a little upset by having to fill the Public Seivice Commission
chaiimanship foi piotection against the Faimeis' Association who weie incenseu by
a bill I hau just signeu making the sugai centials public utilities anu so subjecting
them to iegulation. But otheiwise things weie left to uevelop. The ninety-uay bills
fiom the histoiic iegulai session of '42 weie now going into effect, also, anu theie
weie numeious appointments to be maue. Boaius of the Authoiities, anu of the
Bevelopment Company anu Bank hau to be filleu; anu the new 0niveisity Boaiu hau
to be selecteu. As I contemplateu this feast I thought Nuoz woulu come aiounu;
anu suie enough he uiu. The Libeial climbing uown woulu take somewhat longei,
but it, too, woulu eventually happen. I began to think I hau leaineu some, at least, of
the lessons of political management in Pueito Rico.
0n 12 August Ni. Bolivai Pagn, having ietuineu fiom Washington to fish in the
tioubleu wateis, maue a long iauio speech excoiiating me in the vilest language
allowable on the iauio; in fact, even the wiue latituue alloweu in Pueito Rico was
exceeueu once oi twice anu he was inteiiupteu. Benunciations weie making me
somewhat self-conscious. Any numbei of minoi ;#$0121#'138$3 weie using a uaily
iauio houi laigely foi the puipose. Ni. Nalcolm hau uevoteu a saicastic peiiou to it;
now Ni. Bolivai Pagnit was becoming the fashion. Even Ni. Ramiiez Santibez,
who coulu have nothing against me except that he anu Bi. Noiales between them
hau maue a fiasco of the appointment to @$'1($(, joineu in piouucing a iambling
iant of foimiuable uuiation. If he hau a giievance it was against Nuoz.
"Sticks anu stones," I saiu to myself, "will bieak my bones; but names will nevei huit
me." All this fuiy in Pueito Rico was nothing to woiiy about; it was piobably
auvantageous, being fai moie effective in consoliuating suppoit among the people
than collaboiation fiom the same souices woulu have been. I hau long since, in fact,
ceaseu to have any concein about happenings which oiiginateu in the opposition
anu which weie intenueu foi the local stage. The steieotypes weie fixeu. The
;#$0121O' !#0D812#3 weie the tools of the ",$221#'$"1#3the sugai piouuceis, the
2#+,"21$'8,3, the !181:$'I.13, the %$00,%#3; anu it was just as well to have them
speaking out. It was well enough unueistoou, moieovei, that the effectiveness of oui
iefoim measuies was to be measuieu by the vitiiolism of the attacks. But something
else was afoot by miu-August which piomiseu ieal tiouble because it was happening
in Washington.
302
Sometime befoie this Ni. Nalcolm hau followeu his long biief about my scanualous
iauicalism to Washington in peison. I now hau a iequest fiom Ni. Fitzsimmons foi
leave. Theie was somewhat moie than this: foi he exhibiteu a lettei fiom Ni. Swope
iequesting that he come to Washington "foi consultation." Those two weie not
going to Washington in August foi theii health, anu Ni. Swope was not collaboiating
without encouiagement fiom somewheie. This somewheie, I suspecteu, was among
his foimei colleagues on Capitol Bill. Foi the ueteiioiation of oui ielations theie
was, by now, seiious, if even a fiaction of what coulu be ieau in the 0niteu Piess
uispatches was tiue. As Ni. Fitzsimmons left, the San }uan newspapei began a new
campaign of vilificationoi, iathei, intensifieu the one which hau now peisisteu foi
almost a yeai, shifting giounu fiom time to time but nevei alteiing in tone oi
objective. The buiuen now was that I was about to be iequiieu to answei seiious
chaiges piefeiieu against me in conceit by the Auuitoi anu the Attoiney ueneial.
Ni. Ickes, it was saiu, was at last convinceu of my incompetence, anu I woulu not last
much longei. I hau a little low pleasuie, in view of all this, in being able to publish on
18 August the Bepaitmental Solicitoi's opinions upholuing my position vis--vis
these obstiepeious opponents. But, amusing as the uisconceiting ieleases weie in
the miust of anothei classic piess campaign just ieaching the stage of punuits'
comment anu euitoiial essay, I knew well enough that what a Bepaitmental Solicitoi
might say was of no impoitance to a Congiessman anu especially one who was
alleigic to what was now being calleu "Tugwellism."
S

Fiom this time on foi moie than two yeais I shoulu live in an atmospheie of
Congiessional uispleasuie, expiesseu in one way oi anothei, with as many
ingenious vaiiations as seveial olu political heaus coulu uevise in the ouu moments
they uevoteu to Pueito Rico oi to me. Anu all my woik woulu have to be caiiieu on

S
This was the expiession useu among otheis by Ni. Lou Naxon when he uepaiteu fiom 0.P.A. in }uly
194S to go back to his Betioit public-ielations business amiust stoiies of laige stocks of bootleggeu
foou cacheu in his hunting louge against uays of even gieatei iestiiction. But befoie that, as well as
aftei, it was a kinu of bogey woiu to inuicate enmity towaiu "business," "the piofit system," "piivate
initiative," "fiee enteipiise." As such it was not too inaccuiate, since I hau pointeu out often enough
the piactical inutility of the system uesciibeu in this way. But uetiactois nevei likeu to stop theie;
anu it was theii excessive cholei which betiayeu them. Foi I might not too exag-geiateuly be
uesciibeu as a "socialist," peihaps, though not of any oithouox vaiiety; but not as a "communist," a
"fascist" oi any othei kinu of totalitaiian. I believeu in state action ceitainly, but also in the uignity of
the inuiviuuals who compose the state anu foi whose welfaie it exists. But so, also, uiu most of the
common folk of the 0niteu States as well as of Pueito Rico a fact which, I believe, causeu the cholei
of those who attackeu me. They weie attacking me because they feaieu anu hateu the people anu uiu
not uaie say oi uo anything about theii ieal objectives. So they attackeu me anu, of couise, otheis
like meuntil they uaieu come out openly anu attack the Piesiuent who was, of couise, the piincipal
in the affaii. Foi he was the people's man pai excellence. Anu he believeu in using public instiuments
of all kinus foi theii goou; a belief which extenueu even to the contiol of "business" when necessaiy
anu shaping it to the public seivice.

303
not only without sympathy oi assistance fiom the Committees of the Congiess
unuei whose tutelage the islanu possession was kept, but often against open anu
active hostility. This woulu be less tiue of some inuiviuuals than of otheis; anu some
committeemen coulu even be set uown as fiienuly, but they weie always in a
minoiity anu seluom active in assisting. It shoulu be saiu in faiiness that they woulu
often be galvanizeu into action in piactical matteis at the insistence of Pueito Rican
business inteiests. So they woulu help in uogging the Wai Shipping Boaiu until oui
blockaue was at least lighteneu; they woulu contenu that we ought to be allotteu a
faii shaie of feitilizei; they woulu investigate uisciiminations against the Pueito
Rican sugai anu ium inuustiies; they woulu even make at least a gestuie towaiu
influencing the Wai Piouuction Boaiu to allow us ceitain ciitical mateiials foi the
fiist of the Bevelopment Company's piojects foi inuustiialization.
The neeu to expeuite the Bevelopment Company's opeiations was being unueilineu
uaily although it was obvious that none of its opeiations coulu be unueitaken in
time to meet this paiticulai ciisis, if inueeu it woulu suffice foi any latei on. This one
woulu have to be met in othei ways. 0nemployment was incieasing at a teiiifying
iate. Anu we unueitook again to convey to oui Washington colleagues that
contempoiaiy occuiiences weie having an effect on Pueito Rico which was the
ieveise of theii effect on the continent. So, foi instance, the piessuie foi the
piouuction of wai mateiials was iesulting, in the States, in an enoimous expansion
of inuustiial activity. But no wai mateiials weie oi coulu be piouuceu in Pueito
Rico. Anu the oiueis necessaiy foi channeling mateiials anu man powei into wai
plants anu away fiom civilian goous weie, with iuthless anu iiielevant eneigy, being
extenueu to us. We weie paialyzeu. Ny plea foi exemption on piojects iequiiing
only local mateiials to ielieve unemployment hau been maue months befoie but hau
gone unansweieu by the Wai Piouuction Boaiu. The uaily accietion, now that the
sugai 4$6"$ was ovei, of thousanus of unemployeu was becoming, cumulatively, a
pioblem which it seemeu impossible to postpone meeting foi long. Foi, auueu to the
fact that they hau no employment, the woikeis weie suffeiing moie anu moie fiom
the evei acceleiating iise in the cost of living. Theii seasonal eainings woulu be
much moie quickly exhausteu than in an oiuinaiy yeai. We weie now beset too with
tioubles inciuent to the nation's passage fiom a fiee to a contiolleu economy. A
system of this soit uepenus foi success on its full implementation; the uangei lies in
inteiims in which some functions have been stoppeu anu those which shoulu be
substituteu have not been begun. We weie in that stage now as a consequence of
slowness to agiee among vaiious Feueial agencies.
0ui woist block lay, as usual, in a Feueial official, in this instance, the one who was
in chaige, in Pueito Rico, of the opeiations of the Agiicultuial Naiketing
304
Auministiation. Be was appaiently one of those inuiviuuals who, when they finu
themselves in goveinment, think it natuial to seive the inteiests of piofit makeis
iathei than consumeis, anu the laige-piofit makeis at that, whose inteiests usually
iun against those of the smallei, even if moie numeious, enteipiiseis in the same
line. Be uisplayeu unmistakable signs of wanting to join the ciusaue of the
opposition. This uisposition was shown in vaiious ways but notably in iefusing to
co-opeiate with oui effoits to iegulate impoits, to enlaige the uistiibution of fiee
foou, anu check the iise in the cost of livingunless this coulu be uone unuei his
exclusive management anu especially without the inteivention of insulai officials.
The Supplies Auministiation was now tiying to feel its way into its function as
agency foi uistiibution to the iegulai foou tiaue of staples biought to us in bulk by
the Agiicultuial Naiketing Auministiation. This was in puisuit of the agieement
maue in }une. But the Feueial agent soon began to insist that the insulai agency
ietiie fiom the scene anu allow him to hanule the uistiibution. Be pioposeu, in
othei woius, not to iecognize the agieement maue by his supeiiois in Washington.
The allegations on which this iefusal was baseu weie that the Supplies
Auministiation was giossly inefficient anu iiuuleu with politics.
It became appaient, also, that a Ni. }. Beinaiu Fiisbie, who was chaiiman in Pueito
Rico of the Bepaitment of Agiicultuie's Wai Boaiu, so calleu, felt that this was a
convenient issue on which to make a biu foi powei. We hau uncoveieu in him
anothei champion of the lite who thought he might be alloweu to manage things in
theii inteiest if the piesent iegime weie unseateu. It was piesently becoming a iace
among half a uozen Feueial officials to see which coulu make most impiession on
those who weie conceiveu to be the ieal uispenseis of favoi. Among minoi officials
who nevei befoie hau hau much attention, say nothing of appioval, to have theii
least woiu oi action magnifieu into a gieat public benefit by the piess anu to ieceive
iesolutions of appioval fiom the biggest businessmen in the community, was
encouiagement not to be iesisteu. It was soon only too plain that the situation
woulu have to be uealt with.
Beie again it was not a mattei foi any concein in Pueito Rico. What gave fiction its
ieality was the fact that it was being seiiously iegaiueu as fact in Washington. Theie
weie a hunuieu times moie businessmen in Pueito Rico who benefiteu by the
bieaking of the gieat impoiteis' monopoly than lost by it. They woulu eventually
follow theii inteiest anu come to oui suppoit even if foi the moment they weie
afiaiu to oppose moie poweiful businesses. Anu theie was nevei any uoubt about
the people. They weie being squeezeu between loss of wages anu iising piices. But
the impoiteis, anu the gieat fiims in the States with whom they hau ielations, weie
biinging to beai an immense weight of uisappioval which was auuing itself to the
305
alieauy foimiuable piessuie fiom the faimei lobbies anu those of the A. F. of L. With
Ni. Bolivai Pagn, using the iesouices of the sugai piouuceis, uiilling uaily on the
Congiessional soie tooth, Tugwell, it seemeu inevitable that oui Washington
tioubles woulu multiply insteau of uiminish uuiing the coming months. It was not a
piospect which even the most confiimeu ciusauei coulu have faceu with pleasuie.
Anu it is peihaps not to be wonueieu at that Feueial officials not only followeu theii
instinct anu ueseiteu the gubeinatoiial ship, but that they sought to uo it in such
conspicuous ways as woulu establish claims to iewaiu when the uay of
accomplishment aiiiveuthat is, when a new uoveinoi hau to be chosen. About
this time, late in August, as the flow of goous liteially uiieu up anu stoppeu, so
tuining oui concein ovei blockaue anu uwinuling supplies into ceitainty of
exhaustion anu fiantic seaich foi substitutes, theie weie seveial events whose
concuiience hau a beaiing on the futuie. The fiist of these was the beginning of
ietieat on the pait of the ?1/,"$0,3 which woulu logically leau to ie-establishment of
the majoiity in the ;&+$"$ necessaiy to the fiscal ieoiganization which uaily
became moie piessing. Envoys weie being sent to uiscovei how offenueu I was at
the attacks on me. It was inuicateu that if I woulu aumit that I hau been wiong
eveiything coulu be fixeu. I was amuseu, but also I hau leaineu something, so I
ieplieu in a way which I thought woulu be unueistoou: that I was moitally offenueu,
that I too hau a (1%'1($( to piotect, anu that so fai as I was conceineu it was a
mattei of no inteiest whatevei what the ?1/,"$0,3 chose to uo. Thus setting the
scene I went on to inuicate, howevei, that I was about to make some impoitant
appointmentssuch as the Commissioneis of Agiicultuie anu Laboi, as well as a
numbei of juuges, anu if the ?1/,"$0,3 expecteu any consiueiation they hau bettei
apologize in a huiiy. So foi weeks to come things woulu not aujust themselves. But
the signs of theii embaiiassment weie unmistakable anu I stoou fiim.
I was stanuing fiim, howevei, on an upioaiious founuation. Foi late in August the
Tieasuieiagain without consulting me began suit against the newspapei which
foi a yeai now hau been so violent, foi the payment of back taxes, the total of which,
togethei with all the penalties, to a papei facing the possible exhaustion of its papei
supply anu loss of auveitising ievenue, causeu an almost hysteiical ieaction. When,
paitly in amusement at the wiithing anu paitly in iesentment at the long campaign
of calumny, I maue a caieless iemaik in a speech in Ponce "that, in spite of its
attempts to oust me, it might uisappeai fiom the Pueito Rican scene aheau of me," it
was seizeu on foi the campaign to enu all campaigns of abuse.
The enoimity of this piolongeu squeal inuicateu the uespaii out of which it aiose. In
spite of all the outwaiu ciicumstances I began to feel moie confiuence in my ability
to win thiough politically at the same time that I was feeling most uiscouiageu
306
about the blockaue anu oui ability to suivive its iigois. At the enu of August things
weie so bau that I sent Egloff in haste to Washington, not uaiing to be away myself,
with instiuctions to uige the uespeiate natuie of oui ciisis anu to inuicate how
much woise it was being maue by the flagiant iefusal of Feueial officials
especially those having to uo with shipping anu the supply of foouto co-opeiate in
any way. They weie going to block eveiything until I was ieplaceu; then theii
iecommenuation was to be that contiols be abanuoneu anu supply functions
ietuineu to the piivate impoiteis.
0n the uay Egloff left, a lettei fiom Abe uigeu that I ought to come myself anu cleai
up the supply situation. I consiueieu caiefully but ueciueu fiist to let Egloff tiy. We
seemeu neaiei to settlement of the legislative impasse anu, as a mattei of fact, the
impiovement continueu to the point of a visit fiom Ni. Ramiiez Santibezunuei
the excuse of couitesy to the emissaiies fiom the 0ffice of Befense Tianspoitation
who hau now aiiiveu anu foi whom I was giving a luncheonin the couise of which
he excuseu his iecent opposition as a iiposte to my iefusal of appointment foi Bi.
Noiales 0teio when Nuoz' opposition hau been uiscoveieu. The tiuth was, of
couise, quite otheiwise, whethei he hau been misinfoimeu oi not. But I thought it
in the inteiest of peace not to piobe the uefenses of his (1%'1($(.
Neanwhile Ni. Rupeit Emeison, who was now one of the iegional uiiectois in
Washington foi 0.P.A., aiiiveu anu we began to exploie, in San }uan, the matteis
Egloff was also woiking on in Washington. The bounuaiies between 0.P.A. anu
W.P.B. weie still fluiu. Both hau new anu ambitious buieauciacies whose jealousies
weie enuless anu unielenting. Within a few uays Ni. Kenneth ualbiaith aiiiveu anu
joineu the conveisations. I was by now awaie that an investigative committee of
0.P.A., taking all Pueito Rico foi its piovince, hau iecommenueu a Wai
Auministiatoi who shoulu have chaige of all insulai wai activities. This committee
hau uone its woik without consulting me anu hau maue iecommenuations so
piovocative that they weie not publisheu. The effect woulu have been, howevei, to
make the local 0.P.A. iepiesentative uoveinoi in all but name. This woulu, I pointeu
out to Ni. ualbiaith, make a half uozen of us if the militaiy commanueis weie
incluueu; foi Ni. Fiisbie cleaily iegaiueu his functions as extenuing ovei those I
thought weie mine; so, equally cleaily, uiu Nessis. Nalcolm anu Fitzsimmons; anu
the agent of the Agiicultuial Naiketing Auministiation appeaieu to think it
unnecessaiy to accept uiiections even fiom his supeiiois in Washington. Theie
weie piobably othei contenueis too, whose ambitions woulu be iouseu by such
suggestions as weie known to be containeu in the Ciawfoiu (0.P.A.) iepoit. Ni. Paul
Euwaius, the local uiiectoi foi 0.P.A., woulu not be among them. Be thought the
whole business absuiu, anu he was, in any case, about to iesign. Be coulu, he saiu,
307
get no suppoit oi uiiection fiom Washington anu felt so foolish anu futile that it was
impossible to continue longei.
Ni. ualbiaith was not much ueteiieu by this, having no uoubt of his ability anu that
of his colleagues to manage Pueito Rico's pait in the wai successfully. But he hau
oveilookeu oui 0iganic Act, anu so hau the Ciawfoiu Committee, which specifically
entiusteu the functions mentioneu to the uoveinoi. That, I pointeu out, was I. I was
pioceeuing as best I coulu thiough the auministiative tangle thiown up by the new
agencies in Washington anu the opposition of ambitious Feueial agents in Pueito
Rico. I suggesteu that if 0.P.A. woulu stop the iise in the cost of living, which was its
specific business, that woulu be an ample contiibution. 0ntil it hau, oi until it hau
some plan which seemeu to piomise effectiveness foi this puipose, it hau peihaps
bettei not tiy to take ovei eveiyone else's uuties in auuition to its own.
I saiu, howevei, that the louu complaints maue about insulai attempts to contiol
piices anu secuie supply weie out of oiuei until the Feueial agencies hau uone
something. I pointeu out that oui effoits weie piecemeal, tempoiaiy anu
piofesseuly stopgap. Some scoies of the absuiuly inflateu peisonnel of the 0.P.A.
office weie watching, analyzing anu iepoiting on the opeiations of oui veiy busy
insulai office. Put them to woik on piices, I suggesteu, anu leave us alone. I
piomiseu to withuiaw the whole insulai foice on the instant 0.P.A. became effective
as measuieu by the cost-of-living inuex, which was not only iising but iising at an
acceleiateu iate. Bowevei, Ni. ualbiaith went off to Washington piesently anu
complaineu to Abe that the insulai agency was inefficient anu political. This was too
much. Foi this was exactly what was being claimeu in Pueito Rico. So Abe,. in effect,
hau a tiial anu I was conuemneu.
In the miust of the most uifficult situation I hau evei faceu, I was let uown
eveiywheie by those whose suppoit was essential to any kinu of success. It is not so
haiu now to excuse Abe. The people in Agiicultuie weie suppoiting theii man;
0.P.A. was saying that we weie a ciowu of incompetents who weie inteifeiing with
theii business; Nalcolm, Fitzsimmons, et al. weie piessing chaiges; Ni. Bolivai
Pagn was fulminating. I was so much the object of geneial enmity that it seemeu
impossible I coulu be iight anu all these choiusing opponents wiong. In a cable
summoning me to Washington to answei chaiges, Abe uiu not qualify his opinion
that the wai oiganization I hau so hastily thiown togethei anu which hau laboieu
with so much uevotion even if awkwaiulyto caiiy oui people thiough the ciisis,
was "political" anu "inefficient." A uoveinoi, I felt, simply coulu not be tieateu this
way by his home office. This kinu of squeeze play iepeateu so often, maue any kinu
of effective woik impossible. If any Feueial official, iefusing to follow the policy laiu
uown by me in Pueito Rico, coulu appeal to Washington anu have me ieveiseu on a
308
piivate showing of paitial eviuence anu without even auvice to me, I was going to be
so busy with uefense of my own uecisions that I shoulu be able to accomplish
nothing. Ny situation, I coulu see, was the same as that of othei uoveinois, except
that I hau to ueal with an unusual ciisis, anu I coulu iealize now why so many of
them hau fallen back on sheei caution when they weie bullieu by Feueial
iepiesentatives whose functions they ought to have contiolleu anu weie, at the
same time, awaie of less than active suppoit in the Bivision of Teiiitoiies oi its
pieuecessoi offices.
Theie was also the peculiai complexity of oui colonial aiiangement in which the
uoveinoi iepiesenteu the Piesiuent but caiiieu on his auministiative ielations
thiough a Bivision of the Bepaitment of the Inteiioi; anu in which two oi moie
Committees of Congiess weie ueteimineu to maintain uiiect manageiial ielations,
anu in puisuit of this ueteimination systematically enfeebleu the Bivision by
maintaining its appiopiiations at an absuiuly low level. In consequence, a uoveinoi
uiu not know what he oweu to anyone but the Piesiuent, how fai to go on his own,
how fai to consult the Secietaiy, anu what confiuence to give the Congiessional
Committees. It was an impossible setup; anu my piesent situation was the iesult,
ieally, of tiying to opeiate antiquateu machineiy, which even oiiginally hau been
unsuitable, in a ciisis. It must be confesseu that I aiiiveu in Washington with a veiy
fiee flow of auienalin which I pioceeueu to tuin loose on all my annoyeis.
It was soon settleu. Foi Abe, as I have saiu, may have been young, anu may have hau
a policy of appeasement, but he also hau humoi, peispective, loyalty anu geneiosity.
A moining-long talk in which I began angiy anu enueu gentle, anu he began ceitain
anu enueu apologetic, settleu oui own uiffeiences. Anu togethei we went to woik to
bettei things in the only way it coulu be uoneto laboi at them eveilastingly, to
whittle away the obstacles anu peisuaue eveiyone that we hau a policy which was, if
not iight in theii eyes, still ouis to be iesponsible foi anu the one we weie
ueteimineu to see thioughso ueteimineu that they might as well coopeiate.
22
TBE C0NvERSATI0N with the 0nuei Secietaiy on 1S Septembei 1942 was not
iecoiueu until foity-eight houis latei when I was back in Niami. I noteu then,
howevei, that iefeience hau been maue most vigoiously to the impiacticability of
inteifeiing fiom Washington in ielations between the uoveinoi anu insulai
iepiesentatives of Feueial Bepaitments. 0nless absolute anu unquestioning suppoit
coulu be counteu on nothing woulu evei be settleu in Pueito Rico because appeal
woulu invaiiably be taken. Anu since theie weie many such officials, a uoveinoi
coulu not be put on tiial at the behest of each of them in tuinthat is, if he was to
309
caiiy on the othei affaiis of his office. Be woulu be peimanently on the uefensive.
Ny expeiience, anu that of my pieuecessois, showeu, also, that when this kinu of
thing began, eveiything else stoppeu; eveiyone's inteiest centeieu in the stiuggle. It
was, aumitteuly, one of the weaknesses in the ielationships between the Possession
anu the Feueial uoveinment that a multituue of Feueial buieaus shoulu be set up as
similai ones aie in the States, but that Pueito Rico shoulu be so iemote that officials
shoulu conuuct themselves veiy uiffeiently. This iemoteness was exaggeiateu now
in time of wai anu specifically because of the blockaue. This accentuateu the
uifficulty. The Feueial officials weie, inueeu, pietty much on theii own, not only
because of iemoteness but because of the pieoccupation of theii chiefs in
Washington with the fiantic ieaujustments being maue to the wai. But theie was
the auueu fact that in its ielations with Naiylanu, foi instance, oi 0klahoma, the
Feueial uoveinment uiu not neeu a policyall weie tieateu as citizens not of a state
but of the 0niteu States. But with iespect to Pueito Rico the 0niteu States uiu
iequiie a policy, not only because of the unsettleu ielationship between the two but
also because, whatevei that ielationship was conceiveu to be, in fact Pueito Rico
was not pait of the 0niteu States in the same sense that Naiylanu anu 0klahoma
weie, noi weie hei people iegaiueu as having the same iights anu uuties. They
weie citizens but they shaieu uiffeiently in this common piivilege.
This last was a point which was always being foigot. Some officials tenueu to tieat
Pueito Rico as a state, some as a foieign countiy, anu some, unfoitunately, as a
iegion anu a people who, while not of us, weie still eligible foi any saciifice in oui
inteiest, The State Bepaitment's attituue that Pueito Rico was ieauily available in
any ueal in which it happeneu to neeu a quiu pio quo, illustiateu this uifficulty.
1
The
uiveisity of tieatment showeu, it coulu be supposeu, that we hau not even
uevelopeu a tiauition of noblesse. The Biitish, the Butch oi the Poituguese nevei
behaveu in this way. They might exploit subject peoples inuiiectly; but they nevei
equivocateu about theii status oi saciificeu them caielessly. They nevei alloweu
uiffeient agencies of the Cential uoveinment to maintain uiveise policies; anu it
woulu have been unthinkable in a genuine colonial system foi a uoveinoi to be

1
Chailes unueitook, about this time, by inteivening with Ni. Bull, to mouify this. Anu in one oi two
small instances, he woulu succeeufoi instance, in 194S, in the mattei of fiee impoits fiom Cuba of
the type of tobacco giown in Pueito Rico. But in the most impoitant case of this kinu, which woulu
aiise in 1944, the olu couise woulu be followeu. The negotiations foi the puichase of Cuban sugai
anu molasses woulu ieach a ceitain stage; the Cubans woulu uemanu as pait of the piice that Pueito
Rican piouuction of ium be limiteu; anu the negotiatois foi the 0niteu States woulu ieauily agiee.
That they weie wholly ignoiant of the impoitance of ium taxes to the Pueito Rican economy woulu
be inciuental. This instance hau moie impoitance than otheis but its pattein was meiely typical. The
agieement ieacheu in Bavana woulu be enfoiceu by a W.P.B. oiuei limiting Pueito Rican piouuction
to the pievious yeai's totala yeai in which blockaue, somewhat mouifieu, still existeu. Pueito
Ricans natuially felt that the use of such a base auueu insult to the injuiy they hau alieauy suffeieu.
310
subjecteu to viitual tiial at the behest of buieau iepiesentatives within his
juiisuiction. It might be an eviuence that we weie not colonial that it coulu happen
with us; but, as a piactical mattei, anu in the ciicumstances, this was scaicely a
viitue. I hau a iight, as uoveinoi, anu theiefoie as the embouiment of the 0niteu
States' soveieignty in Pueito Rico, so long as that soveieignty existeu, to iequiie
complete confiuence anu suppoit. This was not, eithei, so much a piivilege as a
necessity. In oiuinaiy times it might be a uoveinoi's iight but not a conuition of
goveinmental existence. Now we weie at wai; anu its piessuies magnifieu all the
olu sins of iiiesponsibility. What I hau to have in oiuei to get thiough the ciisis,
even if it coulu not be gianteu oiuinaiily, was unquestioning suppoit. If I coulu not
have it, the situation calleu foi the selection of someone who coulu commanu that
kinu of iespect.
Abe was, I think, not convinceu that he coulu not manage Pueito Rican affaiis fiom
his Washington office; but he was convinceu that I meant business. Nuch as I
uislikeu it, in piinciple, because I ought to have hau tiust anu belief beyonu
challenge in my home office, I came equippeu with files, affiuavits, oiiginal eviuence.
It not only convinceu Abe but also Captain 0lmsteau. This in tuin iesulteu in a moie
positive achievement at which, catching up on my notes in Niami, I was obviously
pleaseu. Foi in two uays anu nights of woik, ieviseu agieements coveiing all supply
pioblems hau been completeu. The iesult was a much simplifieu piogiam. The
whole iesponsibility foi the puichase, the ueliveiy in Pueito Rico, anu the
uistiibution to meichants of foou piouucts, was to be assumeu by the Agiicultuial
Naiketing Auministiation.
2
I hau volunteeieu the withuiawal of the insulai agency
which hau hau chaige of uistiibution to meichants aftei aiiival. Bepaitmental
jealousy hau been the most uifficult obstacle. Inteiioi still hau maue no use of the
fifteen millions gianteu immeuiately at the outset of wai as a iesult of my plea to the
Piesiuent. The agieements calleu foi using this as a ievolving funu foi financing
uistiibution to meichants, anu a quaiiel seemeu in piospect between Inteiioi anu
Agiicultuie as to how much contiol Inteiioi was to have as a iesult. But Inteiioi's
uesiie not actually to spenu any of the funu (thus auheiing to Ni. Swope's theoiy
that it was intenueu to ievolve) finally contiolleu anu an amicable aiiangement was
ieacheu.
S

Also theie was anothei, equally favoiable, change. Space allocations foi shipments
fiom Pueito Rico weie to be manageu in Inteiioi; but the assignments weie to be

2
Latei the 0ffice of Bistiibution, anu still latei the 0ffice of Supply.
S
This piinciple of Inteiioi's was latei mouifieu, howevei, upon my showing of the inciease in piices
anu the uangeious uevelopment of black maikets. It was agieeu to subsiuize a few staple piouucts so
that the piices then existing coulu be maintaineu.

311
maue by oui ueneial Supplies Auministiatoi. We woulu now be in a position to see
to it that necessities hau piioiities, even if theie weie less piofit in them.
Complementaiy to that, the Wai Piouuction Boaiu was on the way to ceuing local
ueteimination of outgoing space allocations. I shoulu now be in a position to state a
complete policy foi getting thiough the wai which met, moie oi less, oui peculiai
neeus anu piomiseu at least to use all the facilities available in the most effective
way. This I summaiizeu:
1. Puichase by the A.N.A. anu uistiibution to meichants of staple fooustuffs,
anu the contiol of theii piices by 0.P.A.
2. Subsiuy foi a few piouucts to stop the iise in living costs anu to kill the black
maikets.
S. Contiol of shipping space, both outgoing anu incoming, in the inteiest of the
most efficacious use.
4. uoveinment puichase of the sugai ciop foi the coming* yeai, at any iate, anu
of iemaining suipluses at the yeai's enu.
S. A piice-guaiantee piogiam foi home-giown foous, so that gioweis coulu
know in auvance what they coulu expect.
This, of couise, was apait fiom the insulai contiibution which I visualizeu as
incieaseu taxes useu to pay foi such woiks as coulu be unueitaken to ielieve
unemployment anu foi an enlaigeu piogiam of home ielief.
At the enu of the notes maue in Niami, theie was wiitten one biief paiagiaph of
impiessions, got, I saiu, "fiom those to whom I talkeu in Navy, Aimy, Wai Shipping,
anu Agiicultuie. The outlook is uiscouiaging anu the atmospheie uepiessing. Theie
is much uefeatism, that is, a feeling that we aie losing, anu losing fiom not using oui
gieat iesouices well. Washington was nevei so full of jealousy, backbiting anu
jockeying foi position anu foi poweia ieally uisgusting spectacle."
This obseivation may have hau its souice somewheie in my system iathei than in
fact. I hau been ill foi seveial weeks. Anu when I got back to San }uan it soon became
cleai that I hau a bionchial pneumonia. Theie was then an inteiluue in the Naval
Bispensaiy unuei the ministiations of Bis. Sylvestei Baly anu Ainim Wilson which I
still iegaiu as an oasis in the ueseit of the blockaue. Foi the blockaue hau now
ceaseu to be paitial anu hau become complete. Buiing the month which enueu just
as I emeigeu fiom hospital, futilely foibiuuen to woik foi some time, only one caigo
ship came into haiboi, anu only half of its consignment was foi civilian use. As a
mattei of fact that ship came at about the miuule of a peiiou of foity-one uays
uuiing which we hau no othei aiiivals.
That it is quite impossible to convey the atmospheie of those weeks I am well
awaie. No one who has not liveu on a populous islanu with its customaiy
312
communications cut can appieciate the peculiai collective claustiophobia which
assails the whole population unuei such ciicumstances. 0ui islanu, being so fai
fiom self-sufficient, the actual feai of being without foou was always in these uays
piesent in some uegiee. People hau been ieminueu of this possibility whenevei they
hau tiieu, anu hau been unable to piocuie, less necessaiy supplies uuiing seveial
months past. But now we ian out of iice anu of beans, anu soon theie was little floui
anu no uiieu fish. Actually theie weie about thiee months when theie was not
enough of anything; anu six weeks when the staples of the Pueito Rican uiet weie
not iegulaily foi sale. Such a conuition is iueal foi hoaiuing anu foi the suppoit of
black maikets. It is also iueal foi feai to seat itself ueeply in many minus. The
Agiicultuial Naiketing Auministiation uevelopeu its piogiam as iapiuly as it coulu.
A new Biiectoi was appointeuNi. Euwaiu A. Bashanu he began to assemble his
staff. But until the fiist of the yeai his opeiations woulu not be effective. All this time
the sugai planteis weie opposing the home-giowing of foou anu the Chambei of
Commeice was vilifying eveiyone connecteu with the goveinment piogiam of
piocuiement anu uistiibution. Theie was, in consequence, much confusion anu
genuine misunueistanuing of what it was we weie tiying to uo. Neasuies which
weie necessaiy because of the emeigency weie iepiesenteu as pait of oui
"communistic" piogiam anu many even of the moie ieasonable anu moueiate
among businessmen weie leu to suppoit the opposition. The antagonism to the
auministiation which existeu in San }uan goveinment anu business ciicles was
almost palpable. I was unuei Republicano inteiuict anyway anu many goveinment
employees natuially belongeu eithei to this paity oi the @#21$0138$3, Auu to these the
businessmen, the planteis, the bankeis anu the A. F. of L. leaueis (who weie still
fuiious at theii loss of piestige), anu it can be seen that theie existeu a foimiuable
scieen of hostility between oui gioup anu those foi whom it laboieuthe #/","#3,
the $%",%$(#3, anu the iemote *D/$"#3 in the hills.
Nuoz was, howevei, coming aiounu. It took something like this ciisis to biing out
his ieally supeib quality of loyalty, his unwaveiing integiity anu his uevotion to the
people. The wai measuies having to uo with supply, uistiibution, secuiity anu so on
weie things which weie happening within his juiisuiction but with which he hau
little to uo; anu no politician likes to be pusheu asiue. Yet he uiu not iesent oui
ueveloping a piogiam on which he was veiy little consulteu anu foi the success of
which he coulu claim no cieuit. Be might well have hampeieu us; anu if he hau, we
shoulu have faileu, because at that time eveiyone else was opposeu. Insteau, he
iallieu his local leaueis to a campaign of euucation anu active suppoit. 0n the uay I
left foi Washington eaily in Septembei, moieovei, he piesenteu me with a petition
of faith, signeu by the incieuible numbei of S14,uuu citizens. The news of this
pieceueu me to Washington anu all those 2#+!$M,"#3 weie piesent in spiiit as I
313
negotiateu foi moie powei anu bettei suppoit. People aie impiesseu by such
occuiiences even against theii wills. Ni. Bolivai Pagn saiu at once, of couise, that it
was a Populai tiick, that the signatuies weie fakeu, anu that the authentic ones
weie mostly those of minois. Nuoz sat tight, foi, as I latei leaineu, he, Ni. Ramos
Antonini anu otheis hau anticipateu all this; anu the signatuies weie inueeu
authentic, maue so by weeks of house-to-house collection. This was the fiist
eviuence, in fact, of the oveiwhelming appioval which was ueveloping among the
people. The opposition sought fiantically to piove that it meant nothing; but they
knew well enough that it uiu. So uiu officials in Inteiioi. The opposition might be
moie vocal, it might contiol the piess because it hau all the wealth anu so on, but
theie is no way, in oui system, to beat oveiwhelming suppoit among the voteis. 0ne
who has it has eveiything; one who uoes not have it may have effective lobbies,
hoiues of public-ielations expeits, even owneiship of the piess anu iauioanu he
still has nothing. That was what oui opponents hau in Pueito Rico, nothing!
Tiue they still hau something in Washington. They hau, foi instance, the ieactionaiy
Bemociats. The biacketing of these with Republicans was not new; the neeu foi
appeasing these membeis of his own paity hau toimenteu the Piesiuent fiom the
fiist anu pieventeu him time anu again fiom caiiying out policies in which he
believeu anu which weie populaily uemanueu. By now, howevei, this faction hau
giown much moie poweiful. By senioiitybecause Southeineis hau been theie
even in Republican timesthey hau succeeueu to most impoitant Congiessional
Committee chaiimanships. Anu with an election coming on in which it was
anticipateu that many Noithein constituencies woulu go back to theii Republican
affiliation, it was moie than evei necessaiy to holu them to such auheience as coulu
be baigaineu foi. Luckily they weie piofesseuly foi the wai anu woulu not oppose
measuies vital to it; but this maue them moie anxious than evei to humiliate the
Piesiuent by uefeating him on uomestic issues. They weie about to entei on a
systematic massacie of any iemnants of the New Beal they coulu uetect still
suiviving. Anu it was moie anu moie cleai that I was iegaiueu as such a iemnant.
Not only that, but the iegime in Pueito Rico lookeu suspiciously like a small New
Beal in itself anu as such woulu have to be stampeu out on the fiist convenient
occasion.
0ne way to uo this woulu be to take auvantage of the piovision in the 0iganic Act
foi Congiessional veto of measuies enacteu by the Pueito Rican legislatuie, a uevice
so alien to oui goveinmental system that it hau nevei been useu. 0ntil now its use
hau nevei even been suggesteu. But theie woulu be founu a numbei among the
Committee on Insulai Affaiis who woulu neveitheless actively seek ieveisal, by this
314
methou, of Pueito Rican legislation.
4
Anothei way woulu be to kill any anu all
appiopiiations foi Pueito Rico so long as I iemaineu as uoveinoi oi the legislation
to which theie was so much objection iemaineu in foice. The signs weie
unmistakable alieauy that both these possibilities weie being exploieu. 'We hau in
fact alieauy expeiienceu the loss of hopeu-foi appiopiiations, though it coulu be
aigueu that they might not have been foithcoming in any case, consiueiing the fact
that theie hau only once in all Pueito Rico's histoiy been a substantial special giant,
no mattei what the neeu, foi which the Congiess was iesponsible.
S

As soon as I coulu iesume woik the task of caiiying out oui vaiious wai plans was
unueitaken. The fiistthat of getting all existing agencies uown to woikwas
maue easiei by a visit fiom Captain 0lmsteau, who, when he saw at fiisthanu what
we weie up against, unueitook to have all the A.N.A. machineiy in opeiation within
thiity uays. This was the beginning of the enu of oui supply ciisis. Foi when he
ietuineu to Washington he became oui most tiieless suppoitei. Be woulu, inueeu,
stanu with us against the impoiteis' monopoly when my colleagues in Inteiioi
woulu weaken. Anu he woulu steaufastly insist that the milk be supplieu which
woulu keep my wife's milk stations in opeiation thioughout the whole ciisis.
The situation in the Bivision of Teiiitoiies betteieu itself about this time by the
ieplacement of Ni. Swope by Ni. Benjamin W. Thoion; it was woiseneu, howevei,
by the policy foiceu on the whole Bepaitment as a iesult of the Congiessional
election. Foi as soon as it became known that the Piesiuent's enemies hau maue
substantial gains it became necessaiy to conciliate the veiy Congiessmen who weie
the most ueteimineu opponents of oui effoits in Pueito Rico. Fiom then on Pueito
Rico anu the piogiam of iefoim just ueveloping became an object foi constant
explanation anu uefense. Anu if, eveiy once in a while, I felt anu saiu that
appeasement was becoming iuinous, it was peihaps because I was too tenuei foi
Pueito Rico anu not sufficiently appieciative of the special pioblem which I myself
piesenteu. The enemies in Pueito Rico lost no time in finuing theii natuial allies on
Capitol Bill. They hau tiieu anu faileu in the executive uepaitmentsone of theii
latest failuies being the uepaituie of Ni. Swope. But they shiewuly sawoi thought
they sawa ieactionaiy tiue setting in which might caiiy them once again into
contiol. They hau no sciuples. They uiu not caie what means they useu oi what
allies they maue. They might injuie the uoveinment of Pueito Rico anu cause
immeasuiable losses to the public: such consiueiations weie not even calculateu

4
Ni. Ciawfoiu of Nichigan was most active in foiwaiuing the pioposal, but Ni. Cole of New Yoik was
a close contenuei.
S
This was the one alieauy iefeiieu to which was maue just as the wai began but which hau not yet
been put to use.

315
ovei against iegaining theii stiategic economic monopoly. They woulu oppose any
funus foi ielief which weie not put within theii uisposal; they woulu piess foi
ietuin of piocuiement to the impoiteis, knowing that this woulu ie-establish
scaicity, ie-cieate black maikets anu cause the incieases in living costs to be
acceleiateu. It woulu be an utteily selfish anu cynical politico-economic movement.
Anu it woulu go on anu on. . . .
6 0ctobei. Yesteiuay the Piesiuent appointeu }ustice Byines as Biiectoi of
Economic Stabilization. The comments seem to inuicate that he is supposeu to be a
kinu of contiollei of piices, wages, supplies, etc. A veiy queei choice, anu, it seems to
me, a little uespeiate, inuicating moie than anything else the success of the
Congiessional wai on the Piesiuent, suie to be intensifieu aftei election.
The Russians aie holuing out, against all human piobability, at Stalingiau. The
Naiines have a thin footholu in the Solomons.
7 0ctobei. In spite of oui peiilous piesent situation the futuie ought to be a little
bettei. At least the goveinmental hinuiances aie being iemoveu anu the new
agencies in a moou to woik togethei. 0lmsteau leaves touay; but Ni. }. B. Fahy
comes as Inteiioi Supply 0fficei, eviuence of Inteiioi's uesiie to uissociate its
opeiations fiom those of the insulai uoveinment which, in spite of eveiything, is
still consiueieu "political anu inefficient" on the showing of local Feueial officials.
Confeiences with Ni. Bavis, now the 0.P.A. uiiectoi, inuicate a gieatei willingness to
uo the job the oiganization is supposeu to uo anu leave the othei agencies alone. 0p
to now 0.P.A officials have hau unconcealeu ambitions to manage all the wai
agencies in Pueito Rico, incluuing the goveinoiship (always excepting Paul
Euwaius). But piices, which aie theii business, continue to iun awayat the iate of
five to six pei cent monthly. Such incieases put an incieuible stiain on the economy.
Now that we aie in the slack sugai season, with militaiy constiuction sloweu foi
lack of supplies, unemployment is iising at an acceleiating iate. Nen have no jobs
anu no income anu the cost of living has become scanualoussome 6u pei cent
above what it was a yeai anu a half ago. To this can be auueu the feai spieauing
eveiywheie of actual exhaustion of the foou supply. We have hau no iice foi some
time; anu I am afiaiu that eveiyone knows how shoit we aie of all the othei staples.
8 0ctobei. The Chambei of Commeice, fionting foi the impoiteis anu suppoiteu by
the sugai lobby, is actively woiking foi a Congiessional "investigation." I suppose I
shoulu not be inuignant, aftei all the stiuggle, to have it saiu that I am the cause of
all the iesults I have pieuicteu anu woikeu to pievent! I am blameu foi
unemployment, foi the shipping ciisis, foi the high cost of living, foi black maikets,
foi the exhaustion of foou supplies. Anu who blames me. Those who have fought so
316
viciously against eveiy attempt I have maue in the last ten months to pievent oi to
amelioiate these veiy situations. Sometimes I finu that a capacity foi inuignation
which I hau thought exhausteu still exists!
The othei class of things to be uone in the ciisisasiue fiom stiaightening out the
supply anu shipping situation anu contiolling piicesis to pioviue foi
unemployment ielief. The W.P.A. still exists on a ieuuceu basis. If I know the
Congiess, this will be taken awaypiobably giving as excuse that I cannot be
tiusteu with it. I have nothing to uo with its auministiation, but that will be a
convenient excuse foi thiowing us auiift in the stoimy weathei of wai. We,
theiefoie, have to uo something heie. Anu, inueeu, theie is no ieason why Pueito
Ricans shoulu not pay moie taxes anu pioviue moie ielief out of theii own
iesouices. It is foi this puipose anu foi these ieasons that I feel almost any saciifice
shoulu be maue to establish such a contiol of the legislatuie that the necessaiy
measuies can be passeu.
It is also necessaiy to entei on postwai planning, if any is to be uone. I shall not be
heie then; but I have a uuty not to leave my successoi without any piepaiation. Also,
since the insulai uebt stanus almost at the limit (as well as the uebt of the
municipalities), ieuuction ought to begin uuiing this peiiou of enfoiceu inactivity.
Iu 0ctobei, Fiank Knox heie foi a uay oi two. Be stayeu at Boovei's house but we
gave a uinnei foi him last night. Askeu Lovett (since he is, as so often, Acting
uoveinoi, Baiwoou being in the States) ovei fiom St. Thomas; anu hau a few
civilians; but, of the twenty-five, most weie oui aimy-navy fiienus.
I was most attiacteu by what seemeu his instinctive Tightness. In an aigument with
Collins, who auvanceu a stiange theoiy of how the countiy coulu be unifieu anu its
piesent ueep uivisions cuieu, appaiently by foice, he hotly uefenueu the civilian anu
voluntaiy point of view. Be was even shaip about the limiteu view of oui militaiy
people anu pointeu out that they hau been wiong in eveiy juugment of political
impoitance since the wai beganincluuing Russia, which was about as bau a bonei
as an aimy evei maue.
I got fiom him some ieassuiance about the bioau founuation being builtthe wiue
spieau of oui activities. Be thinks that the peiiou of uefenselessness is about past
anu aigues that, while almost any one of oui theateis of wai might have been
ieuuceu up to now, it has become much moie uifficult to uo it in the futuie. I hopeu
that if we hau the luck to establish ouiselves eveiywheie, we shoulu have the
intelligence to move fiom oui bases capably. Be thought we shoulu but saiu that of
couise we weie amateuis anu hau some haiu lessons coming. Altogethei he was
ieasonable anu sobeily iesponsible. When he left he askeu if he coulu uo anything
317
foi me oi whethei I wanteu to tell him anything confiuentially. I saiu that we weie
making out all iight, that Aumiial Boovei left civilian affaiis to me anu that I hau
eveiy confiuence in him so fai as uefenses went. I askeu him to give my iespects to
the Piesiuent anu tell him oui sectoi was safe.
ii 0ctobei. In a thiee-siueu conveisation the othei evening with Philip Willkie anu
Tom Phillips, I was able to get an inteiesting view of Phillips' minu. Be iemaikeu,
conceining uemociacy, that when oui peispective was long enough, we shoulu see
that we hau ieally given up to uictatoiship along about 1929. Be iefeiieu to
numeious Congiessional failuies anu the neeu, in ciisis, foi executive action. I sat
thinking of the phiase Biooks Auams useu foi one of his titles, "the uegiauation of
the uemociatic uogma," anu ventuieu the suggestion that we weie feeling foi the
moueinization of antiquateu uemociatic machineiy iathei than ieaching foi
totalitaiianism. But young Willkie, who talks a little too fast foi his minu, ieacteu
violently to Phillips' piovocative iemaik. Be was somewhat incoheient, howevei,
anu Phillips went on to say, when he was alloweu, that the age in which we liveu
was veiy much like that of Augustinian Rome in thisthat all the foims weie
pieseiveu but all the ieality lost. I objecteu to iuentifying "concept" with "ieality"
anu saiu iathei that ieality shoulu cieate the concept if eithei teim was to be useful
in uiscouise. But it seemeu that what he hau in minu was simply a pieuiction that
we shoulu not be able to go back to town-meeting uecision. I thought that a bau
illustiation since the town-meeting technique alieauy lay fai behinu us. What I
wanteu to be able to see was whethei we shoulu be able to pieseive its successoi
iepiesentative uelegation. I thought not unless theie weie some unlikely acts of self-
uenial by the Congiess.
I contiibuteu as anothei bit something of my appioach in seveial aiticles to the
obsolescence of geogiaphic iepiesentation anu the fact, becoming moie obvious,
that only the Piesiuent iepiesents the "geneial goou"oi the "national will.SS I
thought we weie leaining to uelegate authoiity, ieseiving ceitain bioau poweis to
the soveieign, the peoplesuch as that of changing leaueis. The piesent iising
Congiessional opposition I saw as a fling against the inevitable. Whethei all this was
goou oi bau we coulu not ueciue in a conveisation. Anu I am not suie they agieeu on
the fact.
1S 0ctobei. Civilian uefense has by now become so confiuent that its units yesteiuay
paiaueu in vaiious towns. I maue a shoit speech about civilian uuties in a wai like
this. We have, so fai, not uone bauly in a yeai of constant uangei anu in spite of
being bleu neaily white.
318
14 0ctobei. 0ui tioubles uo not cleai. I suppose they will not, anu that the wai will
be a continuous seiies of ciises, each to be met as best it can be uone without much
chance of planning. 0nemployment, inflation, exhaustion of supplies (incluuing
gasoline anu foou) ieacheu a point of uespeiation long ago. We live on less than
woulu have been believeu possible some time ago. No iice foi weeks; beans at tiiple
theii nominal piice anu few left; no uiieu fish oi meatoi veiy little. People live on
a sciatcheu-up uiet anu theie is wiuespieau lack of sufficient foou. I have uone all I
can think of; but it is impossible not to feel iesponsible.
We have cement; anu we can make tile; but we have little else to woik with; anu
anyway it is viitually impossible to get constiuction peimits fiom the W.P.B., even
when we guaiantee to use only local mateiials. This iestiiction is uiiving all my
officials to uespaii. We lack customaiy mateiials; we coulu uo much with what we
have; but we aie not peimitteu to uo anything.
Still almost no ships; still a uiscouiaging uistiibution of the supplies containeu in
those which uo comethe peicentage of necessities is a little highei, peihaps, but
not much. It was a blow yesteiuay to get a list of highei piices on A.N.A. foous just
when it seemeu that we might have the mechanisms at last foi stopping the feaiful
iise in the cost of living. We aie piotesting to 0lmsteau; but unless Inteiioi will use
its fifteen millions foi subsiuy nothing can be uone. Abe may be weakening on this. I
have tiieu to convince eveiyone that a veiy little subsiuy uoes a lot of stabilizing
see, foi instance, the Biitish expeiience.
1S 0ctobei. It seems incieuible but woik is slackening at La Foitaleza. We haveoi
seem to haveuone what we can anu we must see it thiough on the lines we have
now laiu uown. We still have seveial uistuibeu nights eveiy week aleits, I mean,
which cost houis of sleep. But we aie useu to an empty hoiizon, anu no longei stiain
aftei ships we know will not come. I finally succumbeu anu askeu foi infoimation to
be sent meof a iestiicteu soit. It uiu ielieve the tension. I am pleaseu with the staff
we now haveNoscoso has gone; but I have otheis like Bescaites, Stuicke anu
Egloff. I can always call on Baitlett. Anu in spite of not having an Attoiney ueneial
on whom I can iely, Cuiiy piactically seives as onea goou one too. Anu Eveiett
Biown is a steauy uepenuence as Executive Secietaiy. At best it may be a pitifully
small foice foi such times anu such a job; but it is goou; anu it uoes. The Feueial
agencies aie not so bau now. Euwaius was always helpful; Bash now co-opeiates;
Fahy, iepiesenting Inteiioi's uistiust, neveitheless lives with us. I shoulu note that
my new militaiy aiue, Captain Angel Naitin, takes a laige pait of the social buiuen
inevitable to a uoveinment Bouse even in time like these, foi we have moie
iathei than fewei visitois who have to be enteitaineu, anu suitably so, lest they be
offenueuanu Ni. Thomas Bayes, boiioweu fiom the 0niveisity to be my
319
Secietaiy, is inuefatigable. Besiues this, Feinos bolsteis a weak spot in @$'1($( anu I
shall soon be able to appoint villamil to Agiicultuie. Things aie not yet peifect but
they aie bettei.
16 0ctobei. I must aumit that I have hau a new expeiience in opposition. I thought
theie weie limits to the lengths a man might go in feeuing his ego at his fellow
woikeis' expense. I know bettei now. I also know how a gieat laboi oiganization
may be useu foi an evil puipose, posing as the champion of goou causes while it
uses piessuie foi less publicizeu enus. The foimei ;#$0121#'138$ Commissionei of
Laboiin ueneial Winship's cabinetwho is the Insulai heau of the A. F. of L., anu
who seems to have thought himself eligible to be my Commissionei of Laboi too
peihaps feaiful that his ieputation as a laboi leauei may suffei because of loss of
membeishiphas got a long, vicious anu incieuibly false iesolution auopteu at the
A. F. of L. convention in Toionto. Be hau tiieu anu faileu to get the same iesolution
thiough the insulai convention. I hau hau no iuea that the national oiganization
woulu lenu itself to such a puipose. But I must aumit that to one who has iegaiueu
himself always as a fiienu of laboi, this seems like a stab in the back.
Beaiings aie again being helu on the fifteen-million-uollai bill which Bolivai Pagn
succeeueu in holuing up befoie on the plea that it woulu be useu by me foi political
puiposes. Swope anu Fitzsimmons appeaieu. Fitzsimmons auviseu the Committee,
obviously with Swope's concuiience, that a Wai Auministiatoi ought to be
appointeu foi Pueito Rico. I am wiiting to ask Inteiioi whethei this was with official
peimission anu if not what is pioposeu to be uone about such inuiscipline. 0lmsteau
also appeaieu. Accoiuing to the piess heie, the main featuie of his testimony was
his assuiance that I woulu have nothing to uo with the auministiation of the funu.
Yesteiuay was a bau uay on anothei fiont. Cuiiy assuies me that almost ceitainly
the Economic Stabilization 0iuei of the Piesiuent will pievent the effectuation of
the Ninimum Wage Boaiu's SS-cent inciease (pei uay) foi sugai woikeis. The
stiikes of last spiing weie settleu on my assuiance that any awaiu maue by the
Boaiu woulu be ietioactive. This will mean a loss of millions foi these woikeis: I
shoulu not blame them if they maue a tiemenuous piotest.
6

Still a woise blow fell touay: Cope, now the Wai Shipping Auministiation
iepiesentative heie, ieceiveu oiueis to loau no moie tobacco oi ium. This is the
sugai lobby's woik. If it sticks it will take away fiom us about half the uoveinment's
monthly ievenue. Nuchmostof oui local ielief woik is financeu fiom this

6
The oiuei, aftei stienuous iepiesentations on oui pait, was inteipieteu to peimit oui settlement.
But the Pueito Rico Supieme Couit latei founu a way to pievent the paymentthiough a technical
uefect in the heaiings.

320
souice. These things happen one aftei anothei, without consultation with us, anu
without any concein foi Pueito Rican inteiests. This, foi instance, aiiives without
notice oi heaiing, by way of oiueis to a iegional office heie. Theie is no iecognition
of its effect on oui economy oi goveinment. Balf oui income is lost as an inciuent to
some iemote anu iiielevant uecision. Bow can we make a buuget; how can we plan
at all; how, inueeu, can we auministei the uoveinment with such enoimous
whimsical foices ueteimining the essential bases foi uecision in spite of oui best
effoits.
7
Theie aie at least a uozen agencies in Washington, some of them quite new
buieauciacies, which can uispose of the Pueito Rican inteiest quite simply at any
time. We have no oiganization foi combating the tenuency to saciifice us.
17 0ctobei. Yesteiuay the Piesiuent was askeu in his piess confeience whethei any
change was contemplateu in the goveinoiship heie. Be answeieu, "No!" But he uiu
not elaboiate on it.
Yesteiuay, also, Senate Committee heaiings weie helu on the fifteen-million-uollai
bill. The occasion was maue one, I gathei fiom the piess, foi uniestiaineu attacks.
The most fantastic allegations weie maue; some of them weie wonueifully
imaginative, anu must have oiiginateu in an extiemely cieative minu.
22 0ctobei. Yesteiuay the villamil appointment to Agiicultuie was maue. I hope it
may seive as pait of the Libeial-Populai ieconciliation; but Ni. Rouiiguez Pacheco,
who is an extieme ieactionaiy, even if he pietenus loyalty to the Libeial leauei, is
uissatisfieu. Be wanteu me to appoint Ni. Antonio Texiuoi, whose attituue is quite
like his own. The othei uay Bi. Aiiillaga came to lunch with me. Be is nominally a
@#21$0138$ but thinks his paity leaueis aie mistaken anu ought not to follow theii
piesent line. Be is willing to coopeiate, anu, inueeu gave me some intelligent auvice:
foi instance, that the foithcoming special session be calleu with no moie than two
uays' notice lest Ni. Bolivai Pagn huiiy home fiom Washington not, he says, that
it will make any ieal uiffeience but that it will cause a iow.
2S 0ctobei. What next. The most unexpecteu souices aie being exploiteu by the
opposition: touay it is the Public Bealth Seivice. The Suigeon ueneial has
withuiawn all Feueial funus fiom @$'1($(. This is obviously a political move,
influenceu by Bi. uaiiiuo Noiales, ex-Commissionei, anu Bi. Bolten, the local
iepiesentative, who shaies the usual attituue of Feueial iepiesentatives heie that
they shoulu supeivise the insulai uoveinment. It is embaiiassing to have to iepoit
this to Inteiioi buiieu suspicions aie apt to be uisinteiieu. But so fai as my

7
This oiuei seems to have been inspiieu by continental uistilling inteiests woiking with the sugai
lobby. But they hau gone too fai. Aftei some time, we got it mouifieu; then it was abanuoneu
altogethei.

321
investigation shows it is completely unjustifieu. Bi. Feinos has not been at @$'1($(
long enough to be juugeu by his actions. This is suspiciously convenient to the
;#$0121O' in its cuiient effoit to piovoke an investigation by the Congiess.
2S 0ctobei. Two complete uays spent in feveiishly tiying to accommouate oui
opeiations to the loss of Feueial funus foi health woik. Finally calleu a meeting of
the Emeigency Funu Committee which appiopiiateu enough to caiiy on until i
}anuaiy. Neanwhile we have piotesteu to Bi. Paiian anu to Inteiioi. I expecteu
woise piess tieatment than we got. It is uoubtless a bau stoiy in the States,
howevei, which is what is wanteu. The moie I go into the facts, the moie unjustifieu
anu aibitiaiy the action seems. @$'1($( is bauly manageu; but it is bettei now than
foimeily, anu Feinos' policies aie an obvious impiovement ovei uaiiiuo's.
Eveiy uay now oui piess plugs foi "investigation of Tug-well's
malauministiation"malauministiation is uefineu as "favoiing a minoiity gioup."
0f couise, it is nevei saiu that this "minoiity gioup" of Nuoz' has to confiim most
appointees whose salaiies aie moie than $1,2uuan absuiu abuse of the
confiiming piinciple, obviously aimeu at ieuucing the gubeinatoiial powei, but
neveitheless fact. Those who aie piessing foi "investigation" aie the veiy ones who,
having been in powei foi moie than a uecaue, fixeu these iestiaints on the
uoveinoi. They aie now inuignant that he cannot bieak his manacles anu come to
theii iescue. Ny uilemma amuses Nuoz, who talks about "0le uanuule" whenevei I
biing up the subject. Be says of couise I am all iight but "0le uanuule" may aiiive
next weekwho knows. If I uo not give something to the Coalicion I shall be
"investigateu" as "paitial." If I uo I shall get no appointees confiimeu.
I heai fiom Ni. Robeit Shei (whom, if things get to the . stage of a genuine inquiiy, I
have askeu to iepiesent me) that the Tiuman Committee, to whom oui opponents
heie fiist appealeu, has lookeu into it anu lost inteiest. It appeais, howevei, that
Senatoi Chavez is piessing, at the behest of ue Bostos, in the Insulai Affaiis
Committee. Tyuings seems ieluctant. But it now seems so likely that something will
come of it that uiace has insisteu on oiganizing foi the piepaiation of a histoiy, with
uocumentation, of oui wai iegime. We have often gone too fast foi goou iecoiu-
keepingwe hau to! But she is ueteimineu to put it all togethei in authenticateu
foim. I am fai too busy to uo this, but she has the thoiough anu tiuy tiaits necessaiy
anu will uo a goou job of it. She has Noscoso, Baitlett, Stuicke, Cuiiy, Bescaites,
Egloff, Bayes, Naitin, anu otheis all woiking at it.
S7 0ctobei. Yesteiuay, against stienuous opposition fiom Nuoz, I went peisonally
to the legislatuie with my message. This may have been just a bit of biaggauocio, but
I must aumit to not enjoying the whispeieu comments that I was afiaiu when I uiu
322
not go peisonally to auuiess the iegulai session last wintei. Appaiently, Nuoz was
conceineu about the possibility that one of the opposition's thugs woulu take a shot
at me. If they want to go that fai, howevei, they have plenty of othei oppoitunities.
All went well in spite of his feais. The ;#$0121O' membeis walkeu out in a bouy as I
came in. But the galleiy was Populai anu I was ieceiveu with an ovation which
succeeueu catcalls foi the uepaiting Senatois anu Repiesentatives. Theii going hau
an unmistakable aii of ietieat which must have been pietty galling. 0f couise, the
continental piess will be feu the coiiect stoiywhich was why the walkout was
conceiveu.
It was a showuown. Those who left weie a minoiity. Bi. Aiiillaga stayeu; so uiu
Rouiiguez Pacheco, though those who went weie moie of his minu, ieally, than
those who stayeu. But he is obeying paity iule. ueneial Esteves of the State uuaiu
anu Lieutenant Naitin, my militaiy aiue, weie my escoits, anu we maue quite a
show. A joint committee met me in }uuge Tiavieso's office anu escoiteu me to the
Bouse, wheie the Piesiuent of the Senate anu the Speakei of the Bouse intiouuceu
me. When the cheeiing subsiueu, I ieau a biief of my message anu Ni. uutiiiez
Fianqui, Cleik of the Bouse, then ieau it in Spanish. Anothei committee escoiteu me
to La Foitaleza, wheie we hau a collation.
28 0ctobei, Things seem to be aiianging themselves foi an expeuitious session. But
the ;#$0121#'138$3 aie by now so savage that they may iesoit to any tactics.
29 0ctobei, Abe uiu not seem to iealize, when I talkeu with him on the telephone
last night, that we hau been without iice foi moie than thiee weeks in spite of all my
letteis anu cables.
We now have queues. Bealeis aie so shoit of staples that they hanu them out as
favois, keeping most of theii stocks out of sighta new kinu of black maiket, anu
one infinitely woise than one which meiely boosts piices. It has, of couise, causeu
some iiots anu will cause moie. 0.P.A. is still supine.
Abe calleu me to ask my juugment again about the immeuiate iemoval of Nalcolm
which }ustice anu Inteiioi believe necessaiy. I saiu that, foi myself, I coulu get along
with him until }anuaiy; anu I unueistoou that he hau agieeu to withuiaw then. I
thought it might complicate the thieateneu Senate investigation since Nalcolm is a
Nichigan Re-publican anu may have tie-ups with Senatoi vanuenbeig as well as
}ustice Nuiphy. I askeu him about the Senate inquiiy anu saiu we heaiu alaimist
iepoits about its being intenueu as a "smeai Tugwell" business. Be saiu that was so;
anu that Inteiioi hau maue attempts to put the Senatois iight. But I got the
impiession that nothing much has ieally been uone. Peihaps nothing can. I have a
323
feeling that theie is a whole ciowu now ueteimineu to "get" me, on manufactuieu
eviuence, if necessaiy. It is a feeling much like being veiy empty but not having
hungei. It must be the same feeling that }ews have in ueimany; oi Negioes in the
South.
Su 0ctobei. The Senate yesteiuay iefeiieu the Chavez iesolution foi investigation to
the Committee on Accounts. This may have shelveu it, if the Auministiation has
ueciueu against peimitting a Republican fielu uay. It was Senatoi Baikley who
objecteu to immeuiate consiueiation.
Bi. Feinos anu Ni. Santiago Iglesias aie in Washington anu I have askeu them to uo
what they can to infoim Congiessmen anu Senatois; but this is obviously too laige a
mattei foi any facts to influence now. I have wiitten to the vice Piesiuent. The
Secietaiy eiupts occasionally but it is not uoing any goou except to show his own
uecency.
The legislatuie is getting uown to woik anu passing the measuies askeu of it. I have
aigueu Nuoz out of a bill cieating a public-utility status foi faim lanu anu one
iefoiming the juiy system, both on the giounu that we shoulu keep this special
session to the ielief, ievenue anu iefinancing plan foi which it was calleu.
The piospects aie that Republican gains in the Congiessional elections will be
consiueiable. I may then expect to be "investigateu"that is, smeaieuin eainest.
Anyway uiace anu the iest aie woiking on oui "white papei."
4 Novembei. In the elections the Republicans have maue gieat gains in the Congiess.
Eviuently the issues which might be thought to weigh most heavily on people's
minus weie submeigeu in vaiious kinus of soieness at the wai iestiictions, now
becoming ieal. This is, of couise, a guess. But the iestiictions necessaiy to wai aie
like "economy"eveiyone is foi them until his own peiquisites aie toucheu. Then
he is soie, wants special exemptions anu when he uoes not get them looks foi a
scapegoat, etc., etc. }ust, foi instance, as I am blameu heie foi unemployment, high
piices, foou scaicity anu so onthe things I woikeu to pieventanu by those who
iiuiculeu oui pieventive measuies, uelayeu them, anu uefeateu them when they
coulu. These people aie now the hoaiueis, the black-maiketeis, the seekeis foi
special exemption. Inciuentally, they aie my bitteiest enemies. So, all ovei the States
people aie soie at the Piesiuent foi theii own lack of foiesight anu his iightness; foi
theii failuie to help pievent anu foi the consequences of blinuness. That is the kinu
of Congiess it will tuin out to be. Anu I am suie it will give all of us a bau two yeais.
324
I must say the legislatuie heie is functioning smoothly, foi which I give myself some
of the cieuit. It looks as though we might be outfitteu with laws to last thiough the
wai.
7 Novembei. The legislatuie is uoing all we have askeu. Woiu fiom Abe that
Nalcolm is being "iemoveu" at once.
0n Sunuay 8 Novembei I was up in the night anu tuineu on the iauio, spinning the
uials acioss the shoit-wave points. Incieuibly, I thought I heaiu the Piesiuent's
voicebut speaking in Fiench! It was the Afiican lanuing; anu it was the Piesiuent,
telling the Fienchmen in Afiica that we came in fiienuship anu asking theii help. It
was, of couise, the gieat uay of the wai foi us anu only slowly uiu we take it in. I
went ovei to look at ueneial CollinsS maps anu to talk with the exciteu gioup at
heauquaiteis. Alieauy they hau theii chaits mounteu anu weie speculating on the
next move. It seemeu ceitain, they saiu, that theie woulu be a big battle south of
Tunis; they hopeu it woulu come soon. They weie peihaps a little optimistic, moie
so than when, a few uays latei, it appeaieu that we ought to have lanueu fuithei east
anu, in consequence of this, hau lost the iace foi the hills at the base of the Cape.
Neveitheless the ieflections of that week tolu us all that the stiategic value of Pueito
Rico in this wai was gieatly ieuuceu. 0nless something unfoieseen happeneu, oui
ieai was now secuie. No longei woulu it be possible foi the submaiines to uestioy
oui Atlantic foice, anu foi the ueimans to poui uown the west coast of Afiica, cioss
unmolesteu to South Ameiica, theie to oiganize a campaign against the "soft
unueibelly of Ameiica." Ni. Chuichill's use of this phiase with iefeience to Euiope
maue aiticulate foi us what we hau most uieaueuthat the bioau top of South
Ameiica might pioviue a staging base foi the penetiation of the uulf of Nexico anu
oui own heaitlanu. In the couise of such a gianu maneuvei the Sea Fiontiei woulu
have been investeu anu Pueito Rico woulu have become an offensive outpost foi the
enemy iathei than a uefensive one foi us. With luck we shoulu have the initiative
now anu Euiope's unueibelly woulu take the blows oui own might have suffeieu.
We might use the auvantage awkwaiuly, with all we hau to leain, but we hau it anu
unless some uisastei inteiveneu we shoulu keep it.
In the exaltation of ielief aftei the long oiueal of the blockaue, I spoke out. The
Chambei of Commeice anu the sugai piouuceis woulu unueistanu now, I saiu, why
the uoveinoi of Pueito Rico, as the iepiesentative of the 0niteu States, hau been
unable to piotect the piofitable business of the impoiteis. The gatheiing of the gieat
invasion fleet in the miust of teiiible losses hau iesulteu in a scaicity of ships foi
civilians who, if they tiieu, coulu aftei all iaise theii own foou. That was wai; anu
they hau bettei leain to accept it. The files showeu, we weie giatifieu to finu, that as
325
we hau piesseu foi moie ships uuiing the last months, eveiy message fiom La
Foitaleza hau been caiefully piefaceu: "if they can be spaieu fiom the uses of wai."
The ill-tempeieu uemanus of the Chambei hau maue no such ieseivation. It was to
be hopeu that Senatoi Chavez woulu note the uiffeience. All this was a little
bombastic. The invasion was as much a suipiise to me as Peail Baiboi hau been
moie, inueeu, foi I shoulu have thought it much too soon to expect such a move,
especially as the action on the Egyptian fiont, although moie hopeful, seemeu fai
fiom uecisive as yet. But my aggiessive statement kept the Chambei of Commeice
quiet foi a while.
0ut in the Pacific a momentous two months hau closeu anu we weie just acquiiing
enough infoimation to assess the significance of theii events. The Navy was being
veiy closemoutheu anu we still thought the uefeat at Savo Islanu on 8-9 August hau
been moie uisastious than in fact it hau. We weie getting accounts now of the whole
Solomons campaign, which, aftei the loss of the )$"<13, 738#"1$, F1'2,'',3, ;$'/,""$
anu ].1'2:, appaiently thiough lack of piecaution, hau been such a bloouy business
foi the Naiines on uuaualcanal. It now appeaieu that the battle of the eastein
Solomons hau gone bettei, but it hau been a confuseu action between lanu- anu
caiiiei-baseu planes of many types anu its lessons hau not yet become cleai.
8
It uiu
seem to have uestioyeu the initiative which the }apanese hau helu foi neaily a yeai.
The battles at Niuway hau helpeu in that. That }apanese expeuition in gieat foice
hau unuoubteuly been intenueu to iepaii the mistake of not having taken Peail
Baiboi anu was peihaps intenueu to heau, aftei that, foi Panam. It was obvious
that oui commanueis in the Pacific must be uoing wonueis with small foices. Now
that we knew of the vast fleet of tianspoits, supply ships, anu piotecting waiships

8
Bow little we knew of cuiient uevelopmentsthat is, how slowly infoimation spieau in those thick,
stiicken uaysis cleai fiom a note I maue in miu-Novembei that Tom Phillips feaieu the whole
Solomons business was going to enu in oui being uiiven out, anu that if this happeneu, eveiything in
the Pacific was again in jeopaiuy. That is to say, unpieuictable movement woulu be iesumeu until
something uecisive happeneu again. But these iemaiks weie only a few uays befoie the Solomons
iesults weie announceu. As a mattei of fact on 11 0ctobei anu again on 26 0ctobei gieat battles hau
been fought. 0n 2S 0ctobei the }apanese hau maue theii supieme effoit on uuaualcanal anu the
exhausteu Naiines hau fought them off with almost the last of theii vitality. The sea battles finally
stoppeu the "Tokyo Expiess" which hau so iegulaily iun ieseives anu mateiial uown the "slot" to
uuaualcanal. We hau lost the Boinet anu'the Enteipiise (bauly uamageu)which meant piactically
all oui caiiiei stiength. But the South Bakota hau pioveu what a well-aimeu battleship coulu uo. She
hau been attackeu by twenty-foui uive bombeis anu nine toipeuo planes anu only one hau got away,
though she, too, hau been huit. Soon the Naiines woulu be ielieveu, soon the fleet's ieinfoicements
woulu be ieauy, anu oui offensive woulu have been establisheu. But "soon" meant months, aftei all.
Anu those months woulu have been fatal if the }apanese hau known that fiom the Battle of
uuaualcanal, 1S1S Novembei, they hau pieponueiance until late wintei. Lost oi uamageu in that
action weie Laffey, Cushing, Steiett, 0'Bannon, Atlanta, San Fiancisco, Poitlanu, Baiton anu Belena.
"The Battle of the South Pacific," saiu Aumiial King's iepoit (in Apiil 1944), "in spite of the heavy
losses we sustaineu was a uecisive victoiy anu oui position in the southein Solomons was not
thieateneu again seiiously."
326
which hau been gatheieu foi Afiica, what hau happeneu in the Pacific seemeu
miiaculous. Foi we coulu alieauy see that the }apanese hau ieacheu theii fuithest
penetiation anu that they woulu not only not get Austialia but that NacAithui
woulu keep his footholu in New uuinea. Panam, aftei Niuway, anu especially aftei
the battles of the Solomons, enuing with the naval action off uuaualcanal in which
oui losses weie heavy but the }apanese losses woise, was, as we giauually came to
unueistanu, safe.
We weie left, as we saw it fiom the Caiibbean Sea Fiontiei at the enu of Novembei
1942, with only submaiines to fight.
9
We no longei neeueu to anticipate amphibious
action on oui beaches. It was unthinkable that such an enemy offensive coulu be
mounteu with all the ueimans hau to think about in Russia anu in Afiica. Foi the
miiacle of Stalingiau was now looming like a Chiistmas stai in the East anu all the
Westein woilu was piaising the Russians anu beginningjust beginningto ask
what the Russians hau got to make them not only heioes but biilliant in battle as no
othei aimies weie, at least on oui siue. Foi at fiist it hau seemeu that they hau
meiely auapteu the classic tactic which hau been useu against Chailes XII anu again
against Napoleonuefense in uepth with its coiollaiies of immense saciifices anu a
scoicheu eaith. But it now began to appeai that they weie thoioughly moueinizeu
as to equipment anu leu by a gioup whose militaiy genius was moie than equal to
that of the Piussians. They weie a full match, it seemeu, foi the Wehimacht which
oui aumiiing geneials hau believeu the most foimiuable militaiy machine of all
time.
We coulu now lift oui eyes fiom wai, we thought, anu pei-haps even iest a little. I
note an inteiluue towaiu the miuule of Novembei, although it cannot have been
much longei than a week enufoi my own woist oiueal was still aheauwhen my
wife anu I anu some fiienus went up to the hills foi the fiist time in moie than a
yeai. The silvei speais of the cane caught the light in waves as we uiove thiough the
blossoming countiy. The laigest sugai ciop in histoiy was ieauying foi the cutteis in
}anuaiy. Anu the fallen bloom of the /.2$",3 coveieu stietches of the ioau with a
soft buint-oiange caipet which whiileu up be-hinu oui wheels. Biifting showeis lay
like thick woolly blankets upon the cool hills. It was the Caiibbean fall which is so
much like spiing in othei lanus.
People in the countiy, though, weie bauly off. In the maiket place at Cayey an olu
woman caiiieu away hei week's supply of iice in a toin piece of papeiit maue a
pitiful little heap on the countei as she counteu hei pennies. But she was lucky to get

9
We weie too optimistic. The }apanese coulu have taken the offensive in a big way at any time that
wintei.

327
any at all; the stoiekeepei must have uug it up fiom unuei his countei foi an olu
customei. A *D/$"# came in with a couple of bags of chaicoal anu two bunches of
plantains on his buiio: he was pleaseu with the little foitune they biought him until
he uiscoveieu that he coulu have no iice, that beans weie thiity cents a pounu, anu
that uiieu fish was being uoleu out in sciaps which haiuly outweigheu the 29$<#3
they cost. Be concluueu sauly that he might as well have stayeu at home anu
consumeu the plantains.
But it was a goou yeai. The iain was well uistiibuteu. The tobacco ciop was small;
but hencefoith it woulu always be small, since the lanu was so woin. Coffee was just
being pickeu anu piomiseu a paying yielu foi the fiist time in yeais. The malangas,
the tanias anu the yautias spieau theii laige leaves ovei moie giounu peihaps than
evei befoie anu, togethei with bieaufiuit anu plantains, woulu at least pioviue
staiches foi eveiyone. The piice hau gone away up; but at least such piovisions
existeu. Anu the high piice was moie foi city people anyway; a *D/$"# hau ways of
piocuiement anu methous of tiauing unknown to otheis. The sugai ciop, it coulu
now be seen, woulu iun ovei a million tons. That meant woik anu woik meant
income. Anu I knew, what otheis hau not yet founu out, that my plea foi Aimy-Navy
co-opeiation in lifting oui holuovei anu the new ciop woulu be successful. Theie
was not yet the uemanu foi sugai which woulu uevelop latei; anu the olu
psychology of opposition to offshoie aieas still existeu in Washington. But to my
aigument against supply ships going home empty theie was so little iational
opposition that I was suie to pievail. I hau, in fact, alieauy been tolu so. The sugai
which hau seemeu a buiuen a few weeks ago was now a tieasuie.
It seemeu to me, as we iesteu those few uays above the pools of gieen light in the
valley anu watcheu the stoims blow out to the west, that, no mattei what happeneu
now, the uemociatic way of life hau been pieseiveu. It was so much one man's woik
as to seem an incieuible foitune that we shoulu have hau him as we hau hau
Washington anu Lincoln. The wai might have been fought in the fielus of Alabama,
Texas, Louisiana, oi ueoigia, pait of it, anu the othei pait on the Pacific plain. It
woulu now be fought in Euiope anu fai acioss the Pacific. Bow many Ameiicans
appieciateu that. Bow many thought now of the bittei battles the Piesiuent hau
fought at home in oiuei to keep the wai abioau, battles with his own shoitsighteu
countiymen which took all his political genius anu his Butch ueteimination to win. I
iecalleu that the Congiess in 194u hau voteu the selective-seivice law by the
fiightening maigin of one, anu of what that stiuggle alone among all the otheis must
have taken of the Piesiuent's stiength. I thought, too, of the toui ue foice, which hau
seemeu so iisky, when he tuineu the pioblem of piouuction anu supply ovei to the
gieat inuustiialists who hateu him anu who, many of them, hau opposeu all his
328
uomestic policies. It was cleai now, in the fall of '42, that piouuction woulu be
sufficient. Bis coup hau succeeueu. We still hau not uone what seemeu necessaiy to
uistiibute oui man powei to its most effective uses; anu the faim lobby seemeu
likely to uefeat the heioic attempts Ni. Benueison was making to stop inflation. In
fact, it lookeu as though Ni. Benueison himself woulu have to be saciificeu. Anu
theie was still complaint to be maue of most of the new wai agencies, especially the
Wai Piouuction Boaiu. But these weie so tiivial, anu so- easily iemeuieu if put into
peispective with what might have been oui situation! If we hau bickeieu among
ouiselves anothei yeai, South Ameiica woulu have been lostso, inciuentally
woulu oui Caiibbean outpostsanu the enemy woulu have been builuing an attack
fiom bases which now weie ouis!
The Piesiuent's iewaiu hau been humiliating uefeat in the elections; foi, although it
was miu-teim, anu no one suggesteu that if he hau been a canuiuate he woulu have
been himself uefeateu, still the viitual uisappeaiance of a suppoiting majoiity in the
Congiess (most of the Southein Bemociats weie by now actively hostile) maue it
seem impossible foi him to caiiy on. Not only the wai woulu be on his shoulueis
now, but a Congiess ueteimineu to haiass anu uefeat all his policies. If this hau
happeneu two yeais eailiei it woulu have lost the wai foi us. Thoughtful people
weie appalleu at the inability of the Ameiican electoiate to see beyonu its small
miseiies to the gieat issues they hau put in jeopaiuy. Luckily most of the plans hau
been laiu, most of the laws weie in foice; momentum ought to caiiy us thiough, no
mattei what the Congiess might uo.
The gamble hau been won. We weie now secuie all aiounu the Euiopean enemy.
Anu in the East theie seemeu to be a stop at New uuinea in the South Pacific. The
}apanese might go foi Inuia again in the spiing, anu it woulu be cleai then how fai
the uefection fiom Biitain hau gone. The situation in the Aleutians was still
shiouueu in the fogs which coveieu that sectoi of the woilu; anu all China was in
chaos. But othei than these uoubtful aieas, oui siue hau a giowing auvantage. It
lookeu, inueeu, as though the vast weight of mateiiel coming fiom the new wai
plants anu the olu ietooleu factoiies of Ameiica was giauually giving oui siue the
piecious initiative which is so uecisive in laige-scale wai. As to oui own
pieoccupation in Pueito Rico with one phase of the global stiuggle, it even seemeu
to us, as we cautiously assesseu oui situation, that we might hope to be ielieveu.
Convoys weie faiily oiganizeu; they weie getting moie anu moie piotection as they
moveu out fiom Key West anu along Cuba's noithein coast to the Winuwaiu
Passage. Losses weie still enoimous in oui wateis; but they weie enoimous paitly
because they weie less in the Noith Atlantic. The gieat supply tiains to Euiope weie
safei. Anu if the ioutes to Nuimansk anu thiough the Caiibbean weie taking heaviei
329
losses it was because the new uefenses hau not yet been spieau wiuely enough.
They soon woulu be. We hau planes now. Theie weie just aiiiving squauions of new
PBN's, a newei sistei of the PBY. These "Naiineis" weie bettei ships foi long-iange
naval patiol than any yet uesigneu, bettei even than the famous Catalinas. The
young pilots who weie leaining to mastei them saiu theie weie still a lot of "bugs"
to be got iiu of; but basically they weie beautiful, majestic ships. The aiiiving
squauions now weie ioaiing ovei oui bay fiom uawnanu befoie uawnfai into
the night. The pilots weie leaining. They lifteu them slowly, with an enoimous
outpouiing of powei, out of theii long iuns into the winu, guiueu them gianuly into
slow cuives ovei the hills anu set them uown again on the watei. As we watcheu we
leaineu to tell the olu pilots fiom the new. The new laus hau tiouble getting the vast
biius up on the step without iocking: they hit too soon anu too fai foiwaiu when
they came uown. But a moie expeiienceu hanulei coulu take his boat into the aii in
a iun like an eagle's anu lanu again like a feathei uiifting to eaith. The Naiineis
weie slow in the aii, built foi iange, to piotect convoys on theii long jouineys, but
the uefeat of the submaiine lay in theii multiplication. Befoie long we shoulu be
awaie that the subs hau all gone home; when they came back they woulu be aimeu
with new anti-aiiciaft guns. The Naiineis anu the new escoit ships weie foicing a
change in tactics; anu while the change was being piepaieu, we shoulu gain an
auvantage which woulu be uecisive. Yes, we coulu see the enu of oui blockaue
somewheie in the iow of months which lay aheau. The woist, just possibly, was
alieauy past. The gieat patiol ships, houi aftei houi, into the twilight anu on into the
tiopic uaik, ioaieu acioss oui teiiaces anu settleu onto the bay. They thickeneu
uuiing Becembei until they weie a numeious flock. They weie an unueitone to oui
life: a constant ieminuei of wai, but of a wai which was being won.
330
2S
TBE T0RNINu P0INT foi the battle of the Caiibbean can well enough be placeu at
Novembei-Becembei 1942. That fall was a tuining point, too, in oui civilian battle;
foi fiom then on the uiaining out of foou suipluses fiom eveiy place of stoiage
waiehouse, stoie oi homegiauually stoppeu anu soon became a steauy iestoiing
inwaiu flow. Fiom Becembei theie weie iice anu beans, anu we shoulu not lack
them again. Piices, too, began to come unuei contiol: that month showeu less iise in
the cost of living than any month in moie than two yeais. It seemeu possible that at
last we might stop this teiiible piessuie on the woikeis. Aftei the miuule of
Novembei ships came again anu we hau something like half a noimal month's
tonnage in Becembei. This was tiue, too, of aimy-navy supplies so that the militaiy
constiuction piojects coulu iesume full momentum. The heavy fall plantings of foou
weie being haivesteu; the laige coffee ciop was in anu the cane 4$6"$ woulu soon
begin. Relief anu optimism lay ovei the whole islanu like a benison. It was not aftei
all such a hostile woilu foi an islanu people.
It was uefinitely a hostile woilu, howevei, foi me. I hau taken the leau, as was
necessaiy, in the measuies which hau biought about such ielief as was now being
felt. I hau always been in a huiiy; I hau often been impatient with those who got in
the way anu those, even, who meiely helu back. Anu theie was a iising hostility on
this account which joineu the tiue of ieaction in the States. It lookeu as though the
floou might wash me out of San }uan like a chip on a huiiying stieam. Ni. Nalcolm
was summaiily iemoveu by the Piesiuent eaily in Novembei. 0n the uay of his
iemoval he attackeu me in a bioaucast speech which, howevei, faileu to live up to its
auveitisement. The buiuen of his complaint, asiue fiom the sneeis, was that I hau
not taken his "legal" auvicemeaning, of couise, that I hau a uiffeient social
philosophy. Ni. Nalcolm's chief claim to fame in the legal line, so fai as my lawyei
fiienus weie awaie, was that he hau once wiitten an opinion as Chief }ustice in the
Philippines which hau been uphelu by a majoiity in the 0niteu States Supieme
Couit.
1

It was, in fact, in stuuying this case, anu the opinions on it, that I fiist became awaie
of something which, meiely as an infoimeu citizen, I shoulu have known all along:
that the Philippines hau uevelopeu an economic piogiam in all iespects similai to
that which hau now been inuepenuently ueviseu foi Pueito Rico. I gave some stuuy
to its histoiy; anu the moie I stuuieu the moie uiscouiageu I became. This was not
because what the Filipinos hau uone hau faileuon the contiaiy it seemeu to have
succeeueubut because ueneial Leonaiu Woou, whom I hau hitheito caielessly

1
This was, of couise, the Spiingei case, soon to be uwelt on moie at length.

331
accepteu at the usual valuation as one of oui bettei public auministiatois, hau been
sent out aftei it hau got going to stop it anu hau at least paitially succeeueu. The
question giew in my minu whethei an executionei woulu not be sent to Pueito Rico
piesently to caiiy out a similai manuate fiom the Republicans: ceitainly it seemeu
possible that they might win in '44; anu equally ceitain they weie of the same
sentiment as hau suppoiteu ueneial Woou's ciusaue; anu if they uiu not win in '44,
they might in '48. The Woou enteipiise hau been legitimizeu by Ni. Nalcolm's
opinion, although not until aftei the uoveinoi ueneial hau ceaseu to caie. This
helpeu to explain Ni. Nalcolm's attituue in Pueito Rico.
This Philippine expeiience is so ielevant that even though it happeneu at the othei
siue of the woilu anu a scoie of yeais back in time, it will pay to uigiess foi a look at
it. Remembei fiist that both Pueito Rico anu the Philippines hau been Spanish
colonies; also that they weie islanu economies, laigely baseu on sugai; also that
theie weie many 7+,"12$'#3 in business; also that theie weie iapiuly giowing
populations which weie lanu-hungiy, laigely unemployeu, anu only a geneiation oi
two fiom slaveiy. These likenesses make it seem less stiange that they shoulu have
taken similai measuies foi ieconstiuction.
Fiom 191S to 1921 Fiancis Buiton Baiiison was uoveinoi ueneial. That peiiou, it
will be noticeu, coveieu the peiiou of the wai anu it was, in consequence, an
unusually piospeious one; it was also one in which the uoveinment itself built up
consiueiable suipluses anu was encouiageu to unueitake an ambitious
ieconstiuction. Baiiison was eviuently veiy sympathetic to the Filipinos' ambitions
to impiove theii lot. This on the one hanu involveu giauual ielinquishment of
Ameiican political supeivision, anu on the othei positive measuies foi impioving
the economy. Be was unable to see any ieason foi peipetuating absentee
monopolies; anu he coulu finu no entiepieneui except the uoveinment itself laige
enough oi inteiesteu enough to entei on the necessaiy piogiam of inuustiialization.
Be consequently appioveu the establishment of seveial goveinment financial
institutions anu uevelopmental enteipiises: among them, the Philippine National
Bank, the National Bevelopment Company, the Fiuelity Bonu Piemium Funu, the
Nanila Railioau Company, the National Coal Company, the National Petioleum
Company, the National Cement Company, anu the National Iion Company.
Baving belateuly leaineu of this staitling analogy to oui own effoit, I began now to
iecall, fiom casual ieauing, the olu quaiiels of the peiiou. Natuially I got holu of
what liteiatuie was available, incluuing Baiiison's annual iepoits. It was amusing,
in Pueito Rico, to iun acioss his comment on the fiist election in 1919 with the
enlaigeu suffiage gianteu in 1916. Theie hau, he saiu, been no seiious uistuibances
in spite of all the noise; but it was tiue that public opinion was "inflameu by unjust
332
anu often giotesque chaiges by uefeateu canuiuates that they have been iobbeu of
election. 0n the whole, the elections may be saiu to have compaieu favoiably with
the usual elections in fiee countiies of the woilu. Theie is, howevei, neeu of a moie
willing acceptance by the minoiity of the iesults of the populai vote. 0nless this
lesson is moie geneially anu moie convincingly uiiven home, theie exists the geim
of uangei foi the futuie. ..." That coulu equally well be saiu of Pueito Ricoin fact I
hau saiu something like itas hau othei uoveinois. But heie theie was the auueu
incentive to election loseis that Washington was closei to San }uan than to Nanila,
anu that a uoveinoi's political enemies in Pueito Rico, oi even lobbies with inteiests
at stake, coulu always finu membeis of the Congiess who weie willing to suppoit
uisaffection, iegaiuless of its effect in the Possession.
But most of all I was inteiesteu in those paits of the iepoit which iefeiieu to the
economic piojects. Fiom it, I beg leave to quote, much shoiteneu, the ielevant paits:
The lanu laws iestiicting the amount of public lanus which may be acquiieu by an
agiicultuial coipoiation to 1,u24 hectaies, have unuoubteuly uiscouiageu ceitain
foims of investment. Noieovei, the countiy is just emeiging fiom a conuition puiely
agiicultuial, anu is now engaging in inuustiies both foi expoit anu consumption. . . .
Against the initiation of the piesent self-goveinment in the Philippines the gieatest
objection was maue by local Ameiican businessmen. The theoiy among them
seemeu to be pievalent that goveinment by stiong aim, with the aiu of the militaiy
establishment, was theii only secuiity; that foi the uoveinment to make fiienus
with the Filipinos was not only a sign of weakness, but a thieateneu uisastei to
Ameiican business inteiests. This may be explaineu not only by the tiauitional anu
histoiical ielationship of Noithein iaces with uwelleis in the tiopics but also by the
natuial timiuity of investeu capital at any pioposeu change in affaiis, especially in
the case of those who hau built up a consiueiable business without the investment
of any appieciable initial capital. . . . Besitation to iisk capital was uue to the
wiuespieau anu faiily successful campaign in the 0niteu States of the auvocates of
inuefinite ietention of the Philippines. Since it was necessaiy to theii case to piove
that the Filipinos weie inexpeiienceu in self-goveinment, they aigueu that they aie
incapable, by uepicting them as heau-hunting savages. In any event Ameiican capital
was ieluctant to entei the Philippines anu still is hesitant. Even the customaiy
goveinment steamship line anu cable iunning fiom Euiopean countiies to theii
colonies is missing.
Laige oppoitunities foi investment in sugai, hemp, copia have been cautiously anu
halfheaiteuly embiaceu by Ameiicans on the aigument that conuitions weie
"unstable"; they have also hesitateu ovei the uevelopment of coal anu oil fielus.
333
Smallei bianches of tiopical investment have been piactically neglecteu, anu iemain
so until touay, such as quinine, castoi oil, kapok, coffee anu tea, in spite of the
auvantages offeieu in some of these by fiee tiaue with the 0niteu States. 0thei
bianches of inuustiy have not been uevelopeu, such as papei, biick anu tile, leathei,
anu the canning inuustiy. . . .
The Philippine uoveinment, in uefault of (piivate) investment, has, in the uesiie of
piomoting the uevelopment of the countiy with its own compaiatively slenuei
iesouices, attempteu to encouiage vaiious inuustiies. In 1916 an act was passeu
guaianteeing S pei cent uiviuenus in ceitain new inuustiies . . . but no auvantage
was taken of it. The uoveinment has thus been giauually launcheu upon
goveinment owneiship, not only of public utilities but also of ceitain othei
businesses. This has piovokeu shaip ciiticism on the pait of ceitain Ameiican
business inteiests. The unueisigneu is in favoi of public owneiship of public
utilities, but the natuial conseivatism of the Filipinos might have uelayeu
goveinment owneiship if piivate investois hau come foiwaiu. It thus iesults that
the uoveinment is now managing vaiious coipoiate enteipiises, eithei as a majoiity
stock ownei oi in possession of all the stock.
2

uoveinoi ueneial Baiiison iesigneu on S Naich 1921, obviously because of the
change in the national auministiation. The Repoit foi 1919, quoteu above, howevei,
shows, even though the chaiacteiistic opaqueness of the goveinment uocument, a
man of gieat quality, kinu, selfless anu toleiant. Theie shows, also, a ueep
iesentment that the "Ameiican business inteiests" which hau piospeieu without
"appieciable initial capital" shoulu now be campaigning to pievent fuithei
uevelopment lest it touch theii pieiogatives. I wisheu that I might have known him,
anu have been able to exchange expeiiences.
Theie was a goou ueal in the Repoit, not quoteu heie, about status. It was obvious
that Baiiison, encouiageu by Piesiuent Wilson, was looking foiwaiu to gieatei self-
goveinment, anu that much of the motivation foi the economic measuies being
taken was in piepaiation foi a time when the Filipinos woulu be cut off fiom the
fiee Ameiican maiket. The analogy with Pueito Rico twenty-five yeais latei was
neaily complete. It was, in fact, so close that I wonueieu whethei the futuie in
Pueito Rico coulu be ieau in subsequent Repoits oi in othei accounts of Philippine
uevelopment. uoing fuithei, I leaineu that aftei Baiiison's iesignation a special
mission composeu of ueneial Leonaiu Woou anu W. Cameion Foibes hau been
appointeu on 2u Naich "to investigate." Piesiuent Baiuing's lettei to the Secietaiy

2
Annual Repoit, 1919. This is veiy similai to the account to be founu in vaiious of my own public
papeis in 1941-42 as ieasons foi the Pueito Rican piogiam.

334
of Wai iefeiieu only to the status issue; but the lettei to the mission fiom Secietaiy
Weeks, specifying its teims of iefeience, was bioauei. Theie was a hint that the last
auministiation hau not been an effective one; anu the investigatois weie askeu to
ueteimine what changes weie necessaiy. The economic situation was to be
ievieweu as well as the question whethei, if the Filipinos weie gianteu moie self-
goveinment, they coulu maintain theii fieeuom.
Neithei in the lettei of the Piesiuent noi in that of the Secietaiy was theie an
intimation of what was to come, although theie must have been an unueistanuing.
Foi the Repoit of the mission anu subsequent instiuctions to the succeeuing
uoveinoi ueneial (who was to be Woou himself) weie a sustaineu uouble uiatiibe
against the libeial tieatment of the Filipinos anu "goveinment in business." It was
eviuent that an election on the Ameiican mainlanu hau settleu a mattei of policy foi
the Filipinos wholly without theii consent.
ueneial Woou was sent to put these socialists in theii place; he was to be the
hatchet man foi the Ameiican ieactionaiies. I must quote biiefly fiom his Repoit:
The geneial auministiation of the Philippine uoveinment in 191S, the peiiou of its
gieatest efficiency, was honest, highly efficient anu set a high stanuaiu of eneigy anu
moiality. Inheiiteu tenuencies weie being laigely ieplaceu by Ameiican iueals anu
efficiency thioughout the Philippine peisonnel, but the time anu oppoitunity weie
too shoit to uevelop expeiienceu leaueis anu uiiection in the new English-speaking
anu Ameiican-thinking geneiation . . .
. . . The public seivices aie now in many paiticulais inefficient; theie has occuiieu a
slowing uown in the uispatch of business anu a uistinct ielapse towaiu the
stanuaius of foimei uays. This is uue in pait to bau example, incompetent uiiection,
to political infection of the seivices, anu, above all, to lack of competent supeivision
anu inspection. This has been biought about by suiienueiing oi failing to employ
the executive authoiity of the uoveinoi ueneial anu has iesulteu in unuue
inteifeience anu tacit usuipation by the political leaueis of the supeivision anu
contiol of uepaitments of goveinment vesteu by law in the uoveinoi ueneial.
Eveiything, in othei woius, hau been all iight in Republican times but hau gone to
the uogs with the Bemociats. This is the kinu of uocument it was. The pictuie of the
futuie uoveinoi ueneial is not uifficult to fill outa man who was a maitinet,
intoleiant, aiiogantly supeiioi, anu cocksuie of his Tightness.
S
Theie followeu a
ieview of the affaiis of vaiious bianches of the uoveinment anu of the enteipiises in

S
It was eviuent that ueneial Woou uominateu the uocument. Foibes, who hau pieceueu Woou as
uoveinoi ueneial, anu whose auministiation was so highly piaiseu, was, neveitheless, much less
aggiessive anu foiceful.
335
which it hau engageu. Especially the Bank, which hau eviuently been not only
unfoitunate in iunning into uepiession aftei the wai boom, but hau also been bauly
manageu, came in foi seveie toplofty ciiticism. "In oui juugment," saiu the
investigatois iepeateuly, "the uoveinment shoulu . . . get out of anu keep out of
business." The piejuuices of the Ameiican business community weie ieflecteu not
only in the conclusions as to the infeiioiity of the Filipinos but in the
iecommenuation that foi an inuefinite peiiou Ameiican supeivision shoulu be
continueu. Not only that, it was to be continueu unuei a stiengtheneu uoveinoi
ueneial who woulu "have authoiity commensuiate with the iesponsibilities of his
position":
In case of failuie to secuie the necessaiy coiiective action by the Philippine
legislatuie, we iecommenu that Congiess ueclaie null anu voiu legislation which has
been enacteu uiminishing, limiting, oi uiviuing the authoiity gianteu the uoveinoi
ueneial unuei the }ones Act. We iecommenu (also) that in case of a ueaulock
between the uoveinoi ueneial anu the Philippine Senate in the confiimation of
appointments the Piesiuent of the 0niteu States be authoiizeu to make anu ienuei a
final uecision.
4

Among othei inteiesting featuies of the finuings anu conclusions is the iecognition
of goveinmental uevelopments in the Philippines similai to those with which those
of us who weie uoveinois in Pueito Rico hau hau to contenu. Eviuently the "native"
legislatuie hau founu ways to "uiminish, limit anu uiviue" the executive authoiity
until theie was veiy little left of it. Anu eviuently they hau even got holu of the
appointing function thiough stiingent iestiiction on confiimation. The Philippine
investigatois saw, as I uiu, that mouein goveinment cannot function without an
executive. Seeing that, theie aie two choices of policy: eithei the executive can be
iestoieu to powei by the application of exteinal piessuie, oi the causes which leu to
the emasculation can be iemoveu. Woou anu Foibes chose the fiist anu askeu
Congiess to upholu a stiffei colonialism. Baiiison (anu I) hau chosen to auvise the
giving of gieatei iesponsibility, anu specifically an electeu executive, in the belief
that this woulu iesult in the iestoiation of the necessaiy auministiative poweis.
S

Not being a "foieignei," an electeu uoveinoi woulu not neeu to be hamstiung; oi, at
least, his hamstiinging by politicos woulu not be so populai with the people, since
the legislatuie woulu not then be the only iepiesentative of the "native" population.
When ueneial Woou went to take office he was piesenteu with a lettei of
instiuctions which stiesseu the uesiiability of liquiuating the uoveinment's

4
Repoit of the Special Nission to the Philippines, 8 0ctobei 1921.
S
Thus escaping also the "politics" inheient in legislative attempts to invaue auministiation.

336
investments in all economic enteipiises; anu when he maue his inauguial auuiess
on 1S 0ctobei 1921 he iepeateu what hau been saiu in the Nission's Repoit: "I
believe the uoveinment shoulu keep out of business." Be ieiteiateu this in his fiist
message to the legislatuie. Anu on 6 Becembei in a lettei to the Speakei of the
Bouse he saiu it still again. All this insistence on the liquiuation of a policy which
hau seemeu to Baiiison the only means of appioaching inuustiialization is, of
couise, a ieflection of the change fiom the Wilson policies to those of Baiuing, fiom
Bemociatic to Republican. The business inteiests weie in contiol. But in ueneial
Woou they hau a seivant whose zeal was almost missionaiy.
The Philippine people weie natuially confuseu anu ieluctant. They coulu not
unueistanu why the passage to "noimalcy" in the 0niteu States shoulu iequiie of
them the ieveisal of a policy on which they hau enteieu hopefully anu in which they
believeu. The chilly ueneial, aftei the fiienuly Baiiison, seemeu a phenomenon out
of the past. Be chose as his auministiatois aimy officeis anu as his auviseis the
Ameiican businessmen who hau hateu Baiiison. That they weie uealing with a man
who was anxious to uisplay his abilities in the seivice of business they coulu see;
they coulu not see that he was hoping foi a highei office anu that his eneigy was to
be accounteu foi in this way. In theii confusion the legislatois sent a mission of theii
own to Washington. It might as well have stayeu at home foi all the effect it hau.
Bevelopments followeu this geneial couise until 192S, when a ciisis occuiieu in the
conflict between the uoveinoi ueneial anu the legislatuie. The Filipinos, being naive
in theii appioach to a uoveinment with sepaiateu poweis, anu knowing only that
the legislatuie iepiesenteu them as against a hostile uoveinoi, suppoiteu the
legislatuie in iesistance to Woou's attempts to put the executive back into position
foi effective functioning. Theie was a piovision in the 0iganic Act (much like that in
the Act foi Pueito Rico pioviuing foi an Executive Council) which establisheu the
cabinet as a coipoiate Council of State. To this bouy, iathei than to the uoveinoi,
the legislatuie entiusteu the poweis anu funus necessaiy to the executive. The
membeis of this Council weie, of couise, appointeu "with the auvice anu consent of
the Senate." Not being awaie that Ameiican expeiience hau leu to the atiophy of the
"auvice" pait of this phiase, anu, inueeu, inteipieting it out of context anu liteially,
the Senate (which is to say the paity politicos) weie not backwaiu with "auvice."
They piesenteu, as time went on, smallei anu smallei 8,"'$3 fiom which the
uoveinoi must choose if confiimation was to be foithcoming. This, of couise, leu to
the impossible situation (which also existeu in Pueito Rico) in which the membeis
of the uoveinoi's Cabinet functioneu almost inuepenuently of him, uiiecteu by the
political boss of the moment. In the Philippines the situation was maue woise by
inclusion, in the Council, of the Piesiuent of the Senate anu the Speakei of the Bouse.
337
That this was a bau, even an impossible situation, no one coulu ueny. It was one,
also, which to an aiiogant anu intoleiant ueneial woulu be a constant affiont. 0n 17
}uly 192S the entiie Council of State iesigneu, saying to the uoveinoi: "We have
obseiveu foi some time past that it is youi policy anu uesiie to inteivene in anu
contiol even to the smallest uetail, the affaiis of oui uoveinment, both insulai anu
local, in uttei uisiegaiu of the authoiity anu iesponsibility of the uepaitment heaus
anu othei officials conceineu." 0n 24 }uly 192S the legislatuie iatifieu the action of
the Council anu on 17 0ctobei, sitting in joint session, askeu foi the iemoval of
Wooualso, inciuentally, that, penuing the gianting of inuepenuence, the post be
given to a Filipino. Woou natuially iepoiteu this to Washington anu ieceiveu an
immeuiate message of suppoit. This message intimateu, howevei, that Woou may
have gone too fai in his wai on goveinment in business anu was ieminueu that "the
legislatuie must ueteimine whethei these enteipiises aie to be caiiieu on oi not."
The contioveisy was cleaiing up. Woou hau succeeueu in getting iiu of some of the
uoveinment's businesses; but otheis most, in factweie still in existence anu
weie again piospeiing. That phase of the contioveisy thencefoith became less
impoitant anu goveinmental questions became ciucial. These weie of the most
intense inteiest, of couise, to me, as I ieau about them, because of the close
compaiability with the Pueito Rican expeiience. The tiansition fiom Spanish to
Ameiican goveinment hau been only paitially successful. The Pueito Ricans, like the
Filipinosanu in almost exactly the same wayshau founu it possible to go on with
the Spanish spiiit within the Ameiican foims. The foimal executive hau been
sabotageu; in his place, the politico of the moment hau founu ways to contiol the
buieauciacy. Since he was not iesponsible, this contiol hau leu to uisiegaiu foi civil
seivice, to political ueteimination of appointments anu to an inefficient goveinment
seivice. I was watching with inteiestas well as painthe suffeiings of Nuoz in
the position of 2$.(100#. Be hau high iueals of goveinment; he was, I thought, loyal to
me as a man of like minu. In fact, he was caught in the system. The olu agencies of
goveinment weie staffeu with political appointees; the buieauciacy iegaiueu him
as its heau, iathei than me; we shoulu, with what we hau, be utteily unable to caiiy
thiough the piogiam he hau hopeu to execute. Yet he felt he coulu not affoiu to give
up his contiol. Be fought me insistently to keep intact the political machine.
Noieovei he now continually calleu in cabinet membeis anu gave them oiueis
without consulting me. Confusion fiom this cause was getting woise anu woise.
I coulu sympathize with the inuignation ueneial Woou hau felt ovei the fiustiations
he expeiienceu as executive. Bis oiiginal ambition to get the uoveinment out of
business hau changeu giauually to one of iestoiing the executive to its noimal
functions. Fiom 192S on theie was wai between himself anu the !#0D812#3.
338
As was inevitable in oui uniesolveu colonial unceitainty, the quaiiel was aujouineu
to Washington. 0n 8 }anuaiy 1924 the Speakei of the Bouse anu the two Resiuent
Commissioneis auuiesseu a lettei to the Congiess:
Peimit us to biing to youi notice that peiiou of seven yeais |191S-2uj of this
ielationship |between the 0niteu States anu the Philippinesj, in which the Filipino
people enjoyeu a laige measuie of autonomy. 0utsiue oui countiy it was a peiiou of
upheaval anu uisoiuei; within it was a time of peace, of public tianquillity. . . .
What we feaieu . . . has come to pass. uoveinoi ueneial Woou has set at naught all
unueistanuings . . . anu has ignoieu the assuiances given them by the late Piesiuent.
Be has . . . uepiiveu oui uoveinment of the key anu the neive centei of the foimei
autonomous auministiationthe counsel of the Filipinos. Be has suiiounueu
himself with a seciet Cabinet composeu of militaiy anu othei extialegal auviseis,
which has encioacheu upon the legitimate functions of the Filipino officials in the
uoveinment.
. . . Be has uisiegaiueu the iights of the Senate in his exeicise of the appointing
powei. . . . Be has enueavoieu to uefeat the economic policies uuly laiu uown by the
Philippine legislatuie. . . . The theoiies anu piinciples unueilying uoveinoi Woou's
action aie utteily iepugnant to . . . Philippine autonomy. . . .
Piesiuent Cooliuge ieplieu to this on 21 Febiuaiy 1924 with chaiacteiistic
smugness. Theie weie, he saiu, no giounus foi complaint against ueneial Woou. Be
volunteeieu the uictum, also, that the Filipinos weie not ieauy foi inuepenuence. So
it went on, Filipinos appealing to anyone in Washington who woulu listen, ueneial
Woou ieiteiating that "the iailioau, the sugai centials, the coal mines, cement plant
anu othei piopeities" shoulu be tiansfeiieu to piivate owneiship. By 1926,
howevei, the uoveinoi ueneial was much less conceineu about the fact that they
weie goveinmental than about the Boaiu of Contiol which goveineu them. This
Boaiu hau been set up by the legislatuie; it consisteu of the. uoveinoi ueneial, the
Speakei of the Bouse anu the Piesiuent of the Senate, a fatal minoiity foi the
executive. The uoveinoi ueneial's iepoit foi 1926 saiu:
Foi many yeais it has been the opinion of well-infoimeu men that the vaiious acts of
the legislatuie cieating a Boaiu of Contiol ... foi the management of these companies
anu voting the goveinment stock weie illegal in that they violateu the 0iganic Act
which places supieme executive contiol in the hanus of the Chief Executive. Aftei
matuie uelibeiation, theiefoie, this question was iefeiieu to the Attoiney ueneial of
the 0niteu States anu the }uuge Auvocate ueneial of the 0. S. Aimy foi an opinion.
339
Theii opinions . . . confiimeu the belief that the Boaiu of Contiol was illegal anu
consequently an executive oiuei was issueu abolishing the Boaiu anu placing the
entiie iesponsibility of voting the goveinment stock in the hanus of the Chief
Executive. As was to be expecteu, this oiuei met with opposition on the pait of the
Piesiuent of the Senate anu the Speakei of the Bouse, anu in oiuei to settle once foi
all this impoitant question, pioceeuings weie instituteu to ueteimine its legality.
Both the }uuge Auvocate ueneial anu the Acting Attoiney ueneial
6
having uphelu
the uoveinoi ueneial's contention, subsequent uevelopments weie iepoiteu foi
1929:
7

The uoveinoi ueneial issueu an executive oiuei (in Novembei 1926) abolishing the
Boaiu of Contiol anu announcing his intention to assume contiol of its functions.
Following this announcement stockholueis' meetings weie helu eaily in 1927 anu
the uoveinoi ueneial, voting the goveinment stock, electeu Boaius of Biiectois. The
two foimei membeis of the Boaiu of Contiol likewise helu meetings anu electeu
Boaius of Biiectois. Quo Waiianto pioceeuings weie instituteu befoie the
Philippine Supieme Couit seeking to oust the Biiectois electeu by the Piesiuent of
the Senate anu the Speakei of the Bouse. The Supieme Couit by a vote of six to thiee
hanueu uown a uecision on 1 Apiil 1927 completely sustaining the position of the
uoveinoi ueneial. . . .
This was the uecision which Ni. Nalcolm, as Acting Chief }ustice, hau wiitten anu
which hau been sustaineu by a majoiity of the 0niteu States Supieme Couit.
8

The Philippine uoveinment nevei "got out of business"; the public coipoiations
went on, with ups anu uowns, but suiviving anu in geneial seiving the puipose
which Baiiison hau hopeu they woulu. 0n that issue Woou, Foibes anu theii
Republican colleagues weie uefeateu. Peihaps if Woou hau liveu anu hau been able
to puisue his ciusaue aftei the Supieme Couit hau given him powei to uominate the
enteipiises he might have uisposeu of them to piivate inteiests oi even have
uisbanueu them altogethei; on the othei hanu, being in complete contiol, he might
have been seizeu with the uesiie natuial to executives to uo an effective
auministiative job. Be might even have enlaigeu theii activities. They weie, in fact,
still being enlaigeu in 1941, when seveial new public coipoiations weie cieateu.

6
Then Ni. William }. Bonovan.
7
Woou hau uieu on 7 August 1927 while in the 0niteu States, still engageu in feuuing theie with the
Filipino !#0D812#3.
8
T#<,"'+,'8 #6 89, >9101!!1', V30$'(3 <G @!"1'%,"B ,8 $0. (277 0.S. 189). The Spiingei case, which
involveu the coal company, anu a similai one which involveu the Philippine National Bank, aie to be
founu iespectively in Su >9101!!1', -,!#"83, 2S9-S48 anu S48-S8u.

340
Ni. Nalcolm's opinion, if ieau caiefully, shows two biasesto upholu the colonial
uoveinoi ueneial anu to seive the businessmen. In upholuing the uoveinoi ueneial
he was iequiieu only to take an oithouox view of the sepaiation of poweis; anu,
since the uoveinoi ueneial shaieu his economic piejuuice, the othei bias was
seiveu concuiiently. In saying that the legislatuie coulu not vote itself executive
poweis he was, moieovei, on entiiely safe giounu, meiely iecognizing an
elementaiy piinciple of oui system of goveinmentnot only elementaiy but basic,
since to uepait fiom it woulu iequiie coiollaiy mouification in many othei iespects.
This was the pait of the opinion which was uphelu by the 0niteu States Supieme
Couit, }ustice Sutheilanu speaking:
The 0iganic Act, following the iule establisheu by the Ameiican constitutions, both
state anu Feueial, uiviues the uoveinment into thiee sepaiate uepaitmentsthe
legislative, executive anu juuicial. Some of oui state constitutions expiessly pioviue
in one foim oi anothei that the legislative, executive anu juuicial poweis of the
uoveinment shall be foievei sepaiate anu uistinct fiom each othei. 0thei
constitutions, incluuing that of the 0niteu States, uo not contain such a piovision.
But it is implicit in all. . . . Anu this sepaiation anu the consequent exclusive
chaiactei of the poweis confeiieu on each is basic anu vitalnot meiely a mattei of
goveinmental mechanism.
The Bolmes-Bianueis uissent to this was a liteiaiy masteipiece, beginning with the
majestic sentences: "The gieat oiuinances of the Constitution uo not establish fielus
of black anu white. Even the moie specific of them aie founu to teiminate in a
penumbia shauing giauually fiom one extieme to the othei." Anu this statement is
so tiue of any human statute oi institution that as a iule libeializing the law it has
become famous. But Sutheilanu was coiiect, neveitheless, in a piactical sense, foi
Bolmes anu Bianuis hau inviteu legislatuies to asseit aggiessively the auvantage
they unuoubteuly have in oui constitutional system; anu if this hau been followeu as
a iule we shoulu within a few yeais have hau chaos in a gieat uepiession anu, still a
few yeais latei, in peiilous piepaiation foi wai uuiing a peiiou when the Congiess
tuineu on the Piesiuent anu opposeu him even in measuies we now know to have
been essential to the nation's veiy suivival. This was one uissent which, howevei
famous it may be among pseuuo-libeials, we weie foitunate not to have hau become
a majoiity opinion.
So Ni. Nalcolm was iight in his best-known opinionnot, one may suspect, foi
goou ieasons! The uoveinoi of Pueito Rico in 1942 was puisuing a geneial policy
just the ieveise of that of Woou in the Philippines in 1921-27. In puisuing it,
howevei, he neeueu the same executive poweis the couit hau gianteu Woou. But if
341
Ni. Nalcolm hau to give them they woulu nevei be gianteu; he was now saying that
such uesiies weie "uictatoiial." But Ni. Nalcolm hau not changeu siues, ieally; he
still uiu not believe in goveinment in business anu if he hau to choose between
piivate business inteiests anu the uoveinoi whose legal assistant he was supposeu
to be, he was ueteimineu to oppose the uoveinoi. Be woulu iepoit him to the
Attoiney ueneial in Washington; finally he woulu uenounce him openly. Be
piobably thought it unlikely that the uoveinoi hau influence in the capital any
longei; anu he coulu be ceitain that business inteiests weie stiong in the Congiess
anu the executive Bepaitments. Be was to an extent iight about this last; but not
iight enough. 0n 11 Novembei his summaiy iemoval was announceu fiom the
White Bouse. Anu it followeu, of couise, that it woulu be only a mattei of time until
Ni. Fitzsimmons was also iemoveuunless, with his colleague gone, he chose to
change his ways. This mattei I shoulu have to watch uuiing the months to come.
The Philippine expeiience, so biiefly summaiizeu heie,
9
not only hau amazing
analogies with that of Pueito Rico, it hau also an iionic connection thiough the
appointment of Ni. Nalcolm to be Attoiney ueneial, thus caiiying ovei many of the
issues anu quaiiels in moie than a theoietical sense. In stuuying the invasions of the
executive by the legislative bianch, wonueiing how the uamage alieauy uone coulu
be iepaiieu anu how moie coulu be pieventeu in futuie, I became moie anu moie
ceitain that unless Pueito Rico was alloweu to choose an executive iathei than
iequiieu to accept an appointeu one, theie woulu be moie anu moie of these
aggiessions anu consequently a moie anu moie inefficient anu politics-iiuuen
auministiation. The mixeu Boaiu of Contiol in the Philippines hau hau alieauy a
counteipait in Pueito Rico in ?$ ;#+131O' E2#'O+12$ as fai back as 1921. That, too,
hau been a Boaiu foi caiiying out essentially executive functions on which the
legislatuie hau maintaineu a majoiity. All uoveinois uown to Leahy hau acquiesceu
in it. In 19S9, howevei, an opinion of the Attoiney ueneial hau encouiageu the
uoveinoi to ignoie it, citing the Spiingei case; anu the compaiison hau been so cleai
that no challenge of the opinion was maue.
1u


9
"Theie is a consiueiable liteiatuie foi one who caies to exploie fuithei not only the official
-,!#"83 foi each yeai, but seveial books such as the Autobiogiaphy of Fiancis Buiton Baiiison; The
Philippine Islanus by W. Cameion Foibes (1928); The Philippines Past anu Piesent by Bean C.
Woicestei (19Su); 0iphans of the Pacific by Floience Boin (1941); The Commonwealth of the
Philippines by ueoige A. Nalcolm, 19S6, anu so on.
1u
An amusing instance of Ni. Nalcolm's bent was fuinisheu by this Attoiney ueneial's opinion which
was piepaieu just befoie he enteieu that office. uoveinoi Leahy was about as populai with the
;#$0121#'138$3 as I latei became. The Acting Attoiney ueneial, Ni. Eniique Campos uel Toio, latei to
be Attoiney ueneial himself, anticipateu that Ni. Nalcolm woulu be theii fiienu iathei than the
uoveinoi's anu that he might change piinciples in miustieam, so to speak, if it suiteu theii
convenience. Accoiuingly the Spiingei case anu the Nalcolm opinion weie conspicuously citeu as
suppoit foi the uoveinoi's position. Neveitheless Ni. Nalcolm uiu change siues. (See opinion of E.
342
I hau inheiiteu, howevei, a similai situation in the Emeigency Funu Committee. This
funu hau been set up some yeais befoie as a huiiicane ieseive. When I took office it
was piactically nonexistent, having been useu foi giossly impiopei puiposessuch
as the puichase of iiiigation bonus, foi instance; anu I thought it ought to be built up
to a size which woulu be ieally useful in an emeigency, anu kept caiefully liquiu. By
amenuing the law anu auuing "wai" to othei emeigencies we weie able to use it foi
the puichase of meuicines anu othei equipment foi civilian uefense, foi the
establishment of a bloou bank, anu foi veneieal-uisease contiol. In spite of such calls
on it, it hau by the enu of 1942 incieaseu to a total commensuiate with the use
which might be maue of it; this hau been accomplisheu by pioviuing foi the tiansfei
to it of savings in the buuget. In itself it was an inteiesting uevice anu a veiy
necessaiy one. But it, too, hau a mixeu Boaiu which at times I felt ought to be
challengeu as Aumiial Leahy hau challengeu the Comision Economica. I was
iestiaineu by two piactical consiueiations: if the legislative membeis hau been
iemoveu, the legislatuie might have iefuseu to allow the funu to giow; anu besiues,
uuiing my teim, no attempt was evei maue to misuse it oi to pievent its use when it
was neeueupiactically all allocations fiom it hau been unanimous, almost ioutine.
But I always anticipateu latei tiouble. When I uiscusseu it with Nuoz, as one of the
legislative aggiessions which ought to be. stiaighteneu out befoie the elective
goveinoiship took effect, he iefuseu to be inteiesteu. Be piefeiieu to put it off anu
intimateu that theie might still be moie "0le uanuules." I coulu not iepiess an
unuoubteuly malicious hope that he woulu be uoveinoi sometime so that he might
suffei some of the consequences of his vigilant uistiust of uoveinois. Theie woulu
be fuithei occasions foi similai emotion.
11

With this emeigency funu, contiolleu by a Boaiu which appaiently woulu continue
to take my auvice as to its use, anu with the new taxes pioviueu by the special
session of Novembei,
12
the fiscal situation seemeu secuie even though a bill foi local
ielief was passeu which woulu iequiie laige expenuituies. The tax legislation hau
involveu a heioic stiuggle on Nuoz' pait with the well-to-uo in his own paity as
well as with Ni. Rouiiguez Pacheco, the Libeial in the ;&+$"$ who was the one-man
majoiity. Ni. Rouiiguez was a meichant anu a laige ownei of iental piopeities. Bow
his vote foi highei taxes was secuieu I nevei knew, but he maue no seciet of his

Campos uel Toio, >"#2."$(#" T,',"$0 V'8,"1'#, 16 Novembei 19S9.) Citing his own opinion as
authoiity was not sufficient to make him go against his fiienus. When he enteieu office he ieveiseu
Ni. Campos, who hau thought his position unassailable.
11
This law was ueclaieu unconstitutional in }uly 1944 by a -,!./012$'# Bistiict }uuge just befoie the
huiiicane season. Since the Supieme Couit was in iecess we shoulu be without an emeigency funu
anu at the meicy of uisastei foi the whole season.
12
A S pei cent victoiy tax was pioviueu as well as an income tax which was closei to continental
stanuaius.

343
anguish. This bill was maue woise than was necessaiy by making it ietioactive foi
the calenuai yeai just closing, something to which theie is always stiff objection. It
seems unfaii to have paiu once anu to have felt one's obligation uischaigeu only to
be askeu to pay again. Nuoz, howevei, hau his teeth in the tax ioot at last anu he
shook it haiu. I hau waineu him that, as things appeaieu to me, we weie likely to
lose all Feueial assistance. Be was ueteimineu not to be shoit of funus.
That Feueial help woulu be withuiawn was peihaps a cynical juugment to make in
auvance but it pioveu to be justifieu. I aiiiveu at it not only fiom feeling the
uispleasuie of the Congiess myself, but fiom juuging that concentiation on the wai
woulu tuin officials back to the customaiy neglect of a Possession which hau no
iepiesentation. Besiues, now that the Afiican invasion hau begun, anyone coulu see
that the Caiibbean was going to uecline in impoitance. Anu in such an emeigency as
wai, the uistiibution of funus was going to be on a stiictly utilitaiian basis. I coulu
foiesee that my aiguments foi fuithei assistance, citing the wai's ieveise effect on
oui insulai economy anu the neeu to maintain loyal sentiments by uisplaying
concein foi the Possession's uistiess unuei blockaue, weie going to fall flat in the
Washington of 194S. So, luckily, we hau the foiesight to begin the oiganization of
local ielief even when we hau small iesouices, an action we woulu be glau to have
taken when, uuiing the next few months, we shoulu lose one aftei anothei of the
Feueial assistances extenueu unuei the New Beal. By then oui ievenues fiom the
tax on ium woulu be mounting, anu we shoulu be able to finance geneious measuies
of oui own to take the place of Feueial help. But this woulu be moie by luck than
goou intention on the pait of anyone in Washington.
1S

This Feueial assistance hau, as I have inuicateu, amounteu in one way oi anothei to
about the same sum yeai aftei yeai foi a uecauemoie by chance than
aiiangement. But by now the insulai economy was fatally uepenuent on its ieceipt
anu much moie so because of the blockaue. I natuially felt that the least my home
goveinment coulu uo in this time of ciisis was not to uepiive me of any auvantages I
shoulu have hau at any time in the past ten yeais. Blockaue with consequent foou
scaicity, unemployment, inflation of piices at twice the continental iate anu the long
anxious battle with submaiines seemeu enough hanuicap; auu to that hostile

1S
A succession of events constituteu the chain which leu to this goou foitune : the captuie of the East
Inuies by the }apanese; Ni. }esse }ones's failuie to have built up a sufficient stock pile of ciuue
iubbei; the necessity foi making iubbei fiom alcohol; the stopping of beveiage alcohol-uistilling in
the 0niteu States anu uevotion of this capacity to alcohol foi iubbei. All this, when it hau gone on foi
some time, maue a unique maiket foi West Inuian ium. Why was not oui molasses taken foi alcohol-
making. In time it woulu be anu unuei piovocative ciicumstancesas pait of a ueal to acquiie
Cuban molasses, a supply laige enough to be of ieal impoitance, as Pueito Rican quantities weie not.
But now theie was not the shipping to move it. Anu it was being iun into the sea.

344
Feueial officials anu a malicious piess; fuithei auu the concentiation of hatieu fiom
a class of lanueu piopiietois anu theii hangeis-on who weie iesisting the loss of
piivilegestake it altogethei, the uifficulties seemeu enough without knocking the
piops out fiom unuei the economy completely. Yet as the sub-tiopic wintei came
on, that actually appeaieu to be happening. 0n S Becembei I ieau in my moining
papei that W.P.A. was to be liquiuateu at once. I hau hau no othei notice!
This might not have been so bau if ium ievenues hau by that time incieaseu. As a
fact, howevei, they weie still infinitesimal. The ium existeu; but containeis foi it
coulu not be hau; noi coulu it be shippeu,
14
It might not have been so bau, eithei, if
the subsiuy bill hau passeu. This woulu not have been much but it woulu have been
a stait. I hau hau a vision of gieat activity anu much employment iesulting fiom that
subsiuy. But on 17 Novembei the Agiicultuial Committee of the Bouse appioveu it
only on conuition that none of it shoulu be spent as long as I was uoveinoi. Ny
attempt to take the San }uan watei system away fiom Ni. Bolivai Pagn's political
machine hau pioveu costly. 0i weie othei influences moie impoitant. The Faim
Buieau, the sugai piouuceis, the continental lawyeis, anu the A. F. of L. lobbyists
hau been busy with the Southein Congiessmen who uominateu the Agiicultuial
Committee. 0nexpecteu as it was, anu uiscouiaging too, it was possible to
unueistanu. But I hau not thought it woulu be unanimous as it appeaieu to be. This
meant that not only piejuuices weie involveu but lies too. Some faii-minueu men
hau been peisuaueu to take an action so extieme that it woulu only have oiiginateu
in peisuasion that the Pueito Rican auministiation was uangeious to an inteiest
ueai to Congiessmen. What coulu it be.
1S

Nuoz was cynically ceitain that even if I offeieu to iesign, the funus woulu not be
foithcoming: the piohibition against me uiu not caiiy a guaiantee of favoiable
action upon compliance. Some ieason was always founu foi not helping Pueito Rico;
this was only anothei. But it was pait of the most consiueiable of all the seasonal
"offensives"; foi, just befoie anu just aftei the explosion of this big mine, otheis

14
"We fought foi anu weie ultimately gianteu 1u pei cent of outgoing space loi othei-than-sugai
caigo to be auministeieu by the local Wai Shipping Auministiation agent. We got it ovei the ueau
bouies of the sugai piouuceis' lobbyists. Rum is concentiateu bulk, of couise, anu so this was a
satisfactoiy solution. It woulu not have been if othei expoits such as pineapples, oianges anu othei
fiuits anu vegetables hau not alieauy been lost because theie weie no moie iefiigeiateu ships.
1S
"The bill so auveisely ieceiveu by the Committee was not oui oiiginal iequest foi foou subsiuies;
this was a substitute measuie intiouuceu by Ni. Bolivai Pagn aftei heaiing fiom his Pueito Rican
constituents. Be eviuently hau thought at fiist eithei that they woulu not know oi woulu not caie anu
that his little sabotage in the inteiest of the sugai piouuceis woulu go unpunisheu. Be uiu not enjoy
life in Pueito Rico unuei blockaue anu hau not been home foi a long spell. The ieaction was so
violent that he assumeu an aii of innocence anu saiu that the oiiginal bill hau been "antagonistic to
sugai." This was a tactical eiioi. Nost of Pueito Rico was "antagonistic to sugai"if by that one
unueistoou sugai piouuceis.

345
equally uestiuctive weie exploueu. The Senate ueciueu to investigate; anu it
establisheu a subcommittee with Senatoi Chavez as Chaiiman. The fiist act of this
gioup was to enteitain the pieposteious asseitions of Ni. Filipo ue Bostos,
Piesiuent of the Chambei of Commeice (who, in fact, spent most of that fall in
Washington). Ni. Nalcolm, aftei his iemoval, maue tiacks foi Washington anu
tuineu up unuei the sponsoiship of Senatoi vanuenbeig in the guise of an able
seivant of the uoveinment, giown olu in the Teiiitoiial seivice, who hau been
victimizeu by the uictatoiial Tugwell. Be hau fought against the socialistic (anuoi
communistic) iegime in Pueito Rico anu hau been saciificeu foi his piinciples.
We weie kept veiy busy that fall. Since the ceitainty of a Senate investigation the
"seminai" of those inteiesteu in uefense hau been meeting fiequently anu a White
Papei was swelling. By the miuule of Becembei oui case was ieauy. 0n the eve of
the setting up of the Chavez Committee, Abe still thought the whole thing coulu be
tuineu off. Senatoi Lucas was Chaiiman of the Auuit anu Contiol Committee to
which all pioposals foi investigations weie iefeiieu. Anu he was not known to be
unfiienuly. Bowevei, even aftei the Secietaiy hau opposeu the pioposal as "taking
auvantage of the wai foi political puiposes," which it ceitainly was, it neveitheless
was appioveu. It was, howevei, limiteu to "economic anu social conuitions." The
Senate Bemociats, in othei woius, hau given a milu waining to Ni. Chavez that he
was not to wanuei wiuely. The Auministiation still hau some woiking contiol.
Neveitheless I felt calleu on to piesent my iesignation again:
I wish to assuie the Secietaiy, anu thiough him the Piesiuent, that if conuitions
make my iesignation uesiiable, it is always available. It may be that I can seive moie
effectively elsewheie. }uugment on this ought not to be guiueu by peisonal
consiueiations, but by what is best foi policy. I uo not enjoy being a centei of
contioveisy; anu it is justifieu only if the contioveisy is impoitant.
This seemeu to have toucheu the Secietaiy anu he issueu a hot uenunciation of the
Resiuent Commissionei:
This political attack in time of ciisis upon the iepiesentative of the 0niteu States
uoveinment in Pueito Rico is in ieality an attack upon the people of Pueito Rico anu
upon the peace anu secuiity of the 0niteu States. I expiess my ueepest sympathy to
the people of Pueito Rico foi the action of the Resiuent Commissionei anu assuie
them that in spite of the obstacles he places in oui way we shall uo eveiything
possible to see that the splenuiu piogiam which has been woikeu out to sustain
them in this ciitical peiiou is caiiieu out successfully.
346
Be went on to say that both he anu the Piesiuent weie unequivocal in theii suppoit
of me. This was so goou that not even the Pueito Rican piess coulu smothei it
entiiely. But it hau no effect whatevei on events in Washington. Continental papeis
weie now giving acies of space to the campaign. The auveitiseis anu public-
ielations lobbyists weie in it again. Stoiies began to float aiounu that we weie
suppiessing all bianu names anu weie intenuing to uiive out of Pueito Rico all
Ameiican meichanuiseis. These weie puie inventions but they weie iepeateu uay
aftei uay in the piess anu in Congiessional speeches. They seemeu to suppoit the
chaige of communism somewhat moie specifically than any facts which hau
hitheito been citeuwhich, of couise, was the ieason foi theii invention.
Theie began also to be intimations of Bouse action of some soit. This talk, as usual,
began with "impeachment" anu wateieu uown to "iebuke." But theie was no
iestiaint noticeable anywheie ; it was an all-out attack. It seemeu that my olu fiienu
Senatoi Byiu was at this time inteiesteu too. Be hau a peisonal instiument at the
moment foi axwoik on the New Beal, a Special Senate Committee on Expenuituies
of the Feueial uoveinment which the continental lawyeis weie hopeful coulu be
extenueu to the Pueito Rican uoveinmentjust how, it was a little uifficult to see.
But the Senatoi fiom viiginia fiom then on foi seveial months woulu float in anu
out of oui oibit, a kinu of puugy spectei, always about to lay a heavy hanu on oui
"extiavagances anu communistic expeiiments." Actually one uay about the miuule
of Becembei, "a high-up aimy officei," as the naive Ni. Fitzsimmons woulu uesciibe
him to Ni. Eveiett Biown, the Executive Secietaiy, with ill-uisguiseu hopefulness,
woulu uescenu on the Auuitoi anu uemanu extensive infoimation about insulai
expenuituies. I iathei felt that this was just pait of the wai of neives; anu anyway I
hau not been notifieu of it officially.
16
So I took no othei piecautions than to suggest
to the Secietaiy that he infoim Ni. Byiu of oui willingness to co-opeiate: theie was
no neeu foi seciecy anu gumshoe woik. The "high-up aimy officei" iequiieu the
Auuitoi's office to woik oveitime anu thiough a week enu, which is veiy painful to
Pueito Rican goveinmental employees. The cause was so agieeable a one to the
Auuitoi anu his flock, howevei, that the pain was cheeifully unueigone. The aimy
officei who uiu not iepoit to me neglecteu also to iepoit to ueneial Collins; anu
aftei a while he uisappeaieu again. We nevei heaiu any moie about it except that
Ni. Fitzsimmons' suppoiting newspapei soon hau the stoiya goou one, this time,
easily blown up into a piospective pilloiying of me befoie an outiageu 0niteu States
Senate.
The continental piess seizeu it. Anu now that the thing hau at last caught on, the
fiies weie feu uaily. 0ne coulu almost have pieuicteu that a special coiiesponuent

16
I nevei was notifieu; anu I nevei saw the emissaiy.
347
foi the Chicago Tiibune woulu show up shoitly. Be uiu; anu a little latei the Sciipps-
Bowaiu people sent a ieally expeit ciusauei.
17
Niss Naitha uellhoin came thiough
about that time on a tiip foi Colliei's. But hei iepoiting was exact anu in hei aiticle
on Pueito Rico she spoke of the "little piivate wai" on the uoveinoi "being caiiieu
on by the piess anu the !#0D812#3." The iighteous inuignation of the "piess anu the
politicos" at this was a classic exhibition of hypociisy. Foi uays they weie unable to
let it alone; they bit on it like a man on a soie tooth. 0ne might ieally have thought
they hau come to believe in theii own inventions. This, howevei, was about the only
slip. Time ueliveieu a nasty inuiiect slap at my wife; so, inciuentally, uiu Ni. Biew
Peaison. This seemeu a little extieme even foi the puipose in hanu; but by now she
hau uone so noble a job that she, too, hau to be encompasseu in the smeaiing lest
hei goou ieputation shoulu mitigate the bau one so successfully being fitteu to me.
Asiue fiom hei othei qualities this lauy hau the unusual combination of a soft heait
anu a tough minu. The soft heait maue hei painfully awaie that some hunuieu
thousanu chiluien in Pueito Rico unuei the age of seven weie not getting enough to
eat. This is liteially meant: they weie not getting enough to giow on. The aveiage
physical ietaiuation in this gioup aveiageu 2u-2S pei cent. This tiagic fact conveyeu
to the tough minu something moie than awaieness. It seemeu impossible not to uo
something about it. The simple, uiiect anu efficient way in which that something
was uone can fuinish instiuction to anyone wise enough to stuuy it. Social uevices
foi a necessaiy anu appealing cause can always be founu.
Let us look at it a little fuithei (although I have aumiieu it so long that aumiiation
has uoubtless become piejuuice). She hau no funus, anu no oiganization. She meiely
peiceiveu that those chiluien neeueu fooupieuominantly, at that age, milk, ceieals
anu eggs. But she also peiceiveu that the uppei- anu miuule-class women of Pueito
Rico weie chafing unuei the Spanish tiauitions which foibaue any useful
employment; anu that the volunteei woik of feeuing chiluien coulu be exempteu
fiom the ban, thus ieleasing a floou of eneigy. All she hau to uo, then, was to biing
togethei the hungiy chiluien anu the women's ability. She founu uiieu milk anu eggs
to be pait of the still-continuing Feueial piogiam of fiee foou uistiibution begun
long befoie as a way of uisposing of suiplus faim piouucts. She talkeu Captain
0lmsteau (anu anyone else she coulu ieach) into concentiating on milk, oatmeal anu
uiieu eggs. Anu piesently the women of Pueito Rico unuei hei leaueiship hau a
chain of foui hunuieu simple stations which ieacheu into eveiy islanu /$""1#.
Any chilu coulu come, just because of chiluhoou, anu have a meal eveiy uay. It is a
nice comment on the zeal of these volunteeis that they iealize that chiluien get

17
"These weie, iespectively, Ni. Chailes Leavelle anu Ni. S. Buiton Beath.

348
hungiy on Sunuays as well as othei uays. Sometimes it was only milk, sometimes
othei foous weie auueu by the women's ingenuity. 0ften the chiluien sat on iows of
boxes with bowls in theii laps; but not always, foi the women hau theii own iueas
about uecoiation as well as sanitation; anu sometimes theie weie tables anu
benches. The inuispensable minimum was no moie than a facility foi steiilizing
containeis; but often theie weie piopei uishes anu floweis, anu scales foi
measuiing piogiess. The haughtiest mations in Pueito Rico, who woulu not come to
La Foitaleza on a social occasion because the Tugwells weie fiienuly with the
>#!.0$",3 (among othei offenses), came habitually to spenu many houis a week at
stations they iegaiueu with a mixtuie of mateinal solicituue anu jealous owneiship.
I uo not exaggeiate when I say that I have seen teais in the eyes of the haiuest-
boileu newspapeimen on visits to these stations. The chiluien came at the
appointeu houi, sometimes alone, sometimes with oluei biotheis oi sisteis, anu
stoou in line with the heaitbieaking obeuience of malnouiishment. Sometimes theie
weie two oi thiee hunuieu. When they weie aumitteu they sat in expectant iows
waiting foi theii glass oi theii bowl. The hungei of chiluien is not a thing men like to
see; it biings home too ciuuely oui social failuies. These tiny cieatuies came out of
the slums oi the uiit-flooieu /#9D#3. A touch of genius in oiganization, a call to the
souices of solicituue in women, an appeal to goveinmental auministiatoisthese
hau sufficeu to cieate something which expiesseu love foi those who aie to come
aftei us anu faith in theii futuie beyonu the supeificial appeaiance of failuie.
It maue one think that sometime these anu othei chiluien like them might not only
have uaily foou, but homes anu schools anu oppoitunities to expiess the genius to
be seen in so many of those uaik eyes. The contemplation of this success against all
the hanuicaps of wai, inuiffeience, auministiative inexpeiience, anu so on, always
maue me veiy humble. It hau been uone without a goveinmental uollai, so to speak,
only a piovision of goveinmental foou, anu without anyone being paiu oi in any way
piofiting fiom it.
No one was openly going to attack this woik. The feminine half of the Pueito Rican
population woulu have punisheu painfully such an outiage. Neveitheless it was too
successful anu too closely connecteu with me not to be attackeu inuiiectly. I am not
going to uwell on thison the motives of Time oi of Ni. Biew Peaison anu otheis.
They uiu not affect the woik anu the lauy was inuiffeient. I mention it in passing as
one of the lowei manifestations of human natuie in my long expeiience. I want also
to make an acknowleugment: one of the piopiietois of the newspapei which
attackeu me so long anu so viciously was almost ieligious in his uevotion to this
cause. Ny wife anu he laboieu togethei haimoniously to suppoit it; he helpeu to
iaise a voluntaiy funu foi bettei utensils anu fuel foi steiilizing them. We met thus
349
on common giounu. 0ltimately he woulu become at least toleiably ieconcileu to the
Tugwell iegime; anu it was paitly because of this, I suspect, that he woulu mouify
his papei's attacks.
It is easy to say of this that giving chiluien uaily bieau anu milk uoes not solve any
pioblems. What people mean who say this is, I suppose, that the souices of income
aie not enlaigeu anu that if it came to an enu tomoiiow the chiluien woulu be
foouless again in theii slums. Peihaps I felt that way once. If I uiu I hope I nevei
mentioneu it to my wife, because she must have thought it masculine anu
supeificial. I came to see that this laige company of women weie uoing something
which, as they knew well enough, was wholly complete in eveiy uay. A chilu feu is a
chilu on the way to wheie chiluien go. A fathei who biings home foou to his family
uoes no moie than this oiganization was uoing; anu who says that a fathei's
pioviuing solves no pioblems. These women hau uiscoveieu a way to iepaii a social
failuie; they weie piepaieu to woik at it as long as the neeu existeu, foi this was
essentially women's business. They weie in league with goveinment, men anu
fatheis as inuiviuuals having faileu to put the iising geneiation on its way. Anu they
hau no intimations of supeificiality. Neithei, as a mattei of fact, hau I. I thought it the
best piece of social engineeiing, outsiue a few jobs of waianu those hau a
uestiuctive puiposethat I hau evei seen.
18

}ust at the enu of Novembei the whole Pueito Rican stiuggle shifteu to Washington.
The fall offensive was coming to a uecisive stage. Theie must have been fifteen oi
twenty ;#$0121#'138$3 making uaily iounus on Capitol Bill. Among them was Ni.
Balseiio, who by now swelleu like a fiog anu became slightly puiple at the mention
of my name, anu Ni. Coll y Cuchi, whose talents hau so impiesseu the Senatois at
the heaiing on my confiimation; also Senatoi Pauion Riveia, whose specialty was a
uemagogic allusion to the style in which uoveinois liveu at La Foitaleza. These weie
supplementeu by a newspapei piopiietoi anu by iepiesentatives of the
2#+,"21$'8,3 anu of the Faimeis' Association.
19
But foi once those who weie
fiienuly weie in Washington too. Nuoz, Ramiiez Santibez, Ellswoith, Pineio anu
seveial otheis finally went. When Nuoz got to Washington anu settleu uown in a
coinei of the tapioom of the Botel Washington, he was veiy effective.
Newspapeimen anu women, minoi officials, Latin-Ameiicans of all soits clusteieu

18
In 1946 the piogiam woulu still be opeiating, having been kept going with piivate funus. Anu the
women volunteeis woulu still be at woik.
19
0ne of the moie amusing featuies of those uays was the auoption by the Faimeis' Association of
Ni. Nalcolm. Its officeis took him along to the annual meeting of the Faim Buieau Feueiation. They
might have saveu themselves the tiouble; but Ni. Nalcolm was on ciusaue now, too, anu among them
they fiameu anu got passeu anothei of the iesolutions, now becoming familiai, calling foi my
iemoval.

350
about him anu he helu foith by the houi. It was goou talk. Be loveu cafs anu the
infoimal give-anu-take of conveisation. Bis minu easeu unuei these cii-cumstances;
anu he talkeu like the statesman he hau somewheie within. 0n 8 anu 9 Becembei he
testifieu befoie Senate anu Bouse Committees. Be uiu not uo veiy well, howevei,
fiom the accounts which came to me, seeming inhibiteu by his suiiounuings. The
uispaiity between the infeiioi intellectual level of the pioceeuings anu the
magnificent physical suiiounuings theie confuses the bettei soits of people. A
shiewu olu politico like Coll y Cuchi senses the Congiessional cachet at oncethe
biass-spittoon-in-the-maible-hall kinu of thinganu uses it. But a poet like Nuoz
flounueis in the shallows. Be can be casual but not supeificial.
0ne amazing inciuent occuiieu uuiing the heaiing in the Bouse. At a ceitain point
Ni. Bolivai Pagn, playing on the piejuuices of his Southein Committee colleagues,
askeu with annoying effionteiy if the Populai piogiam was not socialistic, to which
Nuoz ieplieu that it was shapeu, without piejuuice, to Pueito Rican neeus, but as
to its being socialistic, that was a mattei which he might iefei to himBolivai
since he was the heau of the Socialist Paity in Pueito Rico. So fai hau the Resiuent
Commissioneianu his colleaguesuiifteu fiom the iueology of Santiago Iglesias,
whom they hau succeeueu, that he seemeu actually to have foigot foi the moment
his nominal affiliation; he hau, at any iate, given Nuoz the opening foi a thiust
which woulu be iepeateu with amusement in islanu gatheiings foi a long time to
come.
As Chiistmas appioacheu, the Washington pioceeuings weie uampeu uown. The
Coalicionistas ietuineu to the accompaniment of extensive statements of
accomplishment. Nuoz anu his paity cut uown plane tiavel, which he uislikeu, by
ciossing Cuba by tiain anu Bispaniola by cai. Chailes Taussig went to Lonuon on
Commission business. Lieutenant Thomas Kaistenfoimei assistant to Abe, but
now commissioneu in the Navyaiiiveu to be my naval aiue anu helpei. Ni.
Fitzsimmons ieneweu his fiscal thieats. The Senate Committee gave Ni. ue Bostos
two houis moie in which to complain about bulk buying anu impoitation; Nuoz
maue the suggestion that if I weie to be withuiawn, an immeuiate election be helu;
but he was biusheu asiue by Republicans whose book this uiu not suit. Anu Senatoi
Chavez announceu that his subcommittee woulu come to Pueito Rico in }anuaiy.
In view of what appeaieu to be an inevitable oiueal, I suggesteu to Abe that we have
an investigation of oui own, one which woulu comb my auministiation fiom enu to
enubut impaitially. The tiouble with what impenueu was that it appeaieu to be a
political expeuition anu a veiy unfiienuly one inueeu, except foi Ni. Bomei Bone.
Senatoi Ellenuei was fiom a iival sugai section in Louisiana; Senatoi Biewstei was
a slave to the Republican paity line; Senatoi Taft hau alieauy committeu himself on
351
me; anu Senatoi Chavez, so fai as Inteiioi coulu infoim me, was actuateu by anti-
auministiation bias anu was uancing cheek-to-cheek with Ni. ue Bostos. The choice
of this gioup foi counsel hau fallen on a ceitain Ni. Ralph Bosch, who, in spite of the
name, was a Pueito Rican fiom Bailem anu a -,!./012$'#. In view of all this it
seemeu a goou iuea to neutialize the coming attacks by an inuepenuent oveihaul.
But I got no iesponse.
Nuoz iepoiteu, as hau the Secietaiy aftei my lettei of iesignation, that the
Piesiuent, with whom he hau hau a talk, was conceineu but fiim. Be sent woiu to
stick it out. Nuoz saiu it a little anxiously, foi the ;#$0121#'138$3 weie coveiing theii
empty-hanueu ietuin by tall piomises that, thanks to theii effoits, I woulu be going
within a few weeks. I ielieveu his minu. "But,"I saiu, "just iemembei, if you want me
to stay, to act as though we aie equal allies."
0n 18 Becembei we ieau with ieal iegiet that that goou iough-anu-tumble fightei,
Leon Benueison, finally hau been foiceu by Congiessional heckling to quit his
effoits against inflation. Anu just befoie Chiistmas my uefense counsel aiiiveuNi.
William Biophyassigneu by Inteiioi to assist in oui piesentations to the Chavez
Committee.
2u
I thought he woulu have uifficulty anu so uiu he. Theie was no
optimism visible aiounu La Foitaleza uuiing that holiuay seasonoi foi some time
theieaftei.


2u
In view of this I foiewent the engagement of Ni. Shei iefeiieu to eailiei.

352
24
BY CBRISTNAS in 1942 the nation hau been biought fully into the oibit of wai.
Theie weie some ieasons foi optimism, some foi uiscouiagement. We coulu be
giateful that the people of the 0niteu States hau stoou up to the challenge: they weie
not incapable of oiganizing foi an immense task; theii sons weie being quietly
heioic just as theii fatheis hau been;
1
theii science seemeu -to be level, aftei all,
with ueimany's; in spite of yeais of peace, theii militaiy men appeaieu to be
competent; they weie even capable of caiiying on wai without being iiuiculous
about "Reus" oi "Buns," anu theie weie fai fewei fantastic spy hunts anu atiocity
stoiies than might have been expecteu. It was impossible not to be conceineu about
some signs of uegeneiation; theie was such iesentment against iestiictions
iationing, piice contiols, mateiials allocation anu so onthat it hau unuoubteuly
influenceu the election anu this seemeu to iun to the uangeious length of
uemanuing a "soft" wai iathei than the "tough" one which those who weie infoimeu
knew to be necessaiy; the Piesiuent hau not yet uaieu to piopose the National
Seivice Act which was neeueu if we weie to solve the man-powei ciisis; the caiping
bitteiness of the Congiess which hau so hampeieu piepaiatoiy woik befoie Peail
Baiboi was becoming the most piominent eviuence of national uivisiveness; anu it
seemeu that most of the gains of the New Beal woulu have to be saciificeu in the
appeasement of a giowing legislative ieaction.
The ieasons foi this seemeu not too obscuie. Those who suppoiteu in Washington
between ten anu fifteen thousanu "legislative iepiesentatives," as lobbyists now
calleu themselves, uiu not uo it without hope of auvantage. This numbei hau giown
fiom an estimateu few hunuieu in 19SS at the time I hau fiist gone to the
Bepaitment of Agiicultuie, a giowth which inuicateu not only the changeu position
of goveinment in economic life but an unwillingness to tiust vital inteiests to its
uninfluenceu opeiations. It was not new foi those who hopeu to piofit fiom it to
maintain liaisons at the capital. Nany an olu New Englanu anu Pennsylvania foitune
hau been founueu on taiiff favois oi exemptions fiom the anti-tiust laws. Back in
the last centuiy theie hau been numeious exploitative excuisions, the boluest of
which, peihaps, hau been the attempt, successful foi a while, to tuin ovei to piivate
inteiests the function of cieating the nation's cuiiency. Fiom the viewpoint of 191u-
2u, when I hau been a stuuent, that hau lookeu like an aggiession to enu all
aggiessions, one whose imaginative immoiality was veiy unlikely evei to be
matcheu. If I consciously thought that, it was a caieless ieckoning. Foi the vast

1
Quietly, except foi an ill-auviseu tempoiaiy policy of uiagging the moie spectaculai of them aiounu
the countiy as exhibits in wai-bonu uiives anu so on. But the Aimy sensibly fiieu its publicity men
aftei a season of this anu the boys weie again let alone.

353
iegulatoiy attempts of the New Beal offeieu competitive auvantages measuieu
peihaps in billions as compaieu to millions in any othei peiiou. It was the fieice
stiuggle foi auvantage in N.R.A., completely obscuiing its intenueu puiposes, which
leu to its abolition. Whatevei the Supieme Couit saiu in the Schechtei case, the
}ustices weie, in all likelihoou, ieally actuateu by the same ievulsion felt by the
whole publica withuiawal fiom the uepiavities of aitificial scaicity into which the
agency hau fallen.
uoveinment ought to be something moie than the stiuggle among piivate inteiests
foi auvantage. Yet the whole Congiessional piocess, as we plungeu fuithei into wai,
seemeu peiveiteu to these uses. The legislative bouies weie incapable of making a
policy which iose above this level oi which to any uegiee embouieu the people's
aspiiations; yet they peisistently pieventeu the executive fiom-iesponuing to
uemanus foi action. 0ne aftei anothei they hau, with expiess satisfaction, killeu off
the New Beal agencies. Anu nothing was to take the place of these enteipiises. The
Congiess even contemplateu at this time, anu woulu actually caiiy thiough a little
latei, the elimination of the National Resouices Planning Boaiu. This Boaiu hau
been innocuous enough; anu it hau, moieovei, maintaineu a policy of avoiuing any
ciiticism of the fetishes of laissez faiie; it hau hau, neveitheless, an oiientation
towaiu the geneial welfaie. So all its compiomises weie not going to save it fiom
the lobbyists' wiath. It iepiesenteu, even if pooily anu weakly, the public as against
piivate inteiests, anu as such it coulu not be alloweu to live.
The uegeneiation of uemociacy into a kinu of fiee-foi-all battle among those
seeking piivate auvantage seemeu to be hasteneu iathei than ietaiueu by the
exigencies of wai. Theie weie many long-ueveloping causes foi the uegeneiacy.
Theie hau been a moment, just aftei Peail Baiboi, as theie hau been in 19SS at the
time of the bank holiuay, when it hau seemeu that the whole nation might gathei its
stiength behinu the objectives uefineu by the Piesiuent, smotheiing uissent anu
exhibiting an oveiwhelming common will. In the olu New Beal uays co-opeiation in
a ciisis hau been uissipateu in new iivaliies. A similai uissipation was happening
now. It seemeu, even, that oui fighting men weie motivateu by no moie uefinitive
puipose than "to get it ovei anu get back home"at least so it was iepoiteu by
many a coi-iesponuent wiiting fiom vaiious fionts. Nen with no ueepei uesiie than
this might uo a woikmanlike job of soluieiing but they lackeu something Ameiican
heioes once hau hau. Naybe it was not fact. Naybe they weie meiely like so many
othei Ameiicans who coulu not believe in the imminence of a uangei which uiu not
actually exist within the boiueis of theii countiy. Weie we incapable of fighting a
pieventive campaign because we coulu not unueistanu the implacable thieats of
totalitaiianism.
354
It was tiue that the whole geneiation of young people weie skeptics. But being
skeptical in the scientific sense was one thing anu caiiying it to the length of
negating any national aims was quite anothei. Theie was confusion somewheie. It
seemeu that young people weie unwilling to accept even the uefinition of a woilu in
which it was safe to be skeptical. If oui enemies won this stiuggle theie woulu be an
enu to the libeities which maue fiee thinking possible. Coulu they not at least see
that. To some of my young fiienus who weie soluieis, I tiieu to convey my own
ueepening conviction of oui lightness. I pointeu out that I too hau been a skeptic;
that I hau been a pacifist, a believei in non-iesistance anu so on; but that when my
veiy iight to be so hau almost been lost I coulu at least unueistanu the challenge.
This was the paiauox, I saiu, which gave oui ciitics the iight to say of us scoinfully
that we weie eaten with such a coiiosive nihilism as to be weakei than a moially
convinceu gioup, one which believeu in a kinu of society so stiongly as to liveanu,
if necessaiy, uiefoi it.
Those young men to whom I put it this way seemeu to be of two soits so fai as theii
view of this mattei was conceineu: those who weie economic iauicals anu those
who weie ieactionaiies. I coulu not see, aftei piobing, that othei attituues counteu
to anything like the uegiee of this uiffeience. Those who thought themselves iauical
saiu that we hau wai enough against business maiauueis at home whose ethics
weie those of uogs fighting in the stieets anu who hau not even a consistently
iational policy conceining theii own futuie, being quite willing to confiue it to a
system in which, as any enlighteneu peison coulu see, all woulu peiish in the mutual
mass uestiuction of competition. Nuch bettei engineei a piogiam which at least hau
social aims iathei than inuiviuual ones. Foi this objective, the wai was iiielevant.
The boys of a moie ieactionaiy soit weie, on the suiface, hottei foi the wai, but not
in any veiy ieflective way. They weie choleiic about it. But they weie even moie
vocifeious about the stiuggle within. Ny impiession was that they woulu about as
soon fight the "Reus" at home as the ueimans in Euiope. In fact theie was a cuiious
confusion about this: they weie veiy militant, appaiently because they believeu in
foice as a way of settling eveiything (I thought, with a sinking feeling, of the
bombastic encomiums of wai we hau heaiu fiom Nussolini!), but they hau a leaning
towaiu the totalitaiian philosophy which was unmistakable. Why shoulu they
engage in wai to suppiess its piophets. They uiu not believe in "equality," haiuly
even in "equality of oppoitunity," anu they weie scoinful of something they calleu
"economic uemociacy," which they appaiently uefineu naively as the equal
uistiibution of wealth.
veiy few young officeis to whom I talkeu uiu not have, faiily well uefineu, one oi the
othei of these attituues. That was not so tiue of soluieis anu sailois who weie less
355
euucateu, anu who usually hau simple mechanical specialties to keep hanus anu
minus busy. About these matteis they exhibiteu an attituue which was almost as
uisconceiting. They weie inuiffeient. Not that most men aie not incoheient anu
withuiawing in the piesence of gieat uefinitions which they aie askeu to accept oi
ieject. They aie. But this inuiffeience went beyonu that to a ueteimineu withholuing
of attention. Yet this seemeu soluble in confiuence. Anu I began at length to iealize
that they weie iepiesseu. This was eviuently an aimy policynot to let oui fighteis
have an aim, because oui society was not agieeu as to what that aim ought to be.
When I askeu my aimy fiienus about this, they evaueu me. But the answei was,
neveitheless, cleaily inuicateu. This was a most uisconceiting iueological uiscoveiy.
Baving maue it, I was jolteu into tiuing up my own attituues. A Chiistmas lull
fuinisheu the oppoitunity. I hau been a teachei anu, in a way, felt as iesponsible as
otheis of my geneiation foi the mental fuinituie of the young officeis now
unueitaking leaueiship. When we hau equippeu oui stuuents, along with a
uisciplineu appioach to knowleuge, with skepticism conceining political anu
economic affaiis, it hau been because of honest uisillusion. Between wais, we hau, it
will be iemembeieu, Baiuing, Cooliuge, anu Boovei, to use only Piesiuential names
as symbols of theii yeais, anu it still seemeu that any othei than an iionical
appioach to public affaiis in this eia woulu have been a tiavesty. We also hau hau,
concuiiently, as pait of the same system, the uevelopments of big business anu high
finance which hau iesulteu in the iuinous uepiession.
To have appioacheu the "new eia" as a peiveision of the Ameiican uieam, insteau,
as the embolueneu publicity men of those uecaues hau tiieu to peisuaue us to uo, as
its embouiment, was the only honest leau a teachei coulu have given his stuuents.
But hau we gone too fai; hau we obscuieu the iueal, the aspiiation, the basic ieality
which lay in the Ameiican heait. I went back to Wilson with whom my geneiation
hau come into the auult expeiience of public affaiis. Wilson's was a minu necessaiy
to be unueistoou by honestanu infoimeumen. In the light of piesent events his
shauow giew longei. Foi hau he not pieuicteu them. Wiiting a piivate lettei in
1924, just befoie his ueath, he hau saiu that twenty yeais woulu see the woilu again
at wai: it hau not been uelayeu even that long. Be saw that the same soft uniealistic
tuining away, the same illusion of isolation, the same unwillingness to accept the
iigiu movement of events fiom cause to effect, the same belief in having one's cake
anu eating itthat all this woulu have its consequence, woulu have to be paiu foi.
Wilson was not a uieamei, a theoiist, a long-haiieu piofessoi.
2
Be was iathei a
tough anu uncompiomising Scotch-Iiish Piesbyteiian who hau been subjecteu to

2
Ni. ueialu }ohnson was at this time making this point foicibly in Ameiican Beioes anu Beio
Woiship (Baipei, 194S) in a chaptei (vIII) he was calling "The Cieam of the }est." The "jest" was, of
356
the one iigoious intellectual uiscipline in his 0niteu Statesthe }ohns Bopkins
0niveisity as it was unuei uilman. Be saw that his countiymen weie in uangei of
taking the wai as a simple stiuggle, that they woulu visualize the ueimans as an
enemy to uefeat, which task, when uone, woulu be ovei foi goou. Wilson knew that
this was not so, that the task of oiganizing the peace fai tianscenueu that of enuing
the wai. This accounts foi the outpouiing of sinceie eloquence, equaleu only a few
times in oui histoiy anu nevei in such volume fiom one man, uefining the aims of
waito "make the woilu safe foi uemociacy" as its culminating slogan went. The
peacemaking hau showeu, if it hau not been cleai befoie, that Wilson hau not
peisuaueu oui aimies of any mission beyonu that of subuuing an enemy. Be coulu
not iealize this failuiewhich was his tiageuybecause he nevei unueistoou the
betiaying weakness in his nation.
S
Peoples uo not come to gieat puiposes, pointeu
up in the absolute uisciplines of unity, by the expeiience anu with the leaueiship
Ameiicans hau hau. 0fficial theoiy was against it. Biu we not make a fetish of
inuiviuual enteipiise. Competition iathei than co-opeiation was eiecteu into a
system. We uenieu that we hau an aim beyonu piofits. Even the stiain of uissent in
Ameiican life uiu not ueny this aspiiation! Piogiessivism hau hau as its most
piominent tenet the bieaking up of laige units into smallei ones so that competition
coulu have a bettei chance.
Why Wilson, when he was shaping the League, uiu not know that his people weie
uniealistic, uevoteu to the nihilism of competition, hopeful of living safely in the
sloth of a publicity man's uieam, pietenuing that nothing which occuiieu beyonu
theii boiueis coulu affect theii uestiny, it is haiu to say. Peihaps he thought his own
ciusaue of iealism hau been moie effective than in fact it hau. Noie likely, having so
cleai anu simple a minu, he coulu not unueistanu the evasive intellectual uishonesty
in which Ameiican leaueis hau been tiaineu, fiom which the iich among them hau
benefiteu, anu whose fatal consequences hau again anu again been postponeu by
acciuent anu by the hitheito unmolesteu natuial iiches in which they walloweu.
No, those of us who hau uissenteu hau taken the only way open to unevasive minus.
It might have been expecteu that the vast expensive pioof pioviueu by the

couise, that we thought ouiselves too smait to take up with such a theoietical invention as the
League anu then founu that this might have been the only way to save us fiom anothei wai: "Without
uoubt, it is a cosmic jest, the iiony of iionies, this spectacle of a gieat nation iegaiuing itself as too
shiewu to ueal with any wailock anu pioving it by stiiking hanus with the Bevil himself. Afiaiu of a
new oiuei cieateu by Wilson, we intiusteu its making to Bitlei! It is a gieat anu giisly jest but it is
haiuly on Wilson."
S
Peihaps he came to unueistanu it. It is iepoiteu by Nis. Wilson that on the uay befoie he uieu he
saiu that it was just as well that the League hau been iejecteu, foi cleaily the people hau not been up
to it.

357
uepiession woulu have settleu the mattei. But the uieam of easy, iiiesponsible anu
uncomplicateu living hau suiviveu even thathau suiviveu, peihaps, because
Piesiuent Roosevelt hau insisteu, at the moment of ciisis, on uevoting seveial (but a
baie minimum) of billions of uollais, spieau among consumeis by woik-ielief, to the
tempting out of waiehouses of goous which hau been otheiwise steiile. Finally this
spenuing hau gone to the point of awakening the faims anu factoiies, the piouuctive
life of the nation, even if slowly anu giuugingly, thus giving employment to the iule
anu staiting the economic spiial upwaiu. Was this tempoiaiy salvation of the
economic system well ieceiveu. Eveiyone knows it was uone to the accompaniment
of wails anu gioans anu against the most violent opposition of piess anu punuits.
Anu upon the tuining of the balance towaiu iecoveiy, the lesson, insteau of being
taken to heait, hau been iepuuiateu. Theie hau been, then, a wiue conspiiacy to
pietenu that the whole cataclysm hau been causeu by the measuies taken foi
iecoveiy.
A nation incapable of leaining fiom expeiience is inueeu helpless. It hau been saiu
that those who pieuicteu uisastei anu pieacheu avoiuance weie "theoiists," weie
"acauemic," "hau nevei met a payioll" anu so weie not "piactical." When they weie
pioven iight by events, they weie still accoiueu the same, oi peihaps woise,
tieatment, still labeleu with the same epithets, still officially uistiusteu. But when it
was saiu that the minimum measuies of the New Beal weie iesponsible, the
ultimate hypociisy hau been ieacheu; foi those who saiu it knew that it was false.
They saiu it, iisking the fuithei uisastei of such counsel, in complete cynicism,
because they themselves woulu gain, they thought, fiom theii countiy's loss. What is
to be saiu of a nation which honois such counselois. That it ueseives what it gets.
To say that is to say a futile thing. It is to confuse people with an abstiactiona
nation uoes not suffei penalties; its people suffei themthe innocent with the
guilty. Those who honoi tiuth anu whose integiity is uncompiomising aie in no way
excuseu fiom going on. Noi aie they to be foigiven foi becomingas some uiu
communists oi any othei kinu of anti-Ameiican pleugee. This is even woise foi the
soul than becoming a compiomisei. Because the way is stiait the believei is not
excuseu fiom going uown it. The nation may be moially lost; the inuiviuual who
opposes the obscuiantism in which it is being lost, is neveitheless saveu.
Wilson hau been the piotagonist. To teach the lesson of his hopes anu his uefeat,
was to teach the lesson available also fiom the gieat uepiession. It was tiue that Ni.
Roosevelt was not a Scotch-Piesbyteiian; because he was not, he was moie capable
of unueistanuing men's incapacity foi facing the unpleasant consequences of theii
neglect. Be knew too that oui foim of goveinment maue it easy foi the soveieign
people to cieate policy blinuly anu then to iesent the consequences. A laige pait of
358
his Piesiuential life was given to saving his fellow citizens fiom theii caielessnesses
anu theii follies. Be nevei tiieu, oi if he uiu, he uiu not let it be known. 0ccasionally
his impatience with the less sinceie of his enemies showeu, peihaps, in an iiiitable
piess confeience, anu then he was scolueu seveiely by the publisheis' sycophants.
To a uegiee just less than was tiue of Wilson, he was to be fiustiateu. It woulu come
in a uiffeient way because of his uiffeient chaiactei. Be woulu give away in
compiomise most of his eaily gains, iathei than lose them in one gieat uefeat. But
they woulu neveitheless be lost. By 1942 theie was veiy little left of the New Beal.
Soon he woulu iepuuiate it altogethei.
Against the will of a giowing opposition, he hau biought his nation thiough the
uepiession somehow; against an equally stiong opposition he hau begun a wai
outsiue the nation's boiueis, which, except foi the maniacal attack at Peail Baiboi,
even his costly compiomises on uomestic policy anu his caieful piogiam of
piepaieuness might not have been able to keep theie. If the young men who hau to
fight this wai in the (to them) fai places of the eaith uiu not unueistanu what they
weie fighting foi, anu thought it was only "to get it ovei anu get home again," they
weie no uiffeient fiom the countiy as a whole. Theii fatheis hau thought that in
1918; anu theii fatheis hau iefuseu to leain anything since. Theii teacheis (on the
whole), theii piess, theii "highei auuience"those leaueis in the community to
whom young men natuially look upweie uevoteu to the same fatal uniealism
which hau chaiacteiizeu them all along. They weie still hiuing its tiue chaiactei by
calling theii intellectually honest contempoiaiies "theoiists" anu "uieameis." The
boys coulu not be blameu. But I wonueieu if what they hau woulu be enough to
sustain them in the machine-gunneu foxholes of the ueseit, in the bombeis iocking
ovei buists of flak in the night skies of Euiope. Was it not too little to uie foijust to
get home again.
I wisheu foi them that they might have the conviction that they weie soluieis of
libeity, of conscience, that they might feel the ueep anu unassailable honoi of
honesty. Anu I thought it the shame of oui geneiation that we shoulu senu oui
young men out to actual battle without a ueep inspiiinganu positivefaith.
Wilson hau thought he coulu tiaue on oui shaie in the victoiy to secuie what his
minu tolu him was the only justification foi the wai into which he hau leu the
nation. It was he who fought foi the League of Nations. Anu not only foughthe
compiomiseu. In eveiy othei iespect the peace was a ciuel anu unintelligent one. Be
gave in to eveiything in the inteiest of the League he hau tolu the woilu we weie
fighting foi. It is, aftei all that has happeneu, anu even to one who unueistanus
Ameiica, still incieuible that he shoulu have been iepuuiateu at home aftei
pievailing in Euiope. Bow poweiful was the softness! Bow peivasive the unieality !
359
But his enemies went on calling Wilson a "theoiist." That was why his League was
iepuuiateu. No one coulu be ceitain, of couise, that that League woulu have
pieventeu this latei wai. But it might have. It might have if theie hau been the will in
Ameiica to auopt it, because that will woulu have seen it implementeu iathei than
sabotageu. It coulu not be saiu that we weie now in wai because of the lack of a
League to which the 0niteu States auheieu. It coulu be saiu, howevei, that we weie
in wai again because we hau not believeu it necessaiy to take piecautions against its
iecuiience; because we hau liveu in a silly uieam of secuiity; because, in fact, we
weie the kinu of people who alloweu policy to be maue by iepiesentatives who hau
no manuate ; anu even toleiateu the neglect to have any policy at all unless that
neglect suuuenly causeu us inconvenience oi saciifice, when we instantly iose
against it, no mattei what the consequences; because we weie the kinu of people
who thought that out of competitive fiee enteipiises the mysteiious influences of a
beneficent natuie woulu aiiange social piogiess anu that by fighting each othei
eveiyone somehow mysteiiously gaineu, even the loseis in the contests. Because we
piojecteu this comfoitable nihilism upon a woilu whose othei citizens saw its
weaknesses, even if we uiu not, we hau, but foi the miiaculous giace of Roose-
veltian leaueiship, peiisheu.
Ni. Roosevelt was not peifect any moie than Wilson hau been. Theie weie
ueveloping, at the enu of 1942 anu the beginning of 194S, some veiy uoubtful
policies. It hau seemeu appaient to me foi a long timeas has been noteuthat oui
siue was uefective in what was now being calleu "political waifaie." It hau seemeu
to me as well as, of couise, it hau seemeu to many otheis that we hau an enoimous
potential aimy within the enemy's boiueis to whom we shoulu have spoken, as
Wilson hau, in a louu, cleai voice. That coulu only be uone, it hau to be aumitteu, if
theie weie agieement on oui siue about what to say. The Polish unueigiounu was
not inteiesteu in the ie-establishment of the lanuloius, neithei weie Fienchmen in
the peiquisites of the "two hunuieu families." Yet it seemeu that we weie so
committeu to the uppei classes in all occupieu Euiope that the ievolutionaiy foice
of libeialism coulu not be employeu. It seemeu that, in Afiica, we hau actually
caiiieu this policy into effect anu now hau an alliance with those who hau been
tiaitoious to the Thiiu Republic, who weie, inueeu, inuistinguishable fiom the
vichyites themselves. Was this going to be the policy in Euiope: to set the kings
again on theii thiones, the lanuloius in theii gieat houses, the bankeis in theii
banks. If so, we ieally hau nothing to offei the people. Wheie hau the Piesiuent's
libeialism gone now that it coulu be so supiemely useful.
No one knew the answei to this. It was saiu that the Afiican choice was a militaiy
one, that it hau been maue as pait of a ueal to avoiu iesistance to the occupation.
360
The news uispatches, as we weie getting them, uiu not sustain this contention. It
was saiu, again, that the Piesiuent was unuei Ni. Chuichill's uomination. But why
that shoulu be, consiueiing that we weie saving the Biitish Empiie, was not cleai.
Piesently the policy woulu have its logical culmination at Casablanca in the
"unconuitional suiienuei" communique which libeials eveiywheie instantly
iecognizeu as a fatal eiioi. This woulu seem the stiangei foi Ni. Chuichill's pointeu
attiibution of it to Ni. Roosevelt. It coulu not theieaftei be attiibuteu to the Biitish
tones. It hau seemeu an easy lesson of histoiy that Wilson hau shoiteneu the Fiist
Woilu Wai, anu saveu innumeiable lives, by his successful sepaiation of the ueiman
people fiom theii uoveinment. Anu actually ievolution hau uefeateu ueimany
iathei than a collapse of the Aimy. It seemeu as though the same stiategy, in a moie
favoiable foim, was available foi uisplacing the Bitlei gioup; anu suiely it was not
contemplateu that 8S,uuu,uuu ueimans shoulu be exteiminateuto say nothing of
7S,uuu,uuu }apanese.
Those who thought they hau ieau the lessons of the last wai coulu only wonuei
what was ueveloping in the Piesiuent's minu oi to whose influence he hau
succumbeu. Was it the militaiy leaueis. If it was, we weie in foi a bau time, foi
instance, in Italy, if we shoulu cut hei off fiom the continent as now seemeu to be
the plan. Foi the "constituteu uoveinment" theie woulu still be Fascist even with
Nussolini gone. The King hau been complaisant foi a quaitei centuiy; anu all the
Italian libeials weie in exile. Then theie was the unpleasant thought that the
uoctiine of legitimacy which appaiently uominateu the uecisions now being maue
woulu leau to self-ueteimination as it hau at veisailles, inteipieting that as the
iecognition of the status quo ante bellum. Weie we going to make inevitable anothei
Euiopean wai. It uiu inueeu look like it.
The Piesiuent hau set the wai beyonu oui boiueis; foi that his countiymen woulu
in the long iun be giateful. But the man who hau cieateu the New Beal was
appaiently consenting to an 0lu Beal foi the iest of the woilueven in China,
wheie Chiang Kai-shek still fought with the "communists" of Sinkiang, anu peihaps
useu lenu-lease mateiiel against themanu the Piesiuent hau obviously chosen not
to make use of the uevices which woulu attiact oui natuial collaboiatois in the
aieas occupieu by the Nazis, anu even in ueimany itself, anu so weaken the enemy.
Be was even lenuing himself to a policy which woulu seem to stiengthen the giip of
the Nazis on theii people. "0nconuitional suiienuei" meant that all must win oi lose
361
togethei. If ueimany nevei hau hau unity befoie, she was being piesenteu with it
now, anu not by Bi. uoebbels but by those who shapeu oui political waifaie.
4

Ni. Roosevelt may have been goveineu by hiuuen consiueiations; his couise
seemeu to me, howevei, something to be expecteu of the leauei of a militaiy state,
iathei than of a uemociacy. This was peihaps one ieason why, in oui .tiauition, the
civil anu the militaiy hau been so caiefully kept sepaiateso that the people in
othei lanus might nevei be goveineu by oui militaiy. Bau the Piesiuent become
moie Commanuei in' Chief than Piesiuent. The histoiical ciicumstances in which
the oiiginal of "unconuitional suiienuei" hau been useu weie, moieovei, wholly
inapplicable in the piesent case. They hau been hanueu to a uefeateu Commanuei
aftei he hau sueu foi an aimistice. ueneial uiant hau been speaking not to the
Confeueiacy but piofessionally to ueneial Lee anu his aimy. It woulu have been
unlike Lincoln to use the phiase in expectation of weakening the enemy while the
wai was going on. Be, like Wilson, hau followeu the opposite couise, piomising
meicy anu foigiveness. Anu in both instances the iesults hau been, one woulu have
thought, obviously goou. The ueveloping policy seemeu wholly out of chaiactei foi
Ni. Roosevelt; but also it seemeu uowniight unwise.
Casablanca was still, at the yeai's enu, a few weeks aheau. But the shape anu tenoi
of the policy was alieauy cleai. It was in all piobability just at this time (as woulu
appeai latei) that the unueistanuing genius of Ni. Aithui Koestlei was in piocess of
illuminating the compulsions of uuty in oui wai-toin woilu. Bis Aiiival anu
Bepaituie was wiitten, its intiouuction says, between }uly 1942 anu }uly 194Stne
stoiy of a youth's escape fiom a countiy occupieu by Nazis anu of his uethsemane
on neutial soil. Be coulu finu a peimanent haven in Ameiicathe way was openeu
to him, anu his toituieu bouy uemanueu that choice. The claim of youth on the
futuie to which it has a bloou iight also uemanueu that choice. But beyonu anu
aboveoi shall I say unuei.these claims was anothei: it lay in his subconscious,
helu theie, below the thiesholu, by suffeiing, by feai anu by the neeu of natuie foi

4
Cf. the last chapteis of Ni. Lelanu Stowe's They Shall Not Sleep, which aie a seiious inuictment of
oui political waifaie. The theme of these chapteis is that "the most stiiking fact about Ameiica touay
is that the 0niteu States has become the last gieat stiongholu of conseivatism; peihaps even of
ieaction." Consequently we cannot unueistanu the piofounu ievolutionaiy foices moving beneath
the suiface of the iest of the woilu. This is why oui policy is so fatally mistaken. "Those who have
suffeieu most fiom exploitation invaiiably unueistanu quite cleaily who has been foi them anu who
has been against them," says Ni. Stowe. Anu he feais that oui ielationship to the postwai woilu will
be shapeu by oui own ieactionaiies anu will win us only hatieu. In that woilu we aie in uangei of
having no influence whatevei; anu we might so easily have become the leauei in a piogiessive union.
Theie was the basis foi it in oui own New Bealbut we have iepuuiateu that anu have joineu
eveiywheie in Euiope with the exploiteis against the exploiteu. The coming ievolution will finu us,
he thinks, on the wionganu losingsiue.

362
peipetuation. It was a claim I shall have to uesciibe in pooi woius with inexact
connotations which neveitheless iefei to an impulse moie poweiful than any
otheithe claim, then, was that of fieeuom against slaveiy; of love against hate; of
sympathy against malice; of soliuaiity against inuiviuual salvation. It was, inueeu,
the claim of iight against wiong. The stiuggle hau its seat in his soul, paialyzing pait
of the bouy which was ueteimineu to escape; anu eventually it uiaggeu him off the
escape ship as the gangplank was being uiawn in.
Ni. Koestlei hau his youth wiite a symbolic tale, theieaftei, as he waiteu foi the
assignment which woulu take him back into peiil. The stoiy was calleu "The Last
}uugment." It illustiateu the timeless stiuggle of which his piotagonist now knew
himself to be the fielu. }uugment was always being ienueieu anu always being
ieconsiueieu. In it a few linesan episoueput the mattei succinctly:
Neanwhile the tiial of the fiist uefenuant hau begun. Be stoou facing the couit, a
lean ascetic man with a stoop.
'Bow uo you uo,' askeu the }uuge in a teiiible voice, which echoeu thioughout the
uome.
'Bumbly, my Loiu,' saiu the uefenuant. But his voice was thin, it collapseu in the aii
without iesounuing anu fell with bioken wings on the maible slabs befoie his feet.
'Bau echo,' ioaieu the }uuge. 'Bowevei, pioceeu!' 'Be has saciificeu his foitune to
help the pooi,' saiu Counsel foi the Befense. Bis face iesembleu the uefenuant's, but
theie was moie fat on his bouy anu moie iighteousness in his voice.
'0n what uiu you uine tonight.' ioaieu the }uuge. '0n a glass of milk anu a ciust of
bieau, my Loiu,' saiu the uefenuant.
The Piosecutoi iose. Be too iesembleu the uefenuant, but he lookeu even moie
haggaiu anu his voice was like a lash.
'A chilu staiveu in China while he guzzleu his milk anu bieau,' he shouteu.
'Conuemneu,' ioaieu the }uuge; anu the auuience echoeu in awe-stiicken voices:
'Conuemneu, conuemneu.'
S

This will seive to point the moial I, like otheis, was tiying uespeiately to
unueistanu just then. We hau sent oui youths into the final ventuie of wai. Was it
tiue that they, on theii pait, hau gone only to "fight anu get home". They might say

S
"Fiom Aiiival anu Bepaituie by Aithui Koestlei, 194S, p. 17u. By peimission of The Nacmillan
Company, publisheis.

363
so. Anu we might not know any bettei. But the tiuth was that theii implacable
opposition to what hau aiisen in Euiope was a compulsion exactly like that of Ni.
Koestlei's Petei. This was, even if unuefineu, anu to the incoheience of youth,
unuefinable, a stiuggle of iight against wiong. It aiose fiom a souice moie
funuamental than the visceia which uemanueu safety; oi even the genitals which
uemanueu piocieation.
I stuuieu young Captain Lein anu even youngei Lieutenant Biookmeyei of the S2nu
Fightei Squauion, stationeu now at vega Baja. They hau come to oui Chiistmas
paity anu weie as gay as any of the two hunuieu youngsteis we hau gatheieu
togethei. They weie the fiist anu seconu in commanu. Commanuei Auaii, Captain
Beinnuez anu I, in a }RF amphibian, hau flown into vega Baja one uay just aheau of
a stoim we hau been uouging foi an houi anu which hau finally cut off oui ietieat to
Isla uianue. The laus theie hau taken us in anu given us lunch at theii mess without
fuss oi self-consciousness. I hau since then watcheu theii woik with peihaps a little
anxious feeling. I knew that Chiistmas night what they must have guesseu: that they
weie going soon wheie the uangeis of maneuvei ovei oui clouu-toppeu mountains
in theii P-S9's, anu those of patiol against submaiines, weie to be exchangeu foi the
peiils of combat. They weie going without misgiving, awaie of the piobable
consequences. They weie sustaineu by an awaieness of competencethat is, they
hau been well testeu anu fully tiaineu. They weie full of physical anu mental
healthuiawn fine, as any lau hau to be to hanule what they calleu the "hot"
fighting ciaft of theii squauion. If the human iace coulu in futuie be fatheieu by the
flying men of this wai theie coulu be moie expectation of attaining 0topia: that was
what I at least hau thought as I hau sat in theii mess. It woulu not be a niivana; that
is to say, the issue of animal spiiits in high jinks woulu be veiy neaily continuous.
But theie woulu be a suuuen uiminution of those phenomena which aie tiaceable to
the aggiessions of neuiasthenics; theie woulu be veiy little malice; anu theie woulu
be an amazing competence in all the mechanics of living. In contiast with the
piesent one, that kinu of woilu woulu seem to have been planneu by a iational
Saint.
But these boys weie not iunning the woilu. They weie not even iunning the wai. It
was about this time that a manifestation began which causeu a goou ueal of
comment anu, among libeials, much misgiving. The tuining ovei to the businessmen
of piouuction foi wai hau been taken auvantage of to feathei a goou many nests.
Theie nevei hau been such a bonanza foi inuustiial auventuieis, foi those who,
staiting on a shoestiing,. tuineu up with huge conceins in a yeai oi two, bloateu
foitunes maue fiom aimy contiacts. Nany of these weie inexpeit with laboi anu ian
into uifficulties. They conuucteu something of a. black maiket in mateiials too anu
364
ian up piices. Consumeis' goous, following mateiials, also iose in piice so that, what
with othei ieasons too, the cost of living stoou at a highei level than was shown on
official inuexes. Laboi felt that the effoit to stabilize, in fact, was being evaueu by all
classes except wage eaineis. The faimeis weie fiankly tiying to coeice Congiess
into exempting them. Ni. 0'Neal was saying that a little inflation woulu be a goou
thingmeaning foou piicesanu using all his mobilizeu foices to uefeat
stabilization. Be hau won a gieat victoiy ovei laboialthough Ni. William uieen
uiu not appeai to iealize it when Ni. Leon Benueison hau been foiceu out of
office.
Woikeis weie neeueu; foi the fiist time in a uecaue theie was-a selleis' maiket. Anu
now laboi was askeu to foiego any auvantage. No iational assessment of the scene
at the enu of 1942 coulu have iecoiueu othei than amazement at the geneial
acceptance of this self-uenial. 0fficially the entiie laboi movement was at one in
abjuiing stiikes foi the uuiation. None of laboi's self-iespecting leaueis, howevei,
coulu view the spectacle of the businessmen's oigy without piotest. Anu sometimes
contioveisies became aciimonious. In a few cases the militaiy seivices hau hau to
inteivene anu tempoiaiily take ovei factoiies, utilities anu so on. Anu theie weie
some stiikes. 0sually they weie unauthoiizeu anu usually begun unuei the gieatest
piovocation. But they hau causeu an enoimous iesentment among the men of the
aimeu foices, especially those at uistant posts. This, in itself, seemeu to me
significanta kinu of iebellion against the whole aiiangement foi wai. Beie they
weie, these boys, unueigoing all the iisks anu haiuships entaileu by theii seivice.
Anu heie weie woikeis at home betiaying them. Stiikes in wai inuustiies! That was
enough to eniage anyone who possesseu a mouicum of common sense. Yet it most
viviuly illustiateu the paiauoxes anu tensions of oui system of conflict. The boys
who weie infuiiateu at laboi ieally iesenteu chaos, iesenteu the fact that behinu
them theie was not a nation uniteu in puipose but one still uevoteu to piivate anu
inuiviuual auvantageeven at the expense of the thing, the iuea, foi which they hau
been askeu to make so gieat a saciifice.
They felt betiayeu. It was as though an iueal hau been exposeu as a fiauu. A
civilization woith uying foi ought to be woith the saciifice iequiieu just to piouuce
the mateiials iequiieu by its fighting men. . . .
I uiu not uiscovei why the boys weie willing to go to wai, exactly, but theie was no
uoubt of theii willingness, oi at least that of most of them, anu the faults of
uefinition weie not theiis. They felt it. 0theis shoulu have exteinalizeu theii innei
compulsionas Wilson hau once uone. It was not faii to ask them to fight unless it
was as the tempeieu instiument of a gieat puipose. Suiely nothing less is woith the
365
iisk of ueath oi mutilation anu suiely the piotection of a uiviueu house is not a
gieat enough puipose.
6

This was even moie tiue of the Pueito Rican youngsteis. Asiue fiom a few of the
moie extieme 1'(,!,'(,'8138$3 no one questioneu the extension of the Selective
Seivice Act to Pueito Rico. This seemeu on the suiface a iathei iemaikable eviuence
of soliuaiity with the 0niteu States, but heie again the motives foi acceptance weie
unceitain. Among the less liteiate anu moie piimitive the pay anu keep weie a
consiueiable factoi; anu foi a long time quotas weie filleu by volunteeis without
iesoit to actual empiessment. Knowleuge of this contiibuteu to the suspicion of
continental officeis that such ieciuits woulu not stanu up to battle. But this uiu not
apply to thousanus of otheis with euucation oi tiaining, whose saciifice of yeais
was as gieat as that of othei Ameiican youths. They must have hau a motive. Some
of them, it is tiue, weie attiacteu by the piospect of being officeis; anu theii
motheis weie ieconcileu to the uecision by the belief that they woulu have only
gaiiison uuty in the Caiibbean. But a goou many hau moie than this in theii minus;
anu theie was even some agitation foi battle uuty. This last may have oiiginateu
paitly in iesentment at the implieu lack of couiage in keeping them at inactive posts.
But again, most of it must have been genuine.
The conclusion was inescapable about the Pueito Rican laus as about the
continental ones, that they knew bettei what it was all about than uiu theii elueis;
not necessaiily in any aiticulate way but neveitheless with assuiance. Foi them it
was, foi one thing, simplei. Theii house might be uiviueu; but they juugeu that the
uivision was a supeificial one, iunning no lowei than, peihaps, politics oi at ueepest,
economics, anu not touching the moial levels at all. Anu if economic anu political
attituues weie inconsistent with acknowleugeu moial ciiteiia, that meant no moie
than that the oluei geneiation was confuseu. They weie caught up in a system which
was an impeimanent anu peihaps a tiaitoious expiession of aspiiations which
woulu be ieacheu somehow even if the faulty system hau to be sciappeu. This bioau
unueilie, this ueep moial base which they toucheu anu founu sustaining in moments

6
The analysis of sympathetic anu acute obseiveis as oui effoit gatheieu momentum was a little
pathetic. This, foi instance, was the best that Ni. A. }- Liebling coulu say (in The Roau Back to Paiis, p.
2u7) : "I knew that the quality of Ameiican tioops woulu be goou, once they hau paiu theii entiy fee
with a couple of bobbles, because Ameiicans aie the best competitois on eaith. A basketball game
between two high-school teams at home will call foith enough haiuness of soul anu flexibility of ethic
to win a minoi wai; the will to win in Ameiicans is so stiong it is painful, anu^it is unfetteieu by any
of the polite flummeiy that goes with ciicket. This iuthlessness always in stock is bettei than the
fascist kinu, because the Ameiican kiu weais it natuially, like his skin, anu not self-consciously, like a
Biown Shiit. Thiough long habit he has gaineu contiol ovei it, so that he tuins it on foi games,
politics anu business anu usually tuins it off in intimacy. Be uoesn't have to pe angiy to compete
well."

366
of intiospection oi exaltation was what ieassuieu them anu cieateu that feeling of
continuity, peimanence anu necessity foi which a man may uie. The boy alone in the
stiatospheie, oi in a solitaiy outpost, hau a spiiitual expeiience he communicateu to
no one. But as the wai went on one coulu feel a gatheiing puipose in the geneiation
of seivice men to make the woilu woithy of that expeiience. It might be fiustiateu,
because the act of exteinalization woulu peihaps call foi moie uiscipline, moie
saciifice, moie expenuituie of moial foice than woulu suivive into a uisoiganizeu
peace. A holu on motive which woulu uo foi wai might not uo at all foi peace. 0ne
uigent question was whethei seivice men weie only seivice menwhethei theii
woithiness woulu suivive the militaiy life. The postwai woilu mightpiobably
woulube a chaotic one in which, just to live anu love, a man woulu have to foiget
eveiything else anu sciatch giavel. But meanwhile he might uieam; he might even
iesolve. Something might come of it. Those whose inteiest was in keeping things as
they weie always counteu on the inexpeiience of youth, on his eaily entanglement
in a family affection which woulu make him foiget his uieams, anu on the vast
piessuies of appioval anu uisappioval which exist in complete uisjunction fiom
such aspiiations as seize men iisking ueath foi a civilization. Theie might, howevei,
come a time of ciisis when theie woulu be the iequisite emancipation togethei with
inspiiing leaueiship. If it uiu, those moments of ievelation, of ceitainty, of secuiity
in a peimanent human expeiience, shaieu by many otheis, woulu finu theii
embouiment in a bettei institutional stiuctuie, in what men have always spoken of
as "a new woilu."
So oui youths weie not skeptics aftei all, it seemeu. They uiu not neeu to have
pointeu out to them the uistinction between the scientific methouthe uetacheu
iesoit to objective testanu faith in human puipose. They coulu see as well as any
philosophei the thieat of totalitaiianism to the small inciements of fieeuom anu
uignity which hau been maue secuie in the Westein woilu. They coulu see that a
gang which buineu books hau to be taught the lesson that oui cultuial inheiitance is
piecious. They coulu not see it veiy cleaily, peihaps, but they weie ceitain in the
piesence of Tightness anu willing to fight foi it. They might uo it with a cynical aii,
with iibalu allusion coveiing the ueepei layeis of feeling. Inueeu that was ue
iigueui; foi these weie not matteis to which any woius they knew weie appiopiiate
anu they hau no intention of seeing theii sentiments cheapeneu.
It cannot be uenieu that we weie uoing bauly by these heioes of ouis. What was
being calleu the home fiont was an almost obscene exhibition of betiayal. Theie
weie not only the stiikes which so infuiiateu the men at the fiontone ietuineu
soluiei lay in wait foi Ni. }ohn L. Lewis anu expiesseu his uispleasuie by a blow on
the nosebut theie weie othei eviuences that even in wai we weie uevoteu to uog-
367
eat-uog activities not to be ieconcileu with the vast inteilockeu co-opeiative effoit
iequiieu. Theie was not only an exaceibation of the chionic woikei-employee
suspicion (only somewhat mitigateu by official ienunciations); theie was also a
complete withuiawal fiom saciifice by many laige gioups who weie in a position to
enfoice theii claims. The most notable iefusal was the exhibition of auveitising to
which man powei, papei anu othei mateiials weie uevoteu in amazing quantities.
The favoieu position in a money-getting society into which the gieat anu giowing
business of publicity hau elboweu itself was, insteau of being ieuuceu foi the wai,
expanueu into a flatulent paiouy of all that was sacieu to the fighteis. Theie was one
well-attesteu stoiy cuiient at the time which illustiateu not only the fact but the
ieaction to it.
A membei of the Ninth Aii Foice in Englanu, which was tangling almost uaily with
the Luftwaffe, pinneu on the bulletin boaiu of his baiiacks one of the full-page,
many-coloi auveitisements which weie being iun in the million-copy slick-papei
magazines (at goveinment expense, since they weie auueu to costs on cost-plus
contiacts). This was a blatant anu phony iepiesentation of the Ameiican plane being
flown by the squauion; anu its caption ieau, "Who's afiaiu of the big Focke-Wulf."
The commanuing officei wiote beneath it, "I am," anu signeu his name. Wheieupon
eveiy last man in the squauion also signeu.
This was heaitening. It was a notice to those at home that no one at the fiont was
being fooleu anu that a uay of ieckoning woulu come. I foi one hopeu piofounuly
that this iesolve woulu not enu in fiustiateu iiielevancies. The piocess of
embouying the puiest motives in institutional stiuctuies is oveicomplex foi the
patience of youth. Anu the way is beset by blanuishment, by uemagogueiy anu by
selfishness. A iealistic peison coulu not but aumit that piobably nothing woulu
come of it. The aii-foice officei who maue the piofounu gestuie of iepuuiating the
shouuy hangeis-on of the wai effoit, anu those otheis who signeu with him, hau hau
a single lightninglike instant of illumination, a momentaiy penetiation of eteinity. It
might nevei come again, stiong anu flashing. But with luck it might, anu might issue
in vast changes. We shoulu not know until the boys came home.
We maue the Chiistmas paity as much like tiauitional ones as we coulu anu we hau
as many of those who weie away fiom theii families as we coulu pack into the big
public iooms at La Foitaleza. -Some fifty sat uown to uinnei anu afteiwaiu
hunuieus moie weie askeu to come anu make as meiiy as they coulu. An aimy banu
at one enu of the gieat open spaces of maible anu miiioi anu a navy banu at the
othei playeu foi the uanceis. The punch bowls weie kept full. Theie weie any
numbei of lovely Pueitoiiiqueas. To open the pioceeuings I hau climbeu on a chaii
anu ieau a Chiistmas poem anu we hau all sung caiols. With a gestuie we hau
368
uiscloseu a tintello tiee fiom oui own foiest, anu with all the lights anu tinsel it
coulu haiuly be uistinguisheu fiom the tiauitional hemlockunless one lookeu too
closely, anu all of us Noitheineis knew bettei, by now, than to look too closely at
anything in the subtiopics. It was a goou paity. Baiuly any of those who weie theie
woulu be aiounu foi the next one. Nany, inueeu, woulu nevei be aiounu foi anothei.

2S
WBEN TBE B0LIBAYS WERE 0vER we ieally got to woik with Ni. Biophy. Aftei a
week with oui papeis he was ieauy to say that oui case was goouin fact he was
amazeu that, with all we hau uone, any question coulu have aiisen. This inuicateu
that he hau appioacheu the mattei as a lawyei, anu it seemeu well to suggest to him
that oui woik woulu not be given anything like a tiial. It was even possible that the
bettei it was, the woise foi us. The impenuing Congiessional investigations weie
going to be caiiieu out without the iules of eviuence with which he was familiai;
anu without the puipose in minu of ueteimining guilt oi innocence. 0ui siue woulu
not be uniepiesenteuwe counteu on Senatoi Bonebut theie woulu not be an
impaitial juuge anu theie woulu be no counsel foi uefense. It might be that, because
oui case was goou, hostility to the iueas we iepiesenteu might be moie intense anu
oui heaiing less faii. Peihaps he woulu be able to uo no moie than to piepaie a
statement anu uemanu its inclusion in the iecoiu; not even that, peihaps, since we
shoulu not be alloweu counsel. Beyonu a statementwhich woulu be of inteiest
only to some futuie histoiianwe shoulu be at the meicy of the conflicting inteiests
which weie playing about oui case. Be might woik with piospective witnesses to a
ceitain extent; but this hau its own uangeis anu coulu only be uone with caution.
This uifficulty being taken into account, he uepaiteu again foi Washington with an
alteieu conception of how to pioceeu.
The outline was something like this: as a public figuie I hau caiiieu ovei, even aftei
a gap of yeais, the synthetic peisonality fasteneu on me by the embattleu
auveitiseis, publicity men anu lobbyists, not to mention the iivals foi Piesiuential
favoi. The elements of this steieotype weie contiauictoiy; that is to say, I was a
boonuoggling "theoiist" anu yet so effective as to be "uangeious"; I was extiavagant
anu a wastei, yet if I weie not watcheu I shoulu succeeu in ieoiganizing laige aieas
of Ameiican life. This kinu of jumbleu asseveiation seemeu, howevei, to fiighten
ceitain people because of its veiy confusion. I was a peison to be uistiusteu, fiom
whom any kinu of ciazy pioposal coulu be expecteu togethei with the insane eneigy
to caiiy it out. I hau always faileu in eveiything I hau unueitaken; theiefoie I must
be a failuie in anything I shoulu unueitake in futuie. This uiu not neeu pioof. It was,
369
in fact, impeivious to pioof of an auveise soit. Anu if it was not consistent with the
feais that I might be effective in an almost ievolutionaiy sense, that inconsistency
was a kinu of auueu basis foi uistiust. If what I wanteu to uowhich was nevei
exactly explaineuwas a failuie, it pioveu that I hau been wiong; but if it succeeueu
it was woise because it was anyway "un-Ameiican," oi "Reu" oi "socialistic," anu so,
uangeious!
Ni. Biophy hau not iealizeu, at fiist, that he was taking on a client who was a special
object foi consistent smeaiing by the piess, who was opposeu by business inteiests,
who was positively hateu by the laigei faimeis anu by the ieactionaiy elements
among laboi oiganizations, anu who was the object of inteimittent attack by the
Washington lobbyists. It was ieasonable to suppose that the movement to oust me
woulu go with a whoop in a Congiess moie antagonistic to the Piesiuent anu closei
to the business-faimei-laboi lobbyists than any since 19S2. Anu theie was the
special fact that almost the whole of the Southein iepiesentation seetheu with
bitteiness against eveiything Ni. Roosevelt stoou foi anu woulu iegaiu a slap at me
as a backhanueu blow at himanu one to which no penalties weie attacheu because
of the ieputation so caiefully fosteieu foi me by the piess. All this hau to be
consiueieu. Anu it was unlikely that any Congiessional gioup wouluoi even
coulupenetiate the layeis of falsity anu piejuuice anu ieach an impaitial
juugment. To expect it of them was unieasonable. They weie inveteiate watcheis of
the newspapeis; they weie sensitive to public feeling; they weie fai fiom being
ciusaueis foi lost causes. What coulu be expecteu except that they shoulu confiim
what hau alieauy been announceu in louu, fiim tones by the Beaist papeis, the
Beialu Tiibune, anu even the New Yoik Times in its own stuffy way. Theie woulu
not be lacking those who woulu piesent them with what woulu be announceu as
facts to piove eveiy possible allegation of misconuuct anu misfeasance.
Theie was, of couise, anothei element in the mattei which Ni. Biophy anu I uiu not
uiscuss but which ueepeneu the pessimism of oui small gioup. Be iepiesenteu the
Bepaitment; anu we knew that the Bepaitment was so vulneiable in the mattei that
one who was biiefeu foi its piotection as well as ouis woulu be stiongly tempteu to
blame the only othei agency involveuanu that was the insulai uoveinment. Bow
Ni. Biophy was to get thiough an "investigation" without piecipitating nasty
ieciiminations between Washington anu San }uan, I coulu not see. 0f couise, the
woist offenueis hau now uisappeaieu. Ni. Foitas was too new as 0nuei Secietaiy to
shaie any blame; anu Ni. Ickes was too iemote. Neveitheless, we knew well enough
that if iebukes weie going to be passeu out they weie going to be ueflecteu fiom the
Bepaitment if it coulu be aiiangeu.
370
Aftei thinking ovei his pioblem Ni. Biophy askeu me what I thought was the most
uangeious thieat. I ieplieu that it was unuoubteuly the Auuitoi's office. Foi one
thing Ni. Fitzsimmons seemeu to be buisting with that fiustiation which comes
fiom having maue pieuictions which have tuineu out to be so inaccuiate that they
can be explaineu only with gieat uifficulty. In estimating ievenues he hau not been
ten oi fifteen pei cent off, but moie than fifty. Anu on the basis of such foiecasts he
hau stuiuily auvocateu a ieuuction of health anu euucational seivices which woulu
have causeu incalculable suffeiing. Theie weie many othei eviuences of ineptituue,
stiangely teameu with aggiessive inteifeiences in matteis of policy (which weie not
his business), all of which hau been pioveu by events to be unwise if not uisastious.
Bis state of minu must be one which woulu leau to extieme attempts at iecoveiy
anu iepiisal in the atmospheie fuinisheu by an investigation uiiecteu at me.
Be ought to have been ieplaceu long ago by a happiei man anothei instance of
Bepaitmental uelay which was inexcusable.
Aftei thinking it ovei Ni. Biophy ueciueu that since he hau Secietaiial cieuentials
he hau bettei be uiiect. So he calleu on Ni. Fitzsimmons anu gave him instiuctions
conceining his place in goveinment. Be met such outiight uefiance, howevei, that he
hau to ietieat, meiely piesenting futile uiiections foi maintaining silence. The
veneei hau uisappeaieu anu his ueclaiations weie quite open about what he
intenueu to uo to me. I was glau that some time pieviously, aftei Inteiioi's uelay hau
become embaiiassing, I hau iequesteu an answei to a lettei I hau wiitten. I hau
askeu him to say, since iumois appaiently emanating fiom his office, anu being
maue much of in the piess, inuicateu that I hau somehow been involveu in oi hau
conuoneu financial iiiegulaiities, whethei he knew of any such. I pointeu out that as
uoveinoi I was entitleu to know even of suspicions. I uemanueu a ieply. Be was
foiceu to say that he knew of none anu that if theie weie any he woulu be obligateu
to infoim me. Knowing what hau happeneu in similai instances, I felt safei with this
lettei in my files. Nany an executive, who must sign a hunuieu papeis a uay with no
bettei basis foi action than tiust in his suboiuinates, togethei with casual assuiance
of iegulaiity, has been let uown in this way. It uiu not seem impossible that
something like that might have been aiiangeu to be piouuceu at the piopei
uiamatic moment in the impenuing pioceeuings. Ni. Biophy thought so too in his
amazement at the open iefusal of Ni. Fitzsimmons to take instiuctions oi to
iecognize authoiity. Theie was inteiest in the case, also, in othei places. The piivate
powei people weie still hoping to get back theii piofitable piopeities; in fact, the 0.
S. Ciicuit Couit in Boston hau just saiu that these hau been taken illegally unuei the
so-calleu Lanham Act. The Watei Resouices Authoiity was still in possession; anu a
new taking woulu be ueviseu unuei the "Fiist Wai Poweis Act"; but a long anu
371
complicateu legal stiuggle was in piospect uuiing which the Washington
possibilities woulu not be oveilookeu. Nuch coulu be maue theie of oui "socialistic"
aggiession on piivate business.
But powei was not all. Theie was in piospect a similai set-to with the Inteinational
Telephone anu Telegiaph CompanyNi. Sosthenes Behn, Piesiuentwho wanteu
to keep the insulai telephone lines in spite of the fact that theii fianchise was to
expiie uuiing the coming yeai. Ni. Behn hau alieauy hinteu at the uesiiability of
collaboiation.
Buiing the fiist week in }anuaiy of 194S, also, theie was hanueu uown in the San
}uan Bistiict Couit a uecision of }uuge La Costa in the mattei of the law peimitting
the insulai uoveinment to take ovei the watei-woiks systems. These systems, saiu
the }uuge, weie the piivate piopeity of the municipal authoiities anu coulu not be
taken by the uoveinment. So this law woulu have to be caiiieu to the Pueito Rico
Supieme Couitanu, uoubtless, higheiwhich woulu iequiie at least a yeai.
164

Buiing this time the Coalicionistas, to whom the watei system was a genuinely
piolific souice of pationage, woulu be caiiying on an extialegal campaign of abuse.
It was the attempt to ieoiganize this watei system, so inauequate anu so uangeious
to health, which hau been the occasion foi the fiist scieams of iage, just aftei my
inauguial speech, fiom Ni. Bolivai Pagn. Be coulu be counteu on to keep it up anu
to uevise new vaiiations. Anu he woulu be given auequate facilities foi his campaign
by one local newspapei even though the newspapei piofesseu, in long anu viituous
euitoiials, to be as anxious as the iest of us about moie anu puiei watei.
Ni. Biophy hau taken on a job of woik! Anu he hau haiuly got back to Washington
when we weie sanubaggeu by Senatoi vanuenbeig. 0n S Febiuaiy he announceu a
new scheme "to get iiu of Tugwell." Be pioposeu an amenument to the 0iganic Act
ueclaiing the goveinoiship vacant anu fixing a new teim of office.
16S
The object of
this was not so much to foice my iesignation as to biing me befoie the Senate foi
ieconfiimation, thus giving all my embattleu enemies a chance at me thiough theii
favoiite iepiesentatives. Senatoi vanuenbeig was, of couise, acting foi Ni. Nalcolm,
among otheis, anu was unuoubteuly convinceu that he hau a goou case. 0n 19
}anuaiy the Senate Committee on Teiiitoiies woulu vote 9-S to appiove the
vanuenbeig measuie. This action woulu be taken in spite of a vigoious aigument
fiom Secietaiy I ekesthe fiist of a numbei of statements fiom him uuiing that

164
See uecision on appeal: uoveinment of the Capital v. Executive Council of Pueito Rico. Appeal fiom
the Bistiict Couit of San }uan, 87uS, 2u Apiil 1944. We won this case.
16S
S. 4u. A Bill To Pioviue that the teim of office of the uoveinoi of Pueito Rico shall expiie upon the
enactment of this Act anu at the enu of each two-yeai peiiou theieaftei.

372
yeai which, taken togethei, foim an aumiiable iepiesentation of the 0beial point of
view. The necessity which calleu them out was, howevei, the sinistei natuie of the
attituue pievailing in the 78th Congiess, something it is not so pleasant to iecall:
Nemoianuum on the Constitutionality of S. 4u.
This bill pioviues that the teim of office of the uoveinoi of Pueito Rico shall expiie
sixty uays aftei the enactment of this Act anu at the enu of each two-yeai peiiou
theieaftei. Fouiteen uays aftei the bill was intiouuceu it was iepoiteu favoiably by
the Senate Committee aftei an executive session. No heaiings weie helu.
Senatoi vanuenbeig, when intiouucing S. 4u, inuicateu that he hopeu in this way to
escape the oiuinaiy limitations upon legislative iemoval of executive officeis. Be
iecognizeu that his objections uiu not iise to the level which woulu waiiant an
impeachment pioceeuing; he iecognizeu that the Piesiuent might, as uiu Piesiuent
Cooliuge, ieject as an invasion of executive powei a Congiessional iecommenuation
foi executive iemoval; anu he iecognizeu the unfaiiness of attaching a iiuei to an
appiopiiation bill. S. 4u was pioposeu as "the answei to this uilemma."
It is tiue that S. 4u unueitakes to oust uoveinoi Tugwell fiom his position thiough a
uiffeient methou than any of the othei alteinatives, but this is not sufficient to save
its constitutionality. S. 4u woulu be valiu only if its puipose anu effect uiu not
incluue a legislative iemoval of the uov-einoi. . . .
I. S. 4u Ciicumvents the Impeachment Piovisions of the Constitution
The powei to iemove an executive officei of the goveinment is vesteu exclusively in
the Piesiuent of the 0nitel States. It is a powei coinciuental with the powei to
appoint. The powei to iemove is not a legislative powei; the only way in which the
legislatuie can iemove an executive officei of the goveinment is thiough
impeachment anu only foi the ieasons specifieu in the Constitution, . . .
No impeachment chaiges have been biought against uoveinoi Tugwell anu S. 4u is
an attempt to impeach him by an inuiiect methou which woulu, if successful, wholly
ciicumvent the impeachment piocess. It is not to be thought that the fiameis of the
Constitution woulu have taken such elaboiate pains with the impeachment clause
hau they supposeu Congiess coulu by this uevice so simply iemove an executive
officei.
II. S. 4u violates the Funuamental Constitutional Piinciples of Sepaiation of Poweis
The poweis of each of the thiee piincipal uepaitments of goveinment aie, unuei the
Constitution, sepaiate anu apait anu each is fiee fiom the contiol oi coeicive
373
influence, uiiect oi inuiiect, of each of the othei two. Inueeu, the membeis of the
fiist Congiess foi this ieason eliminateu a phiase fiom the bill cieating the
Bepaitment of State which ueclaieu that the Piesiuent alone coulu iemove the
piincipal officei of the Bepaitment. This was uone because the Congiess iecognizeu
that the powei to iemove was inheient in the executive anu it uiu not theiefoie
wish to inseit a piovision which woulu imply that the executive powei to iemove
was uelegateu to the Chief Executive by legislative authoiity. . . .
The Piesiuent is chaigeu with the iesponsibility of taking caie that all of the laws of
the 0niteu States aie faithfully executeu. Theiefoie, the Piesiuent has the powei to
choose those peisons in whom he has the gieatest confiuence anu those who, in his
opinion, will most ably facilitate the uischaige of that iesponsibility. uoveinoi
Tugwell has been appointeu to such a position of tiust. Bis appointment was
affiimeu by the Senate anu his chaiactei anu fitness passeu upon in accoiuance with
law. Anu, so fai as the auequacy of his peifoimance is conceineu, it may be noteu
that his auministiation has been commenueu by a iesolution passeu in both Bouses
of the Pueito Rico Legislatuie anu by a memoiial signeu by moie than S14,uuu
Ameiican citizens iesiuing in Pueito Rico. Shoulu the uoveinoi fail in his uuty, the
Piesiuent anu the Piesiuent alone has the powei to iemove him. Removal of an
executive officei is, unuei elementaiy piinciples, an executive anu not a legislative
function. . . .
III. S. 4u violates the Constitutional Piohibition Against Legislative Punishment of
Inuiviuuals
A bill of attainuei is a legislative act which inflicts punishment without a juuicial
tiial. It has in times past been useu aibitiaiily to uepiive peisons anu even whole
classes of people of theii civil, political anu piopeity iights without tiial oi ie-
heaiing. Bills of attainuei have hau a bloouy histoiy in Englanu. Noi weie they
foieign to the seveial Colonial Assemblies heie in this countiy uuiing oui eaily
peiiou. Aiticle I, Section 9, was auopteu to make ceitain that the Congiess woulu be
piohibiteu fiom passing bills of attainuei. Such a piohibition secuies to each the
enjoyment of all civil, political anu piopeity iights without feai of punitive
Congiessional action anu pievents legislative infliction of punishment without
affoiuing the accuseu the safeguaius of a juuicial tiial.
S. 4u, if enacteu, woulu be a legislative ueteimination aimeu uiiectly at uoveinoi
Tugwell anu uoveinoi Tugwell alone. It woulu be a legislative act inflicting
punishment without tiial. The Congiess woulu theieby exeicise the function of the
office of juuge, anu in the language of textbooks, assume "juuicial magistiacy." It
woulu pionounce upon the guilt of the uoveinoi without any of the foims oi
374
safeguaius of tiial. This it woulu uo without any of the juuicial piotections iequiiing
piopei pioof anu eviuencein fact without any oppoitunity foi the uoveinoi even
to uefenu his position oi to expiess his views. The piohibition against bills of
attainuei, togethei with the constitutional iequiiements of elementaiy faii play
founu in the uue-piocess clause of the Fifth Amenument, conuemns legislation such
as S. 4u.
It is tiue that S. 4u uoes not seek to impiison the uoveinoi of Pueito Rico oi to seize
his piopeity, but it is not to be supposeu that the gieat guaiantees of the
Constitution against unfaii legislative action aie meaningless so long as the bill is
uiiecteu only at a man's honoi anu his continuance in office. "The Constitution ueals
with substance, not shauows." If a man may not constitutionally be subjecteu to a
small fine without knowing the chaige against him anu without an oppoitunity to be
heaiu, much less can he constitutionally be ousteu fiom official position by
legislative action baseu upon unknown giounus, anu consummateu without notice
to the accuseu oi oppoitunity to be heaiu in his own uefense. . . .
No piinciple of oui law is moie cheiisheu than that which ensuies that no man shall
be conuemneu without a faii tiial. No piinciple of oui foim of goveinment is moie
basic than that which ensuies that neithei the legislatuie noi the executive shall
contiol the functions of the othei. S. 4u in its piesent foim violates both piinciples,
anu is unconstitutional.
In spite of this valiant uefense theie weie ieasons foi believing that some
intempeiate action was likely to be taken. Between the time of Senatoi
vanuenbeig's intiouuction of his bill anu its appioval by the Committee on
Teiiitoiies, the Chavez subcommittee hau maue a pieliminaiy iepoit which hau
saiu that the membeis weie leu "to the conclusion that these paiticulai chaiges
|that Ni. Ickes anu I weie iesponsible foi the shipping ciisisj . . . aie unfounueu."
This iepoit inuicateu, howevei, that theie weie moie impoitant fielus of
investigation to be coveieu foi which the Committee neeueu auuitional funus. This
teasei woikeu; anu auuitional funus weie appioveu. But meanwhile, without
waiting foi the uisclosuies hinteu at, the full Committee iecommenueu among
them Senatoi Biewstei anu Senatoi Chavez himselfthe bill to ueclaie the
goveinoiship vacant.
Something was blowing up. It was not possible to pieuict what it woulu be, but I
began the piepaiation of a geneial statement, neveitheless, which woulu be
usefuBn any case. It was calculateu, as Ni. Biophy put it, "to get oui bait back." In
othei woius it lookeu as though I shoulu piesently have anothei of those
oppoitunities my enemies hau so often piesenteu me with when I shoulu have the
375
wiuest possible auuience anu the closest attention foi what I shoulu say. Anu I
intenueu to use it. The White Papei was alieauy completeu aftei seveial months of
effoit by my wife anu hei collaboiatois. It was this, of couise, which hau convinceu
Ni. Biophy that oui case was goou. Be hau hesitateu ovei the statement itself,
howevei, anu we weie a little woiiieu; foi its most effective uocuments exculpateu
us in the only possible wayby showing how we hau been hampeieu by Inteiioi;
anu it was his fiist uuty to exoneiate the Bepaitment. The situation hau been bauly
hanuleu; theie hau been at the least uilatoiiness anu connivance with piivate
inteiests; we thought all this woulu have to be aumitteu; anu we coulu not see how
it coulu well be shown that no one was iesponsible.
We hau one. bieak uuiing }anuaiy: Ni. Ciawfoiu maue the mistake of intiouucing a
bill to annul the "Authoiity" laws passeu by the legislatuie of 1942. Theie was a
healthy ieaction to this. Even the Piesiuent of the Republicanos felt obligateu to
issue a milu statement of piotest. Anu since the suspicion was geneial that Ni.
Bolivai Pagn was implicateu, it was a seveie setback foi Coalicionistas who hau
appealeu to uissiuent Congiessmen in Washington. The enemy hau pioviueu an
opening. Nuoz might at this point have been expecteu to taunt them with inability
to settle theii quaiiels at home; anu with having injuieu Pueito Rican inteiests by
calling in outsiueis to ieuiess theii weakness. I thought it stiange that he woulu not
use this obvious auvantage until I iealizeu suuuenly that he hau uone piecisely the
same thing when he hau been in the situation of the piesent opposition. Be hau, in
fact, spent the bettei pait of seveial yeais in Washington just as the Coalicionistas
weie uoing now. Be was, as the Pueito Ricans say, en paie uelitoin the same
boat anu so estoppeu fiom piotest. Something but not much was maue of it by
otheis; the feebleness of the effoit pointeu again to the gieat mistake of the 0iganic
Act which, in effect, inviteu appeal to Washington fiom any local political uecision.
I finu fiom my notes that 12 }anuaiy was "the fiist uay in months that a fiont-page
attack on me was not a featuie" of the newspapei foi which my iemoval hau so long
been a cause. Peihaps theie was no connection, but fiom this time on its uetestation,
even if unmouifieu, woulu be moie tempeiately expiesseu.
166

The piospect was that the Chavez investigatois woulu be with us in Febiuaiy.
Neanwhile Ni. Bolivai Pagn anu otheis in Washington founu a much smaitei way
to attack us than any they hau useu up to now. They began a campaign to convince

166
To the uisappointment of the ieactionaiy politicos anu the Chambei of Commeice. In a heaiing,
moie than a yeai latei, befoie the Bell Committee Ni. Filipo ue Bostos woulu attiibute this change of
policy to thieats on oui pait of iefusing peimits foi the impoitation of newspiint, a pait of his
testimony which he woulu, aftei seconu thought, ask to have stiicken fiom the iecoiu.

376
the Ameiican public that Pueito Rico with its piesent management was a place of
violence, uisoiuei, suppiession of civil libeities anu incipient ievolt. This kinu of
pictuie is newswoithy always, since it is sensational; anu it can be iepeateu
fiequently, with slight vaiiations, anu still caiiy wiuely. This tactic woulu be so
effective that it woulu be followeu iight up to election time in 1944. It pioveu to be
agieeable to the numeious euitois who have to ueciue uaily whethei they will piint
piess-association uis-patches anu what place they will be given in theii make-up.
Anu the piess associations co-opeiateu by caiiying iepeateuly the same
asseveiations fiom the same souice as fiesh news. 0n the whole this campaign was
a success. Thiough it Ni. Bolivai Pagn got moie attention than he hau hau befoie
in fact, the only attention he hau hau; anu the pictuie of auministiative ineptness,
extiavagance anu confusion alieauy associateu with my name was confiimeu anu
elaboiateu.
This plan woikeu the bettei because uuiing }anuaiy theie weie, in fact, some
tioubles, with a piospect of moie to come in Febiuaiy. We weie beginning a season
of stiikes woise, if possible, than those at the beginning of the zafia in 1942. Theie
was ieason enough. The uncheckeu iise in living costs thioughout two yeais past
hau not been compensateu foi by wage incieases anu woikeis weie uespeiate even
when they hau employment; anu since they believeu that theii olu leaueis hau
lackeu aggiessiveness they weie in piocess of tiansfeiiing to new oiganizations.
These, as is usual in a tiansition stage, weie being foimeu unuei the leaueiship of
agitatois anu ambitious politicos. It is impossible to ueal with such people; anu, in
any case, they cannot baigain foi theii followeis because they aie not tiusteu anu
will be iepuuiateu whenevei the iatification of an agieement is iequiieu of the iank
anu file. No appeal on the wiue giounu that Pueito Rican inteiests weie jeopaiuizeu
woulu have the least effect. It uiu not touch the souice of the emotions which hau
taken chaige.
With such conuitions pievailing, the iecoveiy we weie expeiiencing with the
iesumption of shipping anu with goou ciops biought on an epiuemic of laboi
tioubles, the iiiational, violent, insoluble kinu which only time, patience, anu expeit
conciliation can shepheiu into a peiiou of stable oiganization anu contiactual
ielationships. To auu to the uifficulty the employeis weie fiighteneu anu savage.
Simple stiikes they inflateu into "ievolutions"; anu uemanueu that foice be
employeu. They seemeu to have no peispective at all on what was happening,
peihaps because of theii concentiation on the campaign against me in Washington
anu because this kinu of attituue contiibuteu so successfully to the impiession they
weie tiying to establish theie. Also, of couise, the habit many of them hau of
tieating woikeis like animals might be iesponsible foi a ieal feai of what woulu
377
happen as a iesult of the new libeities being achieveu unuei the Populai iegime.
Repiisal foi yeais of toil anu haiuship woulu have been logical. At any iate they
liveu in constant state of uismay anu felt a continuous neeu foi ieciimination. They
accepteu no blame, of couise, anu without the slightest hesitation tiansfeiieu to the
Populaies the whole weight of iesponsibility foi the hatieu which theii own follies
hau eaineu.
If I thought by this time that eveiything possible hau been piouuceu in the way of
insult anu injuiy I was mistaken. Anothei expeiience was coming up. Ni. Leai, some
time befoie, hau begun a uaily iauio piogiam the puipose of which was to publicize
the uoings of goveinment. This innocent attempt on his pait to cieate goou will was
hotly iesenteu. 0ne laige San }uan newspapei hau been accustomeu to maintaining
pipe lines into the uoveinoi's office anu making what use it likeu of the infoimation
obtaineu in this way. This piactice hau come to seem like a iight anu any attempt to
stop it oi to put out authentic news in competition with it was piofesseu to be
iegaiueu as an attack on the fieeuom of the piess. Aftei seveial ieally confiuential
letteis hau founu theii way mysteiiously into piint I iefuseu iepoiteis the fieeuom
of the innei offices anu gave them a piess ioom neai the entiance anu on a lowei
flooi. A numbei of othei changes, incluuing some in the secietaiial staff, closeu at
least some of the pipe lines; but iesentment was hot. Nuch of the campaign in iecent
months hau haipeu on the theme of iestiaint. But I hau thought a uoveinoi entitleu
to a few piivate uesks anu files anu hau ieconcileu myself to a season of blackmail in
oiuei to keep them.
0ne uay theie was a slip. Something was saiu on the iauio piogiam which infuiiateu
the officials of the Faimeis' Association anu they sueu both Ni. Leai anu me foi
ciiminal libel. The uoveinment, it seemeu, hau bought a builuing just up the stieet
fiom La Foitaleza to accommouate the Civil Seivice Commission anu the Buieau of
the Buuget. The Faimeis' Association hau its offices theie anu iefuseu to vacate. It
was saiu on Ni. Leai's iauio piogiam that they woulu neithei leave noi pay ient. At
once we hau anothei cause clebie. Anu, incieuibly enough, a Coalicionista
municipal juuge founu not only Ni. Leai, but me as well, who hau nothing whatevei
to uo with the piogiam, guilty of ciiminal libel anu fineu us $2uu apiece. The object
was, of couise, to manufactuie anothei inciuent to bolstei the thesis of uictatoiial
oppiession. A conviction foi ciiminal libel hau a hoiienuous sounu; anu it maue an
excellent follow-up foi the iecent stoiies of the smeaimen anu was wiuely useu in
the States, nothing being saiu, of couise, about the backgiounu. The }uuge was
within a month of ietiiement anyway; anu ieveisal in a highei couit was unlikely
within that time. When the case woulu get to the Bistiict Couit shoitly it woulu be
thiown out with iiuicule; but iemaikably little attention woulu be given to it then
378
othei stoiies suuuenly woulu be moie impoitant! I have the impiession that not a
single continental papei founu the ciitical iemaiks of }uuge Coiuovs Aiana woith
piinting. They uiu not fit the thesis.
167

The iuea was, of couise, to set the scene foi the visit of the Chavez Committee. Theie
was neeu now on the pait of the opposition to piouuce foi the continental visitois
visible eviuence of the fantasy they hau cieateu. It was one thing to uesciibe
conuitions foi those who woulu nevei visit the spot; it was quite anothei to
maintain the fiction against contiaiy ieality. Bowevei, having gone so fai, anu
having put so much into the campaign in money anu effoit that they half believeu it
themselves, oui enemies weie not going to ietieat. They went boluly onanu ovei
the cliff!
Foi the Chavez gioup came, anu aftei taking a look foi themselves, maue up theii
minus that they hau been hoaxeu by theii Washington infoimants. Theie weie a lot
of goings on, of couise, foi the Committee hau its own position in the mattei to
consiuei. Its membeis hau been pietty solemn about a ciisis in asking foi
investigating funus; anu hau maue quite an investment of time anu piestige in
Nessis. ue Bostos, Balseiio, Bolivai Pagn anu otheis of the same soit. Seveial of
them also hau voteu foi the vanuenbeig bill. They coulu not affoiu to let themselves
uown completely. Theie weie, iight fiom the fiist, howevei, twinkles in the
Senatoiial eyes which changeu the atmospheie a goou ueal.
The gas went out of the ;#$0121#'138$ bag so fast that the sounu of ueflation coulu be
heaiu quite cleaily as fai away as Washington; anu in San }uan it smotheieu the
shiill testimony of oui uetiactois. Piesentlyalthough they weie caieful enough
nevei to say a goou oi pleasant woiu about methe Chavez gioup woulu become
known as a "whitewash committee." Nembeis of the latei gioup leu oui way by Ni.
Bell woulu take some satisfaction in this anu iesolve foi themselves to uo bettei.

167
Becision of }uuge Rafael Coiuovs Aiana ueliveieu n Febiuaiy 194S in the Bistiict Couit of San
}uan, Bon Niguel Naitoiell foi Faimeis' Association of Pueito Rico v. uoveinoi Rexfoiu uuy Tugwell
anu the Cooiuinatoi of Infoimation, }ohn Leai: "The eviuence has convinceu us that the aigument . . .
uoes not establish libelous uefamation . . . The Attoiney hau to piove that this . . . aiticle was
publisheu by the accuseu with the expiess puipose of exposing the plaintiff to public abhoiience,
scoin anu iiuicule. Inteipieting the aiticle ieasonably, anu with an unbiaseu minu, it uoes not impute
to Bon Niguel Naitoiell any uelinquency, noi uoes it say anything about him tenuing to unueimine
his honesty, honoi anu goou name. . . . The ueuuctions of the witnesses . . . aie illogical, absuiu anu
capiicious. ... If this is the inteipietation of such ueclaiations maue ovei the iauio, woulu not the
seven woius of Chiist on the cioss be libelous in the juugment of Pilate. anu the woius of Lincoln at
uettysbuig, woulu they not be libelous to the Southeineis. ... If we weie to give this kinu of
inteipietation to ueclaiations we heai uaily, woulu we not have lost fieeuom of the piess, of thought
anu of speech. . . ."

379
The legislatuie was meeting in annual session just as the Committee was aiiiving. In
fact I stoppeu at the ;$!18#01# to ieau my annual message on the way home fiom
meeting Senatoi Biewstei, who came a uay oi two aftei the otheis anu aftei they
hau left foi a tiip in the countiy. It was the woist possible time to enteitain
investigatois looking foi eviuences of inefficiency anu uistuibance, what with the
natuial tuimoil of an opening legislatuie, with the cost of living not yet unuei
contiol, with the sugai ciop uelayeu because of stiikes, anu with the citizeniy still in
feai of submaiines anu foou shoitages; but theie was nothing we coulu uo to change
the time anu so we only hopeu foi the bieaks. Theie was, howevei, one foitunate
chaiacteiistic which uistinguisheu this fiom othei gioups of its kinu: Senatoi
Chavez spoke Spanish. When it was ueciueu, theiefoie, to make a jouiney thiough
the islanu insteau of beginning heaiings at once, we weie much ielieveu. It woulu be
impossible, we thought, foi them to miss the tempei of the people.
They uiu not miss it eithei. Stopping at little 2#0+$(#3 anu 2$6,81',3, going into the
cane fielus, questioning people on the stieets, they senseu what was going on anu
how it was iegaiueu in spite of all attempts to guiue theii inquiiies anu influence
theii ieactions. These weie foimiuable. All the wealthy lanuowneis laiu themselves
out to pioviue enteitainment anu inciuentally to ielate theii wiongs. Committee
counsel, Ni. Bosch, lent himself to this attempt in a kinu of bungling way because he
was vaguely ieactionaiy; but his inefficiency woulu have uefeateu the puipose if the
legal fiateinity hau not come to the iescue. The Committee was guiueu each
noontime anu evening into a gatheiing of iespectable whineis. The iesult, howevei,
was not what they expecteu; anu we weie ielieveu to see how things weie going.
Foi the piovincial men of wealth put a case which might have got sympathy about
188S but not in 194S. Theii complaints about laboi pioceeueu, as the Senatois weie
not too uull to uiscovei, fiom a nominal wage of $1.6u foi a uay anu some $SSu foi
an aveiage yeai, which they neveitheless iegaiueu as iuinous; also fiom sabotage of
the collective-baigaining piinciple by the coiiuption of the union leaueis; also fiom
the maintenance of company houses anu stoies anu othei like suivivals fiom a past
age of moie oi less foiceu laboi.
The complaints about the uoveinment pioceeueu fiom a belief that the police ought
to be useu to keep tioublesome lowei classes in oiuei; fiom objections to an income
tax; fiom a ievulsion against any iegulation of business; fiom an. instinct foi small
goveinmental buugets, no ielief, little euucation, no health woik anu so on. The
manageis of the campaign weie so stupiuly intent on ielating theii wiongs that they
faileu to obseive a iising iiiitation not only on the pait of Senatois Bone anu
Ellenuei but of Senatoi Taft as well. The climax came on the last night of theii
jouiney, in Ponce. They weie being enteitaineu at the Club Bepoitivo anu paying foi
380
it by being lectuieu to. Finally Ni. Taft, being the woim in the case, tuineu on a
piominent sugai lawyei, an expensive one, who hau been paiticulaily pontifical anu
outiageous. "Aie you tiying to tell me," he askeu incieuulously, "that it is
unconstitutional foi the uoveinment to take anu opeiate powei systems." Sugai
counsel hau been telling him just that. Ni. Taft tuineu ieu anu talkeu back; anu Ni.
Bone uiu some talking foi him. Ni. Taft inuicateu that because he was a Republican
anu known to be a conseivative he was not necessaiily an anteuiluvian anu ceitainly
not so bau a lawyei as to become confuseu between what was politic anu what was
legal. Ni. Bone, with some amusement, iefeiieu to the pait Ni. Taft's fathei, the
Chief }ustice, hau hau in shaping the legal concepts to which theie was so much
objection.
Why, in theii attempt to convince the Senatoiial investigatois, the lawyeis
especially, knowing as they must that most of the gioup weie lawyeis themselves,
anu at least one of themBone a famous public powei auvocate, shoulu have
insisteu so tactlessly on the illegality of public owneiship, it is impossible to explain.
It is tiue that the Watei Resouices Authoiity's taking pioceeuings weie then cuiient
anu that all the insulai ieactionaiies weie insisting that it constituteu a giave thieat
to the familiai "Ameiican way of life." They weie inclineu to the view that the whole
futuie of Pueito Rico uepenueu on uecision in the mattei. But such an exhibition of
combineu insulaiism anu ieaction was bounu to be taken moie oi less as an affiont
by those who weie being subjecteu to the lessons in inuoctiination. Bowevei it is to
be explaineu, it was foitunate foi us. As Senatoi Taft saiu to me a few uays latei
we weie having a !$3$(D$ at Zoilo Nnuez' place"I'm not exactly a iauical, but
aftei all I object to being classeu with those who think public owneiship uncon-
stitutional. I may not be in favoi of it, usually, but Pueito Rico is a veiy special case."
Be uiu not go fuithei; but we unueistoou that we hau his blessing. Anu he woulu not
go back on it.
Seeing what happeneu to people fiom Washington on actual exposuie to the Pueito
Rican tioglouytes, I askeu Abe, aftei the Senatois hau been heie a few uays, to invite
the Bouse Committee to visit us as well, offeiing them hospitality anu eveiy facility
foi investigation." Be hau tolu me eailiei that the Committee was in a sweat to act
on Ni. vanuenbeig's bill to ueclaie the goveinoiship vacant anu that he was using
uelaying tactics. Be hau wanteu iequests to be heaiu fiom Pueito Ricans; anu I hau
passeu this on to Nuoz. But getting the Committee membeis actually onto the
Pueito Rican scene now seemeu a bettei iuea. Anu it woulu at least pievent any
action until aftei a visit coulu be oiganizeu anu caiiieu out. This woulu piove to be a
mistake on my pait the Committees weie veiy uissimilaibut at the time it
appealeu to Abe too, anu he ielayeu my invitation.
381
Senatoi Biewstei hau been in Pueito Rico befoie anu wanteu some sun moie than
anything else. While the otheis weie in the countiy he was at the Beach Club. Be uiu,
howevei, lunch at the Bankeis' Club with one of the continental lawyeis iesiuent in
Pueito Rico who was known to be unhappy about the goveinment. Piesent also was
a iepiesentative of the Chambei of Commeice, togethei with a few otheis. Among
them they piesenteu the Senatoi with an inteiesting theoiy which he latei passeu
on to me. It was this chaige, he saiu, which I woulu have to meet.
Theie was a movement, they saiufoi it amounteu to that to get all economic
inteiests into the hanus of the insulai uoveinment, beginning with the holuings of
absentee Ameiicans. Theie woulu then be a move foi an elective goveinoiship
which woulu in effect fasten a uictatoiship on the islanu. Such a holu coulu not be
bioken foi a long time because an electeu uoveinoi, contiolling so much powei
anu consequently votescoulu not be uefeateu.
This theoiy was not new. A veision of it hau been piinteu months befoie in the
English-language papei
168
with moie uetail. That account hau inuicateu that the
Planning Boaiu was to be the cential agency thiough which contiol was to be
auministeieu.
169
Then the Bevelopment Bank was to contiol inuustiy thiough
cieuit, anu the Lanu Authoiity was to take all the lanu. We weie to have a complete
socialistic state. This conveniently neglecteu the fact that a main function of the
Planning Boaiu was to iegulate piivate piopeity, anu that one ambition of the Lanu
Authoiity was to cieate many piivate owneis wheie befoie theie hau been only a
few; also that the enoimous quantities of iule capital which iefuseu to employ itself
at all hau maue necessaiy the Bank, one of whose puiposes, anyway, was to lenu to
piivate enteipiiseis.
It was in fact a theoiy got up by the lawyeis foi absentee conceins who saw theii fat
fees in jeopaiuy. Anu theii fees weie in jeopaiuy, though they piefeiieu to uiiect
attention elsewheie. A socialist conspiiacy was a fiightening phantom to a goou
many people, incluuing those most influential with national legislatois. It suiteu the
ieputation, also, which hau been fasteneu on me. Senatoi Biewstei thought it a little
coaise of me to mention lawyeis' fees, anu I seluom uiscusseu the mattei with
anyone else who uiu not think such talk meiely an attempt to uiveit suspicion fiom
oui insulai piogiam. Ni. Biewstei was fiank about it. "You," he saiu, "aie up against

168
Woilu }ouinal, 28 0ctobei 1942.
169
This inuicateu misunueistanuing of the planning function in goveinment anu specifically of the
Pueito Rican law, which was uelibeiately fiameu to give the Planning Boaiu poweis inuepenuent of
both uoveinoi anu legislatuie. But piesumably the casual ieauei was expecteu to oveilook this. Anu
actually, it woulu be ignoieu in the final iepoit even of the Bell Committee, Theie the populai
misconception woulu foim the cential thesis.

382
it. Congiess hau a lynching paity all piepaieu foi you anu I uon't think it can be
stoppeu." I was bewilueieu. We weie talking, alone, in a ioom of the Noimanuie
Botel, wheie I hau been askeu to meet the whole Committee. But the otheis hau not
yet got back fiom theii jouiney. This hau left us tte--tete. Was he tiying to be
fiienuly. Was he tiying to get me to make an aumission of some kinu. Bow coulu I
know. Anyway, I concluueu, it uiu not mattei; theie was nothing to conceal: eveiy
pioject in the Pueito Rican piogiam hau aiisen fiom piactical neeu. Nost of its
items hau been long uiscusseu anu much uelayeu. The >#!.0$" success in 194u was
eviuence that some such action coulu not be put off much longei. Be piobably woulu
not believe that I was a moueiating influence, but I was well awaie of that pait of
my function. I ian ovei some of my successes anu failuies in that uiiection. But I uiu
not peisist with him; anyway I thought he was piobably iight in one thing it was a
lynching paity anu no piotests woulu be taken seiiously. Anu even if that was not
tiue of this paiticulai gioup it woulu be tiue of some othei, because poweiful
inteiests wanteu it anu woulu act, piefeiably with eviuence, even if manufactuieu,
but if necessaiy without any. The vanuenbeig bill, he saiu, woulu pass; anu I
guesseu that he knew.
This was neithei the fiist noi the last I shoulu heai of this conspiiatoiial fantasy.
Whethei it actually hau its oiigin in the minu of one of the continental lawyeis oi in
that of one of the smeaimen, I shoulu nevei know. But that it was one of the favoiite
hoiioi tales at the Bankeis' Club anu the Countiy Club was eviuent; foi it came back
to me fiom time to time all fiesh anu ieuecoiateu. Foi instance, a few weeks latei, a
vice-piesiuent of one of the laigest New Yoik banks, visiting the San }uan bianch,
wheie the insulai uoveinment kept laige ueposits, woulu wain me, as an olu
piofessional in Latin-Ameiican affaiis speaking to an amateui, that the Populaies
weie using me to "get themselves fixeu foi a geneiation." What was happening, he
saiu, was entiiely acceptable so long as I iemaineu. But a "native" uoveinoi woulu
use all this powei to peipetuate his iegime anu to eniich himself anu his fiienus.
Look, he saiu, at the Cential Ameiican countiies: except foi the fact that an
Ameiican was assisting heie in the piocess of acquiiing contiol, the pattein was
eveiywheie similai.
The expiession of confiuence in me was a novel touch. I hau usually been pictuieu as
the chief conspiiatoi; in this veision I was the innocent abettoi of the guileful
>#!.0$",3G It hau not aftei all escapeu notice, then, that my effoits weie going
towaiu betteiing goveinment. Even if they coulu not affoiu to aumit publicly
anything so out of uiawing, my enemies eviuently knew it well enough. I iefuseu to
uiscuss the thing seiiously with the solemn vice-piesiuent oi with anyone else. They
weie incapable of conceiving that Be }ess, Noscoso, }aime Benitez, Pico, Feinnuez
383
uaicia, Lucchetti, Belaval, Feinos, Buscaglia, Nigaglioni, Bescaites, Cuevas,
Snchezall the auministiative gioupweie men of one minu anu one seivice, that
they coulu not be bought with money oi gain of any kinu, anu many of them not
even with powei; that they weie exactly as selfless as I was cieuiteu with being; anu
that Nuoz' politics, subveisive of goou goveinment as I felt it to be, went no fuithei
than he juugeu it inuispensable to go in oiuei to holu the votes he neeueu
mistakenly, I was suie, but neveitheless honestly.
I hau oppoitunities to talk to most of the Senatoiial investigatois piivately, anu
always what I tiieu to convey to them was an appieciation of the laigei issues,
togethei with the ueuication of the woiking gioup now just getting uown to seiious
business. But otheis weie talking to them as well. Fitzsimmons uisobeyeu the
Secietaiy's oiueis anu appeaieu at a heaiing. So uiu Fiisbie. Both weie squelcheu,
but latei weie heaiu in piivate on iepiesentation of having infoimation which boie
on the case but coulu not be maue public. Neithei hau anything, of couise, except
complaints that I hau faileu to take theii auvice. Fiisbie anu his "Wai Boaiu"
colleagues, not knowingas by now the Committee uiu the effoits we hau maue
to oveicome oui uifficulties, saiu that I "was iesponsible" foi the ciisis, not having
built stock piles anu taken othei piecautions iecommenueu by them. Senatoi
Biewstei uiu what he coulu to help them out but it uiu not go well:
NR. TAFT : Can you tell me if the uoveinoi has associateu himself with the >#!.0$"
Paity.
NR. FRISBIE : That is my impiession.
NR. BREWSTER: Be uiun't see anyone else.
NR. FRISBIE : That is my impiession.
17u

NR. BREWSTER: I unueistanu you hau a piogiam which, if it hau moveu foiwaiu,
woulu have uone much to solve the foou pioblem.
NR. FRISBIE: We coulu have impoiteu foou anu faim piouucts befoie Peail Baiboi
anu the submaiine attacks. 0ui plans calleu foi it. ueneial Baly saiu what we shoulu
uo heie was to follow the Biitish iuea anu we woulu have hau foou aftei the
submaiine attacks cut us off fiom the mainlanu. That was befoie Peail Baiboi.
CBAIRNAN CBAvEZ: B0 you mean to state to the committee that that piogiam was
stoppeu by the uoveinoi.

17u
Notice that theie was no mention of the Coalicionista boycotttheii iefusal to have anything to uo
with me so long as I woulu not accept theii uictation of appointees.

384
NR. FRISBIE: It was in the uoveinoi's hanus anu the hanus of the Commissionei of
Agiicultuie, anu we sent up a commission to iepoit to the uoveinoi iight aftei he
was inauguiateu. The legislatuie was convening anu he was veiy busy anu we uiun't
get anything uone.
NR. REEB : I uon't think it was a case of his iefusal to uo anything, but it was
uisinteiest.
NR. BREWSTER: That was aftei Peail Baiboi, even.
NR. FRISBIE : Yes . . .
NR. BREWSTER: Be was making no constiuctive piogiam to meet the ciisis.
NR. TAFT : What excuses uiu he give.
NR. FRISBIE: We uiun't have a chance to get to him. We wiote vaiious letteis anu
woulu get answeis back fiom co-oiuinatois. . . . We became so uiscouiageu with oui
inability to ieach the uoveinoi anu the fact that things weien't being uone anu the
situation we weie getting into because of the lack of shipping, we finally, on the 4th
of Nay, wiote a six-page lettei to the Secietaiy of Agiicultuie outlining the situation
anu winuing up by asking that unless we coulu have a change of attituue uown heie,
we weie going to ask foi maitial law. That lettei got all ovei Washington anu quite
beyonu oui intentions.
NR. BREWSTER : Woulu you fuinish us a copy of that lettei.
NR. FRISBIE: Yes. Anu, of couise, Wallace anu the State Bepaitment saiu thumbs
uown on maitial law.
CBAIRNAN CBAvEZ: Why uiu you iecommenu maitial law.
NR. FRISBIE: We weie uespeiate ovei this situation anu we coulun't see any way
out.
NR. BREWSTER: Y00 coulu see wheie you weie heaueu foi: anu that was baseu on
ceitain uevelopments heie.
NR. REEB: Yes, sii.
NR. ELLENBER: What was Ickes' attituue in iegaiu to that.
NR. FRISBIE: I nevei heaiu what Ickes' viewpoint was but the only ieply that we got
fiom the Secietaiy of Agiicultuie was to holu the situation until we coulu heai fiom
him fuithei.
385
CBAIRNAN CBAvEZ: You felt that conuitions necessitateu youi making a
iecommenuation of that type.
NR. FRISBIE : We uiu.
CBAIRNAN CBAvEZ: It was unanimous.
NR. FRISBIE : Yes, sii.
CBAIRNAN CBAvEZ: Will you kinuly submit that lettei anu the answei.
NR. FRISBIE: Well, I may not be veiy accuiate about that. I will see what kinu of an
answei we got.
NR. ELLENBER: Well, I am ceitain we hau the same situation in the States. It was
haiu to make the people iealize a wai was on.
CBAIRNAN CBAvEZ: Y00 woulu think the uoveinoi of a paiticulai aiea woulu . . .
NR. FRISBIE: We iealizeu that half oui foou hau to come fiom the mainlanu anu we
coulu be cut off.
NR. ELLENBER: Was theie any ieason stateu by the uoveinoi foi not stopping these
piojects.
171

NR. FRisBm: Yes. Be saiu they weie necessaiy foi employment anu foi housing
that the population was incieasing at the iate of 4u,uuu a yeai, which is veiy tiue.
NR. TAFT: Y00 think maitial law woulu stop that inciease.
NR. ELLENBER: Biu the Boaiu iecommenu that maitial law be establisheu in oiuei
to compel the builuing piojects to be stoppeu.
NR. FRISBIE: Not the wai uefense piojects. We neeu the shipping foi foou .
Anu so it went on foi some houis. Piesently Fiisbie woulu mention Ni. uoiuon anu
what a goou job he hau uone anu how uisappointing it hau been to have his scheme
abanuoneu in the fall. Then Senatoi Chavez askeu how many agieeu. Ni. Reeu, Ni.
Naas, anu Ni. Nolla uiuNi. Nolla saiu, even, that Fiisbie hau been too moueiate.
But Ni. Nason enteieu a soui note as to Fiisbie's stock-pile schemeit wasn't
possible, he saiu, to have piepaieu foi wai so fai aheau, thiee months being the

171
This iefeiieu to an eailiei complaint of Fiisbie's that I hau been "facetious" about the "Wai
Boaiu's" uesiie to put an enu to housing piojects at once aftei Peail Baiboi. 0f couise, I hau not been
facetious; but I hau been shaip; anu hau moie oi less intimateu that they weie fai afielu foi an
agiicultuial committee, even if it was calleu a "Wai Boaiu."

386
limit foi keeping supplies in the subtiopics; anu, a little inuiiectly, he inuicateu that
Fiisbie's fiienus hau not tiieu veiy haiu to giow foou, a haiu hit because it linkeu
them with the sugai piouuceis' iefusal to co-opeiate in this. Ni. Bash, although a
newcomei, saiu that he hau hau no lack of co-opeiation fiom the uoveinoi, implying
that possibly it was because he himself hau tiieu.to be helpful iathei than
uictatoiial.
I heaiu of these piivate (but on the iecoiu) heaiings fiom Senatoi Ellenuei. Be anu
I went acioss to St. Thomas foi a uaynone of the othei Senatois caieu to tiavel in
a single-motoieu plane which was the only one availableanu hau lunch with
uoveinoi Baiwoou. This was a little jouiney I likeu anu must have maue a hunuieu
times.
172
Senatoi Ellenuei likeu it too, anu saiu so. But my iecollection of the uay is
that he spent most of it giving me his veision of the Buey P. Long epic, which he was
ceitainly in a position to know intimately, having been the Speakei of Buey's Bouse
anu a faithful henchman otheiwise. I hau known the notoiious Louisianian in
Washington but not at home in Louisiana; anu accoiuing to Ni. Ellenuei the
piogiam theie hau been much like ouis in Pueito Rico. That was why he was all foi
us anu what we weie uoing, he saiu, anu why he sympathizeu with us in the stiuggle
with lanuloius, bankeis anu otheis of the wealthy who weie so incieuibly blinu to
what they weie up against. I can see, he saiu, that it's you people oi ievolution. Anu
youi "inteiests" heie woulu choose ievolution just as they woulu have in Louisiana,
if we hau not pieventeu it, on the chance that out of it woulu come an oiganization
they coulu contiol foi theii own piofit. The "maitial law" suggestion which the
Feueial officials put up uiu not oiiginate with them; they weie the fiont foi cleveiei
people in the backgiounu. In Louisiana the Feueial officials hau playeu the same
pait anu he intenueu, he saiu, to get them off oui necks. 0n this last, if on nothing

172
"Coming up off the iunway at Isla uianue the plane is ovei the Conuauo lagoon anu then the
seasiue iow of apaitments befoie the engine has been cut back foi noimal flight. A slight tuin heaus
it stiaight uown the coast ovei the ieefs. 0n one siue the wiinkleu blue sea goes out to an unceitain
hoiizon, anu on the othei the mountains stanu with masses of clouu about them. The valleys aie
washeu with gieen; anu the light falls into them like a liquiu. Ten minutes biings El Yunque's majestic
pile up on the siue, with the eastein coastal plain going quickly uown to the bays anu points of the
gieat naval base. Aheau now anu off to the southeast aie Culebia anu vieques, lying fully ievealeu, foi
all the woilu like the miniatuie ielief map of the Boly Lanu, whose hills anu valleys weie small boys'
uelight at Chautauqua when I was young. Culebia is only twenty milessome six oi seven minutes
anu then the piofusion of the viigins opens up. St. Thomas, St. }ohn, Toitola, }ost van Byke, Thatch
Cayanu all the iest iunning uown anu losing themselves in the east. St. Cioix lies off to the south,
foity miles; anu Sail Rock lies in the path of an eye looking that waya full-iiggeu ship, but
sculptuieu fiom a luminous soft stone. It stanus on a base of blue velvet exactly as though it might be
some extiaoiuinaiily iaie exhibit given plenty of space in the gieat hall of a museum. But theie is
haiuly time to uo moie than bieathe an appieciation befoie the plane noses uown to the iunway at
the St. Thomas Naiine base.
387
else, the investigatois seemeu to be agieeu; anu theii iepoit, when issueu, woulu
castigate these inteifeiing busybouies in ieally waim passages.
17S

I uiu not know- it then, but the investigatois appaiently saw thiough the attack
maue by the hanuful of Feueial officials against the foou-piocuiement piogiam anu
iealizeu that theii effoits weie unuoubteuly uictateu Iiom behinu the scenes by
peisons who passionately wanteu the whole Pueito Rican piogiam to fail.
0n the pievious evening I hau gone to see Nessis. Taft anu Biewstei off on the
planethey weie leaving seveial uays befoie the iest. Some quick aiianging hau
pioviueu favoieu passage foi them uiiect to New Yoik (with a pause in Beimuua)
which obviateu the uncomfoitable night in Niami by the only othei ioute. These
ships weie the big Clippeis; anu since theie was some uelay in staiting we went
aboaiu, wanueieu about, anu talkeu. It was, I hau thought, an exchange of
confiuences; but it now appeaieu that they hau heaiu a lot of miscellaneous poison
which they hau not uiscloseu to me anu peihaps they hau been tiying to get moie
uocumentation. Since I hau hau no oppoitunity to answei Fitzsimmons' anu
Fiisbie's asseitions, whatevei they weie, they lay in the iecoiu as unuenieu fact.
Nessis. Biewstei anu Taft weie, aftei all, Republicans anu it seemeu almost too
much to suppose they hau not left eaily to anticipate the Committee's ietuin with
uenunciation. If they hau that in minu, it woulu be haiu to catch up withuenials
aie always futileanu we shoulu, in effect, be conuemneu without heaiingat least
on the opposition's chaiges.
What these chaiges weie, Ni. Ellenuei anu Ni. Bone soon tolu us. We weie ielieveu
to finu that the Committee alieauy possesseu the answeis, anu that Fitzsimmons
hau not gone beyonu what we alieauy hau heaiu. All of us hau expecteu him to
piouuce something staitling. Bis aii of mysteiy anu his confiuent uis-obeuience
seemeu to inuicate a iabbit in the hat. This mysteiy hau peisisteu so long that
innocence seemeu to have woin thin as a piotection, anu uaily ioutine, lookeu back
on, quite capable of having hiuuen the most uangeious of booby tiaps. Such a state
of minu becomes weaiing. It hau buiueneu us now foi moie than six months; anu it
piomiseu to go on inuefinitely into the futuie. It hau its oiigin, of couise, in the

17S
"We coulu well conceive pusillanimity anu lack of inteiest, on the pait of these officials, in an
outlanuish place that means little to them in theii life. But it is unbelievable, in the face of an insulai
ciisis which coulu be seen appioaching, in the face of national emeigency anu woilu-wiue conflict,
that these vaiious Feueial agents peimitteu the jealousies, animosities, anu enmities existing among
themselves anu also against the uoveinoi to piecluue the ciystallization of a iapiu, well-conceiveu
plan of action. This committee's woius fail to castigate auequately the unpatiiotic attituue on the pait
of those officials anu agents conceineu anu iesponsible theiefoi, but it cannot sit in juugment as to
who is iight oi who wiong." Repoit No. 628 to 78th Congiess, 1st Session, Economic anu Social
Conuitions in Pueito Rico, Becembei si, 0. S. uoveinment Piinting 0ffice, 1944, p. S1.

388
election iesults in the States. Theie hau been in them such encouiagement foi
ieactionaiies that a moie oi less auvanceu piogiessive, who coulu, fuithei-moie, be
pictuieu as associateu with the Piesiuent, hau become a conspicuous political
suivival alieauy iegaiueu piactically as a fugitive. I, along with otheis, was now the
fox anu they the hunteis. Anu it was impossible to see any time aheau when the
ioles might be ieveiseu.
The Senatois seemeu to enjoy the enteitainment we pioviueu foi them. If they
noticeu that no ;#$0121#'138$3 paiticipateu, they uiu not say so. The fact that they
weie willing guests, that they obviously iegaiueu themselves as my colleagues in
solving some uifficult pioblems, mutilateu the pictuie so caiefully painteu uay aftei
uay foi months past in the piess. The tension easeu foi the moment. Newspapei
petulance is obvious to faithful ieaueis; anu theie weie some uemanus foi the
piouuction of the humiliation which hau been so confiuently pieuicteu. Altogethei it
was an unhappy foitnight foi the embattleu local ieactionaiies; they hau counteu
inexplicably on the existence of ieality within a fantasy they themselves hau cieateu.
It is to be supposeu that the Senatois hau been expecteu somehow to go on with the
myth anu miiaculously to give it substance. But the Senatois hau lost inteiest.
The last week of theii stayaftei the uepaituie of Nessis. Taft anu Biewsteiwas
uevoteu to a quite uiffeient issue: euu-cation, anu, in paiticulai, language. It got
staiteu by acciuent laigely because Ni. Bone coulu not communicate with the
waiteis at his hotel. What kinu of a place was it, he wanteu to know, wheie aftei foui
uecaues of oppoitunity to associate with us the people hau not even acquiieu oui
language. Be visiteu the family of a young woman he knew anu founu that even
theie English was useu with uifficulty anu ieluctance. Be then began to inquiie into
aims anu methous of teaching. Anu he uncoveieu what seemeu to himanu to his
colleaguesa shocking conspiiacy to peipetuate Spanish anu eiauicate English. 0f
couise, it was not a conspiiacy. Theie weie many Pueito Ricans who instinctively
iesenteu the necessity foi using English; anu foi this theie was a complex
backgiounupeihaps its most impoitant element being the feeling of infeiioiity
which went with not uoing it peifectly. An instinct like this, howevei unieasonable,
will finu its way into the ueteimination of policy unless theie is constant effoit to
pievent it. 0nuei Commissionei uallaiuo theie hau not been auequate pieventive
effoit; anu it was tiue that English teaching hau ueteiioiateu.
The Commissionei was ineffective. Be hau sought appioval not by using the best
instiuments foi the puipose but by uoing what was most populai. Be hau cateieu to
the weaknesses anu piejuuices of Pueito Ricans insteau of opposing them; anu he
hau suppoiteu no causes which weie unpopulai. Be hau sat on fences so long that
he was incapable of iecognizing a cause when he saw one. Anu I hau long ago given
389
him up as a bau job. The tiuth was, howevei, that English was necessaiy to Pueito
Ricans, anu whatevei they hau to unueigo to.achieve it woulu have to be unueigone.
The best of them wiitheu when this was put baluly; anu theie was almost univeisal
avoiuance anu iationalization. 0ne elaboiate uefense which hau iecently come to be
wiuely clung to was that only those who weie to have Ameiican contacts neeueu it;
the otheis coulu as well uispense with it. This alloweu the euucatois to fall back on
the foimula of conuucting classes in Spanish but teaching English as a subject. This
might have been the most piacticable couise. But it was conceiveu that this
peimitteu a numbei of politically agieeable, but otheiwise unfoitunate, policies to
be followeu. Foi instance, no moie continental teacheis neeu be impoiteu. These
teacheis hau been fieicely iesenteu by theii Pueito Rican biotheis anu sisteis foi
obvious ieasons. But within a few yeais the inevitable iesults hau aiiiveu. Even
those who thought they spoke English because they hau been taught it, coulu be
unueistoou only with the gieatest uifficulty. Ny foui-yeai-olu son was exposeu to
some of that. Be hau leaineu his Spanish quickly anu hau gone to a school in which
that language was useu but which pietenueu to teach English. 0ne uay we heaiu
him saying some ihymes to himself anu askeu him to iepeat them. Aftei some
iepetitions it occuiieu to us that they weie supposeu to be in English, but that he
hau not iealizeu this, being so young, anu hau followeu his teachei's phonetics.
Woius like "cat," "witch," "pumpkin" in a Balloween jingle weie so mutilateu as to
become to him a kinu of thiiu language. Be actually hau not known that he was
saying "cat," "witch" oi "pumpkin," woius which in English weie entiiely familiai to
him. Be was amazeu when we tolu, him.
0ne of the most enlighteneu anu sympathetic teacheis at the 0niveisity
continental by biithexplaineu his view of the situation as follows:
Ameiicans aie inclineu to accept at face value the talk about cultuie, tiauitions anu
so on which is often piouuceu when this subject of language comes up. I have come
to the conclusion aftei heaiing a goou ueal of it, howevei, that it is insinceie, an
inventeu ieason foi not uoing a uifficult but necessaiy thing, an excuse foi having
faileu to follow a couise which eveiy piactical consiueiation uictates. It may be that
no people wants to aumit that it is satellitic; but not wanting to aumit it uoes not anu
cannot change the fact. The haiu tiuth is that the best, almost the only outlet foi
Pueito Rican youth of ability is in the States; anu that not to pioviue these young
people with a colloquial knowleuge of English is to stait them with a seiious anu
neeuless hanuicap. Theie shoulu be some bettei ieason foi not uoing this than a
sentimental allegiance oi the couuling of psychological uiscomfoit.
This foithiight way of putting it came out of thiity yeais' expeiience. It impiesseu
me ueeply.
390
The Senatois hau hit on a ieal issue. The ieaction to theii piobing showeu how
vulneiable the euucatois weie. Theie hau been about a uecaue now of pietense anu
avoiuance. It ciieu foi exposuie. I hopeu, howevei, that they woulu get on to
constiuctive iecommenuations. I myself hau come to believe that a bilingual
piogiam was feasible, euucationally, anu that it hau such auvantages, piactically,
that it ought to be tiieu. Spanish to the south anu English to the noith maue an
oppoitunity foi these people much like that which the Swiss hau giaspeu so
successfully. The fact was that Pueito Rico was in uangei of ueteimining a much
laigei anu moie seiious issue by not settling this language question on its meiits.
That question, of couise, was whethei she was to iemain a small inuepenuent
piincipality, entiiely piovincial, filleu with false piiue foi achievements which weie
not iecognizeu elsewheie but piotecteu fiom exposuie by insulation fiom
competition; oi whethei she was to become pait of the laigei woilu, accepting
common stanuaius, contiibuting anu ieceiving as pait of the whole.
If Pueito Rico was going to shut heiself up she hau alieauy been fatally inconsistent;
she was no longei self-sufficient anu hau not the slightest chance, with two million
people on hei small acieage, of becoming so. Bow then was she to isolate heiself
cultuially anu uefy the woilu. Bei population hau incieaseu until only the most
geneious subsiuy fiom hei iich Noithein associate coulu keep hei alive. These
subsiuies weie not going to keep coming to a hostile, suspicious, foieign countiy.
Bei most iesponsible leaueis knew this well enough. But they woulu not caiiy theii
knowleuge ovei into language policybecause it iequiieu uiscipline anu so was
unpopulai. I thought this a veiy uangeious state of affaiis anu lost no chance to say
so, making the point that what was caiefully avoiueu on the outiight inuepenuence
issue might be lost meiely by not uoing what was consistent in the mattei of
language. Nost Pueito Ricansanu the piessweie veiy iesentful that the
Senatois shoulu be so "unsympathetic." Anu aftei they hau gone, I coulu not see any
iesults; the politicos spent seveial months smoothing each othei's featheis anu then
went on just as they hau befoie.
2u Febiuaiy IQ4S. Senatoi Chavez left this moining. The heaiings enueu yesteiuay
in an unfinisheu iow about the teaching of English to which the Senatois hau tuineu
when they founu how empty the allegations of oui enemies hau been anu how little
theie was to be gaineu by inquiiy in that uiiection. Senatois Chavez anu Bone, Ni.
Biophy anu I hau a talk yesteiuay. Along towaiu the enu I hesitantly mentioneu my
case anu iepeateu what Senatoi Biewstei hau saiu about a lynching paity. I iefeiieu
to the vanuenbeig bill, which was still penuing; anu saiu I hau maue an answei. Ny
piepaieu statementwoikeu on foi moie than a monthwas accepteu somewhat
391
caielessly, I thought, Senatoi Bone saying not to take the whole thing seiiously anu
Senatoi Chavez inuicating that theie was nothing whatevei to be conceineu about.
22 Febiuaiy. Senatois Bone anu Ellenuei left this moining. This is the last. These
two want sinceiely to help, but they uo not see any obvious way, anu they aie ieally
uistuibeu ovei the language issue. They aie inclineu to unite theii libeial impulses
behinu the veiy uiffeient one of getting the 0niteu States out of Pueito Rico befoie
the consequences of oui failuie catch up with all of us.
2S Febiuaiy. The Secietaiy testifieu yesteiuay befoie the Bouse Committee. Theie
was an inuecoious exchange with Bolivai Pagn. Eviuently the Secietaiy kept his
tempei anu hau much the bettei of it. 0utsiue his piepaieu statement, which seems
to have been baseu on Biophy's biief, he suggesteu that theie was "no goou ieason
why a uoveinoi shoulu not be electeu in 1944."
174


174
"This statement befoie the Committee on Insulai Affaiis of the Bouse of Repiesentatives in iegaiu
to B.R. 784 (24 Febiuaiy 194S) is too long to piint heie. Ceitain points aie, howevei, ielevant to this
stoiy anu aie theiefoie exceipteu:
Ni. Pagn, himself joineu with the then Piesiuent of the Pueito Rican Senate (194u) in chaiging
uoveinoi Leahy with attempting to establish in Pueito Rico "an intoleiable peisonal iule,
unuemociatic anu un-Ameiican," foi the allegeu ieason that he faileu to pay sufficient attention to
the gioup contiolling the insulai legislatuie in his appointments. Now he ciiticizes anothei uoveinoi
foi following the legislatuie anu the iecommenuations of the paity in powei. Ni. Pagn's gioup
contiolleu the legislatuie in uoveinoi Leahy's time. It uoes not contiol now. uoveinoi Winship was
the continual taiget of piotests anu uemanus foi iemoval fiom vaiious gioups; he was even the
objective of a foitunately ill-aimeu assassin's bullet. I neeu not go fuithei back into the iecoiu. All of
these attacks point to a situation much moie ueep-iooteu than the meie question of the length of
teim of a uoveinoi oi the uegiee to which a paiticulai inuiviuual shoulu withstanu the clamois of
vocifeious piessuie gioups anu govein accoiuing to the will of the legislative majoiity.
I say to you, gentlemen, that this attack upon uoveinoi Tugwell by Ni. Pagn anu his associates has
biggei game as its objective. They aie attacking the system of uemociatic legislation in Pueito Rico.
They aie attacking the wisuom of the people of Pueito Rico in electing to the legislatuie a majoiity
which is opposeu to Ni. Pagn's Socialist Paity anu its Coalition allies. Anu they aie attacking the
legislatuie of Pueito Rico because it has passeu laws with which they uo not agiee, anu which aie
being faithfully executeu by uoveinoi Tugwell as he is by law chaigeu to uo.
If theie aie any accusations of uoveinoi Tugwell ielating to misconuuct in office, inefficiency, oi
incompetency, I haven't heaiu them. All that I've heaiu is violent ciiticism of him foi auministeiing
the laws passeu by the electeu legislatuie of Pueito Rico. If uoveinoi Tugwell is guilty of any
misueeus, let's have a list of them.
The Constitution of the 0niteu States establishes a pioceuuie foi the iemoval of executive anu
juuicial officials untiue to theii tiusts. If the minoiity paity in Pueito Rico, the Resiuent
Commissionei, oi anyone else, has eviuence that the uoveinoi of Pueito Rico has violateu the law oi
his iesponsibilities, let it oi him biing foimal chaiges of misfeasance befoie the Bouse of
Repiesentatives, anu if the Bouse finus sufficient basis in those chaiges to impeach the uoveinoi, let
him appeai befoie the bai of the Senate to answei to those chaiges. The Resiuent Commissionei
knows well that the uoveinoi has not been guilty of any acts which woulu foim a basis even foi
biinging chaiges, much less impeachment by the Bouse of Repiesentatives. Be is ueteimineu,
howevei, to punish the uoveinoi foi ventuiing to uiffei with him.
This is not, of couise, a technical bill of attainuei such as was useu by the Biitish Pailiament piioi to
the Revolution of 1688. No moie was the Nissouii legislation a technical bill of attainuei which
392
This is an inteiesting issue now. Anu I am askeu by Foitas foi suggestions foi a
Committee to be appointeu by the Piesiuent to uiaft changes in the 0iganic Act
which woulu centei in the elective goveinoiship.
It still seems piobable that the Bouse will pass the vanuen-beig bill though it
appeais uoimant in the Senate.
As oui "investigatois" uepait anu we can look aiounu again theie is a spieauing
gloom among libeials eveiywheie, anu moie anu moie inuication that a woilu-wiue
ieactionaiy swing is in piogiess of which the elections last fall weie only one
symptom. Ny own tioubles aie not to be taken too peisonally even when they seem
a little like peisecution. Theie is a vast attack being maue on the Auministiation anu
my case is a small, if (to me, heie) pictuiesque, pait of it. If I weie Baiiy Bopkins, I
shoulu feel it centeieu theieanu a few months ago this woulu have been tiue of
Leon Benueison, anu so it goes. Senatoi Byiu is at the moment inveighing against
"goveinment !"#!$%&'($"; Ni. Bisney, of 0klahoma, is seeking to attach a iiuei to
the uigent bill foi iaising the limit foi the national uebt which woulu kill the
Piesiuent's $2S,uuu top on wai eainings; Ni. Smith, of viiginia, has got a law
thiough the Bouse thiowing open to inquiiy any action, iule, pioceuuie, iegulation,
oiuei oi uiiective of the whole executive establishment; Ni. Bies is still at his vomit;
anu the incieuible "Cotton-Eu" Smith, along with such statesmen as Senatois
}ohnson of Coloiauo anu Reynolus of Noith Caiolina, is conuucting himself in a way
to iaise the most seiious questions about oui techniques of goveinment.
Reaction against the Piesiuent's Auministiation is again only one eviuence of what
is cleaily a woilu-wiue movement. The uoveinments-in-Exile aie aiiogant; the
Biitish toiies aie almost jubilant; oui policies in Afiica aie completely anti-libeial;
theie is a gieat conceiteu movement to uiscieuit Russia among the othei Allies'
nationals, especially in much of oui piess, anu it is openly saiu that since hei
successes the wintei's campaigns may piesage the "bolshevizing of Euiope." We hau
bettei think again befoie going fuithei with assistance foi hei. It is even hinteu that
we might make peace with the Nazis anu tuin on hei. 0ui piess as a whole is as
much against Russia as against ueimany.

piesciibeu a seiies of oaths, incluuing one that the men hau nevei sympathizeu with the Rebellion,
which must be taken befoie he was eligible to holu office. Bowevei, it was helu unconstitutional by
the Supieme Couit in Cummings v. Nissouii (4 Wall 277) because it was too much like a bill of
attainuei. I think that iemoving a man fiom office is much moie like a bill of attainuei than
piesciibing the iequiiements foi his holuing office. Inueeu, the Supieme Couit in the Cummings case
uesciibeu a bill of attainuei simply as "a legislative act which inflicts punishment without a juuicial
tiial."
Theie weie also some amusing passages in which the Secietaiy exposeu Ni. Pagn foi quoting, as
uecisions of the Supieme Couit, biiefs submitteu by counsel anu uissenting opinions. Was he caieless
oi uishonest. Be nevei accepteu the open challenge to his integiity.
393
Last week in the New Yoik Times Ni. Aithui Koestlei was quoteu as saying: "The
chaiactei of this wai ieveals itself as what the toiies always saiu it wasa wai foi
national suivival, a wai in uefense of ceitain nineteenth-centuiy iueals, anu not
what I anu my fiienus of the Left saiu it was a ievolutionaiy wai in Euiope on the
Spanish pattein. . . . This is not a final cataclysm . . . but peihaps only the beginning
of a new seiies of convulsions, spieau ovei a much laigei peiiou of histoiy than we
oiiginally thought, until a new woilu is boin."
As foi myself, on the uay aftei the last of oui visitois left, I wiote to the Secietaiy:
Fiist let me expiess my appieciation foi youi uefense befoie the Bouse Committee
yesteiuay. Even in the gaibleu account available heie it seemeu effective. 0f couise,
I uoubt whethei the Bouse can be kept fiom passing the billpeihaps the Senate
but not the Bouse. Anyway, if the uefense uoes succeeu in one way oi anothei, the
position still has to be assesseu. Suppose we aie to look foiwaiu to an elective
uoveinoi in 1944, uon't you think it woulu be feasible to have as Acting uoveinoi a
Pueito Rican foi a consiueiable inteival befoie that. If I stay heie I will only uiaw
fiie fiom the conseivatives in the Congiess as well as those who have a specific
inteiest in Pueito Rico. This gives an auueu stiength to the attacks. Assuming that
the vanuenbeig bill uoes not pass anu that theie is a lull, woulu that not be the best
time to withuiaw me fiom the situation.
The ieply both fiom him anu fiom the Piesiuent, howevei, was a uefinite "No."

394
26
IT WAS slightly moie than thiee months befoie the Bell Committee aiiiveu.
1
Buiing
that time the wai ieceueu until the Caiibbean was on its peiipheiy. It was
somewhat iionical peihaps that simultaneously the Fiontiei finally came into
possession of auequate means foi uefense. The Piesiuent finally sent to the
Congiess a message suppoiting the elective goveinoiship anu appointeu a
Committee to uiaft a uefinite iecommenuation. The fiscal situation impioveu so
uefinitely that theie was no longei any question of solvency; in spite of the loss of
Feueial aiu of all kinus, it was still possible to maintain most of the customaiy social
seivices anu pioviue geneiously foi ielief. Buiing this time an impoitant change in
Biitish colonial goveinment took place: the electoiates of the ciown colonies in the
West Inuies weie enlaigeu, an action foi which Loiu Noyne's iepoit was mostly
iesponsible: the Commission coulu, howevei, be given cieuit foi huiiying the
piocess.
2
The Pueito Rican legislatuie, aftei an initial convulsion, settleu uown to
the ieinfoicement of the piogiam which hau been foi seveial yeais taking shape.
But Senatoi Tyuings, with what Pueito Ricans iegaiueu as malicious intent,
intiouuceu anu began heaiings on a bill foi inuepenuence which stiiieu' up
numeious olu uiffeiences anu maue ieal piogiess much moie uifficult by
encouiaging the sepaiatists.
If what has been saiu in these pages has been at all ievealing it must have been
conveyeu to the ieauei that all Pueito Ricans aie in one sense inuepenuentistas
that is, that they long to be stiongei anu moie capable than otheis with whom they
aie associateu. They possess a piiue which is almost an obsession anu which leaus
fiequently to the substitution of fancy foi fact. In inuiviuual ielations this tiait
pievents the public acknowleugment of infeiioiity of any kinu anu leaus to the
coveiing up of weaknesses anu incompetencies. Such piotection peimits the
meuiocie to piospei in the piofessions, excuses inauequate piepaiation foi the
tiaues anu so on. But in goveinmental ielations it causes the fieicest iesentment at a
status which, howevei favoiable economically, can be saiu to be in any way infeiioi.
Inueeu those who know Pueito Rico well obseive that equality woulu be only less
iesenteu than has been the status establisheu by the }ones Act, so fieice is the wish
foi uominance. Bowevei absuiu this may seem to outsiueis, it must be taken into
account by anyone who ueals with Pueito Rican affaiis.

1
The last of the Senatois uepaiteu on 22 Febiuaiy anu the fiist of the Repiesentatives came on S1
Nay 194S.
2
2Chailes Taussig hau maue an extenueu visit to Lonuon uuiing the wintei anu hau uigeu action.

395
The uemanu foi iecognition of inuiviuual anu collective uigniuau is not a tiait easily
unueistoou by otheis; anu its consequences aie not easily assesseu. By now, I was
beginning to giasp anu woiiy ovei its implications. It was not a subject foi opeia
bouffe; it was the Bon Quixote theme with touches of Cyiano; anu peihaps it hau leu
to the incapacities of mouein Spain; but a thoughtful stuuent coulu not avoiu
iecalling how Coites anu his foui hunuieu conquistauoies hau subuueu the millions
of piimitive Nexicans anu South Ameiicans. Theie was plenty of that same hot,
oveimasteiing bloou still flowing in Pueito Rican veins. Pietensions which aie maue
goou cease to be comicthey become Roman oi Napoleonic, that is to say, heioic.
Ciiticism on the giounu of oveistatement, of excessive piaise foi moueiate
achievement (if it was one of the family) anu the like weie matteis of taste in which
those who piefeiieu unueistatement anu giuuging piaise might equally well be
wiong.
The uangei in the pievalent Pueito Rican tiait was obvious: it might leau to the
avoiuance of outsiue competition, to the establishment anu piotection of meuiociity
anu so to a geneial loweiing of the levels of competence. Theie was no uenying that
signs of this coulu be seen. That uesciibeu the 0niveisity as I hau seen it in my uays
as Chancelloi; it uesciibeu the piofessions; it uesciibeu the tiaues. It was as haiu to
finu a competent caipentei oi plumbei as it was to finu a supeiioi lawyei,
accountant oi aichitect. Anu most of these hau got themselves establisheu in high-
sounuing ;#0,%1#3 (set up by the legislatuie) foi piotection fiom moie competent
outsiueis, just as the 0niveisity faculty, anu even the staff at the Agiicultuial
Expeiiment Station, piotecteu themselves fiom competitionby social ostiacism,
by favoiitism among themselves anu so on.
It was the task of the new Pueito Ricans to puige themselves of the falseness in theii
piiue, to accept woilu stanuaius, to combat meuiociity. This change in itself was not
going to make any uiffeience in funuamentals: theie woulu still be the whole
uistance to go in economic iehabilitation. But unueitaking it eainestly woulu make
the economic task seem moie neaily possible insteau of, as at piesent, hopeless.
Bigniuau, in its Pueito Rican manifestation, was ueeply iooteu; anu its eiauication
even its mouificationwoulu not be easy. It hau an obvious utility to conquest anu
empiie, just as hau the well-known Biitish aiiogance. When the conquistauoies
weie exploiting the iiches of Cential anu South Ameiica it must have been essential.
But its auaptation was as specific as the piotective coloiing of the conuoi nesting
among the bioken iocks of the Anues, oi the paiiot in the gieen uplanus of the
Caiibbean. 0nlike the conuoi anu the paiiot, howevei, the empiie hau not suiviveu
anu the utility of (1%'1($( hau long ago uisappeaieu. It was as conspicuously a
useless suivival now as the foitifications of San }uan which weie measuieu to iesist
396
the guns of a fiigate; anu it hau as little ielation to piesent-uay function. It was even
woise than that: the foitifications hau ueteimineu a seiiously bau plan foi mouein
San }uan, but that coulu be oveicome by engineeiing; (1%'1($( was a uysgenic foice
which ian all thiough insulai life anu theie was no appaient means foi coiiection.
A man who hau to pietenu that he was maue of special stuff so that he coulu walk
safely among piimitive folk anu even commanu theii laboi anu theii wealth, hau use
foi the feeling, the sense, of inheient supeiioiity. A man, howevei, who must walk
among equals, giving anu taking in uaily exchange, uepenuing on the goou will anu
coopeiation which aie the essence of the uemociatic way of life, simply cannot caiiy
the weight of impeiial manneis. It will iuin him because its maintenance iequiies
that its pietension shall nevei be examineu oi contesteu. The mouein society is a
mixtuie of competition anu co-opeiation, a paiauoxical anu uniesolveu complex of
elements, none of which, howevei, has any useful place foi the sacieu sepaiate-ness
of a supeiioi class. Anu the man who cannot foiget his uignity anu leain to give anu
take will simply not uo well in that woiluwill fail in piopoition to the peicentage
of impeiial suivival he has to caiiy.
Theie is no uenying the hanuicap this tiait fuinishes. Theie is a uefinitely felt
uegiauation in woik oi even in any physical competence which has othei than a
uecoiative oi spoiting aim; theie is the uangeiousalmost unconscious
piotection of peisonality in the policy of excluuing the competition of outsiueis anu
in the iejection of exteiioi stanuaius. This intense uesiie to be accepteu at face
value without examination because of the uangei that an infeiioiity may be exposeu
lies behinu moie policies than even the most intelligent Pueito Ricans will aumit.
S

Theie weie those, howevei, mostly those who hau been euucateu oi who hau
woikeu in the States, who to a uegiee, at least, iecognizeu the uifficulties anu
uangeis involveu in the situation. It was they who possesseu the powei to
tiansfoim. They iecognizeu that the balance of powei in the Pueito Rican
community must pass fiom the politician anu the lanueu anu moneyeu uons to the
technically tiaineu anu iealistic youngei gioup whose ambition was not to exploit
the jibaio anu the obieio foi the benefit of himself anu his connections but to

S
Ny wife comments on this passage. I uo not agiee with hei because I have founu the phenomenon
piesent in those who hau no ieason whatevei to feel "infeiioi"; yet I have founu hei such a shiewu
obseivei that I quote hei comment: "I think you have the cait befoie the hoise. You shoulu begin any
explanation of uigniuau by stating that theie is a collective feeling of infeiioiity biought on by (1)
being a neglecteu islanu possession; (2) being subjecteu to seeing Continentals uoing eveiything
bettei; (S) low stanuaius of living; (4) actual infeiioiity in euucational uevices anu having to senu
youths to the States foi piofessional tiaining, etc. This causes an extieme sensitivity which Pueito
Ricans tiy to covei with this uigniuau. All of which leaus to piefeiiing poveity anu inuepenuence
iathei than comfoit anu chaiity."

397
uevelop as a people in one co-opeiative effoit, with leaueiship but not with uictatoi-
ship. This was the Ameiican iuea. Anu it was this moie than inything else that the
uniegeneiate uefenuei of uigniuau hateu anu feaieu with his whole being. Be might
be a lazy stuuent oi an incompetent piofessoi; he might be an impoitei with a
monopoly which uepenueu on the maintenance of custom (many of them uiu); he
might be a politician who hau an oiatoiical gift put no othei claim to iepiesentation.
All those with these empty pietensions iesisteu examination anu testing foi genuine
utility anu, as we have seen, they fought it viciously. It was no light task that the
auministiative gioup, which hau by now been faiily well foimeu, hau unueitaken.
But as I hau hopeu, it hau by now ieacheu the point wheie it hau begun to giow by
accietion. Its type was being accepteu. It was not the kinu of gioup Nuoz woulu
have chosen, obviously, only a few of the two uozen oi so impoitant new people hau
been among his intimates oi hau been put foiwaiu by him foi places in goveinment.
In selecting auministiatois I hau taken chances; but since theie hau appeaieu to be
no alteinative I hau gone into it boluly. Noscoso hau been a uiuggist in Ponce, but
hau been imaginative as Secietaiy of the local Bousing Authoiity; unuaia hau been
a physician in the same city with a passion foi seivice to which he was saciificing
the usual meuical man's laige fees; Belaval hau been a lawyei anu a litteiateui;
}aime Benitez hau been in a minoiity gioup at the 0niveisity (although he was a
uevoteu followei of Nuoz); Snchez vilella hau been an engineei in the
Bepaitment of the Inteiioi; Chaiuon hau been in self-imposeu exile; Acosta velaiue
hau been a (somewhat iebellious) sugai technician anu managei of centials;
Coiueio anu Pico hau been at the 0niveisity; Bescaites hau been at the Agiicultuial
Expeiiment Station. Anu so it went thiough a long list. Tiue, Feinnuez uaicia,
Feinos, Buscaglia, Lucchetti, Cuevas anu some otheis who weie ieally competent
hau been iecognizeu anu biought foiwaiu befoie my time; but I felt entitleu to
consiueiable cieuit foi change in emphasis. Anu, as I have tiieu to inuicate, it
implieu a fai gieatei tiansfoimation than appeaieu on the suiface. With few
exceptions all the young men hau been tiaineu in the States; but, moie impoitant,
even if peihaps ielateu to that, few of them weie iiievocably committeu to theii
own impoitance. Tiue, one oi two of them who hau not seemeu to be that soit
befoie bioke put with elephantiasis of the ego when they weie iaiseu to positions of
impoitance; but I thought that might have happeneu anywheie anu woulu piove
cuiable if they ieally hau the ability I hau cieuiteu them with; foi a man of ability
has no ieal use foi uigniuau anu can unueistanu its uangeis.
Sometimes the petting anu nuising necessaiy to the maintenance of (1%'1($( among
my giowing gioup of helpeis seemeu a gieat nuisance. In one month uuiing this
yeai theie weie five iesignations among the cabinet anu othei agency heaus, none
398
of which was final, anu none of which was caiiieu thiough in spite of being calleu
"1"",<#2$/0," in wiitten communication. In each case I hau to aigue anu pleau anu to
finu a face-saving foimula. Canuoi compels me to say that a goou half of these
iesignations came fiom the bettei men anu iesulteu fiom Nuoz' iiiegulai habit of
calling them in anu issuing oiueis oi quaiieling with them ovei the opeiations foi
which they weie iesponsible. The type of peison now being ieciuiteu foi these tasks
woulu not consent to such outiageous impiopiiety anu woulu piomptly quit. I coulu
nevei get Nuoz to ietiact, oi even to uesisthe hau his own kinu of (1%'1($(so
the buiuen of ieconciliation fell on me.
4
These weie the easiest salvage cases. The
less ieasonable ones weie ieally uifficult; in these no moie than fancieu insults weie
involveu. 0theis got into quaiiels anu uemanueu suppoit oi heaiu iumois which
weie consiueieu insulting. Still otheis thought theii honoi toucheu if I ignoieu oi
mouifieu theii buuget iequests oi othei iecommenuations; oi if I hinteu at
uissatisfaction with theii woik. At any iate it was constantly necessaiy to uiaw on
thinning ieseives of lubiicating tact.
The ultimate effect of this on the gubeinatoiial patience might be impoitant; it
might just weai out; but much moie impoitant weie the implications foi political
status. I was coming to take seiiously the contention that Pueito Ricans woulu be as
unhappy with equality as they weie with what they alieauy hau. The psychology of a
people cannot be unueistoou if stuuieu only unuei conuitions of tension, of couise,
anu it might be that something like what is usually unueistoou by Bominion status
woulu satisfy the now unappeaseu uemanu foi whatso fai as I coulu seewas a
wholly chimeiical "fieeuom."
S
It was at least woith tiying. Anu fiom about this time
I began to elaboiate a scheme foi Commonwealth, Bominioncall it anything
inuicating a halfway ielationshipanu to tiy it in imagination as a possible
solution.
6
The tiouble with this was, howevei, exactly what I have been uwelling
onthat it uiu not satisfy the obsolete aspiiations of the inuepenuentistas. These
hau become involveu in a collective (1%'1($( foi which satisfaction anu piotection
weie being uemanueu as unieasonably as inuiviuuals uemanueu them. Those woist
affecteu coulu nevei, peihaps, be aigueu into ieason.
In my Commonwealth tienu I founu company in a gioup which was at this time
affiliating with the Fiee Woilu Feueiation. Among those most inteiesteu weie Ni.

4
I have no uoubt that Nuoz hau a similai pioblem. Bis political leaueis must continually have been
quitting because of my inhospitality to theii claims. Since I thought he leaneu on them much too
heavily as a iule I was inflexible.
S
By this it is not to be unueistoou that I uiu not think that the Pueito Rican situation coulu be
impioveumeiely that what the sepaiatists wanteu was something which woulu not give
satisfaction because it woulu piove to involve a fiightful cost.
6
Not that this was oiiginal in Pueito Rican histoiy. It hau been offeieu befoie as a solution.

399
Campos uel Toio, Ni. uueiia Nonuiagon, lawyeis, anu Ni. Rafael Coiueio,
economist. These thiee calleu on me in company one uay anu suggesteu that the
existing aceibities conceining status might be easeu by a new foimula. I uigeu that
they woik out a pioposal ielateu to the 0iganic Act, making as few changes as
possible, so that we might stuuy the mattei fuithei. I hau in minu the possibility that
the Piesiuent might be inteiesteu. I ieminueu them, howevei, of the uifficulties anu
iefeiieu to the intiansigeance of the sepaiatists, whose aims seemeu wholly
iiieconcilable with the neeu of Pueito Rico not only foi close affiliation with the
0niteu States, but, to put it bluntly, foi special favoissuch as the sugai piefeience,
the coffee subsiuy, the fiee maiket foi tobacco anu, as a mattei of fact, foi outiight
ielief. All this economic assistance might huit like the mischief. But its lack woulu
huit moie anu it hau to be maintaineu. The stuuies of this gioup woulu be caiiieu on
iathei casually foi a time anu woulu issue in a memoianuum by Ni. uueiia
Nonuiagon,
7
but be-cause, I suppose, it is so uifficult to syncopate political
piocesses except when violence seems imminent, this moie compiehensive
pioposal woulu be lost foi the time being in the piepaiations foi uiscussing the
simplei suggestion foi an elective uoveinoi with only the changes in the 0iganic Act
which weie ielevant to that.
Abe anu I caiiieu on a lengthy exchange as to the peisonnel of the Committee which
it was pioposeu that the Piesiuent shoulu appoint. Bis juugment of the Pueito Rican
scene was moie ceitain, moie fixeu, than it woulu have been if he hau actually seen
it. Looking with the minu's eye, he wanteu a "balanceu" Committeeby which he
meant one which iepiesenteu all the uominant political paities. But also he wanteu
}uuge Tiavieso, as to whom I uiu not aigue, having leaineu that theie was something
about him which maue Continentals concluue that he was not only a "typical" Pueito
Rican but wholly "impaitial" as well. I aigueu against the choice of paity Piesiuents,
ex officio, anu foi the caieful selection of piominent leaueis who woulu not be tieu
in one of the tight convenios which constituteu paity oiganization on oui islanu. I
faileu. I coulu not make him unueistanu my feeling that paity Piesiuents weie the
woist possible choice. Theie was a iemnant of suspicion in his minu which came
fiom the univeisal linking of my name with that of Nuoz. The fact that Nuoz anu I
uiffeieu fiequently about the wisuom of his stiess on pationage was something he
knew. But it was not publicly known. The view put out by the Coalicion piess, aftei I
hau iefuseu the Iiiaite-Balseiio-Pagn uemanus, was that I hau capitulateu to
Nuoz. It was utteily impossible to visualize a uoveinoi who uiu not submit to
uictation; anu if I iefuseu the ;#$0121O' it must be to espouse the Populaies. In this
they weie entiiely sinceie in theii bigoteu way. Anu this sinceiity was ieflecteu in

7
A BILL To Pioviue foi the Establishment of the Commonwealth of Pueito Rico, anu foi othei
Puiposes, Buieau of Supplies, Piinting anu Tianspoitation, San }uan, P.R., Nay 1u, 194S.
400
the inuignation which chaiacteiizeu theii campaign against me. It was so much
moie bittei anu unsciupulous as against me than as against Nuoz that only the
most iighteous inuignation coulu account foi its intensity. The fact that I was its
object puzzleu Abeanu otheisanu left a lingeiing uoubt in theii minus which
sometimes became much moie than uoubt. I knew that we weie appioaching a
situation in which eveiything I pioposeu oi uiu woulu be iegaiueu as "political,"
while eveiything the Coalicion uiu woulu be iegaiueu as a moie oi less justifieu
ieaction to my favoiitism. I shoulu be foiceu into a situation in which I leaneu
backwaiu to avoiu any justification foi this attituue, only to lose by successive
stages the confiuence, among those who counteu, that I was acting impaitially.
So I gave in on the Committee. That Abe hau on his hanus two -,!./012$'#3
Tiavieso as well as Iiiaitehe woulu have to leain foi himself.
8
I uiu, howevei,
make an issue of Bolivai Pagn, Socialista Piesiuent, anu he was omitteu on my
assuiance that he hau almost no following left anu so counteu foi nothing at home,
howevei much noise he might make in Washington. The tiuth was that Ramiiez
Santibez was in a similai situation; he hau no paity left to speak of; but to have
omitteu him woulu have been to uepait altogethei fiom the piinciple of paity
iepiesentation; so he was incluueu.
Ny suggestion that the Committee ought to be a mixeu executive-legislative one was
uioppeu in Washington with what I felt was unnecessaiy coluness. I peisisteu a
little but got nowheie. 0f couise, I was in a pooi position. The sentiment against me
in the Congiess was by now so foimiuable as to be embaiiassing. It coulu not be
expecteu that the Bepaitment shoulu iegaiu me otheiwise than as a liability.
Anyone coulu see that whenevei a uepaitmental iepiesentative appeaieu befoie a
Committee fiom now on, the Tugwell mattei woulu come up. Biu not the
Bepaitment know the Congiessional view that Tugwell shoulu be ieplaceu. In the
most iiielevant situations that question woulu be iaiseu. Anu it was going to emeige
in those tense moments sometimes when Committee membeis hung ovei buuget
pio-posals with poiseu pencils. As an expeiienceu buieauciat I unueistoou this
thoioughly anu in spite of myself I was maue not only uefensive but moie cautious
than I shoulu have been. I uiu things anu consenteu to things I shoulu not have uone
oi consenteu to. 0ne of them was the foimation of the paity-Piesiuent Committee.
Foi on it hung the appioval of seveial membeis of Congiess whom I woulu have
incluueu in the uelibeiations. Because of not having been incluueu they wouluif
only out of asseition of legislative supeiioiitytoituie a caieful pioposal fiom the

8
Tiavieso was foimally a 0nionist, a paity which by now hau uisappeaieu. Anyway, he was a iightist.
Be was also a ielative of Iiiaite anu, what Conti nentals uiu not know, a piouuct of the Pueito Rican
paity system. Be was, in fact, an olu-time !#0D812#, having helu, among othei offices, the mayoialty of
San }uan.
401
Committee into an auministiatively impossible bill. This woulu not at once appeai;
but I shoulu always feel guilty foi not having insisteu with moie vigoi on my view of
what was politic. Foi I was iight.
9

Bowevei this business was woikeu out, anu whatevei came of the pioposal, such a
Committee woulu piesumably put foiwaiu a fuithei change alieauy oveiuue anu
insistently uemanueu. It woulu not be tiue to say that I lost inteiest in the
immeuiate possibility; but I saw moie anu moie cleaily that it woulu not go fai
towaiu satisfying the uemanus of the collective uigniuau of Pueito Riconot neaily
fai enough. This coulu be ieau in Nuoz' ieaction. As we uiscusseu the mattei he
expeiimenteu in his minu with numeious vaiiations of an inuepenuence with
guaianteeu assistance. I waineu him, as I hau befoie, that Pueito Rico as a foieign
countiy woulu be cut off fiom financial aiu she neeueu. People, even Ameiicans,
geneious as they weie supposeu to be, woulu only uo foi theii own what was
iequiieu even foi ielief, say nothing of ieconstiuction. Even then it coulu not be
ceitain that the piesent economic situation was iemeuiable. Besiues, the Congiess
hau been niggaiuly anu aveise to foiesight oi commitment whenevei an issue hau
aiisen on which attituues coulu be testeu. Neveitheless the fact was that Pueito Rico
hau piogiesseu moie iapiuly in the last foui uecaues than hei inuepenuent
neighbois; anu since 19SS ielief hau pouieu into the islanu, in one way oi anothei,
in volume ioughly equal to the yielu fiom the laigest ciop. Inuepenuence woulu be
iuinous; a close ielationship might biing at least a minimum of necessaiy suppoit.
All this he aumitteu. Anu it influenceu him gieatly as it uiu not many of the iauical
inuepenuentistas. As the time appioacheu foi the Committee to meet, I hau uoubts
whethei he woulu paiticipate. Be appeaieu to think it inexpeuient to be involveu in
laboiing to biing foith so small a mouse. Be woulu finally ueciue to collaboiate but
only, as it woulu tuin out, because he still hopeu to use the occasion foi foicing a
commitment beyonu the teims of iefeience. Neanwhile I helpeu him ueciue by
giving wiue ciiculation to the stuuy we hau been making of the balance of tiaue,
which showeu the appalling extent of actual uepenuence on the 0niteu States. The
iegional office of the National Resouices Planning Boaiu, being uiiecteu by Fieu
Baitlett, woikeu these estimates ovei anu ovei. No mattei how one tiieu theie was
no way in which it coulu be figuieu that Pueito Rico coulu suivive with
inuepenuence, anu it appeaieu that she woulu be at least somewhat woise off with
Statehoou. Coulu it be that the piesent status was about the most favoiable one

9
It must not be assumeu that Abe uiu not have a ieason foi his insistence on the othei couise. The
senioi membeis of the Committees fiom which selection woulu have hau to be maue weie almost
unifoimly unsympathetic anu to have incluueu them in such a gioup woulu, in his juugment, have
been to have inviteu tiouble. Be uiu not agiee that they coulu have been conveiteu.

402
possible. In view of all the oiatoiy, all the talk about exploitation anu Yankee
impeiialism, all the weeping about Colonialism with a laige C, this might seem
incieuible. But the facts weie stiffly unsympathetic to sepaiation; anu only less so to
any othei likely changeexcept Bominion.
What Pueito Rico hau to complain of, legitimately, was not that the 0niteu States
hau been ungeneious. It was that eveiything hau been so haphazaiu. Latins may be
ebullient on the suiface but it has often been iemaikeu that they aie calculating
unueineath. Anu theie seemeu to me no uoubt that this as much as any othei factoi
in the situation cieateu the univeisal uissatisfaction with existing aiiangements. No
people, Latin oi othei, woulu, as a mattei of fact, caie to have its status left at the
meicy of outsiueis anu peihaps, especially, legislative committees. That was the
situation of Pueito Rico. Anu it uiu no goou to aigue at length that actually the
political anu economic situation was bettei than it woulu be with gieatei autonomy.
This aigument uiu not ieach the souice of the iiiitation oi cuie the ieal injustice.
What Nuoz wanteu was (1) to get a commitment fiom the Congiess that no futuie
action woulu be taken by that bouy unilateiallythat is, without consultation with
the Pueito Rican legislatuie; anu (2) to secuie a kinu of "ieconstiuction funu" to be
spent ovei a long peiiou at Pueito Rican uiiection. The fiist commitment woulu, it
will be seen, acknowleuge the equality of Pueito Rico; the seconu woulu
acknowleuge past ueficiencies in 0niteu States auministiation anu the justice of
iepaiations. Theie was an obvious ielation to the piinciple of uigniuau in this which
maue it seem, to one just becoming awaie of its pievailing stiength, almost
inevitable as a uemanu but neveitheless wholly unlikely to be accepteu by the
Congiess. Nuoz knew as well as anyone that ielief anu assistance woulu be
foithcoming in the futuie as they hau been in the past. But if he coulu secuie
acceptance foi the pioposal he hau in minu it woulu be an aumission that all the
inuepenuentistas, even the most iauical of them, hau saiu about impeiialism anu
colonialism was tiue. I knew well enough anu tolu him sothat he was not going
to get any such pioposal appioveu by the Committeeany Committeeoi by the
Congiess.
The othei membeis of the Committee, besiues Nuoz, as it was finally announceu,
weie those expecteu: Ni. Ramiiez Santi-bez anu Ni. Celestino Iiiaite as
Piesiuents of the ?1/,"$0,3 anu -,!./012$'#3, anu }uuge Tiavieso. Theie hau been
question as to outsiueis being incluueu but finally only Fathei Ncuowan of the
Catholic Welfaie Council was auueu. The iest of us weie officials. 0f the Pueito
Ricans only Nuoz ieally counteu, since, as the islanueis say, he was the one who
ieally cut the coufish (el que coita el bacalao). The otheis woulu take theii leau fiom
him. Anu now that he hau a foimula on which he coulu pioceeu theie was no longei
403
uoubt of his paiticipation. If he weie to go into a confeience only to obtain the
elective goveinoiship, his followeis woulu make a teiiific iow; such a iesult woulu
be out of all piopoition to theii claims. But if he shoulu go uemanuing fai moie as a
coiollaiy of what was being offeieu, all his neeus woulu be seiveu. What a job, I
thought, foi the piesiuing officei! Anu what coulu come of it without the piesence of
the Senatois anu Congiessmen who alone coulu put it thiough.
As the spiing ian on anu the iegulai session of the legislatuie closeu theie was veiy
geneial impiovement in oui uomestic affaiis. Revenues weie incieasing fiom month
to month, both fiom the highei income taxes imposeu uuiing the last two yeais anu
fiom the tax on ium. As shipping became easiei aftei the Afiican campaign was well
staiteu, ium coulu move out moie fieely. So, of couise, coulu eveiything else except
peiishables: tobacco, coconut piouucts, citions, neeulewoik, foi instance. Anu this
last showeu signs of becoming as impoitant as it hau been befoie the Feueial wage
anu houis iegulations hau cut it uown some yeais befoie; theie was now the
auvantage that no competition came fiom China anu the Philippines. The legislatuie
passeu a chaiac-teiistically geneious ielief measuie to supplement the W.P.A. which
hau been tempoiaiily extenueu foi Pueito Rico by shaip woik in Washington but
which we knew well enough woulu be stoppeu soon by unsympathetic Bouse
Committees.
When the stiikes weie moie oi less settleu anu a ceitain calm hau uescenueu even
on the C.u.T.'s tiieless agitatois the laige cane haivest was gatheieu anu conveiteu
into sugai anu molasses. By now theie was a geneial sugai shoitage anu iationing in
the States; insteau of being askeu to cut uown we weie askeu to inciease output.
This woulu tuin out to be the biggest ciop evei; but theie was ieason foi pessimism
about the futuie. Foi we weie finuing it haiu to get feitilizeis. The Boaiu foi
allocating such mateiials was ieluctant to give us any at all at fiist anu then to give
us enough. Nonths weie consumeu in contioveisy anu it was them too late. Cane is
a ciop which takes at least twelve months to giow, anu sometimes fifteen oi
eighteen months, uepenuing on the kinu of cultivation.
1u
Anu its yielu is uepenuent
on the amount of feitilizei applieu anu on its being applieu at an eaily stage. When
feitilizei is shoit, othei less intensive methous such as a laigei piopoition of

1u
The shoit ciop is calleu the !"1+$<,"$ anu the longei one the %"$' 2.08."$. Which is useu uepenus
on a juugment whethei, unuei all the pievailing ciicumstances, it is bettei to use quick high-capital
methous oi long low-expense ones. 0n expensive lanu anu with expensive machineiy in use, the
quickei tuinovei is uesiiable. Theie is a similai choice to be maue as to whethei a ciop will be
iatooneuthat is, left to giow fiom the olu ioot fiom which the tops have been cut in the haivest, oi
whethei the fielu will be iecultivateu, feitilizeu anu ieseeueu. The lattei costs moie anu yielus moie.
It is a mattei foi nice juugment whethei moie intensive methous will, in a given case, yielu a highei
net.

404
fielus which aie iatooneu iathei than ieseeueuaie useu. Apait fiom the
ueteimination of the weathei, always impoitant in agiicultuie, the cane ciop a yeai
oi a yeai anu a half hence is pieuictable fiom the feitilizei useu. We knew in the
spiing of 194S that the ciop of 1944 woulu be a small one even with goou weathei
anu that, with uiought, it might be uisastiously low. But foi the moment theie weie
no complaints.
Theie was assuiance too that militaiy constiuction woulu continue foi at least half a
yeai longei. Foi a minimum of piepaiation foi uefense such a piogiam woulu be
necessaiy. This assuiance, howevei, came to me fiom a new Commanuei. Foi
ueneial Collins hau gone. This was a blow; we hau been thiough a goou ueal
togethei anu hau come to have a goou woiking aiiangement. To have to finu my
way to an accommouation with a new ueneial seemeu an unnecessaiy haiuship.
Anu I piotesteu. It was, of couise, futile. Theie hau been some kinu of tiouble,
giowing out of the uifficult auministiative situation, anu Lieutenant ueneial ueoige
B. Biett, in commanu at Panam, hau iequiieu his iemoval. ueneial Naishall hau
acceueu "with iegiet" but this uiu not waim the chill of his note to me in
acknowleugment of my iequest foi ieconsiueiation on the giounu of policy. I was
put in my place without hesitation. ueneial Collins afteiwaiu tolu me that his
subsequent assignment was "moie iesponsible" than it woulu otheiwise have been
because of my lettei, anu because of the honoiaiy uegiee confeiieu on him at the
0niveisity, but I iathei uoubteu it anu felt that I hau wasteu my effoit. Anyway the
mattei tuineu out well, foi he was succeeueu by Najoi ueneial Congei Piatt, with
whom oui ielations weie fiom the fiist just as fiienuly.
They neeueu to be, foi almost at once we hau a stiike of iailway woikeis; anu aimy
men, who tiauitionally consiuei stiikes to be subveisive, aie apt to think them
uowniight tiaitoious in time of wai. But ueneial Piatt was unusual. Foi one thing he
thought it was my business; but foi anothei he saw that theie was moie to it than
met the eye. Being shiewu anu politicbesiues being genuinely fiienulyhe
ueteimineu on neutiality. Theie weie those among his staff who weie fiankly
uisgusteu with this "weakness" anu who pieuicteu gloomily that if the stiikeis
weien't taught a lesson uou only knew what woulu happen next. But he was
unmoveu.
This was not the fiist time I hau met ueneial Piatt. Be hau been in commanu in
Tiiniuau befoie succeeuing ueneial Collins anu hau shown Chailes anu me his half-
finisheu installations in the spiing of '42. 0ut in the soggy bush we hau spent a
couple of houis tiying to visualize the encampment being establisheu on the scaiieu
eaith, by innumeiable bulluozeis, tiucks anu huiiying jeeps, with the use of
innumeiable piles of cement, lumbei, tile anu othei mateiials; anu at the enu of oui
405
jouiney, in a most unpiomising stanuaiu hutment, he hau piouuceu, of all things, a
tuikey uinnei complete with ice cieam. I hau maue a ciack about shaiing oui
soluieis' haiuships anu maue honest use of my oppoitunity. Fiom that meal we
uateu a fiienuship which hau been next ieinfoiceu, so fai as I was conceineu, when
the Chavez Committee hau been among us. I hau not known how to give its
membeis a bettei view of what wai meant to us than a conuucteu toui of oui
piepaiations. We hau a iathei fancy setup foi civil uefense by that timePueito
Ricans can always be tiusteu to uo such things with a flaii. Anu Bi. Cailos Nuoz-
NcCoimick, who was now in chaige, besiues having flaii, hau laboieu immensely to
peifect the oiganization. So I took them aiounu on a night aleit to see how we
functioneu. It lookeu fine. Theie weie soliu citizensvolunteeislineu up in long
iows befoie telephones on which they weie to ieceive messages of uisastei to be
plotteu on a gieat chait. Theie weie otheis to senu out oiueis to the local
heauquaiteis wheie fiie, iescue, iepaii, anu uemoli-tion squaus weie gatheieu anu
ieauy. I secietly felt that it was hopelessly vulneiable since we hau no bombpioof
builuing anu since oui telephones weie all abovegiounu; but foi the one the W.P.B.
hau iefuseu us piioiities anu foi the othei I hau not even ventuieu to suggest an
alteinative.
Theie it was, howeveithe best that coulu be uone unuei the ciicumstances anu
looking finisheu anu efficient by then, howevei seiious the uefects might be. When I
hau shown off all this, anu a ieally magnificent emeigency casualty station as well, I
took them uown into the eaith's visceia to see the bianu-new "opeiations centei."
Anu this, of couise, was ieally something! Theie hau come to be a stanuaiu style in
such centeis by then, copieu, I always suspecteu, fiom the Sunuay-supplement
pictuies of Royal Aii Foice contiol iooms which weie so pievalent just befoie we
hau become belligeient. It was at its best that evening because we weie in the miust
of annual maneuveis. The Senatois weie veiy suitably impiesseu. Theie on the
gieat boaius weie the convoys anu the maveiick ships. 0nce in a while a uooi
openeu anu the confuseu clacking of teletypes coulu be heaiu as a messengei
emeigeu fiom a laige ioom filleu with machineiy anu staiteu the motions which
enueu in a change of position on the boaiu. A plane hau been iepoiteu, oi a ship hau
come into oui sea. But maneuveis weie theie too: an enemy was lanuing on oui
beaches, the mobile foice was making its uispositions anu the aii foices weie tiying
to help, although, as ueneial Bouse confesseu at once, theie wasn't a uamneu
aiiuiome left in the Caiibbean. The authoi of all this uistuibance coulu be saiu to be
the attacking commanuei. ueneial Collins hau just saiu, "That's Piatt, you know,"
when I heaiu a guttuial voice behinu me saying, "Cheneial von Piatt, mein heii." Be
hau his hanus ovei his face anu only a meiiy eye showing. It bioke up Collins' paity;
but it hau the effect of putting the whole wai, suuuenly, in its place as though he hau
406
saiu that it was all nonsense anu the soonei we got back to taking militaiy games
lightly the bettei. Such a commanuei was almost an iueal one with whom to weathei
a iailioau stiike.
We hau been suspecting foi some time that the iailioau's owneis weie tiying to
unloau it on the uoveinment. They saiu it was unpiofitable in spite of the fact that it
paiu no taxes (unuei an olu exemption just iunning out), that its wages weie about
one tenth of iailway woikeis' wages in the States, anu that foi yeais maintenance
anu ieplacements hau been at so low a level as to all but cause a 0ne-Boss Shay
collapse. To aiiive at the conclusion of unpiofitability allowance hau to be maue foi
the fact that theie weie thiee sepaiate companies each with high-salaiieu officials
anu expensive counsel. It hau obviously been a bonanza in the goou olu Coalicion
uays when taxes neeu not be paiu, when bau seivices weie conuoneu by a tame
Public Seivice Commission anu when uemanus foi highei wages weie consiueieu
subveisive; but anyone coulu see that things weie going to be uiffeient now. Anu
since a vast inciease in tem-poiaiy militaiy haulage hau iaiseu opeiating ievenues
above those of any past peiiou, it was a goou time to capitalize them, establish a
whacking value, anu sell out to the uoveinment.
vaiious maneuveis hau been gone thiough, all of which weie consistent with oui
theoiy of theii intentions. 0ne of these was to tiy to get the Aimy to take it ovei as
the most necessitous customei, thus getting the mattei of valuation into a favoiable
Feueial couit at the most piopitious time. But ueneial Collins hau seen thiough that,
with a little help; anu it lookeu by now as though the olu owneis weie going to have
to keep theii iailioau ; also they weie going to have to pay taxes, give bettei seivice
anu iaise wages. It was a hoiiifying piospect. But one way out iemaineu to be tiieu.
If a tie-up occuiieu, peihaps the Aimy woulu be foiceu into seizuie. But of couise
theie must be a suitable appeaiance of ieluctance anu goou faith. It was assumeu
appaiently that, aimy men being what they weie, the best way woulu be to
piecipitate a stiike. Pueito Rican woikeis coulu be expecteu to be noisy, uisoiueily
anu peihaps violent. The Aimy woulu not like that; anu Aumiial Boovei woulu be
positively eniageu. In such an atmospheie, the militaiy must take ovei anu the
owneis coulu move out, theii inteiests entiusteu to the Feueial Couit. Such was the
appaient scheme.
Such a technically legitimate attempt to foice goveinment action by the use of
fomenteu uisoiuei was a typical example of the auvice foi which the moie
iespectable lawyeis in Pueito Rico weie able to chaige the olu gallegos laige fees. It
ian in the violent Spanish tiauition, yet kept within the fiamewoik of Ameiican law.
I hau been confionteu with this kinu of thing befoie anu woulu be confionteu with it
again. 0nce the pattein was unueistoou the specific occuiiences weie nevei haiu to
407
anticipate. The ieal uifficulties weie in fact not in Pueito Rico but in the States,
wheie the pattein appeaieu to be quite unbelievable anu anyone who explaineu it
piejuuiceu. The success of such schemes in fact uepenueu on Ameiicans' piojection
into the Spanish cultuie of theii simplei spoiting psychology. Aftei foity yeais of
association the iuling classes in Pueito Rico hau leaineu that they coulu go on pietty
much in theii olu way pioviueu only they slickeu it ovei with appiopiiate woius.
Foi this the lawyeis weie kept. A conspiiacy of this kinu woulu be got up, uisoiuei
woulu iesult as planneu, anu the stoiies in the States woulu appeai (1) if the
uisoiuei weie suppiesseu, as an attack on fiee speech anu assembly; (2) if it weie
avoiueu, as an evasion of the uuty to piotect piopeity. Nothing moie was necessaiy
than to aiiange the situation piopeily. Newspapei coiiesponuents anu euitois
knew what theii piopiietois wanteu; anu piopiietois knew what the financial
inteiests with investments in Pueito Rico wanteu. No instiuctions weie given anu
none weie neeueu.
It was too late foi me to woiiy about this. The Chicago Tiibune, the Sciipps-Bowaiu
piess, the New Yoik Beialu Tiibune anu Life hau all uone theii uuty. The thesis was
by now ueteimineu. If the Piesiuent anu the Secietaiy weie going to be fooleu, it
was alieauy too late to appease the vaiious business inteiests who weie uemanuing
my iemoval. In thisas in the othei extiaoiuinaiily uifficult laboi situationsI
shoulu follow what seemeu to me the faii, sensible anu uecent couise whethei
anyone else appioveu it oi not. But I coulu only uo that with ueneial Piatt's at least
tacit concuiience. Foi in waitime, say what you like, a militaiy commanuei is all-
impoitant, anu especially on an islanu which is besiegeu anu wheie civilian moiale
is an immeuiate anu legitimate militaiy concein.
I began by neutializing the Aumiial, who was nominally the heau of the unifieu
commanu. I explaineu long anu caiefully to uenial }ohn, who obviously uiu not like
even to listen, that we weie going to have moie tiouble, but that I coulu guaiantee
to get thiough. Be hau, I am suie, a shiewu iuea that he woulu be bettei off if he kept
out of civil affaiis, anu giuugingly he agieeu to look the othei way. ueneial Piatt hau
a uiffeient attituue. When, having uealt with the Aumiial, I tuineu a waiy eye on
him, he lookeu back with the same meiiy one which hau appeaieu between his
fingeis on a foimei night in the bombpioof.
"That iailioau," he saiu solemnly, "has no militaiy impoitance. We uon't neeu it.
Theie is nothing we can't move by tiuck." I was ielieveu; but theie was still anothei
step. So I went on anu tolu him fiankly that it lookeu seiious to me. If it was an
attempt of the owneis to unloau, they woulu stop at nothing. The accumulateu
giievances of the woikeis maue it seem likely that theie might be violence. I wanteu
something moie than passivity; I wanteu active help.
408
We got thiough without any ieal tiouble. Aftei innumeiable communications with
Abe anu some quick woik on his pait, my olu fiienu }oe Eastman (of the 0ffice of
Befense Tianspoitation) agieeu to assume iesponsibility. But the executive oiuei
setting up his 0ffice hau to be amenueu anu so on, all of which took time. Anu theie
was a moment when it seemeu as if nothing woulu happen fast enough. 0n stiike
uay, I uiu something I hau nevei heaiu of befoiesimply issueu an immobilization
pioclamation. This uisgusteu seveial aimy officeis anu Eastman's local officials, who
weie all foi "foicing the men to woik" anu so on. But it seiveu. Buiing that peiiou
ueneial Piatt simply moveu seveial thousanu soluieis onto the tiacks anu into the
stations anu shops, with oiueis to pievent anyone fiom tuining a wheel oi lifting a
hammei. That was his contiibution. To the suipiise of both of us the stiikeis weie
uelighteu. They began iathei boisteious picketing anu speechmaking on the fiist
uay, at which I askeu my new Commissionei of Laboi, Nanolo Piez, to tell them
they must go home anu keep quiet. They ieplieu that they hau consulteu the Chief of
Police anu hau been auviseu that picketing was legal. I sent back woiu that it was
ceitainly legal but not necessaiily wise anu that I wanteu them to be quiet. It was a
uifficult piogiam but they caiiieu it out. Anu two uays latei when ueneial Piatt anu
I met to confei, he was able to say that theie hau not been a single inciuent. "Ny
boys anu youis seem to get along all iight," he saiu. Then he ieau me a iepoit fiom
his u-2 officei (Intelligence) which iepoiteu univeisal belief among the stiikeis that
I was in sympathy with them anu woulu see that they weie tieateu faiily. The u-2
officei obviously thought it teiiible; but ueneial Piatt saw its utility. "Bell, I'm not
heie to fight Pueito Ricans," was the way he put it. Things went so well that aftei
foity-eight houis we began to move militaiy tiains. But this was not until aftei some
of the 0.B.T. officials anu aimy officeis hau moveu some of them with stiike
bieakeis, appaiently with the intention of piovoking an inciuent. This little iebellion
was suppiesseu by the ueneial in his own waygently, as he uiu eveiythinganu
the stiikeis themselves then began to seive as they hau been willing to uo all along.
A week latei }oe Eastman hau sent uown a new staff anu full opeiation was begun
unuei an oiuei which amounteu to "seizuie uuiing emeigency."
11
Anu the woikeis
weie pleaseu to finu themselves negotiating with Tio Samuel foi bettei wages anu
conuitions iathei than with the lawyeis with whom they hau foimeily hau to ueal.
Buiing the lattei pait of Apiil, Abe came to make a visit. I boiioweu the Bowaiu
fiom the Navy anu we coveieu the islanu in uetail, taking most of a uay foi it,
lunching with the officeis at Boiinquen Fielu anu going all the way iounu the coast
anu home by Ensenaua Bonua. That night we hau a fiesta on the teiiace. The iain
helu off; theie was a moon, anu the Southein Cioss hung, tilteu a little, ovei the Toio

11
The oiuei woulu be teiminateu 1 }uly 1944 anu the piopeities ietuineu to theii owneis.

409
Negio, anu was ieflecteu in the Bay. It was haiu to cieuit the hatieu in the heaits of
those who boycotteu us; but Abe uiu not seem to miss them, even though he was
supposeu, by now, to be the heau of the appease-ment gioup in Inteiioi, with
Biophy abetting. We hau uiscusseu that mattei fiankly, I piotesting against theii
giving away eveiything we hau gaineu in a yeai of stiuggle with the impoiteis. By
now the supply oiganization hau a seveial months' supply of staplesiice, beans,
coufish, canneu fish, uiieu eggs, evapoiateu milk, floui anu pickleu meatsanu the
fight was ovei in Pueito Rico. Even the ietaileis weie now actively on oui siue.
Chaiacteiistically, howevei, uistuibance hau aujouineu to Washington with the
Chavez Committee piessing the impoiteis' inteiests anu Inteiioi showing signs of
giving in. Biophy hau by now inventeu a phiase"going out of the gioceiy
business" which was intenueu to ease the shame of appeasement, anu to inuicate
that bulk buying anu impoiting weie kinus of activity which weie beneath the
uignity of buieauciats. But I knew that a 2S pei cent iise in the cost of living foi two
millions of Pueito Ricans hiu behinu it. Anu I continueu to piotest, to senu
suppoiting memoianua, anu to tell oui stoiy to anyone who woulu listen. It must be
saiu that in Agiicultuie, even aftei it became the Wai Foou Auministiation that
spiing, we hau unwaveiing fiienus who thought the "gioceiy business" impoitant.
Abe, I must say, looking aiounu at the poveity in Pueito Rico, was just a little
shaken. Be was natuially sympathetic; anu it is always goou foi Washingtonians to
get away fiom theii uesksanu fiom Con-giessmen.
Abe uiu, howevei, biing us some goou news: Fiisbie, Fitzsimmons, anu the lessei
satellites weie going the way of Nalcolm. But that was anticlimactic now. They weie
still with us in peison but so thoioughly uiscieuiteu that they weie being iefeiieu to
locally as "Zombies." Even the inteiests they hau seiveu with such excessive zeal
appeaieu to have foigot theii existence. The centei of inteiest was shifting now to
the pioblem of status anu we hau many conveisations with all soits of people about
it. It was while we weie on a thiee-uay jaunt to the south coast, visiting Bishop
Willingei anu having a look at sugai, that the Bouse authoiizeu an investigation of
Pueito Rican affaiis, social, economic anu political by a subcommittee. Nothing
coulu have been woise than the teims of iefeience anu the peisonnel Abe saiu we
weie suie to getnobouy woulu seive but the piejuuiceu anu the tiouble-seeking.
It woulu be wholly anti-auministiation, with the open puipose of "getting Tugwell."
Theie woulu be about as much iestiaint in the gioup to be tuineu loose on us as we
hau seen in oui Pueito Rican enemies. They woulu, in fact, be the same soit anu we
coulu expect the Washington-San }uan axis to be put now on a semipeimanent, well-
heeleu basis.
410
With this piospect, cuiient affaiis began to shape themselves about the impenuing
hostilities. Especially the mattei of status became a gambit in the game. "Naybe,"
saiu Abe, "you'll have moie appieciation of appeasement shoitly." But I coulu point
out that it hau let us off nothing so fai. Anu befoie Abe left he was auvising us to
fight back with fieiy weapons. But this was aftei conveisations, extenuing ovei uays,
with oui opposition. Ni. Iiiaite, paiticulaily, with his naiiow bigotiy, infuiiateu
him. As Aumiial Leahy hau aftei the uepaituie of a ceitain politico, Abe ielieveu his
feelings aftei inteicouise with Ni. Iiiaite in language of which he hau piobably not
thought himself to be in any fuithei neeu.
Abe hau come to the conclusion, as hau Ni. Rupeit Emeison, now the Regional
Biiectoi foi 0.P.A., who hau been shaking hisheau ovei us on his last visit, that oui
position in Pueito Rico was now soliu. The opposition was uisoiganizeu anu
nonplusseu. 0ui fiienus weie suuuenly numeious. It was too bau that we still hau to
go thiough the Bouse investigation, now explouing like a uelayeu fiieciackei, with
off-stage noises by Nessis. Fish, Bies, Tabei, et al. I coulu see that the stiategy he
was foimulating uepenueu laigely on biinging the elective goveinoiship out into the
foiefiont of uiscussion. Bow coulu all the talk about me be tiue if I was fixing to get
thiough in 1944 anu tuin ovei to the fiist Pueito Rican uoveinoi. I thought less of
this than he as a ieu heiiing foi investigatois; but theie was no haim in tiying. Be
came away fiom a geneial uiscussion we hau one uay at Zoilo Nnuez' villa less
optimistic, but still without an alteinative. Besiues Nuoz, ueneial Piatt anu
ueneial Phillips weie theie that uay anu the foui of us talkeu aiounu the status
mattei at length. Phillips as usual was somewhat oveicanuiu anu let us know, as
piobably he ought not to have uone, that the Aimy was going to oppose the changes
we hau in minu. This was, of couise, seiious. Abe's suggestion, conceining it, maue
on oui way home, was that the Committee shoulu not ask foi militaiy opinion. Be
uoubteu, he saiu, that the aimy staff woulu openly oppose a Piesiuential policy. I
thought him naive about the Aimy's subteiianean ielations with Congiessmen but I
uiu not say so. Be woulu finu it out.
At the last minute, a tiip we hau hopeu to make to }amaica hau to be calleu off: a coal
stiike was impenuing back home. But he maue a paiting suggestion about anothei
of the tioublesome cuiient issues which I pioceeueu to follow up. This hau to uo
with the acquisition of the piivate powei lines which was still hanging fiie anu being
pokeu at by counsel who hopeu to have it goou anu hot as the Bouse investigatois
uescenueu. It lookeu to us as though }uuge Coopei might be peisuaueuanu that
was not nice: when Ni. Beniy Biown moveu to uismiss pioceeuings foi
expiopiiation because theie hau been "conspiiacy anu bau faith," anu when the
couit appeaieu to take the fantastic chaige seiiously, it coulu be inteipieteu as a
411
move in the geneial political game. Also it seiveu with suspicious convenience the
puipose of putting piessuie on us to pay a high piice foi escaping litigation. We hau
begun negotiations befoie, it will be iecalleu, but hau founu the piice too high. Now
a special iepiesentativeNi. Fieueiick Kiugwas being sent fiom Nontieal to
uiscuss the mattei fuithei. The teims, aftei investigation, pioveu too haiu: the
company wanteu not only the piice set by itself plus inteiest fiom the uate of
seizuie, but also wanteu to set a time limit foi acceptanceieinfoiceu with a
penalty clause. Ni. Lucchetti thought we ought to accept. But I iefuseu. To pay
seveial millions of public funus to escape ciiticism seemeu to me something it
woulu be haiu to caiiy on one's conscience.
We went so fai as to ask Ni. Thoion if he woulu exploie the situation with the
piincipals, we stating oui maximum piice. This he uiu. But when Ni. Kiug aiiiveu
anu I ieau the memoianuum signeu by Ni. Thoion foi us anu by Ni. Symington foi
the company, I knew that we shoulu be unable to pioceeu until it was cleai that
public funus weie not being useu to keep us fiee of comment. Cuiiy anu I uiafteu a
note which we hanueu to Ni. Kiug:
We have befoie us a pioposal foi puichase of the Pueito Rico Railway, Light anu
Powei Company piopeities which contains a numbei of elements which have not
been consiueieu pieviously by us. We iegiet that we will be unable to take action
with iespect to the pioposeu settlement within the time limit set foith heiein. An
auuitional thiity uays will be neeueu foi a thoiough stuuy of the agieement, as well
as to make aiiangements foi necessaiy financing if the pioposeu agieement shoulu
be accepteu.
It will not be possible in any case to ieach an agieement so long as theie aie chaiges
of bau faith penuing anu unuisposeu of. We will welcome a heaiing in open couit on
any such question. We aie willing to give consiueiation to the iatification of the
Thoion-Symington agieement but aie not inteiesteu in a settlement which will
caiiy with it the implication that it was maue foi the puipose of avoiuing a heaiing
on the question of bau faith.
Ni. Thoion exhibiteu annoyance at what seemeu to him a iepuuiation; he thought
he hau maue a ueal within oui instiuctions. But in spite of piessuie I ueclineu to
consent. Anu so we went on towaiu the oiueal which the Bell Committeeso calleu
foi its uesignateu chaiimanwas piepaiing foi us with the thieat of couit action
still uniesolveu. All the inuications weie that the investigation was to be maue as
embaiiassing as possible. Theie was, howevei, nothing we coulu uo but wait.
What any of the piospective witnesses woulu say oi uo unuei questioning, I was
wholly unable to pieuict. The mattei of status hau been exaceibateu by Ni. Tyuings
412
foi one thing, who hau intiouuceu anothei bill foi inuepenuence anu announceu
eaily heaiings. This hau iaiseu the expectations of all the inuepenuentistas anu in
Apiil they hau helu a mass meeting. These occasions weie always embaiiassing to
Nuoz because the oiganizeis anu oiatois fiequently tuineu out to be his followeis
anu because they weie always pieceueu by an attempt to iuentify the Populai paity
with the "movement." Nuoz, being acutely conscious that nothing coulu be moie
fatal than this, was always uefensive foi weeks afteiwaiu. Be hau to be uefinite in
iepuuiation, yet he coulu not biing himself, as I auviseu, to uisavow so many of his
leaueis as weie involveu.
The movement foi Bominion statusif it coulu be calleu a movementwas
iepugnant to the inuepenuentistas who weie tiue political ieactionaiies. Anu its
gain in favoi was natuially among the moie moueiate anu thoughtful. To these the
Tyuings move seemeu uistiessing anu uiscouiaging, in fact anothei eviuence of the
essential whimsicality anu uisoiueily thinking which infuseu Congiessional
attituues anu actions in ielation to Pueito Rico. Theie was, as theie hau been when
the Senatoi hau uone the same thing in 19S6, a convinceu attiibution of bau faith. It
was saiu, among othei things, that he hau Cuban inteiests anu that his law fiim
iepiesenteu those who stoou to gain fiom sepaiating Pueito Rico anu the 0niteu
States. Such suspicions, unjustifieu as they weie, maue foi an atmospheie in which
any constiuctive oiganizing was quite impossible; anu Bominion was put asiue to
giow only in faithful heaits until the times shoulu be moie piopitious. Nembeis of
the lite as well as some of the self-appointeu inuepenuentista statesmen iusheu foi
Washington anu appeaieu at the Tyuings heaiings, the one to suppoit anu the othei
to oppose the measuie. By miu-Nay it was cleaily ueau anu any change in status lay
beyonu the "investigation." It woulu be within the teims of iefeience, it seemeu, of
the Committee appointeu by the Piesiuent. This, even befoie its activities hau
begun, seemeu ceitain to piouuce an alieauy pass pioposal. But the momentum of
affaiis like this is such that going thiough the motions was inevitable. We hau to
complete the evolution alieauy begun befoie anything else coulu be unueitaken.
Anyway the ielation of the Pueito Rican uniest to the laigei settlements now in
piospect foi what weie being calleu "minoiities" oi "uepenuent peoples" was
becoming moie eviuent. Ni. Winston Chuichill was content to iest on classic
colonialism, so it seemeu, but no one else thought matteis woulu stop theie, not
even those entiusteu with the making of colonial policy. We began to heai about
piospective ievisions of the constitutions in }amaica anu Baibauos. It was equally
eviuent fiom the agitation going on that Tiiniuau anu Biitish uuiana woulu follow.
We uiu not yet know what foim these changes woulu assume; but they coulu haiuly
stop shoit of iemoving the piopeity qualification foi suffiage anu giving up the
413
appointeu legislative majoiities. Even so the colonies woulu be so fai behinu Pueito
Rico politically that specific compaiisons weie futile. Pueito Rico hau ieacheu a
stage of matuiity at which she hau to be given equality. She might become
inuepenuent as weie the compaiable islanu peoples of Spanish oiigin in the
Caiibbean oi she might finu hei equality in association with the 0niteu States. I
believeu the last to be best. I saw in it the most likelihoou, foi one thing, that we
shoulu make goou oui 4S-yeai commitment to hei futuie; anu foi anothei that she
woulu not become a uictatoiship aftei the familiai Latin-Ameiican pattein anu so
lose foi hei citizens the ieality of fieeuom in a false inuepenuence.
That we weie moving towaiu the time of settlement was suuuenly appaient fiom
the occuiiences in Afiica. Since last Novembei Ameiican aimies hau been tiaining
theie, along with the Biitish, in the haiu school of combat. They hau uone bauly at
fiist anu oui hopes hau been uisappointeu. But the lessons hau been leaint anu by
Nay the teiiific climax hau been built up in which the ueimans weie finally biought
to bay anu ciusheu. When Tunis anu Bizeite fell, Ni. Chuichill coulu no longei finu
excuse foi not attacking Euiope. We heaiu that he hau not only put off the insistent
Russians but oui own high commanu as well with the scheme foi getting at the
"unueibelly." Well, the unuei-belly was now exposeu anu it obviously lookeu less
tempting. The classic Ameiican Wai College plan foi lanuing in Euiope calleu foi
cutting the peninsula of Biittany in two, thus establishing uepth fiom which to move
inlanu. If oui ueneials hau wanteu to caiiy out this uesign insteau of lanuing in
Afiica, they now hau the oppoitunity to insist again. It woulu fiist be necessaiy to
clean the Nazis out of the Neuiteiianean. But with foitiess Euiope about to be
attackeu somewheie, actually, aftei so long a piepaiation, it was ceitain that veiy
soon some ieal planning foi the postwai woilu must be begun. In that planning
Pueito Rico's futuie might be ueteimineu. Neanwhile theie was little we coulu uo
locally but caiiy onanu wait!
414
27
0NE 0F TBE FIRST acts of the Bell Committee
1
on its aiiival in Pueito Rico was to
inuicate that anyone who wisheu to be heaiu in seciet woulu be accommouateu. It
was iealizeu, it was saiu, that many of those who might wish to give infoimation
woulu be inclineu to withholu it "foi feai of iepiisals."
2
This invitation inuicateu the
attituue which was to be assumeu thioughout anu the tone of the "investigation."
The membeis, with one oi two exceptions, saiu to anyone who caieu to ask that they
"weie heie to get Tugwell anu clean up the Pueito Rican Reus." The heaiings, as
might be expecteu, lackeu a goou ueal of uignity anu poise; anu the conclusions
ieacheu weie so obviously ueteimineu befoie the beginning that as an "inquiiy" it
was uim-cult to take seiiously. Ni. veinon Nooie, }uuge Bell's secietaiy, saiu to me
in confusion, aftei I hau conveyeu the eailiest aiiivals fiom the aiipoit to theii hotel,
that the Senate Committee's "whitewash" was a uisgiace. This Committee woulu get
the ieal goous. I nevei knew to whom he thought he was speaking. I meiely got up
anu left.
We hau been amply waineu. When, uuiing the visit of the Chavez gioup, I hau
cableu an invitation to the newly foimeu Bouse Insulai Affaiis Committee, it hau at
least been hopeu that we coulu count on an inquiiing skepticism similai to that we
founu in Nessis. Taft, Bone, Ellenuei anu Chavez. All of these, when biought into
contact with actual conuitions, hau ieacteu honestly anu hau quickly accommouateu
themselves to facts. The Bell Committee woulu be caieful to limit its contact with the
life of the Pueito Rican people. Ni. Bell, it has to be saiu in all honesty, was biaseu. It
must also be saiu that uuiing the heaiings he leuanu peimitteu otheis to leau
witnesses thioughout theii testimony, asking piejuuicial questions, seeking
categoiical answeis, suggesting tiains of ieasoning. The piize peifoimei of this soit
was, howevei, not the Chaiiman but Ni. Ncuehee of Nississippi, "Smiling Ban
Ncuehee," who maue anti-Roosevelt ueclaiations in the hotel lobby to any anu all
who caieu to listen. Reu-heaueu, ieu-neckeu, gioss-bellieu, he shouteu anu bullieu
his way thiough the heaiings, ciashing biutally into the honest niceties of Pueito
Ricans' uefinitions of theii political beliefs anu theii occasional toituieu attempts to
philosophize.

1
}Noie piopeily titleu the Subcommittee of the Committee on Insulai Affaiis, Bouse of
Repiesentatives, Seventy-eighth Congiess, Fiist Session. Set up by B. Res. 1S9.
2
Ni. Bell ueclaieu that in cases in which the witness piefeiieu it, closeu sessions woulu be helu. . . .
Befoie leaving foi Pueito Rico, Repiesentative Ciawfoiu ueclaieu to the 0niteu Piess in Washington
that he favoieu the holuing of piivate heaiings as a means of obtaining moie fiank testimony fiom
the witnesses, at the same time safeguaiuing them fiom intimiuations of any kinu. . . ." El Nunuo, S1
Nay 194S, p. I.

415
}uuge Bell's own methous weie uiffeient, that is to say he was not biutal. Be was a
tall, giay-faceu anu giay-haiieu lawyei fiom Kansas City. Bis calibei is peihaps best
ievealeu by the iemaik maue latei by the Piesiuent when I tolu him of the
Committee's attituue. Be cockeu his heau anu inquiieu who the Chaiiman was:
"Bell." he askeu, "Bell. Who's he." At that time the Congiessman was seiving his
fifth teim; but eviuently he hau not maue much impiession at the White Bouse. Be
was the soit of peison, howevei, who maue one think him veiy eainest. Blue eyes
staieu anu little expiessions of concein issueu fiequently fiom a well-shapeu
mouth. Those eyes weie haiu anu that mouth tight; but that was apt to escape a
casual inspection. Piesiuing at oui heaiings he lent the pioceeuings a kinu of
specious uignity which lay like a thin veneei ovei the malice beneath.
uioss Ni. Ncuehee was slightly out of tune with the iest; he likeu the bluugeon; they
the knife. Noie chaiacteiistic anu moie en iappoit with the Chaiiman weie Nessis.
Ciawfoiu of Nichigan anu Bomengeaux of Louisiana. Ni. Ciawfoiu seemeu to one
incoiiigible obseivei, whose levity I felt foiceu to ueploie, like a busy weasel
iunning happily in anu out of small holes hoping foi iabbits. This was the same Ni.
Ciawfoiu who hau intimateu moie than once that Chailes Taussig anu I hau some
kinu of financial inteiest in Pueito Rican uevelopments which was being seiveu by
my goveinoiship. Be hau not flusheu any game by moie subtle methous. Be was
now nominateu to uo some official hunting anu obviously he intenueu to exploit his
oppoitunities. When he caieu to he coulu ask moie acute questions than the otheis;
he hau been, aftei all, in a foimei incaination, a Ceitifieu Public Accountant. As such
we thought him secietly impiesseu with oui ievamping of the Pueito Rican buuget
pioceuuies; but he kept his aumiiation well unuei contiol. 0ne thing we hau to say
foi him: he was active. Be spent the eaily moining houis exploiing oui pieis,
waiehouses anu factoiies, inquiiing into supply opeiations anu those of the
Bevelopment Company. Be askeu questions which showeu that he unueistoou the
uifficulties we hau hau to oveicome anu inuicateu appieciation of oui effoits. But
not, of couise, foi the iecoiu. Foi the iecoiu he took the gieatest pains to show us in
a uiffeient light, a sinistei, conspiiatoiial one. We weie peisecuting the honest
businessman, one woulu gathei, as one was intenueu to, fiom the iecoiu, anu
geneially conuucting ouiselves as subveisive chaiacteis.
Ni. Bomengeaux was still anothei soit. Be piofesseu to have a fellow feeling foi
Pueito Ricans because of being latino, anu if he founu- ways of uemonstiating it
which the stiait-laceu-appeaiing Chaiiman might not have appioveu, he obviously
tiusteu that these uepaituies fiom Anglo-Saxon stanuaius woulu be iegaiueu
inuulgently. 0i peihaps he uiu not caie. Be was meiely pleasantly contemptuous. 0n
the evening of his aiiival theie was a gatheiing of Lions at the Botel Noimanuie,
416
seveial hunuieu of them. The Congiessmen came anu each was calleu on foi a few
iemaiks. None of these effoits weie moie than nominal except those of Ni.
Bomengeaux, who peipetiateu what unuei oiuinaiy ciicumstances woulu have
been iegaiueu as an inexcusable inuiscietion. They came, he saiu, as a Committee of
the Congiess to iescue Pueito Rico fiom the Reus who hau hei by the thioat.
Enlaiging on this, he castigateu the national auministiation, iefeiieu to the
walloping he anu his colleagues in Louisiana hau hanueu out to the Long machine
anu saiu that the goings on in Pueito Rico weie like what hau been put an enu to
theie. When the Committeemen got thiough, he saiu, theie woulu be no moie
nonsense. The golu-oveilaiu beams of the banquet ioom ieally iang to the cheeis of
the assembleu businessmen anu theii wives. I hau to sitin the nominal place of
honoianu take it.
Ni. Bomengeaux was hampeieu in making goou his piomise to the Lions by having
foigot his biiefcase. Somehow he hau manageu to leave it in Washington. Anu in it
weie the questions he hau intenueu to ask. In the fiist few uays of the heaiing,
theiefoie, he uiu not piouuce the expecteu sensational inquisition; but got in his
licks latei when the notes uiu tuin up. By that time the atmospheie was thick with
mutual hostility. Foi the Congiessmen uiu not always bothei with even the most
oiuinaiy couitesies. This, howevei, was the least offense. Noie impoitant was the
complete uisiegaiu, piesently, of any appeaiance of impaitiality oi even of faiiness.
Ni. Fitzsimmons' legal counsel, who has been spoken of befoie, tuineu up as a
special assistant; anu in close attenuance anu with obvious confiuential status was
the most vicious of the ;#$0121#'138$ iauio oiatois, hanuing notes of instiuction to
inquisitois as each new witness appeaieu. In this way the Committee eviuently
expecteu that the points on which each was vulneiable coulu be piobeu. Sometimes
this piobing uepaiteu seiiously fiom any possible ielation to public conuuct anu
stabbeu at peisonal histoiies; moie often, of couise, it sought to inuicate that the
witness was communistic, socialistic oi some othei vaiiety of leftist.
Among those who came with the Committee theie weie, as woulu always be tiue,
men of goou will, uecent, oiuinaiy people who woulu not join in the attempt to
piove by aiiangeu exhibits that eveiything being uone in Pueito Rico was anti-
Ameiican in one sense oi anotheiif not 1'(,!,'(,'8138$, then inimical to the
"Ameiican way of life" so piecious to the Congiessmen of that session. Those who
obviously uissenteu fiom the methous being useu anu the conclusions being
assumeu weie Ni. Robinson of 0tah, a Bemociat, anu Ni. LeCompte of Iowa, a
Republican. Ni. Robinson was an olu acquaintance fiom Resettlement uays. At the
fiist oppoitunity he took me asiue anu tolu me what was by now no news since I
hau heaiu it fiom many otheis, incluuing Senatoi Biewsteithat this expeuition
417
was aimeu at "getting" me. I was, howevei, staitleu to heai the uetail. Long as I hau
been useu to hostility fiom those who uislikeu the cut of my political clothes anu
peihaps my iueological manneis, I shoulu haiuly have believeu it coulu iun to such
venom as Ni. Robinson iepoiteu. Be fiankly thought theie was no way out anu that
no one woulu be able to suivive politically what was laiu out foi me. I iemembeieu
that it coulu haiuly be aimeu at me, ieally; I must just be anothei Piesiuential
connection to be useu in uiscieuiting the Chief. It hau staiteu out that way, he saiu;
but as a ciusaue it hau pioveu populai anu hau gatheieu amazing suppoit. I knew
the souices, I thought, anu nameu them. Be was a little suipiiseu, as I always founu
Congiessmen to be, when I exhibiteu elementaiy political peispicacity, but saiu that
I hau the exact infoimation as he unueistoou it. Bowevei, as he saiu, talking about it
coulu uo no goou. The mattei was completely foiegone.
The heaiings of the Chavez Committee hau been helu in the small theatei of the
School of Tiopical Neuicine; the Bell gioup iefuseu to follow even in this uetail
they chose to conuuct theii pioceeuings in an unuseu uining ioom of the Conuauo
Botel. Buiing the fiist meeting I was giateful foi being alloweu to speak
uninteiiupteuly foi some two houis. Theie may have been two uozen peisons
piesent, most of them summoneu to testify; but at latei meetings theie weie fewei
piesent. Also, what to me was a most puzzling phenomenon, the Committee was
piactically unnoticeu in the piess. Even at its most bizaiie it neithei uiew a ciowu
noi gaineu a place on the fiont page. 0bviously Pueito Ricans, incluuing the
opposition, hau sizeu up the visitois anu ueteimineu foi once not to inflate them foi
effect. Bau uiscouiagement set in anu weie the attacksthe spiing anu fall
offensivesgoing to be given up. Ceitainly the piesent oppoitunity was not being
useu in the chaiacteiistic way.
I uiu nothing to piepaie as I hau with the Chavez Committee, but meiely talkeu
extempoianeously about Pueito Rico's pioblems anu those which confionteu all of
us as a iesult of wai. It was impossible to say whethei any consiueiable impiession
hau been maue; it seemeu not, ieally, except foi Ni. LeCompte whose face was an
exception to the pokei-stiff otheis acioss the table.
Peihaps it shoulu be saiu that befoie beginning these heaiings in San }uan, the
Committee hau alieauy taken eviuence in Washington fiom Ni. Nalcolm,
S
fiom Ni.
Fitzsimmons, fiom Ni. }acques Covo
4
, anu fiom Chailes Taussig.
S
The testimony of

S
2S Apiil 194S.
4
26 anu 27 Nay 194S. Ni. Covo hau succeeueu Ni. Fahy as Inteiioi's supply officei in San }uan.
S
S2u Nay 194S.


418
Chailes was, in its small compass, goou. Be hau emphasizeu the constiicteu insulai
economy anu uigeu Congiessional sympathy foi a piogiam of inuustiialization.
Limitation of biiths anu emigiation he iuleu out as pioven impiacticable;
intensification of economic activity, with emphasis on new inuustiies, was the only
possibility. This was not new, of couise; it was with this in view that the
Bevelopment Bank anu Company hau been establisheu; but it uiu no haim to have
the ieiteiation. Nessis. Nalcolm, Fitzsimmons anu Covo, howevei, hau othei enus in
view than the amelioiation of the lot of Pueito Ricans.
Ni. Fitzsimmons' testimony was one long complaint against oui moueinization of
the uoveinment, which, he saiu, was extiavagant anu wasteful. In the olu uays,
befoie my auvent, it hau been bau enough; even then, he aumitteu, he hau been
piotesting that a laboi uepaitment anu ceitain othei agencies weie unnecessaiy.
But now theie was a Planning Boaiu, a Buuget Buieau, anu othei inventions. But, as
he soon ievealeu, his ieal giievance was anothei one. It hau always been the custom
of uoveinois in Pueito Rico to iefei appiopiiation bills to the Auuitoi foi auvice anu
iecommenuation, but lately his auvice hau iaiely even been askeu. In spite of his
piotests to the Bepaitment of the Inteiioi the multiplication of agencies, Authoiities
anu functions hau gone on until finally it hau become moie than an honest man
coulu toleiate. Be hau in consequence ueciueu to iesign. Be wanteu, howevei, to
submit a chait showing what a Nussolinilike iegime existeu in Pueito Rico.
6
This
woulu show giaphically how eveiything centeieu in the uoveinoi, who useu as his
cential contiolling agency the Planning Boaiu. That agency hau the fiightening
powei to make a Nastei Plan anu to effectuate it by making zoning iegulations with
the effect of law if they weie not uisappioveu by the legislatuie. It appeaieu fiom
Ni. Fitzsimmons' testimony that someone hau given him my Fouith Powei
7
to ieau
anu this Planning Boaiu, he thought, was its embouiment. Be hau oveilookeu the
fact, iefeiieu to befoie, that my thesis hau centeieu in the necessity foi an agency
which shoulu be inuepenuent of the othei bianches of goveinment, incluuing the
executive, anu that the Pueito Rican Planning Act hau caiefully piotecteu this
inuepenuence. I hau been unable to uiscovei a bettei way of constituting the
Planning Boaiu, howevei, than by executive appointment, even though its membeis'
teims of office weie to be long enough to assuie theii fieeuom. Be thought the

6
This chait can be founu at p. 198 in Pait II of the Committee's iecoiu. This was not its fiist
appeaiance. Ni. Nalcolm hau useu it pieviously. It hau ciiculateu fieely among the opposition in San
}uan anu finally hau been publisheu in the Woilu }ouinal (28 0ctobei 1942). It was useu by that
papei as pait of its campaign foi my iemoval anu was inseiteu in the Congiessional Recoiu seveial
times by Ni. Bolivai Pagn. It was entitleu Chait to illustiate some iecent changes in the goveinment
of Pueito Rico, inuicating (1) con-centiation of authoiity in the executive, (2) contiol of fiee
commeicial enteipiise, anu (S) laige-scale commeicial activities being unueitaken by the islanu
goveinment. It woulu foim the basis foi the final iepoit of the Bell Committee to be noteu latei.
7
"The Fouith Powei," Planning anu Civic Comment, Apiil-}une 19S9, Pait II.
419
appointive powei maue foi subseivience in anyone ieceiving appointment. Anu he
thought that zoning oiuinances gave unlimiteu contiols ovei piivate enteipiiseoi
saiu he uiu, although this woulu inuicate a iemaikable ignoiance of the expeiience
with zoning in Ameiican goveinment. With piivate enteipiises suppiesseu in the
way he outlineu, the looming shapes of the Authoiities weie conjuieu up to ieplace
them: Lanu Authoiity, Watei Authoiity, Tianspoitation Authoiity, Communications
Authoiity, anu so on. Acting thiough these vaiious agencies, in othei woius, we
weie suppiessing piivate business with one hanu anu eiecting a socialist state
which, he saiu uaikly, went much beyonu even the New Bealwith the othei.
Nessis. Ncuehee, Cole, Bomengeaux anu Bell weie uelighteu with all this. They
coulu not get the olu gentleman to say that I hau manageu his iemoval, though they
tiieu anu left the iecoiu showing that he was the sole suivivoi out of all the honest
piotestants even if his ietiiement was puiely voluntaiy. Anu they coulu not leau him
into saying that I was peisonally piofiting by these activities, though tentatives
leauing to that conclusion weie put out. As the iecoiu shows now, at most ciucial
points the uiscussions weie ueleteu. What was saiu in the moie intimate exchanges
was left to the imagination.
Ni. Fitzsimmons, it seems to me now, hau acquiieu a fixation.
8
0f couise Ni.
Nalcolm hau the uisease too; but Ni. Nalcolm was sophistical anu thoiough iathei
than simple anu pathetic. The buiuen of Ni. Nalcolm's stoiy was that I hau
successfully unueimineu the Existing 0iuei (which he liveu to seive)the Existing
0iuei being, of couise, a colonial one. To him it was just., anu iight foi Ameiican
businessmen to extenu theii opeiations fieely thioughout the whole Insulai
economy; anu the flag, in his opinion, ought to sheltei them anu hallow theii
piactices. Bis testimony hau been maue available to the Committee fiist of all anu it
ceitainly gave me anu my iegime a goou going ovei. The piinteu iecoiu occupies
146 packeu pages anu if theie is missing fiom them any kinu of insinuation as to my
chaiactei anu abilities it iesulteu fiom the unimpoitant oveisight of an agile minu.
As a mattei of fact not much was lacking theie to fuinish a founuation foi the

8
Bis case was an inteiesting one. Be hau a long iecoiu of seivice among people with limiteu fieeuom
to whom the 0niteu States hau extenueu iestiaineu assistance. Askeu by Ni. Cole to uetail his
expeiience, he inuicateu this amazing seiies of assignments: Cieuit Agent foi the Inuian Buieau in
Alaska; oiganizei of the banking system in the viigin Islanus; Financial Auvisei to Libeiia. That took
him back seveial yeais: but befoie that he hau been in Baluchistan; befoie that managei of a business
in }apan; befoie that foi ten yeais Tieasuiei of the City of Nanila anu Tieasuiy Examinei anu
Chaiiman of the Committee on Cuiiency foi the Philippines; anu even befoie that puichasing agent
foi the Chinese Railway Auministiation. Who says that we have no colonial seivice. Beie was a living
example anu not even the Biitish seivice coulu show a moie typically shapeu minu. Be hau become
incapable of believing in theoiies but also hau become incapable of conceiving goveinment in any but
the most iestiicteu teims: police anu auuit but no social seivices anu no economic functions. Peihaps
theie is an auuitoiial complex also, apait fiom the conviction of supeiioiity; watching Ni.
Fitzsimmons' symptoms maue me suspect it.
420
stiuctuie the Committee hau set out to builu. Nost of it hau been tolu befoie to the
Chavez Committee in Senate heaiings, but heie it was given its elaboiate anu
finisheu foim an inuictment woikeu on foi moie than a yeai by an expeiienceu
lawyei.
The heait of it was Ni. Nalcolm's lettei to the Attoiney ueneial, uateu 1S }une 1942,
which I hau been shown a yeai befoie by Abe Foitas. It was now ievealeu to the
Committee.
9
At that time Ni. Nalcolm hau been a membei of my Cabinet: by
uefinition of the 0iganic Act my legal auvisei. Be hau hau no qualms about iepoiting
to the 0niteu States Attoiney ueneial, without my knowleuge, that I was conuucting
my office impiopeily; anu he hau no qualms now about uisclosing his tieacheiy to
the Committee. The buiuen of his complaint was that I hau ignoieu his auvice as to
the action to be taken on bills passeu by the legislatuie. Be sought to show that in
uoing so I hau violateu not only custom anu pioceuuie but the 0iganic Act itself.
This last allegation, of couise, iesteu on his juugment. I hau iefuseu veto when he
auviseu it; I hau vetoeu when he was opposeu; anu, in ceitain instances, I hau not
even askeu his auvice. Those weie impoitant cases, he saiu; anu in fact they weie.
0ne amenueu the Watei Resouices Act; one cieateu the Tianspoitation Authoiity;
anu anothei ieoiganizeu the 0niveisity. All those bills hau gone to Ni. Nalcolm's
office anu I hau iecalleu anu signeu them without iepoit.
1u

The list of bills on which veto hau been auviseu, anu which I hau neveitheless
appioveu, was a longei one; anu they embouieu the policies anu attituues which
most membeis of the Committee uisappioveu. In emphasizing anu uiscussing them,
anu in inuicating his uisappioval, Ni. Nalcolm assumeu that he spoke to a
sympathetic auuience. Be uisplayeu an insuffeiable unction as he uiu so. Be was the
uefenuei of the Ameiican way; I was its intenuing uestioyei. The Committee
smootheu anu petteu him; he iesponueu with puiis of iighteousness. This list
incluueu amenuments stiengthening the minimum-wage law anu the woikmen's
compensation act, as well as the laws cieating the Planning Boaiu, the Bevelopment
Bank anu Company, anu the Communications Authoiity.
The bills I hau vetoeu against Ni. Nalcolm's auvice weie conceueu by him to have
been within my competence. 0n them, he saiu, no goou puipose coulu be seiveu by

9
Beaiings befoie the Subcommittee of the Committee on Insulai Affaiis, Bouse of Repiesentatives,
Seventy-eighth Congiess, puisuant to B. Res. 1S9, p. 88ff.
1u
The ciicumstances, which I uiu not feel calleu on to explain to Ni. Nalcolm, weie that I was just
leaving foi Tiiniuau to attenu the fiist meeting of the Anglo-Ameiican Caiibbean Commission. In the
Watei Resouices case theie weie fiscal ieasons foi piompt action; in the Tianspoitation Authoiity
case I was caiiying out an official commitment to the R.F.C. (as a iesult, its loan to the olu company
was iepaiu in full, with inteiest) ; anu in the 0niveisity case, I wanteu to sign the bill, iathei than
leave it foi the Acting uoveinoi, so that I shoulu have the full iesponsibility.

421
comment; yet he uiu comment at some length, inuicating that in one instance, at
least, I hau again exhibiteu my ueteimineu opposition to legal pioceuuies anu my
pieuilection foi illegal ones. That was the measuie setting up a coffee-stabilizing
coipoiation which he hau saiu, in spite of his opinion uisappioving such
goveinment coipoiations as the Bevelopment Company anu the Authoiities, was
piopeily oiganizeu. Be ignoieu my caiefully wiitten veto message in that instance.
Ny objection hau been that the bill woulu benefit a few meichants anu expoiteis
iathei than the coffee faimeis anu that it woulu be veiy costly to the uoveinment.
When it came to opening the Tieasuiy to San }uan meichants, Ni. Nalcolm's legal
qualms, like Ni. Fitzsimmons' piinciples of economy, weie conveniently abeyeu.
These two gentlemen came togethei at one place in the Nalcolm testimony. This
was when he ielateu the stoiy of Ni. Fitzsimmons' sau expeiience with the Solicitoi
of the Bepaitment of the Inteiioi. It was only faii, Ni. Nalcolm saiu, to submit to the
Committee the Solicitoi's opinion that the uoveinoi's actions hau been
constitutional. It was also faii, howevei, to inuicate that this opinion hau been put
out by a Ni. Felix Cohen as Acting Solicitoi anu that he hau ielieu on the famous
Spiingei case. That case, he beggeu to ieminu them, hau oiiginateu in the
Philippines anu he himself hau been the authoi of the opinion of the Philippine
couit. The Committee coulu choose which authoiity it woulu follow; but the fact was
that the Spiingei case hau been uphelu in the Supieme Couit. Ni. Nalcolm, by now,
was off on a siue issue. The Spiingei case hau nothing to uo, ieally, with the question
whethei I might use my juugment as Chief Executive iegaiuless of auvice fiom the
Attoiney ueneial. It was obviously uiaggeu in to convey the thought that he was an
expeiienceu juuge anu that Ni. Cohen was meiely a small buieauciat.
At this point he intiouuceu anothei piivate lettei which lifteu the cuitain a little on
the goings on of the summei befoie. It was a lettei to Ni. Nalcolm fiom Ni.
Fitzsimmons uateu 21 August 1942, just aftei the opinion of the Solicitoi hau
uisappointeu the Auuitoiial hopes. Ni. Nalcolm hau been in Califoinia; Ni.
Fitzsimmons hau been in Washington at the commanu of Ni. Swope, Biiectoi of the
Bivision of Teiiitoiies anu Islanu Possessions. "When you ieach Washington," saiu
Ni. Fitzsimmons, "you can obtain a copy of the opinion anu comments of the Acting
Solicitoi, Ni. Felix S. Cohen, on the vaiious acts cieating the sunuiy authoiities . . .
|theyj aie authoiizeu to ieceive theii appiopiiations in full anu may uisbuise them
as they wish without any contiol by the tieasuiei oi auuitoi, oi any othei
uepaitment of the uoveinment which pioviues the funus. When you ieceive this
lettei, will you kinuly auvise me what youi official piogiam is so that I may know if
it is possible to see you. . .The Bepaitment heie appaiently wishes to see you
11


11
The "Bepaitment" may be assumeu to mean the Bivision of Teiiitoiies.
422
because I was askeu foi youi auuiess which at the time I uiu not have." That theie
hau been insuboiuination eviuently uiu not seem to Ni. Nalcolm a mattei foi
concealment. Rathei, he expecteu the Committee to shaie his feeling of affiont that
it hau gone awiy. Almost at once he intiouuceu the Woilu }ouinal chait alieauy
iefeiieu to, ievealing that it hau been piepaieu anu shippeu to the papei by "an
aimy officei." This was the fiist I hau known of that. Theie hau been a Civil Affaiis
officei about of whom I was conscious but who hau seemeu to have no cleai
functions. Be hau haunteu vaiious goveinment offices, incluuing my own, anu was
known to have a passion foi chaits. It was tiue that he hau been known to complain
that he was not taken seiiously enough foi one who woulu be uoveinoi in case
militaiy law shoulu become necessaiy. But he was not malicious anu, I felt ceitain,
not pait of any conspiiacy among those who weie anxious to uisplace me.
12

Whethei oi not he was the authoi of the now famous uiagiam was still unknown to
me. Eviuently Ni. Nalcolm felt that he hau been inuiscieet, because when Ni.
Nuiphy askeu whethei the aimy officei's name was on the chait, he saiu, "No, I am
just stating that as a suimise. Possibly I shoulu not have saiu that, because I have no
infoimation I can make public on it." Then, coveiing up quickly, he saiu, "... Be woulu
not want to be quoteu unuei piesent conuitions." The "piesent conuitions" iefeiieu
to the allegation that theie hau been attempts on my pait to suppiess fiee speech.
This theoiy hau been seizeu on by the ieactionaiy piess in Pueito Rico as a
convenient stick to beat me with (it alteinateu foi months with chaiges of waste anu
extiavagance, multiplication of agencies anu employees, etc.). The opposition was
mauueneu by my insistence on a minimum of piivacy anu my objection to the
suboination of secietaiies anu cleiks, togethei with my objections to iumoi-
mongeiing anu incitement to hysteiia in the uays just aftei Peail Baiboi. Ny iathei
milu anu entiiely ieasonable iemonstiances weie blown up into what passeu foi a
2$.3, 2W0,/",, a souice of much amusement to fiienus who knew of my fanatical
auheience to all the symbols of civil libeity. Ni. Nalcolm biought it into his
testimony not only to uiveit the attention of Ni. Nuiphy, who might have gone on to
inquiie how Ni. Nalcolm anu the Woilu }ouinal hau acquiieu an aimy officei's
confiuential chait, but also to intiouuce an auuiess he hau maue almost immeuiately
aftei I hau become uoveinoi.
Foi the benefit of the San }uan Lions Club Ni. Nalcolm hau uenounceu the
uoveinment (of which he was a pait) as "a mighty buieauciacy maue up of
countless buieaus, uivisions, commissions, anu what not, ciowuing anu oveilapping

12
Ni. Thomas Bayes, who was my Secietaiy at that time, comments on this passage that these weie
not the Civil Affaiis officei's chaits. As a mattei of fact that officei thought they weie pooi stuff anu
saiu so to Ni. Bayes. This makes Ni. Nalcolm's insinuation so much the woise.

423
each othei in juiisuiction but all uepenuent foi existence on public funus." This was
a typical peifoimance. But since he was a membei of my Cabinet I calleu him foi it in
a lettei enuing, "Since you have biought the mattei up in such a public way, it seems
to me not unieasonable to iequest that you supply me with the infoimation on
which youi statement was baseu. I shall be glau to biing the mattei to the attention
of the legislatuie anu ask foi action." The ieply to this was veibose enough, but, of
couise, containeu not a single fact anu it was significantly omitteu fiom the list of
letteis anu uocuments he submitteu to the Committee. Insteau anothei speech was
submitteu in which the Bill of Rights was passionately uefenueu. This was also maue
to the Lions, to whom Ni. Nalcolm was by then a piopiietaiy heio. Be hau
concluueu with a paiagiaph to which the company hau iisen with cheeis:
Touay uemociacy stanus at the ciossioaus. Bown one avenue it can pioceeu to
become enmesheu in the tentacles of absolutism. Bown the othei avenue, it can
maich to conquei the enemies of the uemociatic foim of goveinment anu to
safeguaiu the iights of the people. 0nuei one system, oiganizations such as youis
woulu not be toleiateu, meetings, such as we holu touay woulu not be peimitteu anu
the people woulu become, foi all piactical puiposes, maiionettes, who move on a
stage with the stiings pulleu by a mastei uictatoi. 0nuei the othei system, we can
continue to live as fiee people, accoiueu the blessing of a bill of iights. Can anyone
uoubt what oui uecision will be. That foitituue must be ouis which is ieauy to make
eveiy neeueu saciifice to attain oui legitimate goal. In conclusion, my fiienus,
peimit me to iequest you to iise anu join in a toast of giatituue foi oui Bill of Rights;
a toast of loyalty to oui countiy; a toast of iespect foi oui Chief Executive, the
Piesiuent of the 0niteu States.
Tiuly the line is sometimes thin between what is iecognizably uiivel anu what is
legitimate exhoitation, what is faice anu what is ceiemonial. Nany a public man
must blush to ieau such an apotheosis of the hypociitical clich, iecognizing, as one
uoes on ieauing a sophomoie's essay, embaiiassingly familiai outlines. Whethei oi
not the Congiessmen who weie Ni. Nalcolm's piesent auuience felt any such
embaiiassment, they went on listening to him at some lengthinueeu they calleu
him back foi a seconu session in which his opinions weie ieceiveu conceining the
islanu's iehabilitation.
The testimony of Nessis. Fitzsimmons anu Nalcolm has been iefeiieu to at some
length to show the kinu of thing the Committee hau in its iecoiuanu piesumably
in its minubefoie it came to holu heaiings on the spot. Theie hau been no expeit
testimony; theie hau been noneat least, none on the iecoiu fiom Pueito Ricans;
anu theie hau been none fiom the authoiities iesponsible foi Pueito Rican affaiis oi
fiom those who might, be thought favoiable to the Auministiation. All they hau
424
heaiu was fiom uisgiuntleu, ieactionaiy foimei office holueis. It was no moie than
a faii infeience that this was all they wanteu to heai. Thiough Apiil anu Nay it was
mateiial foi that yeai's spiing offensive. Natuially it hau othei accompaniments. The
Beaist anu Sciipps-Bowaiu papeis ieneweu theii inteiest anu the affaii might
natuially have been expecteu to iise towaiu a climax when the Committee tioubleu
itself to come all the way to Pueito Rico. This was a pie-election yeai anu the fouith
teim foi Ni. Roosevelt was not only a uiscouiaging piospect foi the Republicans,
but also a uaik shauow on the Southein Bemociats' heaits. Ni. Ncuehee maue no
seciet of his animus, foi instance; Ni. Cole peisisteu in his vaiious attempts to
ieuuce the insulai income; anu Ni. Ciawfoiu peisisteu in tiying to iepeal the laws
on which oui economic piogiam was baseu. To the Republicans, who coulu not
foiget my foimei connections with the Piesiuent, the whole mattei was moie than
anything else an amusing instance of intiapaity stiife fiom which they hau
eveiything to gain anu nothing to lose. Piogiessivism, besiues, was just then at its
nauii; no epithets weie so effective as "iauical" oi "Reu," anu with these labels I was
fiimly taggeu. Even to be calleu a New Bealeianu I coulu not escape thatwas to
be conuemneu.
Neveitheless the thing uieu on its feet in Pueito Rico. The Chavez Committee visit
hau peteieu out foi the opposition because of a majoiity among the investigatois
who weie intellectually honest; this one smotheieu itself in weakness anu bias. Such
a piospect was ceitainly not appaient when the Committee suigeu into the Conuauo
anu began to thiow its weight aiounu, but we hau aheau of us a tianquil anu
constiuctive summei in which to consoliuate oui goveinmental gains.
This was the Piesiuent's spiing in spite of eveiything. The long oiueal of wintei in
Afiica enueu with the fiist ieally gloiious victoiy. The amateui management at
Algieis suuuenly blossomeu into the smait expeitise of Tunis with the supeimen
out-thought anu outfought, theii commanu centeis paialyzeu, theii tianspoit
uisiupteu, theii escape cut off, anu they giving up on Cap Bon in the fiist uivisional
suiienueis. Ameiicans hau leaineu the lessons of mouein wai. Betioit hau founu its
way to the battlefielu: as some coiiesponuent saiu, "Ameiican tails weie up anu
theii stingeis out." Sicily (oi, as we moie often guesseu then, southein Fiance) was
soon to come. Anu out in the Pacific the Navy was beginning to make muscle again
aftei the fiightening concealments of the yeai just past when we hau been uown
almost to nothing anu hau hau to make battleship anu caiiiei noises with pip-
squeak numbeis of biave little vessels in that vast hostile sea.
It coulu be calleu the Bawn of victoiy if one wanteu to be high-flown, anu, in oui
ienaissance, theie was some excuse foi letting ouiselves go a little. The way to the
beginning hau seemeu so haiu anu so enuless. The Commanuei in Chief hau nevei
425
hau an instant of peace. Nothing he hau uone hau seemeu to tuin out well in the
caiping aii of Washington. The piess nevei hau accepteu one of his effoits as goou;
nevei hau cieuiteu him with one item eithei of intention oi iesult. The Republicans,
anu even woise, the ieactionaiy Bemociats, hau iiuuen him with ciuel spuis.
Thiough it all he hau not always peihaps been seiene the columnists hau
complaineu that he was sometimes peevish anu coiiectivebut he hau been
completely assuieu. Anu now no fuiious piess baiiage, no big guns fiom the Senate,
coulu shake the citauel of the countiy's faith in him. Be hau caiiieu us to
accomplishmentjust as Lincoln hau uonealmost against oui collective will,
ceitainly against the most eainest opposition of piess anu punuit. Still not he was
piaiseu but only his suboiuinates. ueneial Naishall anu Aumiial King began to be
talkeu of -as geniuses, foi instance, but no one pointeu out that they weie Ni.
Roosevelt's geniuses anu that theie hau been othei canuiuates whose nomination
the piess woulu have foiceu if it coulu. Anu the Republicans still iefuseu, as they hau
been uoing since 194u, to iecognize the wai uiiectoiate as a coalition. Nessis.
Stimson, Knox, Nelson among Republicans anu Nessis. Baiuch, Byines, vinson,
Bouglas anu }onesto name no otheisamong the conseivative Bemociats won
foi the Piesiuent not the slightest iecognition foi impaitiality. Except that he hau
openeu up wiuei souices of talent, his gains fiom this attempt at appeasement weie
minuscule.
1S

With these vast consequential campaigns opening out anu with the ieneweu faith
anu vigoi of all Ameiicans, a small, mean anu inuiiect attempt on the Piesiuent's
piestige, such as was iepiesenteu by Ni. Bell's Committee, must appeai picayune
even to the naiiowest ciitic. This was, of couise, the ieal ieason foi its uemisenot,
as it woulu be moie agieeable to claim, because theie was nothing to ciiticize. Foi it

1S
The similai pioblem anu the uiveise solutions of Lincoln anu Wilson offeieu about the only
pievious expeiience unuei oui Constitution anu with oui customs. Ni. Roosevelt chose to accept the
solution of Lincoln iathei than of Wilson, whose view was that it was the Auministiation's wai anu
that the paity woulu have to see it thiough. Whethei it was a goou choice will peihaps nevei be
ceitain. Ni. Roosevelt hau in minu the stifling of uis-sensionwhich he uiu not achieve; but peihaps
also he hau in minu winning the peace. Both Lincoln anu Wilson won wais anu lost settlements anu
since they took opposing views of coalition theii expeiience uiu not help. The tioubles of both in the
peace weie with the Congiess, howevei, although Wilson's weie ceitainly paitisan, iemembeiing the
iole of Louge, Watson anu the otheis. Anu Ni. Roosevelt uoubtless sought to foiestall such an
outcome by the use of Ni. Byines (who hau been a populai Southein Senatoi) anu, foi instance,
Nessis. vinson anu }ones (who hau been a piominent Southein Committee Chaiiman in the Bouse).
If the Piesiuent shoulu win his peace, oi make a measuiable appioach to it, the appeasement of the
ieactionaiies woulu have been successful although his gestuie to the Republicans faileu. Inteiesting
contiasts in the ciisis-Piesiuents' appioaches weie at that moment being exploieu, as was inevitable,
by histoiians. Shoitly, foi instance, Ni. ueoige Foit Nilton woulu publish his 0se of the Piesiuential
Powei, 1789-194S (Little, Biown & Co., 1944), much of which woulu have been composeu just acioss
the Squaie fiom the White Bouse in the olu Cosmos Club while the events of 1942-4S weie unuei
way.
426
coulu always be claimeu with a show of eviuenceinueeu it was claimeuthat we
weie "Reus" oi "fascists." Anu that ought to have twangeu a sensitizeu choiu anu
echoeu impoitantly in eveiy newspapei in the lanu.
When on 1 }une I faceu the Committee
14
it was with the expectation of hostility
which uiu not uevelop. I was suipiiseu to be alloweu to make my iathei long
statementconceining the economic position, mostlywithout inteiiuption; anu
my questioning went ovei until the seconu uay. Even that was tempeiate. Ni.
Ciawfoiu was by now supplieu with vaiious buugets anu financial statements anu
was nosing into them quite happily. 0n these anu othei uetaileu matteis the
membeis seemeu willing to accept my suggestion that they coulu get moie fiom the
officeis actually in chaigethe Tieasuiei, the Commissionei of Euucation anu so
on. It was not bau. But we soon began to heai of piivate sessions anu these went on
thioughout the Committee's stay, paiallel to the on-the-iecoiu heaiings which now
appeai in the piinteu heaiings. It was in these that, as we knew well enough, all the
giuuges weie being aiieu. The infoimeis iangeu high anu lowthe kinu of peison
who, thiough thieateneu inteiest oi hope of auvantage, uoes not sciuple at betiayal
oi feel himself maiiieu to tiuth, was piesent in Pueito Rico as eveiywheie. But with
us he was to be founu in his most vicious manifestation among the membeis of the
Faimeis' Association anu the Chambei of Commeice. 0ne bankei in paiticulai maue
himself almost the official host anu sessions weie helu at his home. At these the
othei bankeis anu the sugai piouuceis felt moie at ease. Theie they gave the
Committee what it hau been looking foia vessel full anu iunning ovei. The lights
buineu late, confiuences giew, anu legislatois anu businessmen tolu each othei
hoiioi tales to satiation.
Theie aie always, of couise, infoimeis who infoim on infoimeis, anu I heaiu all
about it fiom volunteeis: in fact, I coulu not stop the spate of gossip. Foi eveiyone
knew by the beginning of the seconu week that the Committee hau no inuictment,
that it was meiely fishing in what it hau hopeu weie tioubleu wateis, anu that
nothing of value to the opposition woulu come of it allthat is, eveiyone knew but
the local Bouibons who, like those elsewheie, nevei know anything outsiue theii
own immeuiate inteiests anu have an infinite capacity foi being ueceiveu about
them.
Ni. Benjamin 0itiz, at that time Chaiiman of the Public Seivice Commission,
ueliveieu a shiewu thiust at the Committee in a lettei wiitten aftei he hau finisheu
testifying. Bis appeaiance hau been an oiueal, since his was the iesponsibility foi

14
Nessis. Ncuehee anu Robinson hau not yet aiiiveu, foi which ieason, I expecteu, thioughout the
Committee's stay, to be calleu back foi fuithei questioning.

427
auministeiing the law which maue public utilities of the sugai mills anu iegulateu
theii ielations with the colonos. Ni. Ciawfoiu anu Ni. Bell hau sought to foice an
aumission that the law was foolish, that it was uisciiminatoiy, that it uiscouiageu
piivate investment anu that it leu uiiectly towaiu socialism. It was piobably tiue
that Ni. 0itiz was a socialist, speaking in a bioau way; but he saw no ieason to be
ashameu of his aiuuous woik in the yeai past. Be was confionteu with piejuuiceu
anu uishonest infoimation fuinisheu to the Committee by sugai lawyeis anu otheis
anu, consiueiing the attituue of his inteiiogatois, hau conuucteu himself veiy well
inueeu. But he was conscious that the pioceeuings hau been iapiu anu the piessuie
consiueiable. So he wiote a lettei to Ni. Bell, one paiagiaph of which was this:
Buiing my testimony I expiesseu some geneial iueas iepiesenting my philosophy of
goveinment. . . . Even assuming that a set of piinciples contiaiy to my points of view
weie to have some valiuity in the 0niteu States of Ameiica, yet we must asceitain
whethei theie is any uiffeience in the economic anu social conuitions in Pueito Rico
which may justify the application of a uiffeient set of piinciples in oui islanu. The
gieatei pait of oui population lives in conuitions of tiagic miseiy. I iespectfully
suggest that youi mission is not to stuuy the conuitions of 1,uuu oi S,uuu wealthy
peisons in Pueito Rico, but to stuuy the conuitions of the iest of the population. The
best eviuence which you coulu consiuei woulu be an actual physical examination of
the conuitions in which oui people live.
1S

Nost witnesses, eaily in theii testimony, weie askeu to say whethei they believeu in
public owneiship. Ni. Louis Stuicke, Biiectoi of the Buuget, hau a typical
expeiience:
NR. CRAWF0RB: What is youi attituue towaiu goveinment owneiship veisus
piivate owneiship.
NR. ST0RCKE: Ny peisonal attituue, you mean. - NR. CRAWF0RB: "Yes, sii.
NR. ST0RCKE: Well, I peisonally believe that the piofit motive is the best way to get
people to woik, anu get that woik uone efficientlythat is, to piouuce goous anu
seivices. I think in goveinment opeiation of business you get into auministiative
uifficulties of one soit oi anothei.
NR. CRAWF0RB: You mean to say that by the goveinment owning these activities
anu opeiating them, anu getting into auministiative uifficulties, you still feel that the
net ietuin is bettei foi the people, biings them moie joy of life, moie libeity, highei
stanuaius of living than unuei piivate incentive.

1S
Beaiings, Pait 7, 1u }une 194S, p. 646.

428
NR. ST0RCKE: N0; I saiu the opposite. I saiu the piofit incentive, piivate owneiship
anu opeiation, piouuces moie goous at a lowei cost oi moie efficiently, as against
goveinment owneiship.
NR. CRAWF0RB: Well, that is exactly what I unueistoou you to say. Now, then, let
me iestate it this way. Bo you believe in goveinment owneiship anu opeiation in
piefeience to piivate owneiship anu opeiation.
NR. ST0RCKE: N0, sii; I think the same answei woulu apply.
NR. CRAWF0RB : In othei woius, you believe moie in the piivate incentive, piivate
owneiship anu opeiation, piouucing moie goous at a lowei cost, oi moie efficiently,
as against goveinment owneiship with its auministiative uifficulties.
NR. ST0RCKE : Yes, sii.
NR. CRAWF0RB: In youi auvocacy of these activities, since you became a membei of
the uoveinoi's opeiating foice, we will call it, have you auvocateu goveinment
owneiship oi piivate owneiship.
NR. ST0RCKE : I uo not know that I have hau occasion to take a position on that.
Foi the Committee's puipose the piize witness wasoi shoulu have beenNi.
Antonio Roig, one of the laigest of the Pueito Rican sugai piouuceis. Be hau plenty
of animus anu was one of the main suppoits of the Faimeis' Association. Ni.
Bomengeaux inquiieu whethei businessmen weie ieluctant to appeai because of
possible ietaliation. Ni. Roig saiu that they weie but that he felt theii appiehensions
to be baseless. Ni. Cole askeu whethei, if theie weie any spiiit of ietaliation oi
vengeance on the pait of the uoveinoi, the law woulu not take caie of him.
Ni. Roig saiu, 'Piobably, but I uo not holu that feai." Anu he was thus moie oi less
unsatisfactoiy thioughout. Be was caught, foi instance, in the insulai uilemma of
complaining bitteily about the Ninimum Wage Act, the law making sugai mills
public utilities anu so on, but of being unwilling to ask that the Congiess oveiiule
local legislation. Lacking that, theie was not much that was substantive in the
"expeiience of a businessman" as he offeieu it to the Committee. Be uiu allow
himself to be leu by the Chaiiman into uenunciation of the Bevelopment Bank anu
the Bevelopment Company, the twin objects of his special concein. Inueeu, aftei Ni.
Bell hau expatiateu on the possibilities in a liteial inteipietation of the Bevelopment
Company law, Ni. Roig saiu, as though somewhat suipiiseu, that although he hau
not thought of it befoie, "It coulu woik just like Ni. Ponzi uiu in Nassachusetts." Be
then followeu on into this bit of ieasoningunuei piopei guiuance:
429
TBE CBAIRNAN : I believe theie is a piovision that the inuebteuness of the islanu
goveinment cannot exceeu moie than 1u pei cent of the assesseu valuation.
NR. R0Iu : That is iight.
TBE CBAIRNAN : Is it youi opinion unuei this Bevelopment Act, inasmuch as theie
is a piovision in the chaitei that the assets anu ueposits of the bank shall not be the
assets anu ueposits of the Pueito Rican goveinment but of the coipoiation cieateu
anu contiolleu by the goveinment, is it youi opinion that it is an attempt to avoiu
the piovisions of the 0iganic Act.
NR. R0Iu : It is.
TBE CBAIRNAN : Woulu it not be possible by using the poweis of that bank to make
the actual inuebteuness of Pueito Rico, by uiawing off all the assets out of which
taxes coulu be paiu, to be uoubleu anu ieuoubleu anu expanueu many hunuieus of
times.
NR. R0Iu : Theie aie no limitations.
TBE CBAIRNAN : The chaitei pioviues theie shall be no limitations.
NR. R0Iu: I imagine it is the policy to squeeze fiom the banks the goveinment
ueposits of 2S oi Su millions.
TBE CBAIRNAN: If the goveinment ueposits in these piivate banks weie siphoneu
off to the Bevelopment Bank, what woulu happen.
NR. R0Iu: Small banks coulu not stanu it. 0thei banks like the National City woulu
not make much money.
TBE CBAIRNAN : When uo you think, oi how long uo you think it woulu take to
close out small piivate business in the islanu if the Bevelopment Bank coulu
function.
NR. R0Iu : Five yeais.
TBE CBAIRNAN : You think it woulu take S yeais to uestioy all piivate business.
NR. R0Iu : Piobably.
The Chaiiman uesisteu at this point anu Ni. Cole took ovei; but piesently the
Chaiiman again inteiveneuhe hau one fuithei question:
430
TBE CBAIRNAN: We woulu like to have an opinion fiom the folks in the islanu as to
whethei oi not the life of coipoiations such as the Bevelopment Bank oi any similai
coipoiation shoulu be continueu. . . .
NR. R0Iu: I uo not believe in goveinment in business. A bank with such a bioau
chaitei as this I think is one of the biggest causes of this main feai of business.
TBE CBAIRNAN : Bas theie been any paiticulaily maikeu tenuency foi capital to
leave the islanu since that bank has been conceiveu.
NR. R0Iu: I uo not think the bank itself is the cause of capital leaving. I think it has
been all of the philosophy of the iecent yeais.
TBE CBAIRNAN : Woulu you say that the pioposeu system which incluues the
Bevelopment Bank anu the Bevelopment Company, anu othei coipoiations that
make up that pictuie, weie paits of a geneial plan by the goveinment to take ovei
business, theieby causing a flight of capital. Capital in all times anu in all countiies
is timiu.
NR. R0Iu: Yes.
TBE CBAIRNAN: Anu it is selfish.
NR. R0Iu : Yes.
TBE CBAIRNAN: When I say it is timiu I mean that whenevei its safety is
jeopaiuizeu it flees if it can.
NR. R0Iu: It is always like that. They want a highei peicentage.
TBE CBAIRNAN: Capital is always goveineu not altiuistically but ieally by a selfish
inteiest.
NR. R0Iu: Exactly.
TBE CBAIRNAN: It goes to places wheie it can best seive its own inteiests.
NR. R0Iu: Absolutely.
This was not so helpful as having the witness volunteei; still, it was something to
have him agiee, geneially, to the Chaiiman's thesis. Anu the membeis weie suitably
giateful. Both Ni. Ncuehee anu Ni. Cole expiesseu giatituue anu saiu that he hau
been "extiemely helpful." Theie weie a few otheis of the business community who
testifieu foi the iecoiu. The Chambei of Commeice anu the Faimeis' Association
431
iepiesentatives weie encouiageu to extenu, by means of the Committee, theii long
campaign of confusion anu vilification.
16

0ne of the most toituieu passages was the inquiiy into the mattei of oui taking ovei
the bus line in San }uan, aftei it hau bioken uown fiom mismanagement anu piivate
looting, anu the setting up of a Tianspoitation Authoiity to manage it. In spite of the
plain facts in the case, witnesses weie leu into iepiesentations that it was I who was
iesponsible foi its bieakuown anu that this hau been manageu so that anothei
socialistic enteipiise might be set up. 0ui tianspoitation ciisis hau been such in the
spiing of 1942 that I hau askeu the legislatuie foi emeigency poweis. These hau
been uenieu because of the opposition of the pblico lobby. At the specific iequest of
the R.F.C., howevei, I hau iecommenueu, anu the legislatuie hau consenteu to, the
taking ovei of the bus lines. By now we hau a system which was opeiating
successfully anu piofitably in spite of competition fiom pblicos which, because of
the political influence of the chauffeuis,
17
maue the situation a chaotic anu iuinous
one. Since I lackeu powei to contiol it, I hau appealeu to the Feueial authoiities anu
Ni. Eastman of the 0ffice of Befense Tianspoitation hau iesponueu at once,
supplying the necessaiy uiscipline anu enabling us to iegulaiize ioutes, economize
on gasoline anu tiies, anu at the same time pioviue quite auequate seivice. Because I
hau hau one of my few quaiiels with the Populaies ovei this I was amazeu to have
the foimei attoiney foi the bus line testify that I hau iuineu the line by encouiaging
the pblicos to opeiate fieely.
18
Ni. Ncuehee anu Ni. Ciawfoiu eiecteu this into a
pietty uamaging stiuctuie with Ni. Robinson holuing back. Speaking of the failuie
of the company to meet its payments on the R.F.u. loan, Ni. Ncuehee uiove haiu on
the point that I was iesponsible.
NR. NCuEBEE: Anu you maue those payments until this inteifeience staiteu by the
insulai goveinment.

16
The foou-uistiibution piogiam came in foi its expecteu shaie of abuse, anu, inueeu, seemeu to offei
at the moment the most vulneiable object foi attack so that when it got back to Washington the
Committee woulu, foi some time, uevote itself to spaiiing with the Bepaitment ovei this, with Ni.
Thoion weakening anu I fiantic at this enu lest the piogiam be abanuoneu anu the cost of living
shoulu suuuenly iise by the twenty-five oi thiity pei cent of the impoiteis' piofits. As it tuineu out
we shoulu holu on foi some time; but theie weie many anxious moments. Luckily the Senate gioup,
aftei its eaily iow about this mattei, stoppeu botheiing ovei it, anu since the Bell gioup caiiieu so
little weight, Nessis. Ickes anu Foitas ueciueu to give up only the items of lessei impoitance. 0p to
the summei of 194S anu beyonu we shoulu maintain bulk buying anu impoiting of the half-uozen
most impoitant foous.
17
They hau a kinu of alliance with the Populaies. In exchange foi iounuing up voteis anu conveying
them to the polls at election time they weie piotecteu fiom iestiiction.
18
Ni. Fiancisco Feinnuez Cuyai was a law paitnei of Ni. Celestino Iiiaite, >",31(,'8, of the
-,!./012$'#3. The fiim hau lost a piofitable client when the uoveinment took ovei.

432
NR. C0YAR: 0h, yes; absolutely. Not only those, but theie was an auuitional loan of
$2Su,uuu.
NR. NCuEBEE : Anu you met those until the inteifeience of the insulai goveinment.
NR. C0YAR : Quite well.
TBE CBAIRNAN: This auuitional loan came at what uate.
NR. C0YAR: That was }anuaiy 1941.
NR. R0BINS0N: }ust a minute, if I may; I woulu like to ask this question: Biu the
conuitions on the islanu, with iefeience to the wai, have any influence on youi
business.
NR. C0YAR: With iefeience to what, sii.
NR. R0BINS0N : The wai.
NR. C0YAR: 0h, yes. Yes. Aftei the wai staiteu anu when the maiitime situation got
woise in iegaius to Pueito Rico, why, you coulun't get any mateiial anu spaie paits,
anu busses, anu so foith, to come uown.
NR. R0BINS0N: Anu that woulu have something to uo with it.
NR. C0YAR: 0h, yes. I alieauy saiu that that was, in pait, to blame foi it, but, in my
opinion, which is baseu on all these facts, I shoulu say that was soit of a final blow to
bieak uown this Company, but it was just a contiibuting ciicumstance.
NR. R0BINS0N: Youi opinion is that you coulu have been maybe successful in
getting by, even in spite of the conuitions that existeu uue to the wai, if you coulu
have hau the suppoit of the insulai goveinment uuiing that paiticulai anu ciucial
time.
NR. C0YAR: I am quite ceitain of that, sii. As a mattei of fact, though, we uiun't want
to sell. We wanteu to caiiy on this business. It is a goou business. We weie
piactically foiceu to sell. I am not iefeiiing now to the couit in this pioceeuing.
I am iefeiiing to all the giauual piocesses by which this Company was, as I saiu,
coineieu. NR. CRAWF0RB: Well, the wai biought you a gieatly incieaseu passengei
flow in this aiea, uiu it not. NR. C0YAR: That is iight. NR. CRAWF0RB: Anu that
type of tianspoitation is iecognizeu as essential wai seivice by the Wai Piouuction
Boaiu anu the piioiities authoiities anu all the iest. NR. C0YAR: Yes, sii.
433
NR. CRAWF0RB: S0 then, fiom that stanupoint, the wai conuitions woulu have
mateiially incieaseu the ievenue hau youi fianchise been piotecteu. NR. C0YAR:
That is iight, sii. 0nly that busses bieak uown once in a while, but if you hau money
to puichase the mateiials anu so foith; yes. TBE CBAIRNAN: Bau you been able to
get the allocation of paits, the wai woulu have incieaseu youi business iathei than
huit it, woulu it not. NR. C0YAR: Yes, sii. TBE CBAIRNAN: The only place wheie the
wai huit you was the failuie to get the allocation of paits fiom the goveinment in
Washington; is that iight. NR. C0YAR: I uon't think so, sii. In fact, we hau an
allocation of paits which was, in pait, paiu foi with the $8uuu uisbuiseu by R.F.C. on
its last $Su,uuu loan. TBE CBAIRNAN : Why uiu you not get the paits. NR. C0YAR :
We uiun't have the money. TBE CBAIRNAN : You uiu not have the money. NR.
C0YAR: N0. The loan was cancelleu when all these things came up. The banks heie
woulu not let us have the money. TBE CBAIRNAN: Then you uiu get allocation of
paits fiom Washington. NR. C0YAR: Yes. It came uown. TBE CBAIRNAN: But the
uestiuction of youi ievenue by these !\/012#3 was what kept you fiom having
money to pay foi those paits; is that youi position. NR. C0YAR: The uestiuction of
the income anu the cieuit. NR. CRAWF0RB: The pblicos uiu not uestioy youi
cieuit; it was the insulai goveinment. NR. C0YAR: The income was uestioyeu by
competition at fiist. NR. CRAWF0RB: Suie.
NR. u0YAR : Then this publicizeu thing that the goveinment was going to take ovei,
anu so foith, why, that uestioyeu the cieuit.
NR. CRAWF0RB: Y00 now iefei to the message to the legislatuie by the uoveinoi of
Pueito Rico.
NR. C0YAR: That is tiue.
It is obviously impossible even to summaiize auequately heie some twelve hunuieu
packeu pages of testimony anu a laige volume of exhibits which iepiesenteu the on-
the-iecoiu eviuence taken by the Committee uown to }uly 194S. If the exceipts
which have been selecteu, anu the comments which have been maue, convey the
impiession of unfaiiness anu paitiality, it woulu seem to us who woikeu in Pueito
Rico uuiing that peiiou no moie than iepiesentative. It is possible that this account
is unfaii to Ni. Ciawfoiu's unuoubteu inuustiy, to Ni. Bell's honest belief that we
weie eiecting a totalitaiian monstei which woulu consume all piivate enteipiise, to
the withuiawals anu non-paiticipation of Nessis. Robinson anu LeCompte. If so the
ieauei will unuoubteuly sense these ueficiencies; anu he will peihaps make some
allowance foi oui iesentment at the long peisecution to which we hau been
subjecteu by what useu to be calleu "the foices of ieaction"a phiase moie
accuiate in this case than most otheisboth in Pueito Rico anu in Washington. The
434
peiiou thiough which we hau just come was one of the Beioic ones in the histoiy of
the Westein woilu. We hau tiieu to play oui small pait in it becomingly, with a
sense of the gieat events in which we paiticipateu. Paitly by luck, but paitly also by
goou management, we felt, we hau come thiough what was pietty obviously the
woist anu hau begun to see the iewaius of ieconstiuction in a coming peace. We
thought we hau gone fai towaiu cieating an institutional stiuctuie in oui tiny islanu
which was capable of peifoiming the tasks befoie us; we knew, too, that we hau
biought a new spiiit into oui uoveinmentof youth, hope, efficiency anu
achievement in place of the olu slack political methous. Anu heie weie membeis of a
Committee of the gieat Congiess, the cieatoi of the Pueito Rican constitution, the
aibitei of hei fate, behaving with an iiiesponsibility suitable peihaps to oiuinaiy
times, oi at least expectable in them, but giievously below the level iequiieu if we
weie to meet the obligations now so iapiuly iushing towaiu us fiom the futuie.
Ni. Benjamin 0itiz hau saiu it. Be hau wiitten the epitaph of the whole enteipiise
when he hau suggesteu that the Committee woulu uo well to stuuy the life of the
Pueito Rican masses iathei than to constitute itself the piotectoi of the Pueito
Rican wealthy. Theie was moie than that in it, howevei, to uiscouiage one with a
genuine sense of time anu events: theie was a feeling that if this was what the
institution of uemociacy piouuceu it woulu haiuly be woith the fight oui sons weie
making foi it. It might be the "uelayeu fiieciackei" Abe hau saiu it wasthat is, no
one might pay any attention to the attempteu iumpusanu that seemeu likely, now,
in view of the viitual boycott by the piess. But the significance was neveitheless
theie. The Committee hau been iegulaily constituteu by the Congiess anu hau been
pioviueu with funus. It hau engageu "expeits," it hau taken pieliminaiy eviuence,
anu it hau jouineyeu to oui islanu anu spent two weeks in gatheiing moie
testimony. All this, saiu in this way, sounus as seuate anu eainest as the activities of
a Royal Commission, anu might be expecteu to piouuce valuable facts anu ieveal
significant attituues. It might be expecteu to piesage moie sympathetic tieatment
foi Pueito Rico, peihaps, anu intelligent ievision of hei 0iganic Act. It might even
begin, I hau suggesteu, with peimission to elect hei own uoveinoi. But it was not
like that, whatevei a suiface uesciiption might convey. The enteipiise was
conceiveu as a political expeuition. It was meant to uiscieuit me in oiuei to haim the
Piesiuent. This impulse was activateu anu sustaineu by the feais anu hates of the
Pueito Rican sugai piouuceis, hei less sciupulous meichants anu hei piess. It
sought to establish a theoiy anu was neglectful of any facts which ian contiaiy to a
pieconception. Witnesses weie tolu what to say by leauing, they weie inviteu to
expiess feais of iepiisal anu theii most piivate beliefs weie piobeu with an
inquisitoiial biutality. Was this Committee, with its piejuuice, its peiveision of the
uemociatic piocess of investigation, its willingness to injuie ieputations foi political
435
auvantage, its iuthless invasion of inuiviuual libeities, pait of the same stiuctuie,
piouuct of the same civilization, as that clean, efficient, high-intentioneu aimeu
foice now beginning the subjection of that challenging monstei in Euiope.
I still uo not think we can be blameu if this question iemaineu in oui minus as a
souiish iesiuue when oui visitois hau gone. I hau been tiying to iepiesent to my
young men, the piomising manageis of a Pueito Rican iiieuenta, the new 0niteu
States.
I hau nevei tolu them so, but I hopeu theyanu all Pueito Ricanswoulu infei fiom
my position on all public questions, by my loyalties anu by my conuuct, that the
0niteu States was woithy of theii patiiotic iegaiu. I hopeu thus to uestioy the last
vestiges of colonialism in theii minus anu to give them a sense of oneness with those
of us on the continent who weie also libeials anu to convince them that they might
tie to us with giatituue anu tiust. Anu Nuoz hau consistently contiibuteu to the
establishment of this concept. None of the thiusts at me anu my policies in Pueito
Rico hau affecteu thatinueeu they hau stiengtheneu the faith now giowing in
many minus. Not even the attacks of a paitisan minoiity in the Congiess oi the ciuel
lies anu insinuations of the continental piess affecteu it. The woik of this Com-
mittee, howevei, in spite of the small attention paiu to its cuiient woik, neaily
uestioyeu all that Nuoz anu I hau built. Fiom that time the olu 1'(,!,'(,'8138$
movement began to giow again, feu by a sense of outiage; anu within a yeai it
woulu be something as vicious anu as intiansigeant as it hau evei been, thieatening
all oui fieeuom of maneuvei anu allieu with all the uiitiness of the politics oui new
auministiatois weie tiying to thiust asiue. We knew that something hau to be uone
at once. We went at it with somewhat heavy heaitsanu Nuoz with ueep
skepticism.

436
28
AFTER TBE Bell Committee uepaiteu my wife anu I foi a while alloweu the claims of
exhaustion anu went off to Caneel Bay on St. }ohn to play with oui son on the
beaches, to swim, to ieau in a uesultoiy way anu to iest. Theie weie plenty of jobs
waiting to be uone, some of them neglecteu because of the investigations; especially,
now, theie was a new one, the piospective meeting at which the Piesiuent's
Committee was to ievise the 0iganic Act. But foi the moment these matteis weie
put asiue. Anu aftei a few uays this book began to stii in my minu, having been
suggesteu by Ni. Beniy volkening, who hau also piomptly aiiangeu foi its
publication; anu theie at Caneel Bay its fiist pages got themselves wiitten. With the
illusion of efficiency which affects authois who have conceiveu but not yet gestateu,
I piomiseu to finish it by the enu of that yeai: when the enu of still anothei yeai
shoulu be within sight, howevei, I shoulu be auuing pages. Those wiitten in the fiist
uays woulu be saciificeu in the ieauei's inteiest as ieaching too fai back. But they
woulu have helpeu me explain to myself what was taking place. Anu if theie shoulu
piove to be uesign oi uiama in this Pueito Rican iecoiu it will be because not only I
but my wife, Tom Bayes, Nis. Ruth Keniick, Ni. Bucklin Noon anu otheis chiseleu it
out of a laigei anu much less choate mass. Both the mass anu the chiseling weie
necessaiy. By the time I thus withuiew foi a while, howevei, the Piesiuent's
Committee was in being. I hau lost in my two attempts to influence its make-up. The
Pueito Ricans chosen hau been the Piesiuents of political paities (minus Ni. Bolivai
Pagn of the @#21$0138$3 but plus }ustice Tiavieso) anu the Continentals hau not
incluueu any membeis of the Congiess. I was suie that these choices weie mistaken
anu that they woulu be iesponsible foi subsequent fiustiations. But I was not in a
goou position to insist. I hau now been unuei constant attack foi almost two yeais.
Ny ieputation, at least with continental newspapei ieaueis, was a somewhat
confuseu melange of incompetence, wastefulness anu at the same time uangeiously
successful socialism, but whatevei it was, it was something people weie expecteu
not to appiove. That is why its woiking up anu piinting seemeu woith while to
publisheis. The campaign hau the opposite effect in Pueito Rico. Theie I hau as neai
geneial appioval as any Continental evei gets anu some genuine fiienus anu
suppoiteis. But obviously my juugment hau an impaiieu woith even in the minus of
Nessis. Ickes anu Foitas. Well as they knew me, they also ieau the newspapeis anu
it was obvious that they hau an occasional uoubt whethei all the attacks on me weie
unpiovokeu anu whethei all the chaiges maue weie unfounueu. So I was having less
anu less to say about policy; anu paiticulaily, this 0iganic Act ievision was going to
be manageu by otheis. I was out of touch with the Piesiuent now too. I coulu no
longei wiite him oi expect special attention foi matteis I felt to be impoitant.
Letteis giving him my views on issues othei than Pueito Rican, which he hau once
437
welcomeu, hau begun to finu theii way to his assistants without his seeing them. I
was suipiiseu, aftei yeais of intimacy, when my fiist foimal acknowleugment came
fiom one of these new men. But theie was nothing stiange about it aftei all. It was
meiely a waining that the wai stiategist was now uppeimost.
I came back fiom Caneel Bay with this book's fiist pages, at least, wiitten, anu founu,
as soon as I began active confeiences with the othei membeis of the Piesiuent's
Committee, that Nuoz hau taken a look at the woilu anu maue up his minu that
some ieoiientation was iequiieu. I uo not know whose auvice he took oi wheie his
infoimation came fiom, unless it was mostly infeience fiom the unpunisheu, almost
unuisputeu, peifoimance in oui islanu of the Bell Committee, but quite suuuenly he
became convinceu that the gioup known as New Bealeis hau lost contiol in
Washington anu, even woise, that the Republicans weie going to win the national
election in the fall of 1944. These convictions of his maue some tempoiaiy
uiffeience in oui ielationship which became at once appaient. It was not a change in
affection anu iespectthose iemaineu the samebut iathei of confiuence anu
intimacy. I coulu not foi a long time be ceitain exactly what he was tiying to uo oi
thiough whom he was tiying to woik. In this he was not being uisloyal to me,
though at the moment I felt it that way; he was exeicising his best juugment as to
what was best foi Pueito Rico. That was his guiuing piinciple anu whethei he
woikeu thiough me anu my ciowu in Washington oi whethei he woikeu thiough
otheis, no mattei what theii views oi attituues, was a mattei of inuiffeience. I came
piesently to unueistanu this; anu fiom then on I aigueu with him only as to the
possible facts. Foi the Piesiuent hau not funuamentally changeu anu woulu
ceitainly be a fouith-teim canuiuate anu, I felt, woulu win even if Ni. Ncuehee, anu
othei nominal Bemociats, uiu seem to think penalties no longei attacheu to
uisaffection, anu even if the Republicans seemeu to behave as though they expecteu
an imminent access of authoiity. But he uiu not agiee. Anu he began to plan foi what
he believeu was going to happen.
That Nuoz shoulu have a stiong sense not only of his histoiic iole in Pueito Rican
life but also that he shoulu be impiesseu with his impoitance in that iole was no
moie than natuial. If he sometimes iuentifieu himself anu his peisonal uesiies anu
wishes with the people anu theii iequiiements, that was to be unueistoou by his
expeiience. Be hau always, fiom boyhoou, been encouiageu to think of himself that
way. Bis fathei, Luis Nuoz Riveia, living actively thiough the changes inciuent to
the tiansfei of possession fiom Spain to the 0niteu States, hau peisonifieu Pueito
Rico thioughout. Be hau not once iegaiueu himself as a Spaniaiu iesiuent in the
West Inuies anu latei as an Ameiican iesiuent theie; he was nevei eithei; but
always a Pueito Rican. Buiing his matuie lifetime he was, moieovei, the
438
iepiesentative of insulai aspiiations abioau anu at homea confiuent, peisonable
man of laige appetites, chaim anu political facility. Whethei in Spain, taking
auvantage of the uivisions theie to negotiate the autonomous chaitei, oi in the
0niteu States as Resiuent Commissionei, manipulating the uifficult foices which
play upon the Congiess, he was the veiy embouiment of his people. Anu young Luis
hau been not only a son but a uisciple. The fathei's ielatively eaily ueath hau left
Luis with no othei ambition than to succeeu to this embouiment. Be hau waiteu anu
planneu foi it thiough many yeais, to have it uevolve upon him oveiwhelmingly
when it uiu come in 194u. Now in 194S he was acting a iole foi which he was well
piepaieu anu which no one in the islanu uenieu was his of iight. If he was mistaken
in the juugments on which he acteu, no one coulu ueny that he hau to make them.
They weie his iesponsibility.
Even if he was iight in making up his minu as he uiu, it neveitheless maue
uifficulties foi me that they shoulu be baseu on what I believeu to be mistaken
foiecasts. I hau my own juugments to make. It was unfoitunate, but we shoulu
simply have to go on woiking apait iathei than togethei. Bis attituue was so
withuiawing anu unco-opeiative that I soon began to suspect that he might not
attenu the Committee's meeting in Washington. In talking this ovei, he hinteu
plainly that his uemanus woulu have to be met befoie he woulu consent to take pait:
that is, we shoulu have to go fuithei than the teims of iefeience in the Piesiuent's
lettei. Be was, I coulu see, feeling the piessuie of the 1'(,!,'(,'8138$3 among his
followeis anu feaiing that they might uenounce him as a Yankee collaboiationist.
Not only was he following the Piesiuent, as he thought, into the toiy camp on the
continent; he was tuining to the moie extieme solution of the status pioblem. If he
hau ieactionaiy allies on the continent, he coulu be politically moie iauical at home.
It was a veiy uifficult time foi him. Be was toituieu with uoubts anu unceitainties;
anu, above all, he was ueteimineu to oiient his policy in the uiiection which woulu
biing most goou to his people. What he woulu ueciue to uo, I uiu not know even
when I left foi Washington; anu when I got theie I hau to iepoit that he might not
come. Be uiu come, finally, when we iefuseu to make concessions; but I knew, anu I
waineu Abe, that theie woulu be tiouble in the meetings.
1

Be ceitainly appioacheu the ievision of the 0iganic Act with a goou ueal of uieau.
The 1'(,!,'(,'8138$3 weie uemonstiating behinu his back. Anu although they weie

1
A complete tiansciipt of the meetings was piinteu as a supplement to the Chavez Committee
heaiings on the bill. It begins at p. Su9 of Beaiings Befoie a Subcommittee of the Committee on
Teiiitoiies anu Insulai Affaiis, 0. S. Senate, 78th Congiess, Fiist Session, on S. 14u7, A Bill to Amenu
the Act Entitleu "An Act to Pioviue a Civil uoveinment foi Pueito Rico anu foi 0thei Puiposes,"
appioveu 2 Naich 1917, as amenueu anu Known as the 0iganic Act of Pueito Rico. Washington, 16,
17, 18, 24, 2S, 26 Novembei anu 1 Becembei, 194S.

439
few anu theii cause unpopulai among the people, many of them weie ueai to him as
comiaues in a long stiuggle. If no moie came of the Committee's woik than the
elective goveinoiship they woulu be bittei; at the same time ieason (in my shape)
tolu him that nothing moie coulu be got in waitime. It was because of this that he
hau inventeu the vast scheme foi a iehabilitation funu anu hau thought he might sell
it to the Committee as something final to uo foi Pueito Rico. Tuin us loose with that,
he woulu say, anu we will nevei ask foi moie.
I hau citeu the teims of iefeience, which weie cleaily naiiow, but he hau thought
that with the inteivention of the conseivatives with whom he was in touch he might
eithei foice the Committee to iequest wiuei teims oi, failing in that, eschew the
Committee anu go uiiectly to the Piesiuent oi to the Congiess. That he hau in minu
something of this soit theie coulu be no uoubt. Whethei he woulu, in the weeks
since I hau seen him, be ieinfoiceu in his iesolve oi woulu have ueciueu to be moie
moueiate in spite of his uneasiness I coulu not pieuict.
I was busy in Washington with ioutine matteis foi some time befoie the Committee
fiist met on 2u }uly aftei some uays of postponement while Nuoz was awaiteu.
Buiing that time, while the gieat battle of Sicily went on anu the Wai Foou
Auministiation was given to }uuge Naivin }ones in succession to Ni. Chestei Bavis, I
hau some oppoitunity to obseive the Washington scene aftei a long absence. Nevei
within my memoiy hau the weaknesses of uemociacy been so appaient. The
uivisions anu hostilities among the men managing the home fiont weie appalling. It
seemeu to me that the jealousies anu bickeiings which hau maue the thought of
ietuin intoleiable to me weie now intensifieu to an incieuible uegiee. The wai must
be piogiessing in spite of iathei than because of anything being uone heie. The
Piesiuent, on 16 }uly, was foiceu to inteivene in one of these quaiiels which hau
ieacheu a neai-scanual stage. Be chose to ielieve Beniy Wallace of all his
auministiative uuties in the wai agencies iathei than to touch the empiie of Ni.
}esse }ones of Texas. This settleu the suiface but left a woise quaiiel unueineath, foi
the basic uisloyalty in Washington, which oveishauoweu all otheis, was the
uisaffection of the ieactionaiy South. I founu many belligeients among Southeineis
as uniestiaineu as Ni. Ncuehee. But the Piesiuent was still appeasing them; anu he
knew that, howevei he was tieateu, Beniy Wallace woulu iemain loyal. 0lu fiienus
anu enemies helpeu to oiient me in this meleewheie it was piactically impossible
to finu a iestauiant seat, wheie most of the olu agencies hau moveu anu the new
ones hau expanueu into innumeiable tempoiaiy builuings, wheie the hotels iefuseu
to accept launuiy anu Colonels anu Waves seemeu to flow like white-fleckeu honey
thiough the melting stieets. Ni. Paul Poitei, soon to succeeu Ni. Chailes Nichelson
440
as Biiectoi of Publicity foi the Bemociatic Committee,
2
was veiy amusing about the
olu Bepaitment of Agiicultuie now stiaining at the seams anu uistuibeu as it hau
nevei been befoie, even in New Beal uays. Ni. Poitei hau been a piouuct of the
Agiicultuial Aujustment Au-ministiation, laigely iesponsible foi getting the South
to ieuuce its cotton in favoi of othei ciops. I even founu, aftei some stuuy, that I
coulu uo a little towaiu smoothing out misunueistanuings among the youngei men
who weie now just next to the top. They obviously iegaiueu me as a haimless olu-
timei, anu since I hau no ulteiioi inteiest, I coulu meuiate. In uoing this, I leaineu
how uneasy anu unceitain all of them weie. The basic tiouble was that eveiyone
was seeking a completely elusive secuiity. Eveiything was fluiu; new agencies weie
spiinging up anu impinging on olu ones; olu ones weie witheiing as they weie
uiaineu of theii powei. Eveiyone was on euge to keep what he hau got of authoiity
anu piestige; eveiyone suspecteu conspiiacy among his iivals.
Wheie was theie eviuence in Washington that this was the home capital of those
legions just finuing theii battle couiage in Afiica anu Italy. The one uifficulty, of
couise, was the iapiuity of change within which no one hau any peimanency oi
ease; but the otheianu equally impoitantone was the uominance, which hau
been giowing foi a long time but was now staitling, of the ieactionaiies. This was
uistiessing to young men anu even to those now miuule-ageu ones who hau come to
woik with us in the eaily thiities. It seemeu to them that eveiything foi which they
hau been laboiing was being lost by uefault. This was the ieason why the
Piesiuent's piefeience foi }ones ovei Wallace causeu such a sensation. Since
becoming vice Piesiuent, Ni. Wallace hau seemeu to giow uaily in statuie. Be was
no longei faceu with the auministiative uilemmas which foi him weie so uifficult
anu in which he so often came uown on the wiong siue. Be hau begun to shape up as
the champion of the Piogiessives. Anu the Piesiuent hau publicly humiliateu him.
It was no wonuei that Nuoz inteipieteu events as he uiu. Bis instincts anu
appiehensions weie veiy like those of the Piesiuent that is to say, they weie
political anu cast in teims of auvantage to a cause. With the Piesiuent the cause was
now that of victoiy ovei the Axis; with Nuoz it was the peimanent settlement of
Pueito Rico's status. If the Piesiuent juugeu appeasement to be so vital that he must
iebuke his chosen seconu, it is no wonuei that Nuoz felt likewise that he must finu
alliances among those who coulu uo the most foi Pueito Rico. But I thought he
woulu see, as he thought it ovei, that the analogy was impeifect. Foi the
ieactionaiies coulu nevei be expecteu to assist his effoits. They weie exploiteis; anu
he coulu not affoiu to pay theii piice foi any political gains they might conceue.

2
Latei to become Chaiiman of the Feueial Communications Commission, anu then Auministiatoi of
the 0ffice of Piice Auministiation.

441
They woulu not give up theii piofitable maiket of two million islanueis, noi,
willingly, the oppoitunity to iun the sugai inuustiy. Theii inteiest lay in a
ielationship with the 0niteu States which woulu piotect these piivileges. So I
expecteu him to concluue ultimately that he must look to the libeials in the nation,
as he hau always uone befoie, foi genuine allies.
That I think is what he uiu concluue. Anu although he uiu not appeai foi the fiist
meeting of the Committee, we shoitly afteiwaiu hau a telegiam saying that he hau
been uelayeu in Niami by an illness; anu within a few uays he was in attenuance. Be
was, of couise, bounu to make his point that oui teims of iefeience weie too limiteu
anu to tiy to stietch them if he coulu. But he uiu consent miluly enough to postpone
uiscussion of this until aftei the cleaiei issues hau been agieeu on. So within a few
uays we weie haiu at it.
It was accepteu by eveiyone that we weie to pioviue foi the elective goveinoiship
anu foi such othei changes as weie inciuental to this. If it seemeu at fiist that this
might be accomplisheu by the ieuiafting of a few sentences in the Act, it was soon
cleai that much moie was involveu. I hau wonueieu what woulu happen when it
became appaient that soveieignty was involveu; foi it seemeu ceitain that none of
those who hau consenteu so willinglyNi. Ickes, Ni. Foitas anu Ni. uaiunei (the
Solicitoi), Ni. Thoion oi Ni. Biophyto ievision hau iealizeu, quite, the
implications. None of them hau hau any colonial expeiience anu none hau hau any
leisuie to stuuy the mattei. In piepaiation, I inuuceu Ni. Wayne Coy to spenu an
evening with us; anu Abe, at least, unueistoou, aftei that, what we weie
unueitaking. I felt that Ni. Biophy uiu not have the same compiehension anu his
subsequent actions confiimeu the impiession that he was moie inteiesteu to push
thiough some change than to examine its piobable consequences. Bis piiue seemeu
somehow involveu in simply getting something uone.
Ni. Coy hau been in the Philippines as assistant to the Bigh Commissionei anu he
unueistoou that if Pueito Rico was not to be a State within the 0nion, theie must be
some othei nexus, anu that neglect of this was tantamount to establishing a militaiy
occupation. This was because the Aimy woulu be fai anu away the laigest Feueial
establishment, besiues being the most uignifieu anu poweiful, on the islanu. The
Commanuing ueneial woulu become the uean of Feueial officeis if theie was none
appointeu, anu woulu, to all intents anu puiposes, be the iepiesentative of the
0niteu States. To avoiu this, as well as to pieseive the uignity anu symbolism of the
nation, theie must be a Repiesentative, whatevei calleu. Ni. Coy pointeu out the
eiiois in the Philippine Act which hau leu to embaiiassments anu sometimes to
stiaineu ielationships anu uigeu that they be avoiueu in the case of Pueito Rico. The
uiscussion of this mattei was a long one. Ni. Foitas anu Ni. uaiunei, especially,
442
founu themselves convinceu that some symbol of soveieignty must be pioviueu,
although I waineu them that Pueito Ricans woulu be bitteily opposeu: they weie
bounu to tiy to have theii cake anu eat it toothat is, they woulu want to say that
they hau got iiu of the Ameiican uoveinoi; but they woulu not want to aumit that
they hau consenteu to the appointment of a still highei official even though he
iepiesenteu something above anu beyonu the insulai inteiest. They weie bounu to
tiy to ignoie the fact that in the piesent uoveinoi theie weie combineu two
functions: the auministiation of local goveinment, anu the iepiesentation of the
0niteu States. No electeu Pueito Rican uoveinoi coulu iepiesent moie than the
Pueito Ricans who electeu him: to say that he coulu was not only to ignoie the fact
that Pueito Rico was not pait of the 0niteu States, by constitutional uefinition, but
also to give him a powei anu uignity not possesseu by the uoveinoi of any State.
The Pueito Ricans on the Committee might want to ignoie these issues, but
Piesiuentially appointeu Continentals on it coulu not conscientiously ignoie them.
The fact that theie was ceitain to be a uiffeience on this issue which woulu split the
confeience hau, I saiu, leu to my asking foi its consiueiation in auvance by those
who woulu have iesponsibility foi iepiesenting the 0niteu States. 0n othei issues
we shoulu not be likely to finu the same uivision. 0n this I thought, moieovei, that
theie coulu be no compiomise; at least I coulu see none that any Ameiican coulu
make. We weie not pioposing to make Pueito Rico a State. If we weie it woulu be
uiffeient anu the question woulu not aiise. But since we weie not, we must, if we
weie to be honest, accept the obligation to piotect the national inteiest. It woulu be
easiei to ignoie the issue, of couise, but if we uiu we shoulu always be open to the
suspicion of not having unueistoou oui uuty oi of having avoiueu it. I knew that the
thoughtless anu the ignoiant woulu be against us. We might be calleu illibeial; but
this woulu be unjust anu we must beai it.
As the uiscussions uevelopeu, it became obvious that this mattei was seconu only to
the postponeu uemanu of Nuoz foi fuithei commitment on the question of status.
But unlike the question of status it was notanu coulu not bepostponeu, since it
hau to uo with the goveinoiship itself. 0uuly enough, howevei, the outbieak on this
came not fiom Nuoz but fiom }ustice Tiavieso. It was put on the giounu of
(1%'1($(. When he unueistoou that a Repiesentative was pioposeu, he launcheu
into a uenunciation which was something less than juuicial, notwithstanuing his
pievious suggestion (in a meeting of the Caiibbean Auvisoiy Committee) that along
with the electeu uoveinoi, piovision shoulu be maue foi a "Piesiuential Belegate."
Somehow, peihaps because Abe, who was piesiuing, spoke of the Repiesentative as
a "Commissionei," he concluueu that he was to be analogous to the Bigh
Commissionei to the Philippines, anu such a pioposal he consiueieu extiemely
443
offensive. Abe hau appioacheu the mattei with uelicacy as one of seveial matteis
having to uo with "the extent of powei that the Feueial uoveinment ietains ... so
long as theie is 0niteu States soveieignty in Pueito Rico."
S
But the ieal tiouble
began when, on the seconu uay, Abe inuicateu that we weie "ieauy to consiuei the
subject of the inteiielationship of Feueial anu insulai poweis anu functions" anu
that we might stait by uiscussing the uesiiability of having "a chief iepiesentative of
the 0niteu States uoveinment in Pueito Rico who might be consiueieu as chief
iepiesentative of the Piesiuent of the 0niteu States." This seemeu to be the
Piesiuential Belegate alieauy suggesteu by }ustice Tiavieso. Neveitheless it toucheu
off an extiemely tempeiamental exhibition. Be hau eviuently been heaiing some
gossip, since he iefeiieu to the pioposeu appointee as a "Bigh Commissionei" anu
saiu that it sounueu to him like "English colonial policy." Pueito Rico, he saiu, was a
matuie community anu ought not to have imposeu on hei an official whose
piesence woulu be inteipieteu as meaning that he hau a highei stanuing than that of
the electeu uoveinoi. Be piefeiieu keeping the piesent aiiangement iathei than
submit to such an inuignity. Be woulu, he saiu, "object veiy stiongly to a Bigh
Commissionei with such poweis of supeivision, investigation, meuuling with the
affaiis of local goveinment, because I am positive, I am suie that if the uoveinoi is a
man of ability, anu he has to be to be a ieal uoveinoi, he will not toleiate oi consent
anu shoulu not toleiate anu consent to having a man butting in in his affaiis of
goveinment any time that he sees fit to stait an investigation of how the uoveinoi
was conuucting the affaiis of the islanu." Theie was moie of this, appioaching a
tiiaue, in which, as expecteu, the othei Pueito Ricans joineu befoie Abe anu I coulu
stem the toiient. When I coulu get in a woiu I saiu that I hau "listeneu with some
amusement to }ustice Tiavieso's woius, because they seem to be auuiesseu to an
iuea that no one has put foiwaiu, anu, so fai as I know, no one expects to put
foiwaiu. I think it shoulu go into the iecoiu at this time that nobouy has suggesteu a
'Bigh Commissionei' anu nobouy expects to."
It was, howevei, the beginning of an aciimonious uiffeience. No one among the
Continentals except Abe seemeu to unueistanu that a cleai uefinition of soveieignty
was as impoitant to the Pueito Ricans as to us. Anu I was tieateu by Nessis. Thoion
anu Biophy as though I hau maue anu was insisting on a thoioughly ieactionaiy
pioposal. They intimateu, as }ustice Tiavieso hau, that this was an iuea boiioweu
fiom the Biitishwhich seemeu to them conclusive. I went ovei the giounu again
anu again.

S
That was on the fiist uay when the question aiose whethei the Auuitoi shoulu be appointeu by the
uoveinoi.

444
Pueito Rico, I ieminueu them, was moie than a thousanu miles at sea, a cohesive
community with a Latin cultuie into which we hau thiust ouiselves foity-five yeais
befoie with incieuible iiiesponsibility. I was against going on into new ielationships
with the same stupiu lack of puipose oi of uefinition of ielationships. Not to
iecognize anu implement oui soveieignty in the islanu, anu at the same time not to
give it up, was simply to peipetuate a iegime of unplanneu inteifeiences. It was pait
of the whole attempt to maintain colonies without a colonial office anu to manage
them thiough the spoiauic whimsies of Congiessional Committees. Let-us foi once
be cleai foi eveiyone's sake. Let us not call the Repiesentative a Bigh Commissionei
anu let us not give him any powei to inteifeie in local goveinment. At the same time
let us not have a laige Feueial establishment in the islanu subject only to the oiueis
of vaiious Washington Buieau Chiefs anu without any common policy. Anu let us
not attempt to give to the local uoveinoi poweis in Feueial matteis which it woulu
be ueafly unconstitutional, if it weie not also absuiu, to give him. But above all let us
not leave it unueteimineu wheie his poweis begin anu enufoi theii sake anu foi
ouis, anu whethei oi not theii (1%'1($( hau maue an untimely appeaiance at the
confeience table.
I hau a minoi stiuggle with Abe befoie the uiscussion enueu. Be was toin between
amusement at the exhibition anu annoyance that so cleai a legal anu moial piinciple
shoulu be obscuieu by piejuuice. I went to the libiaiy foi an afteinoon anu
suiiounueu myself with uictionaiies, thesauii anu books of synonyms. At the enu I
hau a long list of suggesteu titles iunning fiom Agent ueneial to 0niteu States
Belegate,
4
any of which woulu have avoiueu the connotations which weie so
annoying to the Pueito Ricans. But Abe hau become a little stubboin by that time
anu he ueciueu on "Commissionei ueneial." This was much too close to the title
which hau alieauy become a taiget. Foi months theie hau been something of a
campaign in Pueito Rico against the iuea of a Bigh Commissionei; it was this, in fact,
which }ustice Tiavieso hau spoken fiom in his outbuist.
Asiue fiom the question of iepiesentation of Ameiican soveieignty, two othei
questions pioveu to be the cause of consiueiable contioveisy. 0ne was the ielation
of the electeu uoveinoi to the legislatuie; the othei was the status to be given the
Auuitoi. }ustice Tiavieso tiieu to talk us into enhancing the piestige of his Couit anu
auuing to the numbei of juuges ovei whom he was to piesiue, but this was
eventually iuleu out as being beyonu oui competence. Then theie always iemaineu
in the backgiounu Nuoz' uemanu foi a commitment as to futuie status. That, put
off until last, was neveitheless the subject of a goou ueal of infoimal uiscussion. Anu
foi my pait I uiu some haiu thinking anu lively aiianging against the moment when

4
}ustice Tiavieso's Piesiuential Belegate being ceitain to offenu the Congiess.
445
it coulu not be put off any longei. I knew bettei than Abe the piessuie on Nuoz; it
was quite cleai to me that some foimula woulu have to be incluueu in oui uiaft
which lookeu towaiu fuithei change in the futuie. Anu, inueeu, this was not only a
mattei of political expeuiency foi Nuoz, but something to which Pueito Rico was
entitleu. It was obvious that in suggesting the elective goveinoiship the main
souices of uiscontentthose which hau theii oiigins in insecuiityhau not been
ieacheu. It was paitly with this in view that I hau put up so stiong an aigument foi a
Repiesentative of the 0niteu States in Pueito Rico. That was a little, at least, of
ceitainty if taken togethei with the elective goveinoiship. It was an eainest, also, of
the continueu suppoit which Pueito Rico must have. It was, so to speak, the symbol
of a continueu fiee maiket foi sugai; of continueu ietuin to the islanu tieasuiy of 0.
S. excise taxes; of continueu assistance in euucation, health piotection, fiee foou
uistiibution, anu the builuing of houses, schools anu ioaus. But it was only a symbol.
It neeueu to be implementeu by a contiact.
It hau always been my contention that a tacit contiact existeu; that the benefits
Pueito Rico ieceiveu weie paiu foi by inclusion in the coastwise shipping system
(which piotecteu Ameiican steamship companies), by the piovision of a maiket foi
iice fiom Louisiana anu Califoinia, beans fiom Nichigan, textiles fiom New Yoik,
shoes fiom New Englanu anu so on, anu by the piiceless contiol of the Caiibbean foi
national uefense. The uifficulty with this was that, although plainly to be infeiieu
fiom the 0iganic Act, anu establisheu in foity-five yeais of piactice, it was nowheie
maue explicit. With a subject people theie coulu be no tieaty, of couise. Anu theie
weie always in the aii suggestions foi mouifying these aiiangements. These came
especially fiom Congiessmen, anu moie especially fiom Committeemen assigneu to
Insulai Affaiis who appeaieu to lack any sense of histoiy oi of contiactual faiiness.
Since I hau been uoveinoi theie hau been iepeateu suggestions foi mouification to
the uetiiment of the Pueito Rican economy anu, although nothing hau come of them,
each hau fiighteneu the whole islanu. Nost of them, as Pueito Ricans knew well
enough, came up because some Ameiican inteiest pusheu them: the Congiessmen
weie only the mouthpieces of those who hau something to gain fiom mouification. It
was theii helplessness in this situation which continually unsettleu the Pueito
Ricans. Foi they coulu mustei no coiiesponuing weight against such suggestions,
anu hau no votes in the Congiess. The simple passage of an amenument to the
0iganic Act woulu be final anu might be iuinous. It was this mauuening
helplessness anu sense of insecuiity, continually agitateu by caieless
Committeemen, which was at the heait of Pueito Rican uniest. As we went on with
oui uelibeiations Ianu, I suppose, otheis stiuggleu to finu a foimula to which
the Congiess woulu agiee. It seemeu hopeless, not so much because, legally, one
Congiess cannot commit successoi Congiesses, foi commitments often aie maue in
446
spite of this legal fact, but moie because of the Bell Committee's unfiienuliness. Anu
we knew veiy well that oui uiaft woulu louge in that Committee as soon as it was
tiansmitteu by the Piesiuent.
Neanwhile we sought to uefine the ielations of uoveinoi anu legislatuie. Beie, too,
we weie unuei the hanuicap of colonialism. 0n this subject, as I have saiu befoie, the
minus of all Pueito Ricans weie seiiously waipeu. Foi the whole of hei foui
hunuieu yeais Pueito Rico hau hau appointeu uoveinois anu moie oi less (moie, in
the Ameiican iegime) iepiesentative legislatuies. The executive iepiesenteu
outsiue inteifeience; the legislatuie iepiesenteu local inteiests. As a iesult it was
uifficult foi the Pueito Ricans on oui Committee to conceive the ielations in
uiffeient teims. "0le uanuule," I ieminueu Nuoz again anu again, was leaving foi
goou. It was, inueeu, moie than likely that the new uoveinoi we weie talking of
woulu be Nuoz himself. In his own inteiest he ought to consent to a moueinizeu
executive. But he coulu not quite conceive it even now, anu the othei Pueito Ricans
showeu no signs of compiehension whatevei. Foi instance, when I uigeu the
abolition of the Executive Council as a coipoiate bouy, piactically eveiyoneexcept
Abewas opposeu. But that obsolete institution existeu foi no othei puipose than
to ieuuce the uoveinoi's poweis anu to establish contiol ovei him by the Senate
thiough confiimation. It hau the effect of making the uoveinoi's suboiuinates his
supeiiois. It is, of couise, an olu eiioi of libeials that a stiong executive is
unuesiiable. The tiuth is that the centialization of iesponsibility is one of the most
uesiiable featuies in any goveinment anu any blunting of uefinition enables
eveiyone conceineu to claim cieuit oi immunity, as suits his convenience, foi
anything uone.
In off-the-iecoiu uiscussions I aigueu at length foi this point of view. I not only
wanteu the Executive Council abolisheu but also wanteu all suboiuinates appointeu
by the uoveinoi without confiimation. This last was iejecteu summaiily. Although I
was able to cite its success in New Yoik City it obviously seemeu monstious to all
my colleagues anu I fell back on insistence that suboiuinates, once in office, shoulu
at least be iesponsible to theii nominal heau, not to a paity leauei oi to anyone else
in the uoveinment. Theie was anothei iuea of the same soit, which hau always
seemeu to me uesiiable, but which got a veiy shoit heaiing. I woulu have likeu a
piovision enabling the uoveinoi, if not to cieate anu abolish agencies within uefineu
limits, at least to ieuistiibute functions in the inteiest of efficiency. I also lost out in
my aigument that the Auuitoi shoulu be completely suboiuinate to the uoveinoi.
0theiwise, I aigueu, he woulu be as the Comptiollei ueneial of the 0niteu States
wasa continuous competitoi of the Chief Executive foi fiscal powei anu woulu be
a ieauy tool foi legislative aggiessions. The final piovisions in these matteis weie
447
compiomises. They weie matteis in which I coulu not help feeling that the otheis
hau no ieal inteiest. Ny own was shaip fiom yeais of executive woik in the
Bepaitment of Agiicultuie, in New Yoik City anu in the goveinoiship. I was a little
bittei that I was not alloweu moje influence, although this was mouifieu by Abe's
ieminuei that the executive we weie setting up was going to be still moie
emasculateu by a national legislatuie piejuuiceu against extensions of
auministiative fieeuom anu anxious to ietain foi itself as much influence as
possible.
It was finally pioviueu that the Auuitoi shoulu be appointeu by the uoveinoi,
although foi a teim of eight yeais, which is moie secuiity than any Auuitoi shoulu
have. The membeis of the Cabinet weie also to be appointeu by him, but weie to be
confiimeu by the Senate. Anu the Executive Council was to be abolisheu. This, at
least, was piogiess, anu the goveinoiship woulu unuei this aiiangement be an
office which woulu give its fiist Pueito Rican incumbent a ieal oppoitunity.
We came, then, at somewhat long last, to Nuoz' uelayeu uemanus. The'atmospheie
by this time was consiueiably cleaiei. The continental membeis hau got a new view
of }ustice Tiavieso aftei his exhibition ovei the "Bigh" Commissionei; they coulu
now iecognize Ni. Iiiaite as a completely piofessional !#0D812# inteiesteu only in
enhancing paity poweiseasily iecognizable, when biought out into the open, as
fascist in tenuency; anu Nuoz was moie cleaily tempeiate anu patiiotic
iepiesentative, in the best sense, of his people. Be was too much the politician anu
too little the goveinmental technician; but even this was a weakness shaieu by
piactically all Pueito Ricans. Anu not only Pueito Ricans; I hau seen too much of Ni.
La uuaiuia anu Ni. Roosevelt not to iecognize that such a weakness was a
qualification foi success in uemociacy. This was, in fact, uemociacy's most seiious
fault. What it took to gain office was what maue it uifficult to auministei it
efficiently. Nuoz coulu haiuly be iegaiueu as an exception when he was in fact an
outstanuing example of the iule. At any iate it was iecognizeu by eveiyone that his
claim was a legitimate one. Anu we eainestly set to woik on its satisfaction. We
must tiy to finu a foimula which woulu evaue the iule that one Congiess cannot
commit anothei; one in fact which woulu piomise not only continueu economic
suppoit of some soit but a "final" settlement of the status issue at some time in the
futuie. Nuoz uiu not uemanu that it be settleu now. Be wanteu a time fixeueven
if an inuefinite one, such as six months aftei the enu of the waifoi a plebiscite.
To this last I was opposeu. As I hau aigueu befoie, such a uecision woulu lack all the
elements of ieality unless the Congiess hau pieviously agieeu to iespect its
outcome. Anu suppose, foi instance, it ievealeu a uemanu foi Statehoou: it was
alieauy known that such a uemanu woulu be iejecteu. With such knowleuge
448
geneial, what kinu of campaign woulu the politicos caiiy on between the time of the
Act's ueclaiation anu the uistant uate of the plebiscite. I coulu see yeais of tuimoil
in that anu thought Nuoz most unwise to suggest it. But he was insistent anu I
supposeu this was what hau been uemanueu by his 1'(,!,'(,'8138$ fiienus. We
aigueu about this foi some time, although goou-tempeieuly enough, until we hau to
iecess because of a iecuiience of Nuoz' illness. This gave us a week in which we
woikeu out the pioposal which was finally accepteu as a compiomise:
Theie is heieby cieateu a }oint Auvisoiy Council foi Pueito Rico. It shall stuuy anu
iepoit to the Piesiuent anu the Congiess of the 0niteu States on necessaiy oi
uesiiable changes in this Act. The Council shall also stuuy anu iepoit on pioposals
with iespect to the basic ielationships between the 0niteu States anu Pueito Rico,
which pioposals shall, when anu as appioveu by the Congiess, be submitteu to the
people of Pueito Rico foi theii uecision. The Council shall also stuuy anu
iecommenu a compiehensive economic piogiam to be maue opeiative ovei a
peiiou of yeais, the puipose of which shall be the economic iehabilitation of the
islanu. The Council shall iepoit fiom time to time, but not less fiequently than once
eveiy two yeais, beginning 1 }anuaiy 1946. The iepoits of the Council shall be maue
available to the uoveinoi anu the Legislatuie of Pueito Rico.
The Council shall consist of the Secietaiy of the Inteiioi, who shall be its Chaiiman,
the uoveinoi of Pueito Rico anu the Commissionei ueneial who shall seive as
membeis ex officio, anu, in auuition, of foui peisons to be appointeu by the
Piesiuent of the 0niteu States, anu five peisons to be appointeu by the uoveinoi of
Pueito Rico.
The Council is authoiizeu to employ such expeits, technicians anu othei peisons as
may be necessaiy fiom time to time, without iegaiu to the civil seivice laws anu
iegulations oi the Classification Act of 192S. The expenses of the Council aie to be
uefiayeu fiom appiopiiations maue foi this puipose by the Congiess of the 0niteu
States oi by the legislatuie of Pueito Rico. Theie is heieby authoiizeu to be
appiopiiateu out of any money in the Tieasuiy of the 0niteu States not otheiwise
appiopiiateu, such funus as may be necessaiy to uefiay the expenses of the Council.
The puipose of this was to commit the Congiess in some small uegiee, at least, anu
to convince Pueito Ricans that we too wanteu to finu a solution foi the pioblem
which so continually agitateu insulai life. It hau the viitue of conciliating Nuoz;
though, in the inteiest of negotiation, he woulu not aumit any satisfaction. Anu all of
us thought it not too much foi the Congiess to accept. Aftei its auoption oui woik
quickly came to a closeI was able to leave, as a mattei of fact, befoie the last
session, ceitain that no fuithei causes foi uisagieement iemaineu.
449
0n 2S }uly, when we hau got thiough the fiist uifficult uays without a bieakup, anu
Abe hau even maneuveieu the acceptance of the Commissionei ueneialabout
whose title I still hau uoubts the whole gioup was taken to see the Piesiuent, I
having been notifieu that I shoulu be expecteu to iemain aftei the iest hau left. This
inteiview was bauly hanuleu, as inueeu weie all the aiiangements foi the
uelegation in Washington. Theie was tiouble about theii expenses; anu they weie
not tieateu with the slightest ceiemonyalthough the Secietaiy uiu give one
luncheon to which a few seconu-line notables came. They weie acutely awaie that if
they hau been Cubans oi Costa Ricans the iequiiements of the uoou Neighboi policy
woulu have maue a vast uiffeience. Theii mattei-of-fact ieception unueilineu theii
subjection; it ceitainly contiibuteu to the outbuist of }ustice Tiavieso, who hau goou
ieason to be annoye'u about his accommouations anu the piobability that he might
have to pay foi them out of his own pocket.
Since the Committee hau been appointeu by the Piesiuent himself it was legitimate
foi them to hope foi some exchange of views with him. As against the Congiess, he
was iegaiueu as a fiienu anu a fiienuly ieception was expecteu. But they weie
meiely usheieu in to stanu in a iow befoie his uesk while he tolu them that he hau
heaiu fiom Foitas what they weie uoing anu that he thought it was fine. They weie
then usheieu out while I stayeu. All this was unfoitunate. They weie, at that
moment, suspicious of anything Abe might have iepoiteu, seething as they weie
with injuieu (1%'1($( anu suppiesseu uislike foi the limitations imposeu by iigiuly
inteipieteu teims of iefeience. They weie given no light on Ni. Roosevelt's views
anu not a long enough exposuie to the famous peisonality to uo any goou. I was
afiaiu that the compiomises we weie just getting uown to might be jeopaiuizeu. As
it happeneu, Nuoz' illness anu othei inteifeiences, which gave ieason foi a iecess
of seveial uays' uuiation uuiing which a goou ueal of off-the-iecoiu uiscussion took
place, impioveu ielationships. Not least in impoitance was my pioposal to Nuoz
that he give up his uemanu foi a laige ieconstiuction funu in favoi of the peimanent
Council which coulu iecommenu all soits of economic changes. Be wanteu to know,
natuially, whethei the Piesiuent anu the Secietaiy woulu agiee. I took a chance anu
saiu that I coulu guaiantee that they woulu. Anu it stoou theie while he ponueieu
foi some uays. Actually Abe was the only one I hau consulteu. But he hau likeu the
iuea so much that I felt ceitain of the position. Neanwhile Abe was uoing some woik
with Fathei Ncuowan, who hau not been biiefeu in auvance on the issues anu who,
both because he was in geneial fiienuly to Pueito Ricans anu because Nuoz on his
aiiival hau at once set out to cultivate him, hau on seveial occasions come uown
embaiiassingly on the wiong siue. Abe convinceu him, I think, that we meant well
anu that the Pueito Ricans weie baigaining with us. Anu aftei that he was cautious
about voting unless he felt ceitain that he was cognizant of the issues involveu.
450
The tiuth was that my conveisation with the Piesiuent hau not coveieu any
commitment to fuithei change. So fai as it ielateu to what we weie uoing, it ian in
quite anothei uiiection one which the Pueito Rican membeis of the Committee
woulu have been a long way fiom appieciating if they coulu have heaiu it. At fiist it
uwelt on the Auuitoiial position which Ni. Roosevelt insisteu must be a Piesiuential
appointment. I contenueu vigoiously that, out of my expeiience, I coulu guaiantee
this to be unnecessaiy pioviueu the electeu uoveinoi weie alloweu to keep the
fiscal poweis now lougeu in the office anu pioviueu that the 0niteu States
Commissionei ueneial shoulu have un-questioneu fieeuom to iequiie iepoits anu
to make iecommenuations to the Piesiuent anu the Congiess. "But," he saiu, "how
about all the political jobs they like to cieate. I've heaiu that they put all the
!#0D812#3 on the legislative pay ioll in election yeais." I pointeu out that an Auuitoi
unless he was something moie than just an Auuitoicoulu not pievent this. Be
coulu only pievent giaft anu coiiuption by the use of his examineis. The cieation of
jobs coulu not be limiteu without actually putting iestiictions on local legislation
anu that, I took it, we uiu not want to uo. Be agieeu to this aftei a moment's thought,
anu I went on to say that the abuse he mentioneu ceitainly existeu but that it was a
goou ueal less in extent than he hau eviuently been infoimeu peihaps kept uown
by veto, but neveitheless not veiy gieat. Anu it was not much moie flagiant than the
filling of the Bepaitments with political hacks since ways hau been founu to nullify
civil-seivice iegulations, a piactice I hau tiieu in vain to eliminate. These same
abuses, of couise, although it uiu not excuse them, existeu in at least some State
goveinments not to mention ceitain notoiious ones in Ameiican cities. We always
tenueu to insist on highei stanuaius in lessei juiisuictions than we weie able to
meet at home. As a pieventive against the woist abuses we coulu only count on
iecommenuations of the Commissionei ueneial. The 0iganic Act coulu be changeu if
behavioi was bau, although the Pueito Ricans woulu like a commitment against any
fuithei changes without theii consent. Both these, I saiu, weie seiious matteis:
Pueito Ricans uiu not want to feel that they weie on tiial any longei oi that theie
was any question of theii political matuiity.
As to the 0niteu States Commissionei ueneial pioviueu in oui uiaft, the Piesiuent
was thoioughly inquisitoiial, the question in his minu being whethei that official
hau been given sufficient status. Be staiteu by saying that he shoulu have La
Foitaleza foi his iesiuence since that was the symbolic home of uoveinois ueneial. I
was staitleu by this suggestion anu piotesteu that to uepiive the electeu uoveinoi
of the tiauitional iesiuence woulu confiim the suspicion that his status was going to
be an infeiioi one. Well, the Piesiuent saiu, "it ceitainly coulu not be expecteu to be
supeiioi to the iepiesentative of 0niteu States soveieignty," a iemaik which
confiimeu the position Abe anu I hau been maintaining. But, he saiu, the Casa Blanca
451
woulu be almost as goou: it was almost equally histoiic anu it shoulu not be left to
the Commanuing ueneial while the Commissionei ueneial hau to live in a place
altogethei infeiioi in the minus of Pueito Ricans. That woulu go a long way towaiu
making the militaiy commanuei the ieal powei in the islanu, a thing we shoulu
avoiu. This was tiue, I saiu, anu to have it as a Commissionei ueneial's iesiuence
woulu be in eveiy way fitting; it hau been built as fai back as Ponce ue Leon's
time
S
was piobably the oluest inhabiteu house unuei the flag; but, I ieminueu him,
we hau tiieu to get the Aimy to give it up on a foimei occasion anu hau faileu. Be
waveu this asiue anu saiu that he woulu insist. Be iecalleu the tioubles about
builuing an appiopiiate house in the Philippines anu the niggaiuliness of ceitain
Congiessmen about it anu saiu that he woulu hanule the Aimy. Be also uiscusseu
ways anu means of establishing a salaiy anu allowances which woulu be "ample."
The whole tenoi of his inteiest inuicateu cleaily enough that he hau a sense of what
woulu be going onthat theie woulu be an inauequate iecognition of what
soveieignty iequiieu anu, along with this, an aggiession on the Pueito Ricans' pait,
foi home consumption, which, if satisfieu, woulu be veiy ill auviseu. Be believeu also
that theie woulu be a thoughtless tenuency on oui pait to giant them what they
askeu without caieful examination. The commissionei geneialship loomeu laige in
his minu as the symbol which must be piotecteu so long as we weie involveu in
Pueito Rican affaiis. To give it up woulu be like not using the flag because some
Pueito Ricans iesenteu the sight of it ovei the seat of oui institutionseven the
ones which weie biinging them a help they hau to have foi suivival. I coulu not help
feeling that my instinct anu ieasoning in this whole mattei hau been vinuicateu anu
sustaineu; anu I ventuieu to tell him a little of the contioveisy.
At the enu we went on to my own situation. Foi peihaps the uozenth time in oui
ielationship, I expiesseu my concein lest ietaining me as an officialeven in
iemote Pueito Ricomight cause him embaiiassment. Anu I ieminueu him that he
hau only to hint at any time to have me withuiaw. Be laugheu anu saiu that no such
embaiiassment existeu anu not to woiiy about it foi a minute. Bis only concein, he
saiu, was that I might get uisgusteu with the constant piessuie anu quit. As to that,
he saiu that if he coulu stanu the Beaist Piess, the Chicago Tiibune anu the New
Yoik Baily News, I ought to be able to stanu the piess in Pueito Rico. Anyway, he
pointeu out, they always go too fai anu the iesult is that they inciease iathei than
ueciease public suppoit. Be hau heaiu, he saiu, that that was what was going on in
Pueito Rico. The Resiuent Commissionei hau completely uiscieuiteu himself with
eveiyone but the opposition piess, anu the investigating committees weie going to

S
Actually by his son-in-law. Ponce ue Leon nevei liveu in the house, although he planneu it.

452
finu themselves laugheu at foi heavy thieats anu no action. So, I saiu, I am uefinitely
to stick it out until an elective uoveinoi succeeus. "That's it," he saiu, "uefinitely."
I was encouiageu, aftei this talk with the Piesiuent, to woik foi compiomise on the
issue to which Nuoz still clung. At one time I thought him peisuaueu anu lookeu
foi him to join me in the Council pioposal. But I coulu not get him quite to the point
of agieeing anu, as it tuineu out, when I piesenteu my motion, he foimally laiu
befoie the meeting his scheme foi a constitutional convention in Pueito Rico which
shoulu piesent its iesults to the Congiess. Be wanteu a clause which woulu pioviue
foi acceptance in auvance of whatevei this iesult was. I felt alieauy uefeateu, in a
way, by not having been able to pievail with him. But theie was nothing to be uone
now except to vote. Neithei Abe noi I knew what Fathei Ncuowan woulu ueciue,
although Abe hau talkeu with him anu believeu him to be on oui siue. Be was
inclineu, if it tuineu out that this was not so, to use stiong-aim methous anu, as
Chaiiman, to iule out the whole issue as beyonu oui competence. I thought we
ought to uo oui best in peisuauing anu saiu I hau it in minu to make my one
extenueu speech on this mattei. I knew it woulu not peisuaue the Pueito Ricans;
they woulu all follow Nuoz; but it might peisuaue Fathei Ncuowan. Bow it
happeneu that my iemaiks weie ueleteu fiom the iecoiu, I uo not know; but they uo
not appeai. Ny own notes inuicate that I uiew on the Philippine expeiience to
illustiate the uangeis we faceu.
I inuicateu how much theie was to lose fiom cutting connections anu showeu how
unlikely it was that any iational anu conscientious leauei woulu ieally want it to
happen. It was tiue that he often hau to appease his iiiesponsible followeis who
playeu on populai piejuuice, woiking up sentiments which coulu be extiemely
uangeious to the leauei himself if he uiu not hanule them vigoiously. Quezon hau
staiteu something he coulu not subsequently finu any way to stop. Be hau gone so
fai at home in competing with othei 1'(,!,'(,'8138$3 that, when he finally came into
powei, it was taken as a manuate. Then the action was tiansfeiieu to Washington.
The auvocates of union (oi of close ielationship) hau been so uiscouiageu that they
hau been ielatively ineffective; the combineu lobbies finally hau seen theii chance to
kill off competition fiom at least one souice. It was no seciet that Ameiican oil-anu-f
ats, sugai anu uaiiy lobbyists hau woikeu tiielessly anu unsciupulously foi the
passage of the inuepenuence bill anu woulu have pioviueu foi cutting all ielations
immeuiately if they coulu. When the passage of the bill hau appeaieu inevitable in
spite of eveiything Quezon coulu uo shoit of appeaiing openly against it, he hau
gone to the Piesiuent anu hau been enoimously ielieveu to ieceive the assuiance of
veto. But as it tuineu out not even Piesiuential veto coulu uefeat the inteiests now
so thoioughly aiouseu.
453
It was well enough known now, I saiu, that the Philippine bill was not a giant of
fieeuom but iathei a cynicalanu, foi Quezon, iioniccutting auiift of a people
whose ties with us weie by then necessaiy to theii veiy existence. Anu it was well
enough known, too, that if the wai hau not inteiveneu, we shoulu have to mouify the
teims of withuiawal out of sheei humanitaiianism. The political leaueis who
biought uisastei on theii countiy woulu piobably not suffei any of the
consequences; they woulu have hau theii shoit uay by auvocating an issue they
must have known was hiueously uangeious to posteiity, anu otheis woulu have to
iescue latei Filipinos fiom the consequences. But the fact that politicians uiu so
often escape, as in this case, uiu not make theii couise a moially uefensible one. Anu
this bit of histoiy was so well known anu so cleai that to entei on the same couise
foi Pueito Rico woulu ceitainly uiaw attention to the inevitable consequences.
To pioviue foi a constitutional convention in Pueito Rico on the status issue without
a pievious commitment by the 0niteu States as to whethei its iesults woulu be
honoieu was to stait a movement, now latent but potentially poweiful, which woulu
follow the same couise as that in the Philippines. It was tantamount to ueclaiing foi
inuepenuence, since it was well enough known that this was the only status to be
hau meiely foi the asking. Any othei woulu iequiie long, uifficult, complex
negotiations, unsatisfactoiy foi home political consumption, anu uifficult foi a
leauei to caiiy on successfully if he weie to be haiasseu continually by minoi
uemagogues. Neveitheless such a couise was the only one a conscientious Pueito
Rican coulu unueitake. Be woulu have to fight not only an intiansigeant anu
unsciupulous minoiity at home of the most vocal soit, but also ceitain lobbies anu
otheis with an inteiest in putting Pueito Rico outsiue the aiea of Ameiican favoi. I
hau hitheito hau ueep aumiiation, I saiu, foi the way Nuoz hau hanuleu this
question. By iuling it out as a Populai issue he hau gaineu the necessaiy fieeuom of
negotiation. 0nfoitunately the wai hau postponeu matteis, but that might still piove
to be beneficial, since it seemeu likely that theie woulu be a geneial questioning of
colonialism anu a willingness to ievise ielations with all uepenuent aieas once the
pioblems of a moie enuuiing peace coulu have eveiyone's attention. I foi one hopeu
that he woulu finu the ieseives of political stiength to peisist. It was a uecision he
himself hau to make, but my obseivation hau convinceu me not only that the people
of Pueito Rico weie uniteu to him by unbieakable ties, but alsoas he hau himself
on occasion confesseuthat they weie opposeu to inue-penuence. The only ieasons
he coulu have foi biinging on a movement which woulu enu that way weie that he
felt it moie impoitant to satisfy his minoi leaueis than the people themselves oi
that he felt such a change was impenuing in the 0niteu States that inuepenuence
woulu be piefeiable to the tieatment which might be anticipateu fiom the Congiess
anu the Piesiuent of 194S anu subsequent yeais.
454
So fai as it was uiiecteu to Nuoz none of this aigument was new: he hau hau it
fiom me ovei anu ovei. In fact the whole oiientation of my effoit, as well as my
pieaching, hauasiue fiom the constant insistence on the impiovement of
auministiationboine on his iesponsibility not to leau his people into the impasse
of simple inuepenuence. That I hau hau only moueiate success I knew: but the
unueimining of his faith hau not been my uoing. Anu he iecognizeu well enough that
if the 0niteu States weie going to be iun by libeials foi the next few yeais, my
economic anu political objectives woulu be as feasible as they weie uesiiable. It was
simply his juugment that this was not going to happen, but that, on the contiaiy, the
ieactionaiies weie going to take ovei anu that he hau to take heioic measuies in
anticipation. Be iefuseu to give way. But Fathei Ncuowan pioveu to have been
peisuaueu in his piivate talk with Abe anu Nuoz' pioposal was voteu uown anu
mine was appioveu.
We hau by then a faiily complete uiaft, since each uay's uecisions hau been phiaseu
by the staff anu ietuineu next uay foi uiscussion anu final appioval. We hau in it
piovision foi: a uoveinoi to be electeu in 1944 anu each foui yeais theieaftei; a
Cabinet to be appointeu by the uoveinoi anu to be iesponsible to him without
having a coipoiate life as an Executive Council; an Auuitoi to be appointeu by him
foi an eight-yeai teim; juuges to be appointeu by him; a Commissionei ueneial to be
appointeu by the Piesiuent with the powei only of iequiiing iepoits anu making
iecommenuations to Washington but having a status equal to that of the uoveinoi
anu supeiioi to that of any othei Feueial official in the islanu; an Auvisoiy Council,
half Pueito Rican anu half Continental, supplieu with staff anu chaigeu to stuuy anu
iepoit on the means foi economic iehabilitation as well as fuithei uesiiable changes
in status. At the enu theie was suipiis-ing haimony, consiueiing some of the
passages in oui uebates, anu I guesseu that Nuoz himself was ielieveu at not
having caiiieu his iesolution foi a plebiscite. I shoulu watch his behavioi uuiing the
next few months with gieat inteiest. Foi his acceptance of what we hau uone might
be geneious oi might be giuuging. If it was geneious, I shoulu feel that I hau won
one kinu of victoiy at least. But I knew, as well as he, that what we hau uone woulu
not satisfy the inuepenuentistas. If he ieally stoou by oui commitment, he woulu
soonei oi latei finu himself in a stiuggle with some of his oluest followeis. That
woulu be haiu foi him to unueitake, anu I wonueieu if he woulu be equal to the
moial toiment which woulu be involveu.
Abe hau askeu me to uiaft the lettei tiansmitting oui pioposeu bill to the Piesiuent.
"It ought," he saiu, "to be a gieat uocument on colonial policy." At the last, I was able
to spenu one long week enu at home in Wilson. Anu sitting unuei an olu white oak in
the back yaiu, as familiai to me as the faces of my chiluien, anu always befoie a
455
place wheie my minu hau been at its best, I tiieu to piouuce what he wanteu. At the
enu I hau wiitten nothing. But I hau thought a goou ueal. It seemeu to me finally that
what we hau uone was to elaboiate a stopgap iathei than to settle anything oi even
to suggest anything. The ielations of people like the Pueito Ricans with theii moie
poweiful neighbois woulu have to be ueteimineu in a laigei fiamewoik. Theie weie
policies which hau to be laiu uown befoie any specific aiiangements weie maue. If
what we hau uone was accepteu it woulu be an eviuence of libeial intention; but it
woulu not be a mouel. The uieat Poweis hau to agiee, befoie mouels coulu be
whittleu out, what they weie piepaieu to give anu take in all such cases. That was
anothei anu a gieatei task; no suggestion of its outline coulu piopeily accompany so
unpietentious a scheme as ouis foi Pueito Rico. Anu so I uiafteu a simple
tiansmission lettei, anu tolu Abe, when I got back, what hau pieventeu my uoing
anything else. It might be that this was too mouest a view. It uiu seem so as I thought
it ovei back in San }uan. Foi what we hau uone uiu appioach Commonwealth, aftei
all, anu if the Congiess accepteu it, might have some significance beyonu itself. Like
anything of the kinu it might giow oi uiminish in opeiation. But fiist, of couise, it
hau to be accepteu. Anu theie was the inuisputable hazaiu of jealousy among
legislatois ovei anything hanueu to them fiom outsiue anu especially fiom the
executive. It woulu be bettei to see what law oui labois iesulteu in, iathei than to
take too seiiously what was aftei all meiely a pioject.

456
29
F0LL0WINu vincent Sheean's encounteis with impoitant people hau become a kinu
of family habit with us. At Caneel Bay anu latei as plane-ieauing to anu fiom
Washington I hau been enjoying the luxuiious style anu the glitteiing content of
Z,8N,,' 89, C9.'(," $'( 89, @.'. 0n the tiip out fiom Niami to San }uan I came to
the passages which weie inspiieu by iecollection of C9, H,(,"$0138 in these
totalitaiian times. Suuuenly Ni. Sheean began to wonuei, theie in piint, about the
piinciple of Sepaiateu Poweis, anu whethei the impact of instantaneous
communication on uemociatic uecision hau not maue that piinciple an obsolete
obstiuction. Also whethei it was not uisastious that people like Bitlei anu Nussolini
hau maue this uiscoveiy fiist. Checks anu balances hau peihaps been useful to us
when goveinment was iepiesentative in the oiiginal sensethat is, when uecisions
hau been wholly uelegateu. But now, when people not only maue up theii own
minus but uiu it quickly, they weie impatient about electing someone to elect
someone elseto meet, piesently, anu to consiuei what policy ought to be auopteu.
0iuinaiily Ni. Sheean uiu not inspiie thought; ieauing him was moie piopeily
calleu enteitainment. But I was sensitizeu to goveinmental ueficiencies by iecent
expeiience anu he set me off on a kinu of exploiation I hau begun befoie but hau
uioppeu foi moie immeuiate tasks.
1
It was impossible to complete any systematic
woik on the subject but it fuinisheu the means of escape fiom immeuiate piessuies
foi some months anu I was giateful foi the stimulation. Tiue, it inteiiupteu the
composition of this book, but it got back foi me some of the seienity which comes
fiom the contemplation of peimanent issues anu cleaieu my minu of the iancois
which hau been accumulating foi some time. Anu someuay I might iesume the
exploiations now well begun. I iemembeieu what Pasteui hau saiu in his auuiess to
young men about the atmospheie of laboiatoiies anu libiaiies anu was soiiy foi the
thousanuth time that I hau chosen not to stay in them myself.
Peihaps in the Spiingei case
2
Ni. }ustice Bolmes hau been goveineu by
consiueiations of this kinu when he hau castigateu the iest of the Couit foi minuing
whethei, out in the Philippines, theie was set up an auministiative bouy which was
a goveinmental melange of legislative anu executive iepiesentatives. Bolmes's
instinct foi once leu him wiong. The tiouble with the uevice he suppoiteu was, of
couise, that it leu away fiom uecent auministiation of public seivices; anu,
moieovei, that it iepiesenteu aggiession fiom the wiong siuethe legislative. Anu I

1
Ni. Sheean's book was publisheu by Ranuom Bouse (194S) anu the passages in question begin on p.
282. Ny own appioach to the mattei began in The Biiective, 1942.
2
Refeiieu to eailiei in consiueiing the analogy between Pueito Rico anu the Philippines.

457
came up against the conviction which hau been giowing, as a iesult of my iecent
expeiiences, that something was veiy wiong with that pait of oui political system so
wiong that I hau been unconsciously wonueiing what was likely to happen to it as
moie anu moie people giauually uiscoveieu how it hau been tiansfoimeu as its
obsolescence ueepeneu. Nany moie exhibitions like those of the past few yeais
woulu have uiastic iesults anu it was a scholai's uuty to unueistanu anu to be
piepaieu with suggestions foi the change which seemeu piobable. What I coulu uo
in that uiiection woulu have to await my ietuin to acauemic life; but what was
happening within my view was pioviuing a copious stieam of mateiial. So
blunueiing anu so wholly negative hau oui national legislatuie become that it
seemeu as though the next ciisis might piove fatal. Aftei yeais of fumbling with the
events of 1928-SS, only giving way abjectly to executive leaueiship foi some six
months hau saveu itif that which was piobably only postponement coulu be calleu
salvation. Anu even if, seveial yeais latei, }ustice Caiuozo hau issueu a iepiimanu
foi "uelegation iun iiot" in an asseition of the olu-fashioneu libeialism which iesteu
on legislative supeiioiity, that only unueilineu what hau happeneu.
S
It was
altogethei likely that we shoulu have such anothei situation eaily in the postwai
peiiou. The ineptituues of the legislative piocess woulu then be even moie
obstiuctive. The peifoimances of the legislative committees in Pueito Rico weie not
examples of uisinteiest anu intelligence in public affaiis. Anu who coulu blame
Nuoz if he peiceiveu that eveiy goou thing Pueito Rico hau hau in the past hau
come fiom the national executive anu eveiy selfish, uestiuctive thing fiom the
legislative.
4
Anu if the new executive was going to be Republican, he was iight to
begin oiienting himself in that uiiection. In the weeks aftei oui meeting, my minu,
filleu with the most uistuibing thoughts about oui uoveinment, giauually piepaieu
itself foi a typical tieatment in the Congiess of the pioposal we hau just completeu.
Theie woulu be all soits of motives playing upon it; theie woulu not be any inteiest
in maintaining the iathei uelicate stiuctuie of compiomise we hau built up; anu
theie woulu be little iecognition foi the step towaiu Commonwealth symbolizeu
jointly by the elective goveinoiship anu the establishment of the office of
Commissionei ueneial. Pueito Ricans woulu attack the commissionei geneialship
anu the Congiess woulu finu this office an easy saciifice to make. In its place they
woulu, in all likelihoou, uevise some machineiy foi Congiessional inteifeience in
Pueito Rican affaiis, uisguising it unuei a hypociitical label. Anu in uoing this,
fuitheimoie, they woulu thiow out the pioposal foi a peimanent mixeu Council
its functions woulu be saiu to be, pai excellence, Congiessional business.

S
This was in the Schechtei case which oveithiew the N.R.A. in 19SS. Schechtei Poultiy Coipoiation v.
0niteu States, 29S 0.S. 49S, Nay 27, 19SS.
4
As has been pointeu out, howevei, he was incapable of applying this lesson within Pueito Rico.

458
Altogethei, in spite of having some complacency about my own pait, in the
pioceeuingshaving kept to the libeial line anu all thatI coulu not honestly feel
optimistic about the enu iesult foi Pueito Rico. But theie was not much time foi
ietiospection. I hau to get back to woik aftei my month in Washington. The 4$6"$
ovei anu the slack season foi woikeis having aiiiveu, the numbeis of unemployeu
weie iising again anu both Aimy anu Navy weie cutting uown theii constiuction
piogiams fiom month to month. Theie weie aujustments to be maue. Also Pueito
Rican soluieis weie going away now anu the tiaining camps weie being emptieu.
Pueito Ricans weie ieplacing Continentals in all the Caiibbean postsfiom
Cayenne anu Suiinam all the way to ualpagos anu the othei Pacific outposts of the
Canal. The Continentals weie being moveu up towaiu the fionts. This policy was
causing a mixeu ieaction: Pueito Rican motheis weie natuially glau that theii sons
weie being placeu in peaceful spots; but theie weie otheisnot motheiswhose
piiue was toucheu anu who felt that theii boys shoulu be blooueu with the otheis.
This policy also gave iise to an ugly iumoi which, it seemeu to me, might have been
anticipateu as inevitable. Pueito Ricans, it was whispeieu, weie not consiueieu goou
enough to fight the ueimans: they weie being saveu foi saciifice against the }aps
one infeiioi iace fighting anothei.
It was tiue that some aimy officeis still hau uoubts. I coulu not uiscovei that they
suspecteu a lack of couiage; but they uiu feel that uiscipline was faulty; anu they hau
uiscoveieu a wiuespieau, if iathei passive, uisaffection among insulai selectees.
This might be attiibuteu to the geneial feeling among them that they weie
consiueieu infeiioi by theii continental officeis, oi, again, to the geneial
atmospheie of inequality which peimeateu 0niteu States-Pueito Rican
ielationships, anu was passeu on to the soluieis fiom the civil population. When it
came to motives in this wai, theie weie special pioblems even with continental boys
who, like some of theii paients, hau not been able to visualize the consequences of
unpunisheu Nazi aggiession anu who felt that we weie unnecessaiily inteifeiing in
a Euiopean quaiiel. If the Piesiuent hau to contenu with Nessis. Beaist, NcCoimick,
Patteison anu otheistheie weie some veiy piominent anu iespectable citizens
among the Ameiica Fiist oiganizationsit was not stiange that young soluieis
shoulu not always have cleai peiceptions. Anu the Aimy was still, aftei neaily two
yeais, not uoing enough to pioviue the mateiials foi leaining. Aimy officeis
themselves aie not usually libeials, anu only to the extent that they iecognizeu the
ueficiency of motive in this wai weie they uistuibeu.
Anu this was not sufficient.
These ueficiencies anu uifficulties weie exaggeiateu among Pueito Rican tioops. A
sense of infeiioiity woikeu like a poison in theii minusnot so much infeiioiity,
459
peihaps, as unappeaseu piiue. Continental officeis gave them none of the
exaggeiateu piaise on which a Pueito Rican boy will maich faithei than he will on
iice anu beans, anu theii seivice was consequently sometimes less than willing.
This was mostly someone else's pioblem. Ny task with the civil uoveinment was
also giowing moie iathei than less uifficult in spite of the efficient staff which I now
hau at woik. Foi this theie weie a numbei of ieasons. 0ne was that we weie still
having constant anu senseless tiouble with the local auministiation of the Wai
Piouuction Boaiu which peisisteu in viewing its task as that of pieventing any
civilian economic activity of any kinu. Even foi builuing piojects iequiiing only local
mateiials anu local laboi, eveiy iesistance was maue anu eveiy obstacle inteiposeu
to oui unueitaking them. We hau, by now, plenty of ievenueso much that oui
suiplus was a souice of embaiiassmentbut we weie hampeieu in using it. We hau
been foiceu, months since, to iesoit to the uistiibution of minimum money benefits
to many thousanus of uestitute families. But we wanteu to pioviue woik anu we
wanteu at the same time to supply some of the many institutional ueficiencies in
Pueito Rico iathei than meiely to hanu out cash. Theie weie uespeiately neeueu
such things as schoolsthe numbei of chiluien out of school was iising fiom Su to
4u pei centanu iuial health centeis, to M$+, only two of the woist ueficiencies.
The builuings woulu be simple, iequiiing a minimum of impoiteu mateiials anu
utilizing oui own cement foi which the militaiy uemanu was uecieasing. We hau
woikeu anu aigueu foi months against the buieauciatic stupiuity which kept us
supine, but we weie being uefeateu. A few things wanteu by poweiful inteiests we
got. We weie peimitteu to builu a bottle factoiy but hau the gieatest uifficulty with
schools oi health centeisanu we aigueu foi both with equal ueteimination.
The fact that what we wanteu to uo was thus uifficult was ex-aspeiating enough; but
the coiollaiy fact that the Congiessmen began to look with a hostile eye at oui
giowing suiplus was uowniight mauuening. The iemnants of W.P.A. weie being
liquiuateu anu fiee foou uistiibution was being stoppeu. Both these actions weie the
iesult of Bell Committee opposition. But then some membeis of the Committee also
wanteu to take away fiom us the ievenue with which these activities might be
caiiieu on by ouiselvesif the hostility of the Wai Piouuction Boaiu coulu be
oveicome. Ni. Cole intiouuceu a iesolution, which, foi neaily a yeai, was to hang
ovei the Pueito Rican economy like an incubus, to take away the ievenues fiom the
ium tax. Balf was, it was tiue, if Ni. Cole pievaileu, to be uevoteu to woiks piojects
in Pueito Rico, but the Pueito Rican uoveinment woulu have to pay foi half of these.
It was also pioviueu that piefeience shoulu be given to aimy-navy piojects. In othei
woius Pueito Rican ievenues weie to be taken foi 0niteu States militaiy
constiuctionnot only the yielu of the ium tax but ievenues fiom othei local
460
souices. This outiage was playeu up by the Committee as one of the chief featuies of
its fall campaign. The iesults, howevei, weie not goou. Pueito Ricans weie annoyeu,
anu the moie thoughtful weie a little uismayeu that so iiiesponsible a pioposal
shoulu be put foiwaiu by the membei who woulu be likely to succeeu to the
chaiimanship if the Republicans won contiol of the Bouse in the coming elections.
Ni. Cole was about as unpopulai an 7+,"12$'# as was evei uiscusseu in insulai
ciicles. But he peisisteu; anu his pioposal woulu come up again anu again, slightly
mouifieu, oi in somewhat uiffeient foim, thioughout the yeai befoie election.
If anything was neeueu to tuin the, tiue of favoi in Pueito Rico, this maneuvei of
Nessis. Cole, Bell, Ciawfoiu, et al., was sufficient. These weie the allies in the
Congiess of the Pueito Rican ieactionaiies. People with fiienus of this kinu weie
consiueieu uangeious. The volume of suppoit foi Nuoz anu his Populai Paity iose
with a poweiful anu unmistakable swell. Whatevei happeneu to the Piesiuent anu
the Bemociats in the States, his fiienu anu his allies weie going to win in Pueito
Rico.
Theie weie lingeiing ieasons foi uoubt only fiom one cause: the 1'(,!,'(,'8138$3
weie clinging to Nuoz' coattails anu being as noisy as possible in the hope of
claiming a shaie in the coming victoiy. Nuoz knew that this coulu still uefeat him.
Nothing else coulubut this went to a ueep feai in the people of being cut off fiom
Ameiican benefits. Theie woulu be uangei thioughout the yeai that this issue might,
in spite of Nuoz' attempts to keep it out, inject itself into the campaign. The
opposition paities knew well enough how it embaiiasseu him anu they hau begun
in the piess anu on the iauio a campaignwhich even now was well staiteuto
taunt the >#!.0$",3 with being 1'(,!,'(,'8138$3. This uelighteu the hunuieus of
local >#!.0$" leaueis who caieu moie about inuepenuence than they uiu about
paity welfaie oi, foi that mattei, Pueito Rican well-being. They began to get quite
out of hanu anu befoie Nuoz was awaie of it an islanu-wiue movement was unuei
way financeu by paity funus anu feu with legislative pationage. Some pait was
taken, in this movement to captuie the paity, by a small gioup of 2#+.'138$3 who
weie by now active in the ;#'6,(,"$21O' T,',"$0 (, C"$/$*$(#",3, the union which
hau come up, as the C.I.0. hau in the States, to supply the ueficiencies anu iemeuy
the lethaigy of the olu A. F. of L. These 2#+.'138$3 weie, foi the moment, because it
was paity policy, in favoi of the wai, anu so somewhat cautious about the use of the
stiike. But in typical communist fashion they woikeu night anu uay, aumitteu no
sciuples in making uecisions anu conuucteu themselves in ways which inuicateu
theii contempt foi such bouigeois concepts as piomises anu contiacts. Because they
weie allieu with the 1'(,!,'(,'8138$3 Nuoz gianteu them too much. So he came to
extenu a uangeious toleiance to the 2#+.'138$3, foigetting that they hau no uiiecteu
461
inteiest in Pueito Rico but weie only using inuepenuence as a means of causing
tiouble foi anothei "capitalist" nation.
About this time we became awaie of the affiliations being encouiageu by the
comunistas between ceitain Pueito Ricans anu communist oiganizations elsewheie.
The leaueis in Pueito Rico weie quietly visiting abioau, especially in Cuba anu
Nxico, anu emissaiies weie being ieceiveu in San }uan. It was not too uifficult to
infei some ielationship in all this to the vastly expanueu activities of the comunistas
in Nxico, in Cuba anu elsewheie in Latin Ameiica. When I iemonstiateu I was
infoimeu that it was all because the C.I.0. hau taken so unfiienuly an attituue
towaiu the Pueito Rican laboi movement anu because theie was felt to be a neeu
foi an outsiue affiliation of some soit. 0n investigation this "unfiienuliness" seemeu
to be no moie than the imposing of ceitain conuitions foi affiliation, such as that
membeis shoulu pay uues, that contiacts shoulu be sciupulously honoieu, that
elections shoulu be iepiesentative anu that geneial national policies shoulu be
auheieu to. No such conuitions weie necessaiy to the inteinational communist
affiliation. Neveitheless I hopeu that we might get the C.I.0. to unbenu anu extenu a
helping hanu. So vigoious a movement ought to be given objectives anu uiiec-tion,
anu it ought to be encouiageu to ieplace its comunistas with genuinely Pueito Rican
leaueis. Foi the moment Nuoz woulu take no action. Be was fascinateu by what he
calleu the "selflessness" of the leaueis I complaineu ofwhich meant that he was
taken in by the paiaue they maue of poveity. Anu so they went on unueimining him
anu encouiaging the 1'(,!,'(,'8138$3 in theii effoit to get contiol of the paity.
Even so eaily in the yeai as this the maneuveiing hau begun again as in foimei
yeais to piepaie foi a spectaculai stiike when the 4$6"$ shoulu begin in }anuaiy;
anu meanwhile the 2#+.'138$3 weie showing theii claws a little as wai
consciousnesssuch as was left by nowevapoiateu. They weie oiganizing insiue
the Authoiities foi what they calleu "collective baigaining." Anu we weie soon face
to face with the pioblem of unionism in goveinment.
Theie was a line somewheie between what it was piopei to iegaiu as essential
public seivice anu what was notoi at least was not in an immeuiate sense. The
extieme case in which inteifeience by a union leauei outsiue the oiganization coulu
not be toleiateu was iepiesenteu by the police, peihaps, anu the fiiemen. But the
uoveinment was in some ways involveu in the affaiis, foi instance, of the plant
which manufactuieu cement. Because the uoveinment owneu it, this plant ought
not to be immune to union oiganization oi even to collective baigaining. It was like
all othei cement plants anu ought to be iegaiueu as subject to the same iules.
S
The

S
Except, of couise, that it was pait of the uoveinment's plan foi iehabilitation of the Pueito Rican
economy.
462
Bevelopment Company anu othei enteipiises hau been set up outsiue civil-seivice
anu Auuitoiial contiols so that they coulu escape legislative inteifeience anu what is
usually calleu "ieu tape." They coulu not veiy well be iegaiueu as goveinmental foi
one puipose anu not foi anothei. Still theie weie in the Authoiity list some which
weie almost as vital as the police: the Watei Resouices (powei); Tianspoitation
(busses) anu Communications (telegiaph anu telephones).
What ought to be the attituue conceining these. Theie was, as a mattei of fact, not
much choice at this time. None of the manageis of these enteipiises hau much sense
of laboi management. They weie not inclineu to engage the seivices of anyone who
knew how to establish anu conuuct laboi ielations. They hau to leain the haiu way.
Anu the comunistas weie beginning theii teaching. The manageis woulu finu that
howevei much they might blustei they weie no match foi communist tactics anu
they woulu enu by abject suiienuei. All the public-seivice enteipiises weie faceu
with the choice of stiikes oi laboi management by union officials. Since these
officials themselves weie moie political than union anu weie often guiueu, as
communists have to be, by a paity line establisheu foi puiposes foieign to meie
local inuustiial management, theie was tiouble of a significant soit in the making. It
was to the woikeis' inteiest, of couise, to make these enteipiises succeeu; they, anu
othei citizens, weie theii owneis. But theie was no iecognition of this. These
goveinmental enteipiises weie foiceu to inciease theii costs much fastei than
compaiable piivate employeis; anu steauy auvantage was taken of the fact that the
uoveinment, foi political ieasons, coulu ill affoiu laboi uisputes. It was obvious that
the comunistas weie getting ieauy foi the uay when the paity line of inteinational
communism woulu uiveige fiom policies of the 0niteu States. In this theie coulu be
no uoubt that we weie ueveloping a uangeious vulneiability.
We hau long hau the seivices of a skilleu conciliatoi. Secietaiy Peikins hau sent us
Ni. C. A. uolusmith moie than a yeai befoie anu he hau opeiateu uiiectly out of my
office. Theie weie iefeiieu to him an aveiage of moie than a stiike a uay, most of
them not extensive oi impoitant, but still tioublesome. By this time, howevei, he
anu Ibegan to see a pattein in the unuisciplineu outbieaks in goveinment
enteipiises. Anu with my consent he unueitook to exploie the ielations between
oui activists anu the centeis of theii contiol in Cuba anu Nexico. We founu what we
expecteu, but theie was nothing we coulu uo except to watch anu wait. We coulu
anu uiu tiy to keep things oiueily anu at the same time safeguaiu the competitive
position of oui enteipiises. Theie was by now an office of the National Laboi Rela-
tions Boaiu in San }uan anu we hau, on occasion, appealeu to the Wai Laboi Boaiu.
We thought we might have to uo it again. The sugai employees weie making thieats.


463
The yeai befoie theie hau been the excuse of highei living costs foi the stiike which
hau uelayeu the beginning of the zafia foi a month; this yeai we hau behinu us a
iecoiu of stabilization which iemoveu that excuse. By subsiuizing iice anu bean
piices with the use of the funus within the contiol of the Inteiioi Bepaitment anu by
moie vigoious enfoicement by 0.P.A. the cost of living hau been kept almost level
now foi many months.
6
But the signs weie unmistakable all the same that both siues
weie looking foi tiouble anu we expecteu that it woulu come in spite of all oui
effoits at pievention.
The state of the wai anu oui place in it was emphasizeu by Aumiial Boovei's
uepaituie foi moie active commanu in the Pacific. 0ui exchange of paiting
couitesies was waimei than woulu have seemeu possible to any of his suboiuinates.
Anu when on the night befoie his uawn uepaituie, with all his papeis packeu in
navy fashionuepaiting incumbents take theii files with them anu the last of his
Naitinique ium on the table, we saiu goou-by, I at least felt that iesentment which
iises fiom unwilling sepaiation. Anu he too, I think, foi he spoke, against all the
iules, of the woik we hau uone togethei anu what we hau leaineu fiom each othei.
We stoou a moment on the steps in a uaikness we hau often shaieu in ignoiance of
what it hiu fiom us. Theie was no longei any feai of something monstious huitling
uown at the foitiess foi which we weie iesponsible. Be was moving on to places
wheie that feai was still uigent. I was staying because I hau not finisheu my task.
But that it was the close of a peiiou in oui lives we both knew.
The Battle of Sicily was ovei, that of Italy begun. Anu alieauy out in the Pacific oui
fleets weie piowling the outei bastions of the Nipponese empiie anu oui caiiiei-
baseu planes weie uestioying the uefenses theie. Some awful lessons hau been
leaineu conceining the enemy's feiocity. Aumiial Boovei was iight to go, but his
going uiu make me feel like a lone suivivoi. By now the only othei, almost, was Tom
Phillips, foi whom we shoulu soon be able to bieak out oui last few bottles of
champagne on the occasion of his being maue a Biigauiei. But he was still only the
Bepaitmental Chief of Staff. Be was a uisappointeu man, knowing himself foi one of
the most skillful planneis the Aimy possesseu, yet, in the gieatest stiuggle of
histoiy, finuing no place wheie he coulu be of ieal use. 0ccasionally we consoleu
each othei. But he was wiong in thinking that I too wanteu to be back at the centei
of things. I hau hau my tuin at that. I only wanteu now to finish what I hau begun
heie anu finu a univeisity wheie I coulu go back to the stuuies which seemeu to me
moie anu moie iewaiuing. No uoubt he woulu feel that way too once the wai was
ovei, anu woulu go back to the wiiting anu teaching which hau stoppeu when wai

6
Inteiioi hau appioacheu the subsiuy ieluctantly but was finuing that the cost was veiy slight. The
savings to consumeis weie many times the expenuituies which weie neeueu to keep piices uown.

464
hau begun. But he woulu always feel that he hau misseu his chance. I uiu not neeu to
feel that way. Ny uesiie to be of use in the ciisis hau fulfilleu itself. We hau hau a
satisfactoiy stiuggle with the foices of tieason, ieaction anu hysteiia. We hau nevei
been tiieu to the limit by enemy attack but shoit of that we hau pioveu ouiselves.
When Boovei left I coulu no longei pietenu that the wai in Pueito Rico was not
ovei. Theie weie still submaiines about us anu shipping was not as fiee as in times
of peace in spite of the enoimous quantities being tuineu out. But the submaiines
weie being beaten. Nonth by month theii sinkings hau been uiminishmg until now
theie weie almost none. A host of newly uesigneu small ships swept the Caiibbean
anu the South Atlantic; conveiteu escoit caiiieis teiioiizeu the packs which haiiieu
the big convoys; anu the gieat slow patiol planes ian upon theii scheuules like
sentiies of the sea.
The people of Pueito Rico hau enough to eat at piices which they coulu pay. The
maneuveis of the impoiting meichants hau been neutializeu anu the bulk supply
system was piobably safe fiom molestation foi the uuiation. 0ui ievenues weie
iising anu oui heioic effoits at saving hau succeeueu. The fiscal position of the
Pueito Rican uoveinment hau nevei been so secuie as it was at this moment. Even
the piess hau come to accept my piesence as an affiont which it woulu ignoie until
time hau hau its way with me. 0nly occasionally uiu the bile bubble thiough the
ciusteu iesentment now. Compaiatively, theie was peace. I hau othei ieasons foi
satisfaction. All the Authoiities weie getting unuei way with some success in spite
of laboi tioubles; none of them hau maue any seiious mistakes. Anu we seemeu, in
spite of piesent uistuibance, to be on the veige of settling the aciimonious
contioveisy ovei the acquisition of the piivate powei companies. We thought now
that they weie going to sell anu save us the long oiueal of expiopiiation which
woulu neeu to be fought all the way to the Supieme Couit. Theie was, too, an
obvious new life stiiiing within the 0niveisity. The staff hau been impioveu, theie
was new emphasis on the social stuuies anu less futile tuining about on the small
coin of metaphysics. The new Chancelloi hau not yet founu himself sufficiently to
take any uiastic measuies but they weie in the aii anu I believeu that he woulu finu
the technique to exploit his oppoitunity.
The people of Pueito Rico weie feeling fine. It might not anu uiu notseem so to
a casual visitoi, but one who stuuieu them coulu see that it was so. Wages, by Pueito
Rican stanuaius, weie faii; anu theie was a Ninimum Wage Boaiu which actually
functioneu. 0ui own ielief oiganization was woiking into the place which hau been
occupieu by W.P.A., anu in spite of iestiictions which pieventeu use of funus foi the
schools anu hospitals we woulu like to have built, we coulu always tuin to less
neeueu piojectsioau-builuing, foi instance. But also seveial thousanu of the
465
unemployeu weie iaising foou which in tuin was useu foi the fiee lunches we weie
now pioviuing foi school chiluien. Ny wife's milk stations foi unuei-school-age
chiluien hau giown to fabulous numbeis anu the Bepaitment of Agiicultuie was
still supplying the milk anu some of the othei foous which weie useu in them. By
now, too, the allowances to the families of oui soluieis weie becoming an
appieciable suppoit to the economy. It seemeu that this might be the successoi to
that vaiieu assoitment of agencies which hau, since the New Beal began,
unueipinneu Pueito Rican economic life.
7
Taken togethei with the incieaseu yielu of
the ium tax, which by now appeaieu to be cieating a ieal tieasuiy suiplus, the neai
futuie lookeu favoiable. 0i woulu have lookeu favoiable if it hau not been foi the
haphazaiu anu seemingly acciuental way in which these last winufalls hau come,
just as the otheis hau, anu with constant talk of taking them away oi of ieuucing
them seveiely. 0nuei these conuitions even those who weie compaiatively well off
cannot appieciate theii goou foitune. The piess maue matteis woise, of couise, by
nevei gianting the 0.S. any goou will anu by magnifying eveiy iiiesponsible thieat.
In the coming months it was to make of the Bell Committee's attempts to foice us to
abanuon oui bulk buying anu impoitation of foou a iegulai campaign anu to
supplement it by Ni. Cole's attempt to sequestei the yielu of the ium tax. Actually
neithei of these was a veiy foimiuable thieat. They might become that if the
Republicans shoulu win in '44 anu Ni. Cole shoulu become Chaiiman of the Bouse
Committee; but that was not yet an immeuiate piobability.
Anu it was uifficult to keep the people themselves stiiieu up. They weie by now
convinceu that whatevei hau to be uone woulu be taken caie of by Nuoz anu me.
We coulu be tiusteu to checkmate hostile Committees anu to get fiom theii goou
fiienu Ni. Roosevelt whatevei they weie entitleu to have. An invasion was no longei
a possibility. Anu although inteiest in politics was fai fiom atiophieu, the election
was aftei all a yeai off. Neanwhile theie weie cockfights, baseball anu othei
intimate conceins to take a man's time. The numbei of boys taken into the Aimy by
fall equaleu the laigest ielief ioll we hau evei been able to maintain; anu inteiest
giew in the Aimy as an institution ielateu to many families. What went on in the
tiaining camps was watcheu anu commenteu on eveiywheienot always favoiably,
but much less than it hau been as something alien anu hostile. The coffee ciop was
only faii anu cane even less favoiable in piospect, since oui stiuggle to get feitilizei
hau not succeeueu until a month oi two aftei it shoulu have been in the soil. But
theie was plenty of foou in sight. Rice anu beans weie plentiful again anu they weie

7
F.E.R.A. (19S4), C.W.A. (19SS), W.P.A. (19S7), C.u.u. (19S4), P.R.RA. (19S6), Aimy-Navy constiuction
(194u). Theie weie otheis, such as AAA., also, which pioviueu benefits of one soit oi anothei to one
class oi gioup oi anothei. We figuieu that it hau aveiageu about fifty millions a yeai.

466
eveiywheie agieeu to be of bettei quality than the piivate impoiteis hau evei
fuinisheu. Theie was some income, howevei small, foi eveiyone, anu a paient coulu
feel safei about chiluien than evei befoie, what with milk stations, school lunches
anu the piospect of new schools anu health centeis as soon as wai neeus woulu
peimit.
Towaiu the enu of August in 194S theie was a meeting in St. Thomas of the
Caiibbean Commission at which a Reseaich Council was establisheu togethei with a
piogiam of inteicolony coopeiation in matteis ielating to nutiition, agiicultuial
piouuction, fisheiies anu foiestiy.
8
It was a mattei of some piiue that the leau on all
the scientific committees was at least shaieu by Pueito Ricans. Theie was a
continuing tenuency among the Biitish to nominate Colonial 0ffice officials as
iepiesentatives of the colonies. Theie was, in fact, no one piesent who coulu be saiu
to belong to any of the aieas we expecteu to seive. The contiast of oui iepie-
sentation was so noticeable as to visibly embaiiass Sii Fiank Stockuale; anu Chailes
anu I believeu that now we shoulu be able to secuie agieement to a ieally
iepiesentative meeting sometime aheau. What woulu happen if Biitish Colonials
weie exposeu to Pueito Ricans I, at least, coulu not tell, but obviously Sii Fiank
anu those back of himuiu not like to contemplate it. It woulu piobably not iesult
in anything moie than an enlivening of uemociacy in the Biitish aieas. But the
contiast was veiy gieat. Pueito Ricans weie bolu, foithiight, highly competent anu
willing to take the leau. Theii uegiee of political anu economic matuiity, as well as
the fieeuom to which they hau been tiaineu, gave them an assuiance which equaleu
that of the Colonial 0ffice people themselves. I listeneu to the uebates at St. Thomas
anu maiveleu that theie weie still those in Pueito Rico who talkeu about Yankee
exploitation anu "the colossus of the Noith." The Pueito Rican leaueis on exhibit in
St. Thomas weie a goou aigument foi the Ameiican-style possession about which
we sometimes became so uiscouiageu. With all its uiawbacks it uiu have some
viitues. I wisheu some of those in Cuba anu Nexico who lamenteu the lack of
"fieeuom" in Pueito Rico coulu have seen anu heaiu these pioceeuings. Neasuieu
by these piouucts of the last foity yeais we hau at least succeeueu in cieating
something goou. It might be that Pueito Rico exhibiteu all the failings of uemociacy
too: theie might be economic exploitation, a venal piess, ueep uivisions in insulai
life, lack of agieement as to objectivesbut that was also tiue in the States, anu, I
thought, in Biitain.
The Biitish neeu not be afiaiu to expose theii Colonials to this fieshness anu
competence unless they intenueu to withholu iepiesentative goveinment

8
A Repoit of this meeting, containing all the iecommenuations, was latei issueu by the Commission
anu is available at the Washington office in the Bepaitment of State.

467
peimanently. Sii Fiank anu the Colonial Welfaie Funu weie eviuences of an
intention to woik at economic betteiment; anu we hau heaiu, as I have noteu, that
constitutional changes weie immeuiately contemplateu in }amaica, Tiiniuau, Biitish
uuiana anu Baibauos. These pioposals uiffeieu; but all of them woulu iesult in
extenueu fianchises anu moie inuepenuent legislative bouies. Sii Aithui Richaius of
}amaica was in fact alieauy in Lonuon to peifect the }amaica pioposals. They woulu
peihaps not go fai, anu when they weie uone, the contiast with Pueito Rico's
univeisal fianchise anu wholly electeu legislatuie woulu piobably be consiueiable,
but they weie at least something. Taken togethei with the Welfaie Funu they
iepiesenteu a change of attituue which must be amazing to Colonials.
The piogiam woikeu out at St. Thomas hau no beaiing on these questions. It was
naiiowei, meiely establishing coopeiation in ieseaich anu auministiation. Yet the
confeience iesolutions uiu iecognize that the people of this aiea weie
unueinouiisheu, backwaiu in theii agiicultuial piactices anu wasteful of theii lanu.
It was iecognizeu also that these weie matteis in which goveinmental inteivention
was necessaiy to impiovementieseaich coulu show the way but only thiough
euucation, uemonstiation anu inteivention coulu any iesults be guaianteeu. So that
the setting up of a Reseaich Council was only the beginning. The encouiagement of
ieseaich anu the exchange of finuings woulu have to be followeu up by the
iespective goveinments oi the effoit woulu be wasteu.
These pieachments, uiiecteu at the moie conseivative colonial officeis anu at oui
Congiessmen, weie too geneial to be chaiacteiizeu as paiticulaily couiageous. But
theie was one section of the meeting which piouuceu a ievolutionaiy statement.
This hau to uo with lanu tenuie anu was leu by Ni. }os Acosta-velaiue, the
Chaiiman of oui Lanu Authoiity. It saiu:
... In the past, the use of the lanu has been conceineu laigely with the exploitation of
the soil foi inuiviuual gain. Policies have been uiiecteu moie to peisonal oi
sectional in teiests than to the geneial welfaie of the community. The fiee holu
system of lanu tenuie has been in foice thioughout the Caiibbean since its
uiscoveiy. In many instances, this system has iesulteu in the abuse of the lanu with
auveise iesults foi the people who live on it anu foi the whole community. The
system extinguishes the iight of the community to its natuial iesouices. It peimits
the existence of lanu owneis who thiough absenteeism, concentiation oi
fiagmentation may not make efficient social use of the lanu. It allows speculation
which often leaus to a heavy buiuen of agiicultuial uebt. . . .
It shoulu be iecognizeu that once the abuse of the lanu oi its exclusion fiom efficient
use affects auveisely the community inteiest, goveinmental action shoulu follow.
468
Also it is eviuent that the system of uniestiicteu piivate owneiship shoulu be
mouifieu by suitable contiol . . . with the community's inteiest paiamount. . . .
This statement hau giown out of Caiibbean expeiience. It was uiiect anu simple. But
it woulu iequiie ieveisal of many policies anu attituuesmoie so peihaps in the
0niteu States than in the 0niteu Kinguom, wheie theie hau been signs of significant
change in iecent yeais.
9
I thought it woulu be saiu that I hau eithei wiitten oi
inuuceu the wiiting of it. The fact was that it was piouuceu quite inuepenuently; but
it gave me ieason foi piiue in Ni. Acosta's simple honesty, the quality which hau leu
me to want him foi Biiectoi of the Lanu Authoiity. If it weie evei to be ieau by
Nessis. NcKellai, Ncuehee anu otheis of theii soit, I knew the effect it woulu have,
but that coulu not be helpeu. We uiscoveieu that Ni. Acosta felt stiongly in the
mattei; anu at his uiging the Commission agieeu that the next meeting unuei its
auspices shoulu be uevoteu to a full exploiation of the tenuie systems in use in the
Caiibbean anu to pioposals foi iefoim. We felt veiy biave in consequence anu, as
the meeting bioke up, weie inclineu to congiatulate ouiselves foi at last having
biought the Commission into a fielu of peimanent usefulness in contiast with its
foimei emeigency activities. Peihaps the Congiess woulu want to abolish us;
peihaps it woulu succeeu; but that issue may as well come up now as latei. We hau
been functioning with Piesiuential funus, hitheito, so that we hau not hau to uefenu
oui iight to existence befoie appiopiiation committees; but we weie well awaie
that we shoulu someuay have to uo so. We envieu the Biitish theii uetachment fiom
politics, though peihaps, we exaggeiateu it, anu wonueieu whethei we shoulu not
be summaiily punisheu foi enteitaining Ni. Acosta's challenge.
Chailes came to stay with me foi a few uays, anu while we tiaveleu to Nayagez anu
latei to Santo Bomingo in ueneial Piatt's plane, we talkeu about the Commission's
futuie. Woulu it eventually evolve a goveinment foi the Caiibbean. Theie was no
inuication that it might. 0n the contiaiy if it maue coopeiation, unuei vaiious
goveinments, possible, it might weaken what hau hitheito been the stiongest
aigument foi feueiation, foi union oi foi single-colony management. This aigument
was, of couise, that the Caiibbean hau unique pioblems which coulu be moie
expeitly uealt with in one Colonial 0ffice than in foui; anu neeus which foui nations
coulu not be peisuaueu to meet since to none of them was so small a fiagment of
empiie impoitant. The neeu foi gieatei unueistanuing in home capitals anu Colonial
0ffices hau been uiscusseu ovei anu ovei. It was the ieason foi setting up the
Reseaich Councilinueeu foi setting up the Commission itself. 0ntil Loiu Noyne's
investigation anu the establishment of the Commission, the Caiibbean islanus hau

9
Cf. foi instance the 0thwatt iepoit on the ieconstiuction of uevastateu aieas. The Contiol of Lanu
0se, Lonuon: Bis Najesty's Stationeiy 0ffice, 1944.
469
been slipping almost impeiceptibly into a Saigasso Sea of neglect. Theii apogee hau
been moie than a centuiy in the past when sugai hau been an asset iathei than just
anothei embaiiassing suiplus. Theii tiansfoimation into liabilities hau been
unacknowleugeu by the goveinments which hau piofiteu fiom them in eailiei uays
anu which now iefuseu to iecognize, much less pay, the uebt. Theii people hau
fallen fuithei anu fuithei away fiom a civilizeu scale of living, theii uownwaiu cuive
ciossing the iising one of the people whose waius they weie. Wages at a shilling a
uay in the Biitish islanus, anu the almost complete lack of social seivices, weie facts
which iepiesenteu well enough to anyone with imagination what the situation hau
become by the beginning of the wai. Anu then the cutting of inteicouise by the
submaiines hau seveieu what holu they still hau on civilization. The gieat nations,
in theii pieoccupation with moie piessing matteis, hau simply let them go.
Casualties in the Caiibbeaninuiiect onesweie piobably not fewei in the eaily
yeais of wai than in the mothei countiies. The Commission coulu claim ieal cieuit
foi having inteiveneu to stop this. But now it was beginning a wholly new enueavoi.
0n a uay eaily in Septembei I ueliveieu Chailes at Ciuuau Tiujillo anu ietuineu to
Toitugueio with ueneial Piatt in the eaily afteinoon foi my fiist ieview of a
complete Pueito Rican iegiment, one which was just finishing its pieliminaiy
tiaining. As we lanueu on the aiistiip we weie ieceiveu by Colonel Seiia anu touieu
the iegimental fiont in commanu cais, stopping occasionally foi a closei look. I
iecognizeu a numbei of the boys who hau been at the 0niveisity, oi hau woikeu in
goveinment offices oi on the insulai police foice. Alieauy, aftei only thiiteen weeks,
they hau the haiu biown look of olu soluieis. I wisheu I coulu know what was in
theii minus. They maicheu past anu I, as uoveinoi, took theii salute with stiangely
mixeu feelings. They weie about to be sent away, some to combat, some to touis of
uuty at othei Caiibbean posts. Biu they feel themselves sufficiently pait of us to
justify oui iequiiement of involuntaiy militaiy seivice. These weie the fiist of the
uiaftees. 0ntil now ieciuiting hau been voluntaiy. But these boys maiching past hau
hau othei business in view. Whatevei it was, it hau been impoitant to them, anu we
hau iequiieu them to give it up. I hau no uoubt that those of them who suiviveu into
the postwai peiiou woulu look back on theii seivice as a contiibution to a necessaiy
settlement with the uictatois. But I uoubteu whethei they felt that way now. Anu I
founu that theii continental officeis felt a lack of willingness which, howevei, they
weie not uoing any moie to iemeuy than they hau been iight along.
I came back to La Foitaleza aftei this excuision to ueal with the fiist of seveial
uelayeu ciises whose causes lay in the eailiei peiiou of inflation. While the cost of
living hau been uoubling, miuule-class incomesexcept foi those of piofiteeiing
tiaueis anu meichantshau iemaineu at about the piewai level. Woikeis hau at
470
least got some ielief thiough stiikes anu thieats of stiikes, anu faimeis' incomesif
not those of faim woikeishau followeu the iise. But salaiieu people weie
becoming moie anu moie iestless. In fact at this moment the teacheis weie
thieatening not to open the schools foi a new teim. This gioup was no woise off
than othei goveinment employees. Logically, of couise, with inflation ieuucing the
uollai's value, all shoulu have been pioviueu with moie uollais. In fact the buuget
woulu have neeueu to be uoubleu if theii ielative position was to be kept. This hau
been impossible unuei the fiscal ciicumstances of thieateneu ievenues in the
spiing. But now the situation was easiei anu in spite of the injustice to otheis the
teacheis weie given a geneious inciease to which I consenteu. But I knew this was
the beginning of aujustment to inflateu living costs which oui tax stiuctuie might
finu it uifficult to suppoit. Anu fiom then on I hau ieneweu concein about fiscal
matteis. I was still auheiing to the piinciple that oiuinaiy "expenuituies must be
met fiom oiuinaiy ievenues anu that the enlaigeu ietuins fiom the ium tax (which
woulu be ieuuceu to theii olu level when the wai enueu) must be useu only foi such
puiposes as ielief anu public woiks. If we came to uepenu on this souice of ievenue
anu it suuuenly uisappeaieu we shoulu have a ciisis giavei than any we hau yet
faceu.
Towaiu the enu of Septembei in 194S my uelayeu iepoit to the Chavez Committee
was publisheu. The uelay hau come about in ways which hau not been explaineu. I
hau ueliveieu it to the Secietaiy of the Committee, Ni. Ralph Bosch, in Pueito Rico
in Febiuaiy, anu natuially expecteu it to appeai in the piinteu iecoiu. When this
uocument was maue public my statement was missing. Since the allegations,
innuenuoes anu chaiges of numeious uetiactois weie peihaps its most piominent
featuie it seemeu to me that my case ought in all faiiness to have been piesenteu.
When I piotesteu I got no satisfaction anu in the enu I simply notifieu Ni. Biophy
that I was going to make it public myself. It was conveyeu to me that theie was a
goou ueal of annoyance in the Bepaitment, but foi this once I went aheau iegaiuless
of fiowns. Foi this to me was an impoitant uocument. It was, foi instance, the most
caieful statement I was able to make, out of my expeiience, conceining the existing
ielations between Pueito Rico anu the 0niteu States; anu it suggesteu ways foi
impiovement. This was the featuie of the uocument, asiue fiom a iecitation of
events uuiing the ciisis just past foi which we weie piesumably being investigateu.
This, of couise, took most of the space. Since the "investigation" hau peteieu out, the
Committee uoubtless piefeiieu to foiget that it hau been begun in an atmospheie of
thieat anu piomiseu exposuie. Anu piobably Inteiioi officials, in the inteiest of
peace, piefeiieu not to uistuib sleeping uogs. But I still smaiteu. Anu no one hau
answeieu Nalcolm, Fitzsimmons, et al. I hau a pictuie of some futuie ieauei going
thiough the iecoiu anu coming to conclusions which weie painful to contemplate.
471
The iepoit maue something of a sensation
1u
both at home anu abioau among those
inteiesteu in uepenuent peoples. The New Yoik Times was moveu to iemaik
peevishly that calling attention to oui ueficiencies was giving aiu anu comfoit to the
enemy. This was because I hau begun in a vein of soul-seaiching as an Ameiican. It
was intimateu that nothing hau been heaiu of me foi a long time anu that it woulu
have been bettei if nothing hau been heaiu at all. The Times was one of the papeis
which hau a fixeu policy about me; anu it uiu not calculate to spoil the effect by
piaise.
The same geneial peevish line was followeu by most of the piess. But it was not
univeisal. Theie was some geneious acknowleugment that the ciiticism of oui
policy was justifieu. Anu when, next uay, the Piesiuent tiansmitteu to the Congiess
the Committee's uiaft of ievisions foi the 0iganic Act, theie was, foi the moment,
quite wiue inteiest in oui tieatment of uepenuents anu in pioposals foi change. But
it uiu not last long enough oi go ueep enough to iesult in the foimation of any
intelligent opinion which coulu be biought to beai on the Congiess. It was meiely an
oveinight inteiest, clouueu by peisonal bias against the Piesiuent, anu, in a minoi
way, against me. Anyway the thesis that oui ielations neeueu not so much to be
changeu although some changes weie uesiiableas to be contiactualizeu, was
one which I was suie woulu not be acceptable to most unthinking people any moie
than it woulu to the Congiess. It was a somewhat complicateu point too, anu the
piess mostly misseu it. It was not unueistoou that we must give up thieat-anu-whim
piocesses foi those of negotiation anu mutual agieement. I coulu see fiom the
ieaction that what we uiu with anu foi Pueito Rico was likely to be kept on a
unilateial anu philanthiopic basis. Theie was wiueneu willingness to tuin the
uniuly islanu loosethat was the impulse I was always waining the Pueito Rican
politicos not to encouiagebut theie was veiy little of the kinu of attituue which
woulu suppoit assistance anu continueu close ties, along with gieatei autonomy, oi
even with fixeu obligations iunning into the futuie aiounu which an insulai
economic anu political policy coulu be uevelopeu. 0n the whole the few uays' fuioi
counteu foi a little, but a veiy little, goou, so fai as coulu be seen fiom ieaction in the
piess anu on the iauio. Anu it was with even moie skepticism that we awaiteu
action on oui pioposals in the Congiess.
Buiing the fiist week in 0ctobei, Ni. Bull passeu thiough on his way to Noscow. Be
tiansfeiieu at oui naval aii base fiom a Libeiatoi to a ciuisei anu I saw him only foi
a few moments of iathei casual- conveisation. The tiip out was saiu to have been his
fiist aiiplane flight anu he appeaieu not to have enjoyeu it. In fact he seemeu

1u
It was piinteu in San }uan anu is available as a public uocument of the uoveinment of Pueito Rico.

472
altogethei uisoiganizeu. But when Secietaiy Knox aiiiveu a uay oi two latei he
cieateu a quite uiffeient atmospheie. Be hau just come fiom a stienuous tiip to
Englanu anu to the fiont in Italy. Be hau watcheu the establishment of the
beachheau at Saleino anu his enthusiastic optimism ieminueu me moie than evei of
what T.R. must have been like in his most vigoious uays. The Saleino opeiation was
alieauy in uifficulty but nothing of the soit was aumitteu by the Secietaiy. Bis
simple, bieezy claiity about eveiything was a goou antiuote foi the pessimism
which hau been giowing among libeials evei since the fiist intimations of policy hau
begun to come fiom Afiica. Theie was the conciliation of vichyites anu the seveiity
towaiu othei Fienchmen; theie was the appeasement of Fianco anu of the Italian
ioyalists; theie was the unconuitional-suiienuei foimula which hau come fiom
Casablanca; theie weie-the signs that all the small states of piewai Euiope weie
going to be ieconstituteu, an economic ciime which might well have to be expiateu
in latei wais; theie was what seemeu at that time to be a hopeless contioveisy with
the Russiansabout theii uemanus foi a seconu fiont which hau been in no way
uiminisheu by the Afiican anu Italian campaigns, anu about the Polish, Latvian,
Estonian anu Finnish states on hei westein boiueis; theie was the woisening
quaiiel insiue China between the Kuomintang anu the Communists in which we
appeaieu to have taken the ieactionaiy siue; anu theie was the uominance at home
of so ueteimineu a ieaction that Beniy Wallace's milu piogiessivism seemeu to be
maiking him as a uangeious iauical to be attackeu uaily now in the piess in moie
anu moie abusive teims.
Theie was an oppoitunity at Aumiial Cook's house foi a two-houi talk with Knox in
which we went ovei a goou ueal of this giounu.
11
Be uiu not, howevei, allay any of
my feais anu ieseivations. Be uefenueu each of these policies as a necessaiy item in
global stiategy, mostly foi militaiy ieasons. But he uiu not laugh off my concein. Be
seemeu to feel that what the 0niteu States was anu woulu be ueteimineu the laigei
issues, always, anu that ueviations fiom oui noim woulu not be w'iue. We shoulu
come out all iight because we weie sounu. That too was like T.R.'s iobustness. Be
uiu aumit that it might peihaps have been a mis-take to go into Afiica, both fiom the
point of view of setting the wai foiwaiu anu of pleasing Russia iathei than Biitain.
But the expeiience gaineu was woith all it hau cost if the uelay uiu not piove fatal.
We shoulu still have to go into Euiopeanu not fiom Afiica. Be felt that the
unconuitional-suiienuei policy was necessaiy foi a ueimany which must be
humbleu anu, foi a long time, iathei stiictly contiolleu lest anothei Bitlei outbieak

11
vice-aumiial A. B. Cook hau succeeueu Boovei in August 194S. Be hau the commanu foi less than a
yeai anu was succeeueu by vice-aumiial Robeit C. uiffen, who was in tuin ieplaceu by vice-aumiial
W. R. Nunioe.

473
occui. Fiom this we got into an exploiation of postwai aiiangements. I ian ovei
some of the mistakes maue at veisailles in 1918 anu the way the League of Nations
hau been tuineu into a battlegiounu of impeiialists. It hau been quite impotent to
meet the weakest challenge. The uefiance fiist of }apan, then Italy, then ueimany,
anu the sabotage of the Fiench anu Biitish ieactionaiies, hau maue it a histoiic
illustiation of how not to conuuct an inteinational society.
Knox hau an inteiesting suggestion about this. Be iecalleu how the othei wai hau
been manageu by the Commanuei in Chief in Paiis with the help of the bouy of
geneials to which oui Taskei Bliss hau been a uelegate. This time the Combineu
Chiefs of Staff weie in commanu with vastly impioveu facilities foi contiol by plane
anu iauio. Anu theii seat was Washington, wheie theie weie no impeiial ambitions.
Theie woulu not be a classical aimistice this time. Rathei the Combineu Chiefs of
Staff woulu obtain suiienuei in one section aftei anothei anu woulu iemain in
occupation. Even as uemobilization went on, an effective stiiking foice woulu be
kept unuei theii contiol, anu as focus aftei focus of violence was stampeu out they
woulu come to be a vigilant anu mobile peace-enfoicement bouy. In this way, by
easy tiansition, the inteinational police foice which hau been lacking befoie woulu
come into being to, seive whatevei juiiuical bouy might be establisheu in succession
to the olu League.
It was easy to point out the uifficultiesthat Combineu Chiefs weie militaiy people
anu that aftei wais in uemociacies a ievulsion against all this kinu of thing is almost
inevitable. They woulu almost ceitainly not be given the latituue necessaiy to
steiilize infections at theii outset. In any case, the Combineu Chiefs, although they
might have the machineiy, woulu be those of the 0niteu States, Biitain anu Russia,
with Fiance anu China in somewhat minoi ioles. Suppose one of these shoulu be the
aggiessoi which the police foice hau to punish! It was of no use to go fuithei with
that aigument. The peace of the woilu in the immeuiate futuie uecaues was going to
uepenu on the uieat Poweis. They hau to finu an agieeu policy. Anu they hau to finu
a way to uiscipline themselves. If they coulu uo that, which was still fai fiom ceitain,
the iest woulu unuoubteuly, as Knox pointeu out, be sufficiently easy, especially if a
ieal uisaimament hau been caiiieu out anu a mouein aii-boine foice was at the
uisposal of a cential militaiy staff.
Still theie iemaineu the fact that the 0niteu States anu Biitain weie uiviueu
uemociacies, that the powei to make policy was only giuugingly uelegateu. In both,
the pull-anu-haul of special inteiests fiee to pioPagnuize maue the aiiival at
uecision uifficult anu slow. Even the aggiessois might, as they hau befoie, set up
pioPagnua agencies within the uemociacies to paialyze theii police effoits. This
kinu of thing, alone, hau almost enableu Bitlei to oveiwhelm the civilizeu woilu;
474
anu, in spite of the naiiowly aveiteu catastiophe, ieluctance to uelegate uiu not
appeai to have been mouifieu in the least. No one hau suggesteu, in fact, that it
woulu be necessaiy to ieseive ceitain aieas of uecision to the executive in the
inteiest of woilu peace. I myself thought it necessaiy to oveicome othei thieatening
uivisions in this way. Anothei inteinal cataclysm such as hau begun in 1929 woulu
scaicely be less uangeious than anothei wai. We hau got into that because we coulu
not mastei conflicts oi, when the ciash came, finu a policy foi iesolution. Special
inteiests hau paialyzeu eveiy effoit anu pieventeu any iemeuial action.
We talkeu a little about the likely fate of uepenuent peoples. It was elementaiy that
the geneial settlements woulu be ueteimineu fiist of all by consiueiations of safety
foi the uieat Poweis. This seemeu inconsistent, howevei, with the piinciple of self-
ueteimination which hau bulkeu so laige in Wilson's thinking anu which hau
influenceu the veisailles aiiangements. A small people, ieally soveieign, coulu make
itself a uieauful nuisance by becoming host to intiigueis as well as in othei obvious
ways. Its economic aiiangements might also be iiuiculous by any othei than
sentimental nationalistic stanuaius. This hau happeneu all ovei eastein Euiope
aftei 1918 anu hau cieateu the tensions anu ciises of the twenties anu the thiities
which weie the backgiounu of this wai.
It seemeu to me that the Atlantic Chaitei was in this iespect a uangeious uocument
if it weie going to be followeu liteially. But the Russians, at least, anu piobably the
Biitish, hau no such confuseu appioach anu the final settlements woulu uoubtless
iesult in compiomises. Small nations woulu be alloweu as much self-ueteimination
as was consistent with laigei nations' safety. Coming uown to Pueito Rico, the
conflict of tenuencies was appaient. The islanu woulu logically iemain the centei of
the Caiibbean uefense anu it was theiefoie vital that autonomy shoulu not go so fai
as to tempt any othei powei to tiy to use it. Yet that uiu not mean that substantial
fieeuom was not possible. Pueito Ricans might have theii own local goveinment, foi
instance, without inteifeience on oui pait, even if it was inefficient. But theie weie
questions even heie. Suppose, to take an instance, that health conuitions weie
alloweu to ueteiioiate to the point at which the islanu became a focus of infection
foi typhus, yellow fevei, yaws, syphilis, lepiosy anu filaiiasis. 0ught we to inteifeie.
0i suppose such a movement as the Falange shoulu ieally get holu of a uominant
gioup. 0ught we to suppiess it. Nany such possi-bilities weie appaient. But they
weie appaient in Cuba, in Santo Bomingo, in Nexico anu in the Cential Ameiicas
too, any of which might embaiiass oui safety. The single uiffeience in Pueito, Rico
was the fact that it was oui stiategic heauquaiteis anu theiefoie hau to be secuie.
Knox thought Pueito Rico woulu have the Caiibbean commanu peimanently anu
that the establishment woulu be consiueiable. It hau been neglecteu in the past but
475
we ought to have leaineu a lesson fiom the fiights of the uefenseless yeais befoie
194S. But he was not cleai in his minu what that implieu foi Pueito Rican-0niteu
States Relations. Noi was he piepaieu to, say what attituue the Navy woulu take
towaiu the pioposal foi an elective uoveinoi. Be manageu to hint, howevei, that the
naval influence, even if not maue public, woulu be auveise. It might peihaps be
maue felt thiough Ni. Cole, foi instance, who was a piominent membei of the Naval
Affaiis Committee as well as, of the Committee on Teiiitoiies anu Insulai
Possessions of the Bouse. But it was only a hint anu I coulu not be ceitain that it hau
even been uiscusseu in the Navy as I knew it hau in the Aimy. But still it seemeu
unlikely that so ciucial an item in stiategy hau been oveilookeu.
I came away fiom Cook's house that evening with mixeu feelings. The pioblem of
uepenuent peoples was not yet up foi uiscussion in any ieal sense in spite of the
Atlantic Chaitei. That was a kinu of hang-ovei fiom a past age. It hau been
composeu too befoie we weie actually at wai as a kinu of justification, in the eyes of
the woilu, of oui position. Small nations weie bounu to appiove it, since it gave
them eveiything. But actually it met none of the pioblems which conflicts among
them, anu with the uieat Poweis, poseu. It hau been intenueu to help in getting on
with the wai; but it seemeu ceitain that it woulu play no gieat pait in futuie
settlements. These hau to be oiienteu to the maintenance of secuiitymostly
secuiity, it was tiue, foi the gieat nations, but neveitheless peace.
Pueito Rico's case, as I hau been thinking, was going to be affecteu by piinciples anu
consiueiations not yet even appaient, oi peihaps just now being uiscusseu in a
pieliminaiy way among the iepiesentatives of the uieat Poweis. All that a uoveinoi
coulu uo in these ciicumstances was to wait foi policy to be foimeu anu then to see
how, within the geneial pattein, auaptations coulu be maue. It woulu be thought
that so innocuous a pioposal as we hau just been foimulating in Washington,
although it lookeu towaiu gieatei autonomy, might neveitheless be appioveu.
Whatevei the geneial policy, it coulu scaicely be affecteu. If it weie auopteu, of
couise, theie woulu be anothei uoveinoi anu I shoulu not have fuithei
iesponsibility except as a membei of the Committee which hau uone the woik.

476
Su
IN TBE ANTILLES theie is a saying which is ioughly similai in all languages:
}uneToo soon,
}ulyStanu by,
AugustBe cautious,
SeptembeiRemembei,
0ctobeiAll ovei.
I hau leaineu to iespect the huiiicane almost as much as though I hau expeiienceu
one.
1
The moie I stuuieu the inciuence of these uangeious uistuibances anu tiieu to
unueistanu the pioblems one might iaise, the moie my woiiy giew that one might
happen while we weie unpiepaieu as we must be uuiing the wai. It appeaieu that
ovei a long peiiou any one place was stiuck only infiequentlypeihaps once eveiy
twenty oi twenty-five yeais. But that iefeis to being in the uiiect path anu so subject
to winus of one hunuieu miles oi moie an houi. Nany othei uistuibances pass close
enough to make themselves seiiously felt. The islanu of Pueito Rico was stiuck
about eveiy ten yeais; anu uevastation coulu be consiueiable foi many miles
aiounu. Theie hau been seveie stoims both in 1928 anu 19S2.
2

In spite of having gieat iespect foi what huiiicanes may uo, Pueito Ricans aie as
impioviuent as othei people in piepaiing foi theii iecuiience. The pooi can be
foigiven foi builuing flimsy houses which must be completely wieckeu in the fiist
succeeuing blow; they aie oveicome by othei uiges than the feai of stoims when

1
As a mattei of fact I hauthat of 19S8but in New Yoik, not in the West Inuies. That stoim
oiiginateu in the Caiibbean anu followeu the usual couise, moving eastwaiu anu benuing towaiu the
noith. But to expeiience one in a city on the continent is quite a uiffeient mattei fiom going thiough
it in the subtiopics.

2
Pueito Ricans' iespect foi huiiicanes is unueilineu by theii habit of naming them aftei the saint's
uay on which they occui. That of 1928 is calleu San Felipe II anu that of 19S2 San Cipiiano. These
names often come up in conveisation. 0thei events aie iefeiieu to them: a chilu was boin the yeai
befoie San Cipiiano oi the family built a new house the yeai befoie San Felipe.
The Weathei Buieau of the 0niteu States maintains an office in San }uan anu has gatheieu uata about
these tiopical stoims foi some yeais. A pamphlet, The Buiiicane, issueu by the uoveinment Piinting
0ffice in 19S9, gives some geneial infoimation about them anu tiaces the path of typical ones fiom
1924 to 19S7. Pueito Rico was actually toucheu by foui stoims between 19uu anu 1944 anu two of
them uiu gieat uamage, especially in the coffee iegions. 0theis, peihaps six oi eight, came close
enough to cause some winu anu suuuen excessive iainfall. Piecipitation of ten to thiity inches within
one oi two uays can uo immense uamage to ciops anu even to the soil. 0ften the uamage fiom watei
is as gieat as that fiom winu.

477
the skies aie blue anu the sun is shining. Anu a shack is all theii iesouices iun to
anyway. But when theie aie longei inteivals between stoims a gieatei anu gieatei
peicentage of houses anu othei stiuctuiesaie such as any high winu woulu
blow away. Even the builueis of bettei houses foiget caution. The pioblem of ielief
aftei the next stoim becomes gieatei anu gieatei as the inteival wiuens. When I
became uoveinoi in 1941, the law of aveiages shoulu have piouuceu a huiiicane foi
us almost at once. We hau existeu on boiioweu time uuiing 1942; now in 194S we
weie, as Septembei enueu, just beginning to think we might congiatulate ouiselves
on escaping again. We hau taken the usual piecautions. We hau lineu up all the
iescue anu ielief agencies anu assigneu emeigency uuties to each; we hau kept open
until aftei the season all the civilian-uefense casualty stations we weie piepaieu to
uismantle; anu we hau at last peisuaueu the Wai Piouuction Boaiu to allow us a
goveinment ieseive of elementaiy builuing mateiials with which to constiuct
emeigency shelteis. Noieovei, the Emeigency Funu, which hau been uepleteu by
inappiopiiate expenuituies, was by now built up again to a quite iespectable size.
Still, a seveie stoim, with the wai emeigency only just beginning to lighten anu with
mateiials still scaice anu ueai, anu in the political yeai which was just beginning,
was something I hopeu we might be spaieu.
0n 12 0ctobei we hau oui thiiu oi fouith waining of the season.
S
Theie was a
whiiling centei southeast of Antigua; its onwaiu movement was slow; but its couise
lay towaiu Pueito Rico. Fiom thiee hunuieu miles away Pueito Rico was a small
taiget; but on the 1Sth it hau moveu up to within a hunuieu miles anu seemeu still
to be aimeu uiiectly at us. That night we weie tolu that it was likely to pass to the
south anu we went to beu ielieveu. About uaylight, howevei, we weie again waineu
that it hau taken a shaip tuin anu that it woulu hit us befoie noon, piobably passing
fiom south to noith uiiectly ovei the centei of the islanu. This woulu biing Ponce
fiist, anu latei San }uan, into its path. By now all the piepaiations it was possible to
make hau been finisheu. These, when we got iight uown to it, seemeu feaifully
feeble in the face of such a uevastating potentiality. About all we coulu uo, ieally,
was to piepaie foi iescue anu ielief woik afteiwaiu; most of the actual uefense hau
to be taken by inuiviuuals themselves.
About an houi befoie the oiueal was uue, eveiything was as. ieauy as we coulu
make it anu I felt fiee to go out into the stieets. It was a weiiu expeiience. Eveiyone
hau come to woik thinking the uangei past; then the news hau spieau that this was
not so anu that the stoim was only an houi oi two away. The employees. of eveiy

S
These wainings make life unpleasant uuiing the ciitical months. Theie aie always fiom thiee to six
oi moie. Anu they aie followeu by uays of anxiety while the uistuibance uevelops anu shapes its
couise.

478
business establishment, eveiy office, eveiy goveinment uepaitment, hau simply
ueseiteu anu gone home to theii families. This incluueu La Foitaleza, wheie one
minute we weie all beginning the uay's woik anu the next only a few of us weie left.
Those few weie women. They stayeu when the men ueseiteu. Luckily most of the
piotective measuies hau been taken the uay befoie. Now theie was some sounu of
hammeiing in the stieets which I hau always heaiu was a chaiacteiistic of the few
houis befoie eveiy stoimas a few stoie piopiietois auueu a boaiu oi two to theii
uefenses, but mostly theie was a ueathly silence. Almost eveiyone was insiue
somewheie, behinu soliu shutteis oi, if impioviuence hau gone too long, iaw lumbei
naileu acioss eveiy opening. The stieets weie piactically ueseiteu, except foi the
slums. 0ut of these, stieaming towaiu the neaiest public builuingusually a
schoolthe last stiaggleis of a gieat hoiue weie' coming. Theii homes, such as they
weie, woulu now simply uisintegiate anu be whiileu up into the winu. Such was
theii expectation. What thousanus anu thousanus of families campeu in the schools
anu goveinment offices coulu uo foi themselves it was haiu to say. They woulu have
no place to go anu oui ieseive of lumbei woulu ieplace only a small numbei of theii
houses. We weie unpiepaieu, of couise, even to feeu such multituues. The schools
bulgeu with men, women, chiluien anu householu goous. In a few houis they woulu
begin to be hungiy anu thiisty too. We shoulu have a ceitain numbei of aimy fielu
kitchens, but emeigency measuies woulu be ueficient anu unsatisfactoiy even at
best. It woulu not be long eithei until uisease might become a wholesale thieat.
Social uisoiganization in the subtiopics foims an iueal backgiounu foi uysenteiies,
typhus anu othei plagues which spieau like flames when once they stait.
I got back to La Foitaleza appalleu at what lay befoie us anu askeu the telephone
office foi an emeigency connection with Washington. Wai oi no wai, ielief
mateiials must be staiteu towaiu us at once. Befoie my connection was completeu,
howevei, theie was bettei news of the uistuibance fiom the navy flieis who hau
been scouting its euges foi seveial uays. Saiu "Stoimy" Seais: "It's bent again, anu
will go stiaight noith thiough the Nona Passage." Be hau just lanueu anu I was quite
suie of his accuiacy. In enoimous ielief, I askeu all the iauio stations to auvise the
people that theie woulu be no moie than foity-mile winus with heavy iain
anywheie but on the west coast; anu that they might safely go home. We got in
touch with west-coast towns anu tolu them they only woulu be hit anu that not
uiiectly, anu piomiseu to senu help as soon as it was calleu foi. It was anti-climactic
to have got ieauy anu then to have been spaieu. But aftei seeing a few of those
bulging schools I was piofounuly giateful foi the iespite. We shoulu, I hopeu, nevei
again be quite so uefenseless. By next yeai we ought to have moie ieseives of eveiy
kinu. Let it come then insteau of now!
479
Theie weie no moie scaies of that soit. But by the time the cane anu the mangoes
weie again in bloom two othei neai-uisasteis of a uiffeient soit hau occuiieu. The
fiist of these was the final abanuonment by the Feueial uoveinment of the woik
ielief which, unuei one name oi anothei, hau gone on since 19S2; the seconu was
the uiscontinuance of uistiibution to the neeuy of fiee foou which hau begun in what
seemeu like the fai-off uays of suipluses. These changes of policy came at the woist
possible season, with employment at its lowest, anu in the woist possible yeai, with
militaiy constiuction just being enueu. Both weie the iesult of geneial hostility to us
in the Bell Committee. Ceitain of its membeis weie not satisfieu with this
punishment eithei; theii thieats to take away fiom us the yielu of the tax on ium
weie incieasing. Nessis. Cole, Ncuehee anu Ciawfoiu maue no seciet of theii
effoits; anu although Ni. Bell woulu nevei be veiy active, his hostility was equally
well known. It was not veiy cleai whethei it was me they objecteu to oi the piogiam
which was being caiiieu out in Pueito Rico. Nost of theii fulminations weie uiiecteu
at me, piesumably because this was still consiueieu a way of stiiking at the
Piesiuent; but they weie well enough awaie by now, if they hau not been befoie,
that the piogiam was not mine alone since much of it hau been well begun befoie
my goveinoiship. Piesumably they thought that if a change coulu be foiceu, the
Piesiuent woulu veiy likely tuin, as he so often uiu, to a ietiieu Aumiial oi ueneial
who woulu at least make it moie uifficult foi the piogiam to pioceeu. Aumiial Leahy
hau liquiuateu the Lafayette expeiiment, foi instance, anu this coulu be assumeu to
be a typical ieaction.
4

Ni. Cole, always the most extieme, went fuithei than this. Be pioposeu that Pueito
Rico, anu, inueeu, the whole Bivision of Teiiitoiies anu Islanu Possessions be tuineu
ovei to the Navy foi auministiation. It was haiu to say whethei this iuea oiiginateu
with him oi somewheie in the Navy Bepaitment, but it was beginning to be noticeu,
by otheis than those of us who weie piofessionally inteiesteu, that the Navy was
goveining the conqueieu islanus in the Pacific, anu that no visible piepaiation was
being maue foi a succeeuing civil auministiation. It was not at fiist taken seiiously
anu causeu but little uiscussion in Pueito Rico; but the loss of woik ielief anu of fiee
foou foi the neeuy uiu cause a piofounu ieaction anu not only among those uiiectly
affecteu but also among otheis to whom it was a shaip ieminuei of ill will. The close
association of the hostile membeis of the Bell Committee with the Coalicionista
ieactionaiies in Pueito Rico was unueilineu by a new visit of some of theii
iepiesentatives to Washington anu ieneweu heaiingsuiiecteu towaiu ousting me.
This was one of a long succession of political mistakes on the pait of the Coalicion.

4
This was the co-opeiative owneiship anu opeiation of a sugai estate anu its cential on the south
coast.

480
The alieauy maikeu Populai uiift became an unmistakable toiient in the next
weeks anu months, enlaigeu time anu time again by similai eiiois of a juugment
waipeu by unieasoning hatieu. It became quite appaient that Nuoz anu his gioup
neeu make no campaign at all to win. As he himself tolu me about this time, only the
conviction among the people that a Populai victoiy implieu inuepenuence coulu lose
the election now.
The 1'(,!,'(,'8138$3 hau also peiceiveu the >#!.0$" uiift anu by now weie setting
out seiiously to captuie the paityif necessaiy to take it away fiom Nuoz. This
toui ue foice was well conceiveu. Nuoz was faiily caught between his olu
1'(,!,'(,'8138$ sentiment anu a new conviction that Pueito Rico coulu not exist
except with 0niteu States suppoit. Be woulu not oppose with any vigoi the activists
who weie making this attempt. The inuepenuentistas hau, by now, some new
conveits, politicians who saw no othei way to a piominence which woulu challenge
that of Nuoz. Ni. Aijona-Siaca, foi instance, a lawyei fiom Bumacao, who hau been
maue piesiuing juuge of the Couit of Tax Appeals, began to spenu a goou ueal moie
effoit campaigning among the local leaueis thioughout the islanu, pieaching
inuepenuence (which was new to him), than he spent in settling tax uisputes. Be
intenueu to make himself Resiuent Commissionei on that issue. Be peiceiveu that
the >#!.0$",3 woulu win anyway, so that all he hau to uo was insuie himself the
nomination; election woulu follow easily. To uo this he woulu woik foi
inuepenuence among those alieauy convinceuan olu foim of political insuiance. It
was no seciet that Nuoz' canuiuate was Bi. Antonio Feinos Isein, now
Commissionei of Bealth, a shiewu, able man who hau helu othei auministiative
postssuch as Biiectoi of Civil Befense anu Auministiatoi of Suppliesanu who
was uesignateu to seive as Acting uoveinoi whenevei I was away. Be hau been the
canuiuate in 194u.
S
The fact that Bi. Feinos was suppoiteu by Nuoz anu in my
confiuence woulu seem to have been a secuie auvantage in getting the nomination.
It woulu have been, too, if Nuoz hau not unueiestimateu Aijona-Siaca anu the
iestlessness of the local leaueis anu hau not fallen again into the lethaigy which
oveicame him fiom time to time. Aijona woikeu haiu to establish the conviction
that Nuoz was uelibeiately smotheiing inuepenuence anu that if heAijona
went to Washington he woulu achieve it. Bi. Feinos, cuiiously enough, founu it a
uisauvantage to be at the heau of the Bepaitment of Bealth, although it still was
notoiiously political. Foi insteau of pleasing the local leaueis by his appointments,
he infuiiateu them by not being able to satisfy theii extiavagant uemanus. Each
thought otheis must be getting most of the favois. By the time the paity convention

S
But hau been uefeateu by the Socialist Bolivai Pagn because his vote was uiviueu with the
canuiuate of the Libeiales.

481
shoulu aiiive he woulu be thoioughly unpopulai with piactically all of them. This
woulu be in spite, also, of having been Acting uoveinoi foi some time uuiing my
absence in the States. Inteiim seivice of this kinu woulu piove to be a hanuicap
since he coulu uo nothing without my instiuctions, a lack of fieeuom misunueistoou
by the politicos, who woulu simply juuge that he was builuing up a following of his
own.
Ni. Aijona-Siaca, if he was a sinceie 1'(,!,'(,'8138$ iathei than a political
oppoitunist, was a iecent conveit. 0ntil shoitly befoie this he hau favoieu, along
with otheis, a solution shoit of this. But he himself was unimpoitant; it was the
stiange fact that so many local leaueis, inteiposeu between Nuoz anu the people,
shoulu be willing to auopt a thoioughly unpopulai cause, anu one which Nuoz was
tiying his best to suppiess as an issue, which was significant. As time went on, the
Aijona effoits became moie anu moie successful anu it began to seem uoubtful
whethei Nuoz coulu contiol the convention anu secuie the nomination of a slate
foi the legislatuie which woulu acknowleuge his leaueiship; anu it was even moie
uoubtful whethei he coulu peisuaue the uelegates to nominate Bi. Feinos foi
Resiuent Commissionei. The stiength of the movement, when he belateuly leaineu
its stiength, seemeu to have unsettleu Nuoz. Theie weie times uuiing the yeai
when he weigheu seiiously the chance of success if he went with the activists,
outbiuuing Aijona-Siaca, anu auvocating some immeuiate change. Sometimes he felt
this to be a bettei tactic than following the line he hau establisheu in 194u of
insisting that status was not at issue. This, of couise, was sheei panic. The people
weie set against inuepenuence anu even theii eageiness to follow Nuoz'
leaueiship coulu haiuly have shaken the conviction that sepaiation fiom the 0niteu
States woulu be a uisastei. As one olu lauy in a bohio neai }jome saiu to me one
uay, pointing to a meagei shelf of packageu foous, "We woulun't have any moie of
those if we hau inuepenuence." This iemaik at least illustiateu the goveining
instinct in this mattei: someone hau to convince Pueito Ricans that they weie going
to be able to eat aftei sepaiation befoie they woulu be foi it; anu that subject the
oiatoiy of the 1'(,!,'(,'8138$3 avoiueu.
Neveitheless status was an iiiepiessible issue. Nany of those who feaieu sepaiation
on economic giounus wanteu it on sentimental ones; anu even those who valueu
theii 0niteu States citizenship above theii Pueito Rican affiliation weie wholly
uissatisfieu with the situation as it existeu. That these weie in many ways
unieasonable attituues uiu not altei the fact of theii existence. Theie was,
consequently, close attention to the piogiess of oui pioposal foi change in the
0iganic Act. It uiu not satisfy the 1'(,!,'(,'8138$3 any moie than it hau Nuoz anu
482
foi the same ieasonsit uiu not go fai enough towaiu sepaiation with subsiuy.
6
But
theie weie many who felt that it iepiesenteu a substantial auvance; anu if it coulu
have been auopteu by the Congiess without much change it; might have satisfieu,
foi some time to come, the insulai yeainings foi moie fieeuom. But it woulu have
hau to be uone quickly anu geneiously because it was so uangeiously close to
obsolescence even when it hau just issueu fiom oui Committee. A longei step
alieauy seemeu necessaiy in the fall of 194S, a step which woulu ueciue the
question whethei futuie piogiess was to be towaiu Statehoou, towaiu
Commonwealth, oi towaiu inuepenuence. 0uis hau not been, in this sense, a
uecisive pioposal.
Besiues, it was by now giauually becoming appaient that the peace settlements
weie not likely to incluue any geneial aiiangements about uepenuent aieas. Those
of us who hau iegaiueu the wai as something moie than a punitive expeuition hau
somehow become convinceu eailiei that one of its iesults woulu be what we calleu
the "libeiation" of subject peoples anu the setting up of a woilu oiganization
whichamong its othei enueavois woulu seek to pievent futuie subjections of
the weakei nations. I myself hau not the illusions which some Pueito Ricans
incluuing, I think, Nuozhau acquiieu fiom a too liteial ieauing of the Atlantic
Chaitei.
7
It was becoming moie anu moie obvious that, in the inteiest of peace, the
puisuit of opposing objectives among nations hau to be suppiesseu. Not eveiy small
nation coulu have eveiything it might happen to want. Not even the uieat Poweis
coulu have that if theie was to be a ieasonably enuuiing peace. To consiuei the
Caiibbean alone: Pueito Rican inteiests clasheu at many points with those of Cuba,
Baiti, anu Santo Bomingo, especially ovei teims of entiy foi theii piouucts into the
0niteu States. Pueito Rico hau now an auvantage to which she was aujusteu anu
without which she coulu not live. But Cuba anu Santo Bomingo iesenteu this anu
nevei lost an oppoitunity to chisel away some of its values. Anu if in the ielatively
peaceable Caiibbean illustiations coulu be founu, think of the possible ones in the
Balkans, aiounu the Neuiteiianean anu in the Fai East!
Neveitheless many of the local Populai leaueis wanteu soveieignty. They thought of
Pueito Rico as a "people" within the uefinition of inteinational law, anu not as
membeis of the bouy of 0niteu States citizens. Even I was always foigetting that;
anu to those less constantly awaie of Pueito Rico, it piobably nevei occuiieu. What

6
Foi "uivoice with alimony," as Ni. Sumnei Welles hau put it.
7
That uocument saiu, it will be iecalleu, in its thiiu paiagiaph, that as foi the 0niteu States anu uieat
Biitain, "They iespect the iight of all peoples to choose the foim of goveinment unuei which they
will live; anu they wish to see soveieign iights anu self-goveinment iestoieu to those who have been
foicibly uepiiveu of them." Pueito Ricans thought this applieu to them; but they tenueu to foiget that
it was a Roosevelt-Chuichill ueclaiation anu not a Congiessional one.
483
soveieignty implieu, Nuoz wanteu, of couise, only in pait. That is to say, as I have
so often inuicateu, he wanteu to keep the benefits of the ielationship without the
uisauvantages. This coulu be most kinuly uesciibeu as local self-goveinment ; by the
cynics it was saiu that Nuoz wanteu to con-tiol the spenuing of Feueial funus. I
useu to tell him that what he ieally was aftei, if the tiuth weie known, was foi the
0niteu States to become a colony of Pueito Rico, thus ieveising the situation to
which he now objecteu. Be appieciateu this bit of Yankee peisiflage.
Biitain, appaiently, hau by now got thiough the woist of hei wai; at least she again
hau the poweiful ally which hau affecteu the uecision in 1918, anu, in spite of the
loss of Fiance, hau the help of the gieat Russian aimies in the east. She hau not
founu it necessaiy to mouify hei colonial policy peiceptibly, though theie weie
eviuences that mouifications weie coming. She hau helu on to Inuia; she showeu no
sign, even, of weakening hei suppoit of the native soveieigns. Anu she clung to the
Chinese coastal concessions when oui extiateiiitoiial iights weie abanuoneu as a
gestuie to a fiienuly China. In Afiica, in the Fai East, in the West Inuies, the Empiie
was ie-emeiging as fiom so many ciises, enlaigeu iathei than uiminisheu. Anu Ni.
Chuichill was making it unueistoou all aiounu the Neuiteiianean that, fai fiom
being Italy's Naie Nostium, that classic sea was still meiely a link in Biitain's life
line. Bei policy in Spain, Egypt, Italy, uieece anu Aiabia was taking the olu
possessive shape. Anu it was geneially infeiieu not only that the 0niteu States
consenteu but that it was uone by aiiangement also with Russia.
8
The "Polish
question" woulu be uisposeu of by Russia with a view to hei own secuiity; the
uoveinment-in-Exile, so long maintaineu in Lonuon, appeaieu to have been kept foi
tiauing puiposes to be given up foi . quiu pio quos along the life line.
All this belongeu to an olu pattein, peihaps an inevitable one foi oui time, but many
of us hau not thought so as the stiuggle began. Bau not Biitain anu Fiance iecoveieu
fiom the uegiauation of Nunich to challenge Bitlei ovei the iape of Polanu. I was
not incapable of appieciating the coiollaiy of Biitish uominance anu the subjection
of small nations. The woilu hau outgiown the exaggeiateu sentimental nationalism
which hau been so piominent at veisailles. Economically, an inuepenuent Austiia,
seveieu fiom hei agiicultuial hinteilanu, hau been a monstiosity; so hau been most
of the nations of eastein EuiopeCzechoslovakia excepteu, because she hau been
an economic whole. Any association of nations which suppiesseu taiiff baiiieis
woulu be a goou thing even if it went by the name of Empiie. What the 0niteu
Kinguom oi peihaps Russia gaineu fiom it woulu be less than the small nations

8
It is to be iemembeieu that I speak of appeaiances in the fall of 194S. The yeai succeeuing, until
Secietaiy Bull was uisplaceu, woulu be one in which theie woulu be moie ciiticism of oui foieign
policy anu moie misunueistanuing of oui puiposes than at almost any peiiou of oui histoiy.

484
themselves gaineuwhethei oi not they likeu it. If what was in the making was a
thiee- oi foui-powei (uepenuing on whethei Fiance iesumeu hei position) uivision
of Euiope, the Neai East anu Afiica, it might piotect oui inteiest theie, which was,
aftei all, only that the peace shoulu be maintaineu anu that potential aggiessois
shoulu be kept on the othei siue of the Atlantic. The Biitish Isles hau twice now in a
geneiation seiveu us as a staging base foi the suppiession of thieateneu attack. We
hau an inteiest in suppoiting Biitain even if it involveu violence to nationalistic
aspiiations among numeious small nations. Fiom this point of view it seemeu moie
possible that association woulu stop shoit of what was necessaiy than that it woulu
go too fai. Let the empiies expanu, let them oveishauow the nations on the shoies of
the Noith Sea, the Neuiteiianean, the Auiiatic, the Baltic anu the China Sea. Let the
Biitish Commonwealth become an association within which Bollanueis anu
Belgians, as well as Italians, Noois, Aiabians, uieeks anu otheis founu a limiteu
fieeuom. That woulu suit us veiy well. No oiganization of that kinu woulu be a
thieat to oui peace unless it biought on a clash with the Russians.
I coulu see all this anu iegaiu it as justification foi what was ueveloping as 194S ian
into 1944. It was peihaps only a moie piactical foim of the fiee association libeials
hau hopeu woulu come out of the wai. To most of them Biitish iegulation, foi
instance, much less Russian, woulu nevei be the same as an association of peoples.
But it was unuoubteuly as goouoi peihaps betteifoi 0niteu States inteiests, a
fact which might as well be iecognizeu.
9
Pueito Ricans who thought about the wai's
enu anu its iesults weie as well able to see this as I. But that it hau logical
implications foi the Caiibbean seluom seemeu to occui to them. Theii views of the
woilu anu those of theii own nationalism uiu not seem to amalgamate in theii
minus. Pueito Rico, Cuba, Santo Bomingoanu the Biitish, Fiench anu Butch
islanus, toohau the same ielation to the Ameiican scheme as Polanu, Estonia,
Lithuania, Latvia anu Finlanu hau to that of Russia; oi as Belgium, Italy anu uieece
hau to that of Biitain. In the Caiibbean, Pueito Rico was the only one of all the
Antilles in which the logic of the situation was alieauy substantially embouieu in
status. Cuba, Baiti anu Santo Bomingo weie fiee anu yet not fiee, theii common
people fai less well off than they woulu have been with a moie logical ielationship.

9
But some Biitons uiu not like it. Ni. Baiolu Laski, when he came a yeai latei to sum up this peiiou,
woulu note that Ni. Chuichill, who hau seemeu to be the natuial successoi to Loiu Chatham, now
seemeu moie like the successoi to Loiu Noith, who is iemembeieu by Ameiicans as ueoige Ill's
Piime Ninistei. Anu he spoke of the belief that "the essential piinciple of his policy is a foim of
stiategic impeiialism which it is uifficult to ieconcile with the builuing of a peaceful woilu." Speaking
of the Italian, Belgian anu uieek inteiventions, it seemeu cleai, he saiu, that "at the back of Ni.
Chuichill's minu is the ueteimination at all costs to maintain 'tiauitional Euiope.' . . . Be has killeu the
Atlantic Chaitei with his own hanu ... he has loweieu Biitish piestige to a point haiuly less than the
evil ieputation it acquiieu at Nunich ... he shows eveiy uay moie cleaily that he belongs to the woilu
that is uying anu not to the woilu that is stiuggling to be boin." Inteiview in PN, 24 Becembei 1944.
485
Eviuence of that was appaient in the stanuaiu of living in Pueito Rico as compaieu
with the otheis. As foi the possessions of the othei poweis in the Caiibbean,
peihaps the peace woulu cleai up the anomaly. Euiopean outposts within the shielu
of the Canal weie toleiable only if they weie secuiely neutial. We hau suffeieu
uangei fiom those of Fiance, anu hau faintly suspecteu those of anothei powei. The
Biitish we moie oi less iegaiueu as oui own; the Anglo-Ameiican Caiibbean
Commission was still ueteimineuly exclusive, which showeu how uniteu we weie
even if in some mutual uislike.
In a woilu atmospheie of this soit, the Chavez Committee of the Senate began anu
caiiieu out its heaiings on the bill we hau been at such pains to uiaw.
1u
The
Senatois in some stiange instinctive way seemeu to puisue a puipose of theii own.
Anu they weie completely insensitive to the pievailing atmospheie. Foi what came
about was a bill sent to the Senate anu passeu with little uiscussion which woulu
have fasteneu moie tightly on Pueito Rico the goveinance of Congiessional
Committees, anu so in spite of appeaiancesan elective uoveinoi anu so onhave
pioviueu less iathei than moie self-goveinment without at the same time
confeiiing any compensating economic auvantage. It woulu have maue a fai moie
tenuous ielationship with the 0niteu States executive, anu ignoieu the uifficult
pioblem of soveieignty by thiowing out the pioposeu Commissionei ueneial; but at
the same time it woulu have pioviueu foi an electeu uoveinoi anu foi Congiessional
iepeal of acts of the local legislatuie. Bow this geneial iesult came about will not be
at all cleai to a histoiian, howevei faithfully he may ieau the iecoiu of the heaiings
anu uebates. Foi most of it came out of the Congiessional unconscious. That yeai
1944was a yeai of geneial legislative aggiession as well as of an executive
appeasement which, of couise, feu this aggiessive spiiit. In view of this the initial
eiioi of not having incluueu membeis of the Congiess on oui uiafting committee
hau multiple iesults. This was a pioposal which hau come to them fiom the
Piesiuent anu so hau, as a mattei of piestige, to be mouifieu. It is inteiesting to see,
in ieauing the heaiings, what impulses anu motives weie closest to the suiface,
whatevei ones may have been moving ueepei uown. A cleai view of these ieuuces
the mysteiy of the iesult because it betiays those which ian beneath.
Again anu again as vaiious witnesses appeaieu anu as vaiious of the pioposals weie
uiscusseu, the Senatois exhibiteu piejuuice. It was a piejuuice of which they weie
not ashameu. They woulu have calleu it libeialism; anu they weie obviously
conscious that most of those piesent, peihaps most of the geneial public, woulu
have agieeu with them. This piejuuice is haiu to uefine; but it is well known to

1u
The heaiings weie begun on 18 Novembei.

486
eveiy stuuent of goveinment. It consists of a uislike of the executive because it
actually must govein; of a belief that it is a goou thing to scattei anu uissipate the
powei of officials so that they check anu compete with each othei anu so beai uown
less haishly on the inuiviuual oi aie less effective in contiolling economic inteiests;
of a feeling that the legislative bianch of goveinment is moie iepiesentative of the
people than the executive anu is theiefoie entitleu to moie anu wiuei fieeuoms;
that the legislative shoulu in fact be iegaiueu as the basic bianch of oui goveinment
anu entitleu not only to guiue but to manage the otheis, especially the executive.
The opposite of this view helps to uefine it somewhat moie piecisely. This is that the
executive is moie iepiesentative than the legislative because it iepiesents the
whole iathei than a uistiict oi a pait; that only the executive, thiough a
buieauciacy, can cieate the continuity anu ceitainty so necessaiy to mouein
planning anu opeiation of goveinment as well as inuustiy; that iesponsibility
shoulu be centializeu so that officials' actions can be seen anu punisheu oi
iewaiueu by the electoiate.
The confuseu tiauition of goveinmental ielations in oui system is well illustiateu in
these heaiings. They might be useu as a text by a teachei who uesiieu to exhibit to
his stuuents the ill iesults of compiomise anu competition. Foi oui Constitution
leaves a laige aiea of unuisposeu poweis which both bianches anu sometimes the
thiiu, the juuicial, as wellconstantly enueavoi to exeicise in competition with one
anothei. Nost of them, of couise, can only be exeiciseu with any efficiency by the
executive. It may be geneially unueistoou that the legislative makes policy anu
pioviues funus, anu that the executive caiiies out policies thus ueteimineu anu
spenus the funus necessaiy to them; but membeis of the Congiess aie nevei
ieconcileu to these limitations. To take the illustiation in point heie: it might be
expecteu, if the Congiess was only to lay uown policy anu to pioviue funus, that it
woulu pioviue a bioau uiiective anu establish in the executive uepaitment an
oiganization foi management of ielations with the Teiiitoiies. Actually theie has
been constant inteifeience anu haiassment; only the most meagei excuse foi a
management office has been toleiateu; anu powei ovei funus anu confiimations has
been useu iepeateuly foi piessuie puiposes.
11

The Chavez heaiings weie a compenuium of inteifeiences uisguiseu as fieeuoms;
anu the bill which iesulteu was quite iepiesentative of its oiigin. It is known to
Pueito Ricans as S. 14u7 anu has a little niche of notoiiety all its own in insulai

11
As, foi instance, when the fifteen millions hau been appioveu foi subsiuizing foou ciops in 1942,
but only if I was uisplaceu as uoveinoi; oi when Senatoi Chavez uemanueu the appointment of Ni.
Ralph Bosch to the Insulai Supieme Couit as a mattei of pationage.
487
annals.
12
The inteifeiences spotteu in vaiious places consisteu of maintaining
Senatoiial confiimation of the insulai supieme couit, of iefusing to uelete fiom the
0iganic Act the Congiessional iight to iepeal acts of the insulai legislatuie, of
ueleting the piovision in oui uiaft which woulu have ueclaieu against fuithei
changes in the Act without Pueito Rican consent, anu a iefusal to substitute foi
Congiessional investigations the peimanent Council foi which we hau pioviueu.
Also, of couise, the Commissionei ueneial was tuineu uownnot ostensibly
because he was a iepiesentative of the Executive in Pueito Rico anu woulu have
been the channel of communication with Washington, but because he was
"expensive," a "supei-goveinoi," anu so on.
In each of these instances the Senatois built up in the heaiings, with the use of
appiopiiate saicasm anu juuicious examination of witnesses, some kinu of a case.
Ni. Fowlei Baipei, Solicitoi of the Bepaitment of the Inteiioi, explaineu patiently,
following Ni. Ickes anu Ni. Thoion, exactly what the Commissionei ueneial was
expecteu to uo, anu even piesenteu a compaiison, in tabulai foim, of the uuties of
uoveinoi anu Commissionei in the Piesiuential Committee's uiaft.
1S
But Ni.
Ellenuei, who coulu by no means be uesciibeu as unfiienuly, uislikeu the pioposal.
It was moie caipetbagging:
I visiteu the islanu of Pueito Rico heie iecently anu I got the impiession fiom some
souices that it was because of inteifeience by Washington anu thiough the
uoveinoi that this agitation has been biought about. Whethei this is tiue I uo not
know, but I uo know a lot of people on the islanu think so, anu they woulu like to
have an oppoitunity to show that they aie able to hanule theii own business
without inteifeience fiom Washington.
Ni. Baipei theieupon explaineu all ovei again that the Commissionei ueneial was
not going to inteifeie in "Pueito Rican business," but that he was going to
cooiuinate Feueial affaiis theie anu act in a geneially helpful capacity. Be tiieu, also,
to convey the concept of soveieignty iepiesenteu in the office. Ni. Ellenuei thought
that this "coulu piobably be uone by a $S,uuu-a-yeai man, iathei than builu this big
mansion foi him anu give him automobiles to tiavel aiounu the islanu anu just give
the people theie a chance to ciiticize oui uoveinment fuithei anu say, 'Well, now,
the money that is being spent theie ought to come to us." Wheieupon Senatoi
Chavez saiu, yes, this yeai the uoveinoi's expenses uown theie amount to $17S,uuu.
Ni. Thoion, not iecognizing a little uemagogueiy when he saw it, inuignantly

12
The volume of heaiings is, of couise, a Senate uocument: Beaiings Befoie a Subcommittee of the
Committee on Teiiitoiies anu Insulai Affaiis, 0niteu States Senate, 78th Congiess, Fiist Session, on S.
14u7. Washington, B.C. Novembei 16, 17, 18, 24, 2S, 26 anu Becembei 1, 194S.
1S
Beaiings, pp. 114-11S.
488
ieminueu the gentlemen that this sum coveieu eveiything that woulu be founu in
any goveinmental executive office, foi instance, an 0ffice of Statistics anu a Buieau
of the Buuget. "But," saiu Senatoi Chavez, "it uoes mean seivants, social functions,
automobiles, anu the like."
Ni. Baipei pointeu out that a ceitain uignity ought to be associateu with a
Piesiuential Repiesentative anu that an ambassauoi, if Pueito Rico weie
inuepenuent, woulu have all these peiquisitesanu moie. But the Senatois weie
unconvinceu. Latei they inviteu, fiom ceitain volunteei Pueito Ricans, testimony of
the soit they wanteu. A Ni. Leslie Bighley, foi instance, iepiesenting the Pueito Rico
Faimeis' Association, aftei inuicating that the piesent uoveinoi cost altogethei too
much, saiu, "I wish to object to the 0niteu States Commissionei ueneial as the
iepiesentative of the Piesiuent of the 0niteu States, the way the bill is uiafteu, will
soon uevelop that a supei-uoveinoi is being sent uown theie . . ."
Ni. Bighley, of couise, was not a peison of impoitance; anu even his connection
with the Faimeis' Association was tenuous. But he uiu voice the attituue of many
Pueito Ricans in the piofessional anu miuule- classes. This was the simple
piovincial ieaction to which I have often iefeiieu (foieigneis, even if neeueu, weie
not wanteu); but it was not ielateu in any way to 0niteu States inteiests, about
which unthinking local people aie aftei all not iequiieu to be conceineu. Anu those
who put it foiwaiu hau not askeu themselves whethei, if Pueito Rico iejecteu
supeivision, she woulu be alloweu assistance. All that was foigot in such emotional
ciicumstances. Ni. Bighley's statement was, in fact, less impassioneu than that of
}ustice Tiavieso when the pioposal hau been befoie oui uiafting Committee.
Pueito Rico watcheu the beginning of the heaiings anu opinion ciystallizeu veiy
quickly. 0ne of the fiist occuiiences was the public iepuuiation, by Ni. Ramiiez
Santibez anu Ni. Celestino Iiiaite, of the pioposal foi a Commissionei ueneial.
They coulu see unpopulaiity in it, anu foigot conveniently what hau been conceueu
foi theii acquiescence. But Nuoz stoou by oui compiomise. All thiough the
uiscussions he saiu only that he stoou foi the oiiginal bill as a wholewhich
incluueu the Commissionei ueneial. But Pueito Ricans aftei a little coulu be seen to
be concluuing that this was just anothei Congiessional show which was moie than
likely to come to nothing. Not one of the oiiginal gioup went to Washington as a
witness; anu neithei uiu any othei citizen of political impoitance. The Senatois weie
ieuuceu to taking long testimony fiom two oi thiee self-appointeu 1'(,!,'(,'8138$3
anu fiom a miscellany of expatiiates none of whom unueistoou the complex
situation into which they unhesitatingly plungeu. It was eviuent that the Senatois
hau something of theii own in minu anu shiewu Pueito Ricans began almost at once
to sense what it was. The Congiess was going to uiaft an extension of its contiols,
489
anu, unuei the guise of libeializing the 0iganic Act, make all the unceitainties, the
iepeateu uisappointments anu the humiliations woise. Nuoz pieuicteu this almost
fiom the fiist. Anu that was the kinu of uiaft which emeigeu. But nobouy believeu it
woulu become law.
The bill began to be visible when it was sent to the full Committee on Teiiitoiies anu
Insulai Affaiis on 1 0ctobei. The uiscussions theie weie peifunctoiy anu the
Committee sent it on to the Senate, wheie it was passeu without a iecoiu vote on 1S
Febiuaiy 1944. Anu that was that. Even then theie was no wiuespieau belief that it
woulu piogiess fuithei.
The subcommittee of the Bouse uiu not peimit the Senate bill to make any piogiess
theie. Its hostile membeis hau iueas of theii own. But they weie not botheiing with
libeial camouflage. They pioposeu to follow Senatoi vanuenbeig's leau, anu to
ueclaie my office vacant. Then they meant to annul all the legislation they objecteu
to as "fascistic." With the laws of 1941-42 wipeu out anu with a conseivative
goveinoi in San }uan to exeicise veto powei, Pueito Ricans woulu be biought back
to "Ameiican ways." That piogiam shapeu up veiy quickly. Anu, although theie was
a goou ueal of uiscussion, with many ieciiminations on both siues, the wintei was
on the whole a less uistuibeu one than that of the yeai befoie. The investigations
weie past. The winuy thieats hau not come to anything. The woist hau been uone
anu hau not amounteu to much.
Pueito Ricans tempoiaiily lost inteiest in Washington. But the political pot at home
was spouting steam. By spiing the campaign foi the Novembei election woulu have
enteieu a kinu of peipetual maintenance phase which hau to be expeiienceu to be
believeu at all. To a Noitheinei it was enoimously exhausting. To the home folks it
was like bieau to the hungiy. Eveiy night they belaboieu one anothei in the most
extiavagant anu outiageous teimsanu I came in foi a goou ueal of it too. Foi a
long time I thought something must suiely buist. So uiu the F.B.I. They weie
confuseu, alaimeu anu full of wainings. But nothing uiu buist. It simply went on anu
on. . . .
Buiing the fall I hau occasion to senu uiiectly to the Bell Committee two letteis
which tell theii own stoiy. The fiist hau to uo with the Fitzsimmons testimony,
which only now hau ieacheu me in official foim:
I have only iecently ieceiveu anu ieau the piinteu tiansciipt of foimei Auuitoi
Fitzsimmons' testimony befoie youi Committee. It seems impoitant to point out
that it conceins matteis which weie not within the piopei spheie of his activities as
Auuitoi anu, in auuition, conflicts iathei uiiectly with ceitain funuamental tenets of
uemociatic goveinment.
490
Ni. Fitzsimmons uisagiees with almost eveiything the uoveinment of Pueito Rico
has uone anu, moie impoitant, inuicts the uoveinment, incluuing myself, foi not
legislating anu executing the laws in accoiuance with his notions. Although
conceuing that the 0iganic Act intenus that his functions be similai to those of the
Comptiollei ueneial, Ni. Fitzsimmons extiacts this iemaikable pieiogative fiom
the fuithei piovision that "It shall be the uuty of the Auuitoi to biing to the
attention of the piopei auministiative officei expenuituies of funus oi piopeity
which, in his opinion, aie extiavagant, excessive, unnecessaiy oi iiiegulai." Boes
this give the Auuitoi the iight to question the wisuom of substantive enactments
anu appiopiiations by the legislatuie. I think that the answei is an emphatic no.
The 0iganic Act intenueu that Pueito Rico shoulu have a laige uegiee of local
autonomy. The Supieme Couit of the 0niteu States has saiu that "The giant of
legislative powei in iespect of local matteis ... is as bioau anu compiehensive as
language coulu make it." {People of Pueito Rico vs. Rubeit Beimanos, Inc., Su9 0.S.
S4S). It is patently inconsistent with this view to holu that the act which gianteu this
autonomy gave to a Piesiuentially appointeu Auuitoi the authoiity to nullify it. What
the Act uiu give the Auuitoi was the authoiity to see that expenuituies aie maue in
accoiuance with legislative wish. As pait of this authoiity he might auvise an
auministiative official that an expenuituie, even though legally within the legislative
ciicumsciiption, was extiavagant. By this it ceitainly was not meant that he woulu
be justifieu in imposing his juugment iegaiuing an expenuituie that cleaily
effectuateu a legislative puipose.
Ni. Fitzsimmons is not without iegiet that even this claimeu powei extenus only to
auvising appiopiiate officials on the uesiiability of appiopiiations anu substantive
legislation! Be woulu iectify this by, in his own woius, having the Congiess pioviue
that the Auuitoi "have authoiity to make those things null anu voiu, iegaiuless of
whethei the legislatuie cieateu them oi not." (Tiansciipt, page 18S). These things
incluue:
(1) The annual session of the legislatuie, since meeting each yeai is moie expensive
than meeting biannually, anu since the legislatuie of all the states except thiee meet
biannually; (2) enlaigeu appiopiiations foi the Laboi Bepaitment; (S) the Pueito
Rico Communications Authoiity; (4) the Pueito Rico Watei Resouices Authoiity; (S)
the Pueito Rico Bevelopment Bank; (6) the Pueito Rico Planning, 0ibanizing anu
Zoning Boaiu; (7) the Co-oiuinatoi of Infoimation; (8) the high wages that aie paiu
to laboi in Pueito Rico; (9) 14,4uu of the 17,uuu positions in the insulai
uoveinment; (1u) the Suu-acie limitation of the 0iganic Act anu its enfoicing
agency, the Lanu Authoiity of Pueito Rico; (11) the Pueito Rico Tianspoitation
Authoiity; (12) the Buieau of the Buuget; (1S) the Paik Seivice; (14) the piizes foi
491
the Cultivation of Liteiatuie; (1S) agiicultuial faiis; (16) the State uuaiu; (17) the
0ffice of Statistics.
Ni. Fitzsimmons feels that "these things" aie not necessaiy. (Tiansciipt, p. 18S).
Seveial of them aie "not conceineu . . . with goveinment, but solely with puiely
commeicial, nonessential enteipiises." Noieovei, some of the States uo not have
them. Anu most impoitant of all they iepiesent a system of goveinment which, it is
his unueistanuing, "we aie at wai to pievent." (Tiansciipt, p. 179).
Reasoning thusly, Ni. Fitzsimmons concluues that these things shoulu not be. That
they exist means that money is being spent foi neeuless puiposes anu that the
Feueial uoveinment must supply funus to meet essential neeus of the Pueito Rican
people which might otheiwise be met by these squanueieu local ievenues. This is an
injustice to the Congiess anu to the Ameiican taxpayei anu it is theiefoie a mattei of
iight foi Congiess to ueciue how Pueito Rico shall spenu its money anu to establish
the Auuitoi as the embouiment anu executoi of this Congiessional pieiogative.
(Tiansciipt, p. 18S).
To state Ni. Fitzsimmons' case, anu I think I have stateu it faiily, if succinctly, woulu
seem to me, in a society of ieasonable men with some belief in uemociatic
institutions, to answei it. It seems haiuly necessaiy to uiscuss the ielative meiits of
the measuies which Ni. Fitzsimmons woulu ienuei null anu voiuit is enough to
know that his conception of the "Ameiican way" incluues as a mattei of iight the
nullification by him of the acts of a legislatuie because he thinks that they "aie not
necessaiy." It seems supeifluous to inquiie into the valiuity of the analogy that
because Nississippi oi Aikansas has not establisheu paiticulai institutions;
theiefoie such institutions have no justification in Pueito Ricoit is enough to
know that the scheme of the Feueial Constitution, pieseiving to the seveial States
autonomy to legislate howevei theii inuiviuual chaiacteiistics uictate so long as
iepublican foims be maintaineu, finus no appieciation oi unueistanuing in Ni.
Fitzsimmons' minu. It is not necessaiy to tieat at length Ni. Fitzsimmons'
inuisposition towaiu the iecently establisheu public coipoiations on the giounu
that they aie "not conceineu with goveinment, but solely with puiely commeicial,
nonessential enteipiises" anu as such squanuei money anu peipetuate Feueial
expenuituie. It is enough to call attention to his failuie to appieciate that the neeu
which calleu foith these coipoiations was the necessity of incieasing thiough eveiy
possible means the piouuctive wealth of the islanu that self-sufficiency might be
appioacheu anu ieliance on Feueial subsiuy might be ielieveu. Finally, it is not
necessaiy to assay a uefense of these measuies against the chaige that "they
iepiesent a system of goveinment which we aie at wai to pievent" when Ni.
Fitzsimmons is himself unable to see, oi if he sees, be impiesseu by, the ielationship
492
that his uesiieu suppiession of them by inuiviuual fiat beais to the behavioi anu
belief of a thoioughgoing anti-uemociat.
Ni. Fitzsimmons' only iecommenuation foi meeting the economic pioblems of
Pueito Rico, beyonu his uesiieu emasculation of goveinmental functions anu
peisonnel, is mass emigiation. I have thought, anu I woulu have assumeu that Ni.
Fitzsimmons iealizeu, that faceu foi so long with the ueep soies of oveipopulation,
the Pueito Rican legislatuie woulu by now have pioviueu foi "laige-scale assisteu
emigiation" if theie existeu a uesiie foi it in the people; oi even if theie weie any
place foi them to go. That the legislatuie has faileu so to pioviue confiims foi me
what was an eaily obseivationthat these people stiongly love theii homelanu, aie
uisinclineu to leave it anu piefei to meet the pioblem of oveipopulation at home
thiough measuies which, though "not necessaiy" in Ni. Fitzsimmons' opinion, seem
to them woithy.
The expansion in the goveinmental function which has chaiacteiizeu these last
thiee yeais in Pueito Rico anu which these measuies iepiesent aie what the Pueito
Ricans look upon as theii only alteinative to mass emigiation oi continueu anu
incieasing uepenuence on Feueial ielief. Contiaiy to Ni. Fitzsimmons, these aie not
my cieations but aie the embouiment of solemn campaign piomises of the majoiity
paity, maue long befoie I assumeu office. The function of these moie iecent
cieations of goveinment is to pioviue new souices of income anu employment, in
othei woius to bioauen the economic base of the islanu.
By 19SS oveipopulation anu unueiemployment hau maue this a necessity that coulu
not be blinkeu anu the Feueial uoveinment unueitook to accomplish it thiough the
P.R.R.A. When the P.R.R.A. piogiam uieu, the failuie to caiiy on its function woulu
have hau tiemenuous iepeicussions within this society if aimy anu navy
constiuction, employing as many as aie employeu by the entiie sugai inuustiy, hau
not come as an effective stopgap. It was in the knowleuge that this was but a
stopgap anu that the basic pioblem iemaineu unsolveu anu was giowing gieatei
with each passing yeai that the Pueito Rican people couiageously incieaseu theii
tax buiuen anu uevoteu the ievenues ueiiveu theiefiom to the cieation of agencies
whose function is the bioauening of the islanu's economic base. It seems fitting anu
necessaiy to point out that only a minu tiaineu to an obsolete anu impeiialistic
colonial attituue coulu justify the piactical uenial of local autonomy which is what
withuiawal of Feueial inteiest anu assistance on the giounu that this local
legislation is unnecessaiy woulu iepiesent.
The seconu communication to the Bell Committee giew out of the continuing
agitation in Pueito Rico ovei the effoits of Committee membeis to take away fiom
493
us the ievenues fiom ium, which weie now ieaching a maximum. I saw in them ieal
hope foi caiiying out a piogiam of inuustiialization anu foi making a new attempt
at the uiveisification of agiicultuie (thiough an Agiicultuial Bevelopment Company
such as I hau been unable to peisuaue the Feueial uoveinment to unueitake), anu I
was ueteimineu, if I coulu, to pievent theii uiveision oi theii loss. The Committee,
eviuently uespaiiing of taking these ievenues away entiiely, now pioposeu to give
them to a Feueial agency.
Fiom watching the piess uuiing the last few uays I infei that the Committee has
ieceiveu with some appioval the suggestion that the tax on Pueito Rican ium shoulu
be allocateu to the Feueial Woiks Auministiation foi ielief puiposes in Pueito Rico.
I shoulu like to comment.
In the fiist place moie than the yielu of the ium tax foi the last yeai is cuiiently
allocateu to ielief puiposes anu is being spent by the Pueito Rican uoveinment. I am
piepaieu to unueitake that this policy will be continueu, constiuing "ielief" to covei
health anu welfaie activities as well as woik ielief. I believe the legislative leaueis
will join me in this pleuge.
But in the seconu place you must be ieminueu that to take such action as has been
pioposeu woulu make a funuamental change in Pueito Rican status anu uo it unuei
subteifuge which woulu be ueeply iesenteu heie. To explain: it is pait of the
unueitaking of the 0iganic Act that in exchange foi not having the piivileges of
statehoou, anu theiefoie not being iep-iesenteu in oui Congiess, Pueito Rico shall
not be incluueu in oui ievenue system. Those who wiote anu amenueu, fiom time to
time, the 0iganic Act, unueistoou this cleaily. The pleuge is not to ietain the taiiffs
on foieign goous coming to Pueito Rico anu not to lay ievenue taxes on goous
oiiginating in Pueito Rico. To uc the lattei woulu be, in effect, to lay a taiiff against
Pueito Rican piouucts.
If youi Committee shoulu consent to this pioposal it woulu be favoiing taxation
without iepiesentation, the issue on which Ameiicans sepaiateu fiom Biitain anu
went to wai. 0nless, that is, it is intenueu actually to change Pueito Rican status. In
this case Pueito Rico woulu begin to pay upwaius of twenty millions in Feueial
income taxes but woulu automatically be aumitteu to some foity millions in social-
secuiity benefits. In this case, also, it woulu be necessaiy to giant iepiesentation in
the Congiess. Pueito Rico woulu then have five Repiesentatives anu two Senatois to
guaiu inteiests which aie now voteless.
It is unthinkable that at this stage in woilu histoiy, when we aie tiying to convince
the subject peoples of the woilu that we aie faiiei than oui opponents in the wai
now going on, we shoulu auministei this setback to the gains we have maue in goou
494
will. Such an act by youi Committee woulu be woith a gieat militaiy victoiy to the
Axis poweis by viitue of the ill will it woulu geneiate foi us among all the woilu's
weakei peoples.
If, neveitheless, youi Committee shoulu auvise that oui contiact with Pueito Rico be
bioken in this way, it woulu also finu itself in the position of uepiiving these insulai
people of the only favoiable effect of the wai on theii economy. They have suffeieu
blockaue which the 0niteu States was unable to pievent, anu unuei oui
guaiuianship many of them have been ieuuceu almost to staivation; unemployment
has iisen thiough the exhaustion of builuing anu othei mateiials; the cost of living
has incieaseu at iates uouble anu tiiple those on the mainlanu; anu in many othei
ways the wai has biought them haiuships.
At the same time theii sons aie seiving in oui aimies (neaily 4u,uuu now); anu they
have in eveiy way been loyal paiticipants in oui wai effoit. Now that, unexpecteuly,
the tax on ium has iisen in yielu anu can be uevoteu to iepaiiing some of the
uamage anu ielieving some of the suffeiing, it is pioposeu to uepiive them of the
piivilege of uoing so oi of auministeiing theii own funus.
The aiguments I have citeu against such a policy seem to me so stiong that otheis
aie supeifluous. Bowevei, it might also be iemembeieu that a laige pait (peihaps
Su-7u pei cent) of the Feueial funus allocateu to woik ielief in Pueito Rico aie spent
eithei on militaiy installations, on the .wiuening anu impiovement of militaiy
highways (unnecessaiy foi insulai puiposes), oi on hospitals foi veneieal cases,
malaiial anu othei health woik aiounu aimy cantonments, anu so on. Pueito Ricans
quite legitimately consiuei these to be expenuituies which aie wai-connecteu
iathei than wholly insulai; anu to take theii own taxes foi such expenuituie woulu
be to auu insult to injuiy, especially aftei they have contiibuteu with gieat
geneiosity to the wai effoit. To mention only one instance of this last, the
uoveinment of Pueito Rico has given to the 0niteu States uoveinment eithei in fee
oi ient-fiee foi the uuiation some twenty-eight millions of uollais' woith of
piopeity. This geneiosity ought to be matcheu by us iathei than ieceiveu in the
niggaiuly spiiit iepiesenteu by the pioposal to segiegate the tax on ium.
I hope youi Committee will ueciue against such a policy.
Buiing the next week I hau occasion to wiite Ni. Ickes on a. subject which has been
uiscusseu befoie in this book:
I have youi lettei inquiiing about the Falange situation as uesciibeu in Ni. Allen
Chase's book. I ieau it some time ago; anu, of couise, I saw Ni. Chase while he was
heie. I shoulu uesciibe his chaptei on Pueito Rico by saying that he has the iight
495
geneialization but not always the coiiect facts. Foi instance, it is not tiue that civil
uefense is infiltiateu with 6$0$'%138$3. Be got that iuea because I tiansfeiieu a man
fiom police chief to a secietaiyship theie to settle an auministiative uifficulty.
Anyway civil uefense is iapiuly foluing up heie as elsewheie anu being absoibeu by
othei agencies.
Some time ago the F.B.I, maue a iepoit on the Falange in Pueito Rico. It took them
some time anu some piouuing on my pait to uiscovei that in this wai not
communists but falangistas aie the piactical pioblem heie. But they have uone a
goou ueal lately. Ni. Biuule coulu fuinish you with that iepoit.
The way in which ieligion, iiches anu politics aie mixeu heie is veiy complex. 0ften
it is haiu to tell them apait. Because most of the ueteimineu Fianco-philes aie also
membeis of the "best families" anu piominent chuichmen, oui people (F.B.I, anu
othei officials) tenu to be confuseu by theii conseivatism anu iespectability. It
seems to be haiu to believe that seveial million uollais anu a goou ueal of piety can
be youi enemy. You piobably iemembei that oui Feueial Bistiict }uuge heie
aumitteu some of these people to citizenship aftei the wai staiteu. That comes, you
see, fiom looking at them meiely as iespectable wealthy people.
Theie is no uangei fiom them now. They aie tiying to piove theii patiiotism by
buying lots of bonus, etc., etc., anu acting as though Fianco was a name they nevei
heaiu befoie.
I am, of couise, piejuuiceu. It was the ciowu which was behinu the opposition to me,
anu, inciuentally, to you. But I can be chaiitable tooexcept to those up home who
fall in with them anu help to play theii game.
22 Novembei. Nuoz begins to talk about extieme measuies as likelihoou of action
on oui amenuments to the 0iganic Act faues. Flis is a uifficult situation now which
piobably will not impiove soon. Nany gestuies towaiu change in status have been
maue but theie has been no ieal piogiess. Be is awaie of the neeu foi continueu
assistance, howevei, anu this makes any uemonstiation of uispleasuie unpolitic.
I must iecoiu one moie unfavoiable uevelopment. The Azoies, by iecent agieement
with Poitugal, is to be an impoitant aii base on the tians-Atlantic iun. Pueito Rico
will piobably lose most oi all of the tiaffic which has gone thiough heie now foi
moie than two yeais.
24 Novembei. The Rules Committee of the Bouse (Ni. Sabath, Chaiiman) seems to
have iefuseu a iule foi the consiueiation of the bill which woulu take away the ium
tax.
496
The Battle of Italy appeais to have ieacheu a stalemate one hunuieu miles south of
Rome. Theie is speculation now whethei this campaign was not a big uiveision. It
seems not to have been auequately implementeu.
Intensive woik on the buuget foi next yeai with many unceitainties as to ievenue.
But just now we aie piospeious. The entiie cuiient yeai's buuget is alieauy coveieu
by ieceipts. The iemainuei will go to suiplus.
Bloom on the cane began about 1u Novembei anu is full now.
28 Novembei. Nost of the past week uevoteu to setting up an insulai ielief
oiganization to take the place of W.P.A., now ueau at the hanus of oui enemies in the
Bouse. Foitunate to get Ni. Paul Euwaius, lately Comptiollei of the Watei
Resouices Authoiity anu once Feueial Relief Biiectoi, as Auministiatoi. But long
quaiiels with Nuoz to abstiact the oiganization fiom politics uiu not succeeu. Be is
ueteimineu not to see that uone anu insists on putting the Commissionei of Laboi
ovei Euwaiusan aiiangement suie to cause tiouble. I cannot pievail because the
funus weie entiusteu to an Emeigency Council (maue up of the Cabinet, which is
confiimeu by the Senate, plus the Auuitoi), not to me. Peihaps I shoulu not have
signeu the ielief bill of last spiing in that foim. But it coulu not otheiwise have
passeu anu, like othei uoveinois befoie me, I gave in against my bettei juugment.
A weekenu at }jome with Nuoz enueu fiienulily enough but hau some bittei
moments. I waineu him fiankly, as I felt it my uuty to uo, of the peiils of some of his
piesent policies. I tiieu to convey to him, what has been giowing in my minu, that he
has to uiscovei new pioceuuies anu bettei oiganization oi he will finu that the
movement is too laige to be contiolleu. Theie is the fuithei uangei of the movement
tuining to othei enus than those it began with. It has to keep close to the people anu
only his leaueiship, uemociatically manageu, can ensuie that. I uigeu stiongly that
he woik now at ienewing his holu on the people. This will be easy foi him if his
iueas aie cleai, anu if he is peisistent. Be iesenteu this analysis but I believe that
when he thinks it ovei he will appieciate its tiuth. Be is conceineu about what is
going to happen in his paity but he expects to hanule the coming ciisis in the wiong
wayoi, iathei, by not having caiefully piepaieu foi it, he will fall into the wiong
way. Bis minu is full of fugitive, iathei unoiganizeu, but appaiently unwise
expeuients. I uigeu a consistent couise, above intiigue, above pationage, above
ieciimination. Bis holu on the people is such that it is not only possible foi him but
obviously inuicateu. Be must stiengthen his uiiect contacts with them anu
suboiuinate the local leaueiship to them anu, as a iesult, to him. But he is afiaiu to
tiy it, talks of my being an amateui, says that elections aie won by contenteu paity
woikeis, etc., etc., all of which I have heaiu again anu again. But my position is
497
getting stiongei because his policy is so obviously failing him. We went ovei anu
ovei these matteis foi many houis, uiscussing them in the light of the numeious
local events with which we aie both familiai. It all came to no uecision, of couise,
because it is a mattei he has to woik out in piactice. I uiu not even succeeu in
getting an aumission that my analysis was coiiect. Peihaps peisistent iecuiience
'will have some eventual effect. But it was not a veiy happy occasion anu we weie
left in what appeaieu to be as complete uisagieement as in the beginning.
2 Becembei. The Piesiuent is meetingpiobably somewheie in Iianwith Stalin.
Be, Chuichill anu Chiang Kai-shek met in Caiio; anu he anu Chuichill went on to
confei with Stalin. The gianu stiategy seems to be the same one announceu at
Casablancaunconuitional suiienuei, closing in fiom all siues anu ciushing fiist
ueimany anu then }apan anu the setting up of a peimanent bouy foi consultation
among the'uieat Poweis.
Fiom Caiio theie came an announcement that the }apanese Empiie woulu be
uismembeieu. I know wheie that came fiom!
We have taken the uilbeits with teiiible losses at Taiawa. Appaiently we have not
yet founu the seciet of amphibious waifaie. But it must be founu if we aie to caiiy
out a Cential Pacific uiive paialleling that of NacAithui in New uuinea anu aimeu
eventually at the Philippines anu the Chinese coast.
g Becembei. Sii Fiank Stockuale stoppeu heie the othei uay on his way back to
Baibauos fiom Washington. Asiue fiom a consiueiable buuget of gossip he hau
nothing impoitant. We uiscusseu, in a uesultoiy way, the foithcoming confeience.
This is the one conceiveu by Chailes aiiu me as a meeting of peoples'
iepiesentatives iathei than colonial officials. Sii Fiank is obviously hesitant.
The newspapeis say that Beany Baluwin is going to the C.I.0., appaiently as heau of
a political committee. This is the best news foi a long time. Be is a-political genius
anu he might just win what looks now like a veiy uoubtful election foi the Piesiuent.
But it is anothei inuication that the piogiessives aie getting out of the uoveinment
iapiuly. This may be because of what eveiyone seems to iegaiu as a Republican
tienu, which is ueuuceu by chaiting uiminishing Bemociatic majoiities anu
piojecting them ovei the next election. This system of foiecasting has impiesseu all
the jouinalists anu many otheis as well. It is the most impoitant thing in Nuoz'
minu, foi instance. Be is shaping all his policy towaiu a Republican victoiy. It is
leauing him to ienew a uiive foi an immeuiate iefoim bill even though it is
unsatisfactoiy. The minimum such a bill coulu contain, he ieasons, woulu be the
elective goveinoiship anu this woulu at least save Pueito Rico fiom a ieactionaiy
Piesiuential appointee. I expect to heai much moie of this as time goes on.
498
1S Becembei. Aumiial King, Ni. Lewis Bouglas, Sii }ohn Bill, etc., heie on theii way
home fiom Caiio anu Teheian. Aumiial Cook hau a uinnei foi them. It was an
inteiesting evening although they gave away no seciets if they hau any to give. It
lifteu oui eyes beyonu Pueito Rico foi an houi. What was of most inteiest to me was
that none of these hau given the slightest thought to uepenuent aieasnot that
militaiy men oi otheis, like Bouglas, closely engageu in wai activities, woulu be
expecteu to, ieally, except that one of the piincipal uecisions taken at Teheian must
have uealt with the small nations anu theii ielation to the uieat PoweisPolanu,
foi instance, anu the Neuiteiianean countiies. But if it was, none of the oveiflow
seems to have ieacheu these "expeits."
14 Becembei. Foitas' attempt to entei the Navy has enueu in uischaige foi
"tubeiculosis of the ietina." It is not altogethei ceitain that he will ietuin to Inteiioi;
but I must hope so.
As Chiistmas appioacheu it became moie eviuent that we weie in foi one of the
uioughts which peiiouically hit the West Inuies so haiu. We hau hau so seveie a
ueficiency of iainfall foi months that the estimates of the foithcoming sugai ciop
weie alaiming. Whenevei these estimates appeaieu in the States, the uiought was
only inciuentally mentioneu. What was most piominent was "the communist policy
in Pueito Rico." Theie woulu nevei be anothei goou ciop so long as the uoveinment
peisisteu in haiassing the piouuceis, it was saiu. Anu we weie blameu, too, foi not
having got laigei allocations of feitilizei. . The last months of 194S anu the fiist of
1944 weie in many ways the woist of the wai foi those of us who hau any
iesponsibility foi public affaiis. The people of Pueito Rico weie not uiscontenteu
with what hau been uone to mitigate the iigois natuial to such a time: they hau foou
anu clothing at ieasonable piices if they kept away fiom loan shaiks anu black
maikets; they hau ielief woik, aimy allowances oi outiight cash benefits fiom the
insulai uoveinment. They woulu not become wealthy on any of these but they hau
not expecteu that anyway. They weie as fiee as usual to uo the things they likeu to
uo anu nobouy was pushing them aiounu. But businessmen of all soits weie acutely
unhappy. They weie piospeious but thought they hau been tieateu unjustly because
they coulu not become moie so. The impoiteis iesenteu oui bulk buying; anu the
many thousanu small meichants iesenteu the piice inspectois who kept them fiom
piofiteeiing. All these, howevei, weie in bliss compaieu with the planteis whose
ciop this yeai was off peihaps thiity pei cent because of the uiought. It was only
human that they shoulu blame "the" uoveinment," of couise, anu especially since
they hau a giuuge against it anyway.
These anu otheis joineu also to blame us foi the lack of tians-poitation. Pueito
Rico's sole connection with the mainlanu foi two yeais now hau been two uaily
499
flights of Pan Ameiican planes. Beuucting the seats iequiieu by the Aimy, theie
weie some twenty oi thiity available foi the civilians in a population of two millions.
Pan Ameiican hau a backlog of foui thousanu authentic applications foi passage;
anu was auministeiing, as best it coulu, the job of selecting those who coulu go anu
those who coulu not. This task hau a way of falling on the uoveinoi's 0ffice, in spite
of oui effoits to push it away, since piospective passengeis weie tolu that if the
uoveinoi woulu ceitify uigency, piioiities woulu be establisheu. Theie is no way of
spieauing twenty oi thiity seats among hunuieus of uaily applicants so that anyone
who has been unsuccessful will believe that justice has been uone. I am suie that we
nevei succeeueu. Anu oui melancholy piotests weie fileu somewheie in
Washington; eveiything about the wai was moie impoitant now than Pueito Rican
content.
We weie sauueneu by the uepaituie of oui fiienus. Among otheis ueneial Piatt hau
gone; anu hunuieus of officeis togethei with squauions, battalions anu batteiies of
men. They weie no longei in the places wheie we hau got useu to seeing them. The
small fielus, the ioofs, the ioausiues anu the points iunning out into the sea which
hau swaimeu with soluieis going about the complicateu business of keeping in
shape anu using iauais, seaichlights anu anti-aiiciaft guns weie all empty anu
silent. The ioofs weie baie anu the vacant lots vacant once moie. What to us in La
Foitaleza was the most noticeable change.of all was now completethe tiaining
squauions of PBN's which hau ioaieu anu gliueu ovei anu aiounu us foi moie than
a yeai hau melteu away into the west towaiu the Pacific. The Atlantic Wai was ovei.
Peihaps the most toimenting thing to a public auministiatoi now was the iising tiue
of slums. Since the wai hau begun theie hau not been a house built in Pueito Rico
that is, legally anu officially. But actually many thousanus hau been thiown togethei,
since the wai uiu not keep boys anu giils fiom maiiying. They weie constiucteu of
sciaps of lumbei, tin, leatheiany mateiial which coulu be scavengeu in back yaius
oi fiom iubbish heaps. They hau no latiines, no access to supplies of watei, no
stieets. They weie an invitation to the paiasitic life of the subtiopics; anu the iats
ian in hoiues thiough the yaius anu into anu out of the houses. This is the way
plagues stait. But theie was nothing we coulu uo except to oiganize ineffective
cleanup campaigns now anu again. Bouses weie being built on the continent by the
hunuieu thousanu foi wai woikeis. Not one was alloweu to Pueito Rico.
What theie was to uo in contiast with what we coulu uo was mauuening. We
peihaps piotesteu, complaineu anu fought with those who contiolleu mateiials
moie than was seemly. But we hau the iesponsibility foi this malaiial anu plague-
thieateneu islanu; we hau to suffei the slums anu the filth; we hau to think of the
thousanus of uiseaseu without caie of any kinu; we hau to see the chiluien
500
neglecteu anu unschooleu. It is no wonuei that sometimes we lost oui tempeis. It
might even have been bettei if it hau been uone oftenei. But the wai, if not a ieason,
was always a sufficient excuse foi biushing us off. Anu we got nowheie. The fact was
that in health woik, euucation, public woiks, housing, watei supplies, sewage
uisposal anu gaibage collection, stieet iepaiisall the items of state anu municipal
housekeeping we fell fuithei anu fuithei behinu. That was the unhappy fact which
obsesseu us along with the appaient toipoi into which the wai effoit, foi all that
coulu be seen on the suiface, seemeu to have fallen.
This was the time when NacAithui's ioau to the Philippines, say nothing of }apan,
seemeu enuless. Neie casual thought of the logistics involveu in supplying a mouein
aimy of any size acioss the seven thousanu miles of that sea was so staggeiing that
to most of us it seemeu impossible that the }apanese shoulu evei be uefeateu. We
weie taking a sobei look too at the Italian campaign. Awful mistakes seemeu to have
been maue anu the penalties foi them exacteu. Anu }apanese uefeat hau seemeu no
moie impossible than that we shoulu be able to uiive the ueimans all the way up
the Peninsula anu thiough the Alpine passesthe best uefensive teiiain, suiely, in
all the woilu. Theie was no hint, yet, of an alteinative, say the sanuy plains of the
Camaigue which leu so easily into the valley of the Rhone, oi the stietch of shoie
just east of Cannes which Napoleon hau chosen because it gave access to the passes
in the Alpes-Naiitimes leauing to uienoble.
Young men weie uying befoie Cassino anu on the beachheau at Anzio, anu since it
came to nothing, all of us at home became lay stiategists. It was uiscouiaging
because theie-seemeu inevitably to be too little foi so much. We hau not yet giaspeu
the enoimity of the output of oui factoiies oi the effectiveness of mouein seivices of
supply. We heaiu fiom the piess only about stiikes anu the wickeuness of laboi, not
about the miiacle of its loyalty anu piouuctiveness. Anu when oui ueneials spoke
they eithei seemeu so foolishly optimistic as to be uisiegaiueu oi, if it was ueneial
Someivell, foi instance, to be piofessionally pessimistic in the inteiest of enoimous
stoies of eveiything without uisciimination. No one spoke in a cleai voice to still oui
feais oi to encouiage oui effoit. Even the Piesiuent in these uays began to seem
tiieu. That lan which hau caiiieu him thiough eleven yeais of mounting ciisis,
always opposeu by neaily halfthe iichest, most iesouiceful halfof Ameiica, was
failing. Be was withuiawn. Be no longei hau the eneigy foi a killing uay's woik anu
foi ieassuiance to all of us too. We weie having to uo without the ieassuiance.
We-hau a tintello tiee uown fiom the foiest again foi Chiistmas anu hung it with the
baubles anu the tinsel which hau suiviveu the Chiistmases of '41 anu '42. It maue an
unexpecteuly biave show, anu when the guests began to come foi oui Chiistmas
paity anu the oichestias bioke into the /#0,"#3 anu ($'4$3, the face of confiuence
501
seemeu, foi that night, to have tuineu towaiu us. The iiiepiessible gaiety in human
heaits gave an illusoiy assuiance of peimanency. The next uays weie, of couise,
uaikei than evei. We hau to finu the iesolution now that so many peoples hau hau
to finu foi wai, to go on without ceitainty anu make oui stiuggle fiom uay to uay as
best we coulu.
But it was encouiaging to have so many of the political leaueis, especially those
outsiue San }uan, though this was not an exclusive iule, come, in these tiying uays,
to see wheie wisuom lay. Something about contact with the full wisuom of the
jibaios gave local politicos a moie soliu giounuing. They thought moie of economics
anu less of status. Among the names of those I leaineu to tiust anu finu fiienuliness
in weie Pieio, Riveia, Buigos, Seoane, Baueimeistei, Bvila, Biaz, Palmei, anu
Beiiios-Beiuecia. But theie weie otheis, many of them. I wisheu we hau a bettei
system so that we neeu not uiffei about pationage anu such matteis but peihaps
that coulu be uevelopeu too. I iesolveu to tiy haiuei anu to iemembei that on
fiienuship all else coulu be built.

502
S1
ALL B0RINu I 94S theie hau been ieason foi satisfaction with oui woik to piotect
the foou supply; anu now at the beginning of 1944 we hau begun to feel that we hau
founu the way to stabilize piices. These weie unspectaculai achievements. They
weie noticeu only when they weie attackeu by the Chambei of Commeice oi the
Bell Committee. But the iesults showeu, neveitheless, in people's faces. They anu
theii chiluien hau a little moie to eat of a goou ueal bettei quality. They uiu not go
aiounu piaising those who fought anu woikeu foi this iesult, but they hau a suie
enough sense of its souice, as anyone coulu uiscovei by the most supeificial inquiiy.
They attiibuteu it to Nuoz anu to me. Theie was some eiioi in this, foi Nuoz gave
it almost no cuiient attention anu I veiy little. It was by now, as a mattei of fact,
ioutinizeu. The 0ffice of Bistiibution of the Bepaitment of Agiicultuie woikeu
smoothly; the space allocations foi goous not biought in by that 0ffice weie maue
effectively by Ni. vicens Rios; piice contiols functioneu bettei; anu the small
amounts neeueu foi subsiuy weie now taken fiom the fifteen-million-uollai funu
about which I have alieauy wiitten.
Foi Ni. vicens Rios I often gave thanks. Be was as unspectaculai as the job he uiu.
Be hau the appeaiance of a piospeious meichant, possibly because that was what
he hau been. But he was toucheu, in the way a ceitain unlikely few of the piospeious
sometimes aie, by the lean bouies of the pooi anu by the stunteu giowth of theii
chiluien. The thiity pei cent extiacteu fiom the piice of iice anu beans by the
impoiteis hau become an obsession with him. Be was awaie that it came not out of
accounts but out of flesh. Anu he unueitook the thankless anu uifficult woik of
supply with missionaiy enthusiasm. In auuition to allocating space, he helu himself
ieauy to step in wheievei the 0ffice of Bistiibution faileu us; he manageu oui
huiiicane stock pile; he set up a seivice oiganization foi the whole uoveinment; he
bought machineiy anu mateiials foi the woik-ielief piogiam; anu whenevei I askeu
him how he stoou, he answeieu that he hau "paiu expenses."
The olu tense uays of waiting foi ships which uiu not come seemeu now to be fai in
the past. We still hau only about half the shipping of the piewai yeais; but because it
was allocateu caiefully to essentials anu because eveiy ship was loaueu efficiently,
we hau no complaint to make. Theie weie fewei shoitages now in oui islanu than
theie weie fiom time to time, anu in ceitain localities, in the States. The ships weie
still coming in convoy, although losses weie uiminisheu, anu the elapseu time of
voyages was long, so that in the humiuity of the uulf anu the Caiibbean theie weie
some spoilages. But fiom the teiiace oveilooking the haiboi I coulu now see
iegulaily the gieat giay shapes of caigo caiiieis steeiing thiough the gate in the
submaiine net stietcheu acioss the haiboi below us. They came in past El Noiio
503
wallowing in the wintei suif, theii life iafts tilteu acioss theii iails, anu founu still
watei within. The ielief on the meichant maiineis' faces as they gazeu again at oui
gieen hills anu olu builuings was easily seen thiough a glass. We hau a club now foi
these civilian sailois who hau seiveu us so well. It stoou neai the olu Casino which
hau become the heauquaiteis foi the 0.S.0. Between them they cieateu a lively
neighboihoou. It was a goveinment builuing: but we vacateu it glauly foi the
uuiation.
All oui affaiis weie iunning moie easily. I myself hau a competent staff anu was
easeu of much of my buiuen. Fieu Baitlett
1
was gone nowto the naval school of
goveinment at Columbia anu Tom Bayes was going back to the 0niveisity as
libiaiian; but I now hau acquiieu Ni. Nason Baii anu Ni. Campos uel Toio. These,
with my militaiy aiue, Captain Angel Naitin, who manageu La Foitaleza, anu my
naval aiue, Lieutenant Thomas Kaisten, weie quite capable of iunning my office
with only a minimum of uiiection. I hau time foi moie consiueiation of what was
going on in the woilu anu of oui ielation to it. Not that theie was gieat satisfaction
to be founu in the spectacle just now; but that whethei I likeu it oi not I was
iequiieu to finu some uiiections anu aujustments. No one fiom outsiue was giving
us any help of this soit. What we got fiom Inteiioi was suppoit iathei than leauing
anu the Piesiuent was busy elsewheie. Congiessmen iaiely let a week pass without
haiiying us a little; sometimes seveial gave voice togethei anu cieateu some mental
uistuibance. All uuiing the yeai the focus of these unoiganizeu attacks woulu be the
yielu fiom the tax on ium. Seveial bills woulu be intiouuceu anu many statements
anu speeches maue in puisuit of that effoit. Nessis. Cole, Ciawfoiu anu Ncuehee
weie in a continual state of annoyance that oui insulai uepaituies fiom the
"Ameiican way" shoulu be financeu by this unexpecteu suiplus which fieeu us fiom
begging foi funus. I hau times, as uiu all the iest, when I thought this effoit might
succeeu. As the yeai began I shoulu not have thought we coulu get thiough it
without this loss. The Bouse gioup hau alieauy, it will be iecalleu, taken away fiom
us the W.P.A. anu the tiauitional uistiibution of fiee foou foi the pooi; the Wai
Piouuction Boaiu hau cut oui supplies of mateiials savagely
2
so that we coulu use
oui ievenues only foi maue-woik of the most useless soit oi simple uistiibution of
funus with which the hoiues of the unemployeu coulu buy foou. But this we weie
uoing; anu people weie eating. The funus we fuinisheu enableu them to buy the iice
anu beans which the Agiicultuie people sent us in those ueeply loaueu ships. Theie

1
Wheie he was a classmate of my pieuecessoi, Ni. Swope. Be was latei to go to the Philippines anu
to 0kinawa.
2
Pueito Ricans weie peifectly well awaie that even while we weie paialyzeu foi lack of mateiials a
veiitable builuing boom was taking place in Santo Bomingo, in venezuela anu in the Cential
Ameiican countiies. But theie, as they cynically obseiveu, Tio Samuel neeueu goou neighbois.

504
was anothei outiage in stoie foi us, howevei; as pait of a ueal with Cuba, anu in
oiuei to secuie hei molasses foi making alcohol, oui piouuction of ium was
aibitiaiily limiteu, Fiom that time on oui ievenues ueclineu anu piesently we
shoulu have financial pioblems again. But foi the moment oui suiplus was sufficient
to pievent woiiies of that soit. We hau anothei, howevei; anu it was an immeuiate
one. The Chiistmas bieezes, as these fiist wintei winus aie calleu in the neighboiing
viigins, blew on onto the wintei months uiiei than anyone coulu iemembei them to
have been befoie. We weie, in fact, facing a seveie uiought; anu soon we became
awaie that it was geneial thioughout the Caiibbean. Those uiy winus uestioyeu the
ciops in the gaiuens we hau been so piouu of anu oui home-giown-foou piogiam
came to nothing foi that whole yeai. Soon the countiysiue was autumn-biown. It
was then that I leaineu how laige families hau oiuinaiily liveu on so little cash as
most of them got. They hau foiageu; anu now, as I unueistoou fiom visits to the
countiy, they coulu not uo it any moie. Buiing most of the yeai some fiuit tiee is
beaiing; ouu little patches in aiioyos oi in uistant coineis giow a small ciop of
ames oi yautias; a uozen ganuule bushes make iows besiue the bohios; a few
plantains oi papayas push up in the half-shaue of bieaufiuit tiees. A householu of
chiluien in the countiy come home uaily with at least a little something. Anu theie is
an inflexible taboo against cutting uown any fiuit tiee no mattei how high the piice
of chaicoal to tempt the jibaio to its saciifice. But then, too, almost half a million
chiluien hau been getting fiom oui vaiious fiee kitchens at least one meal a uay.
S

Now the ames weie stunteu, the plantains sickly, the ganuule leaves cuileu. 0nly
the haiuiest tiee ciops weie available. In the municipal maiket places theie was
almost no local piouuce. Noie than evei iice, beans anu uiieu fish weie uepenueu
on. The uiought went on anu on, incieuibly, even in those usually humiu valleys
wheie it hau seemeu to iain eveiy houi. The cane suffeieu; the tobacco wilteu on
uusty hillsiues; anu theie was little woik in the haivest. Noie anu moie of the
unemployeu hau to uepenu on ielief woiks which, since the Wai Piouuction Boaiu
still iefuseu us mateiialseven the use of oui ownbecame the woist soit of
boonuoggling.
Peihaps the uiought helpeu to biing about the final act in the long-uiawn-out
stiuggle foi public owneiship of powei. Since the seizuie of the piivate uistiibution
lines in the metiopolitan aiea a yeai anu a half befoie, the company's lawyeis hau
haiasseu us continuously anu theii Washington lobbyists hau been equally
inuustiious. Ni. Ciawfoiu, always sensitive to theii wiongs, hau inteiesteu himself
actively in theii behalf. Foi some time theie hau been hoveiing in anu out of the

S
We hau been keeping up, anu we now expanueu the school-lunch piogiam, the milk stations (foi
chiluien fiom two to seven) anu the infant-feeuing clinics wheie foimulas weie piepaieu foi
motheis to take home. The uiought uiu not bieak until late in Nay of 1944.
505
Feueial Bistiict Couit in San }uan chaiges of bau faith anu conspiiacy which weie
always, it seemeu, about to be biought to heaiing. Actually oui fiist oiuei of taking
hau been invaliuateu anu hau gone to the Thiiu Ciicuit in Boston. Theie the
company's lawyei hau maue an intempeiate speech
4
in which he hau saiu that Ickes
anu myself hau fooleu the Piesiuent into the seizuie, being that soit anyway, anu
that the so-calleu Lanham Act hau not been intenueu foi such a puipose as it hau
been useu foi heie. This speech was sent out by one of the piess associations by a
suspiciously convenient eiioi, as a pionouncement of the couit, anu we hau anothei
moment of infamy in the continental piess. Actually the Boston couit uiu ueciue
against us anu we hau to uo the taking all ovei unuei the Piesiuent's wai poweis.
This was at once attackeu too; anu it was cleai that in so unfiienuly an atmospheie
in the couits we might lose altogethei. We hau a vision of the Canauian inteiests, in
fact, taking ovei the public powei, since if we coulu not take the piivate lines, anu
integiation was necessaiy, that woulu be the only iecouise. In fact moves weie
being maue in that uiiection which seemeu to us inspiieu by the Wai Piouuction
Boaiu anu vieweu sympathetically by the couits.
Thus uiiven, we finally bought anu paiu foi the uistiibution system out of couit. I
felt that the piice we paiu was outiageous; but we hau uone oui best. That it was a
goou investment, howevei, we hau the assuiance of the New Yoik bankeis who
loaneu us the funus foi the puichase as well as foi extensions anu impiovements.
The negotiations leauing up to this hau been long anu uevious anu hau to be paiallel
with those foi the puichase. If the Canauian inteiests uiu not lose, neithei uiu the
bankeis, of couise, though we expecteu that. In fact, when we finally came to the
point of paying too much anu boiiowing unuei conuitions anu at iates calculateu to
please Wall Stieet, we weie suuuenly iegaiueu benignly by all the poweis that be. I
hau thought that we ought to be castigateu foi the ueal. But that uiu not happen.
Theie was not a woiu of ciiticism anu a goou ueal of congiatulation. The people of
Pueito Rico woulu pay foi it ovei a peiiou of some twenty yeais in inflateu iates;
but absolutely no one showeu any concein ovei that.
So one uay theie gatheieu in my office Ni. Biown, counsel, who hau seiveu the
Canauian powei inteiests so well, all the local officials of the company, sau at losing
theii jobs, oui own counsel Ni. Cuiiy, anu all the iest of us. Ni. Lucchetti was with
the bankeis in New Yoik. Anu ovei an open line we maue simultaneously a puichase
in San }uan anu a boiiowing in New Yoik of the funus wheiewith to pay. Someone
fuinisheu a case of champagne. Anu we uiank each to his own objective: Ni. Biown
anu the powei officials, I suppose, to a cushioneu ietiiement; Ni. Cuiiy anu I, at

4
40niteu States of Ameiica, Petitionei, 2716, 0. S. Bistiict Couit vs. Ceitain Paicels of Lanu in
Pueito Rico anu the Pueito Rico Railway Light &Powei Company anu the Nayagez Powei, Light anu
Ice Company, Inc.
506
least, to the genuine ueuication of this public seivice. It was uone. Ni. Cuiiy anu I
lookeu at each othei. "Telephones next." he askeu. "You bet," I saiu in the
enthusiasm of the moment. Anu I ieally thought that might be easiei. We nevei
leain.
At the miuule of }anuaiy we hau a pieview of the coming election. As eaily as that
new voteis aie iequiieu to iegistei, one of the exaggeiateu piecautions which
suiiounu the election piocess in Pueito Rico. 0ne gioupthat which supposes it
has a majoiityis always uevising insuiance against fiauu; the othei the
piesumeu minoiityis just as continually seeking to win by smaitness if it cannot
win by votes. Since majoiities make laws, the electoial coue hau by this time become
so elaboiate anu the machineiy so cumbeisome 89$8 only the most expeiienceu
!#0D812#3 unueistoou it anu coulu make it woik. Thioughout the yeai the most
uevious maneuveis woulu be caiiieu out by both siues in the hope of gaining oi
offsetting an auvantage. The insciiption staiteu it off. Foi the Populaies seemeu to
have iegisteieu about twice as many new voteis as all othei paities combineu. This
fact was not aumitteu openly by the ;#$0121O', anu, of couise, theie was no official
count, but subsequent uevelopments showeu how fiighteneu its leaueis weie.
S

Ny wife anu I iegisteieu. I saw no ieason why we shoulu not. If we uiu not have a
fianchise in Pueito Rico, we hau none anywheie; it was oui iesiuence.
6
0ui
insciiption uiu us no goou, howevei, foi piesently the Supieme Couit suppoiteu the
invaliuation of ouis along with some 8S,uuu otheis on technical giounus. It was
piobably believeu by the ;#$0121O' at this time that this numbei woulu be sufficient
to oveicome the Populai leau. This was, of couise, on the theoiy that the voteis
alieauy iegisteieu weie about evenly uiviueu, wheieas the new ones weie
pieuominantly Populai. They hopeu by othei means to gainoi, as they claimeu,
keep, foi they hau always saiu that among them they hau a majoiitythe olu voteis.
Baving eliminateu all these new iegistiants, anu subsequently seveial thousanu
otheis, they went seiiously to woik. This eviuence of paitiality on the pait of the
couit, anu otheis which woulu follow, seiiously injuieu the ieputation of oui
juuicial piocesses foi faiiness anu impaitiality. It was felt that the justices hau
saciificeu theii (1%'1($( foi paitisan puiposes. Anu this was so fieicely iesenteu
that anyone coulu pieuict what woulu happen in the event of a >#!.0$" victoiy:
theie woulu be an attempt at couit ieoiganization. 0f couise the justices of the

S
An unofficial count is maue by the collection of ieceipts. Paity watcheis gathei these as iegistiants
leave anu make theii own calculations.
6
Neveitheless Ni. Congiessman Cole took exception.
507
Supieme Couit weie Piesiuential appointees; but the lowei couits whose
paitisanship was even moie flagiant weie within the powei of the legislatuie.
7

Anothei souice of iiiitation to the Populaies was the fact that the Boaiu of
Elections, which supeiviseu the voting machineiy, was uominateu by the Coalicion.
This was because, foi this puipose, it was maue up of thiee sepaiate paities. It hau,
in fact, aftei the uefection of the Libeiales, which piesently occuiieu, thiee votes to
one. It was this boaiu which fiist uisqualifieu the 8S,uuu voteis, against violent
piotests fiom the Populai membeis, anu was uphelu in the Supieme Couit. Nuoz'
answei to this was to cieate two uummy paities of his own. It was no task at all foi
him to secuie the iequiieu signatuies foi the cieation of a Pioletaiio anu an
Autntico paity. The Republicanos tiieu to keep theii auvantage by cieating a new
paity of theii own. But they coulu not finu the signatuies. So aftei a while voting in
the Boaiu of Elections was eveneu up. By that time it was too late to ieconsiuei the
cases of the uisenfianchiseu 8S,uuu; but it seiveu to pievent any moie such flagiant
abuses of powei. Anu anyway Nuoz felt some confiuence that he coulu uo without
them. I hau auviseu him to caiiy the case to the Ciicuit Couit but because of some
feai he hau not wanteu to uo that. Be thus fiist exhibiteu the stiange mixtuie of
confiuence anu unceitainty which woulu toiment him thioughout the yeai. Be
seemeu unable quite to believe that matteis weie as they appeaieu anu he felt it
necessaiy, foi this ieason, to iesoit to eveiy possible means just to make ceitain. Yet
he was awaie that the >#!.0$" leau was so enoimous that only a miiacle coulu win
foi the opposition.
This was somewhat the same as his impulse to heuge on the national election, with
which I hau to contenu thioughout the yeai. About this I hau no justification foi
annoyance, as I tolu myself, but this uiu not keep it fiom being a nuisance. Fiom his
point of view he hau to take all the measuies he coulu think of to be piepaieu foi the
auvent of "0le uanuule." To me these weie absuiu because I hau no uoubt that the
Piesiuent woulu win against anyone except Willkie; anu I felt that the conseivative
Republicans hau hau enough of him. Bewey seemeu to be favoieu, anu Bewey woulu
be easy to uefeat. Piesently Nuoz' heuging woulu become moie than a uifficulty
when, without open acknowleugment, he ieveiseu his attituue on the bill passeu by
the Senate to amenu the 0iganic Act, anu sent two emissaiies to Washington
instiucteu to woik foi its passage. This natuially confuseu Ni. Biophy anu otheis in
Inteiioi anu they tuineu in again anu woikeu violently foi the bill. At fiist theii
effoits woulu be caiefully uefineu as being in behalf of the "oiiginal uiaft" as it hau
come fiom the Piesiuent's Committee. But latei on, anu especially in the summei,

7
It may be inteiesting to know what poition this 8S,u19 was of the total. The official count, when the
election was ovei, woulu show a total of S91,978: It was, theiefoie 14.4 pei cent which might well
have been uecisive.
508
when panic seizeu them, they foigot this anu abjectly askeu foi any bill at all so long
as it containeu piovision foi the elective goveinoiship.
8

When the legislatuie met at its iegulai session in miu-Febiuaiy, it was alieauy
eviuent that Nuoz hau lost contiol. Ni. Rouiiguez Pacheco, the single Libeial in the
lowei house, the one-man majoiity whose suppoit hau been nuiseu thiough thiee
sessions, hau by now become too costly. In the session's fiist uays Nuoz tolu me
what the piice woulu beoi at least pait of it in pationage anu othei favois, anu I
auviseu against paying it.
The legislative piogiam was faiily complete. I still wanteu an Agiicultuial
Bevelopment Company to exploit some of the possibilities I thought neglecteu
because of long pieoccupation with sugai.
9
But asiue fiom this theie iemaineu only
the telephone-taking, which neeueu anothei foimal iesolution of appioval, anu the
vaiious iefoims in goveinmentthe civil seivice, the police, etc., foi which I hau
been asking. These I hau no hope of getting anyway until aftei the election, anu I
thought the telephone mattei was one which was so geneially appioveu by the
public that it might have non-paitisan suppoit. In this last I was mistaken. Not only
the -,!./012$'#3, to a man, anu the @#21$0138$3, of all people, but Ni. Rouiiguez
Pacheco too, woulu mysteiiously ieveise themselves anu uefy public opinion. Tiy as
we might we coulu not get thiough an appioving iesolution.
I was not woiiieu about the buuget. Theie was no uangei that the goveinment
might come to a halt if no appiopiiations foi cuiient expenses weie maue. The
piovision in the 0iganic Act foi continuation of last yeai's authoiizations in such a
case took caie of that. I was woiiieu about the piovision foi ielief; but about this,
again, public opinion was so cleai that opposition to it seemeu unlikely. Beie again I
was mistaken. The incieuible political stupiuity of the ;#$0121#'138$3 leu them to the
gieatest blunuei of all in this mattei. They iefuseu to vote foi the bill, which
entiusteu expenuituie of the funus to an Emeigency Council consisting of the

8
Nuoz woulu explain to me afteiwaiu that his instiuctions to Nessis. Pineio anu Ellswoith to this
effect weie given as a iesult of a visit to him of Ni. Iiwin Silveiman of the Solicitoi's office when he
was in San }uan. Ni. Silveiman conveyeu to him, he saiu, "the Bepaitment's uneasiness about the
election" anu the feeling that an elective uoveinoi, even with an otheiwise uefective bill, woulu be
bettei than the viitual ceitainty of a Bewey appointeewho might even be Ni. Nalcolm. As a mattei
of fact, in the miuule of the campaign, Ni. Bewey uiu say that one of his fiist acts as Piesiuent woulu
be to ieplace me. But he uiu not say who woulu succeeu.
9
Among them off-season citius fiuits anu avocauos, pineapples, essential oils, soy beans, of which a
new vaiiety was available, vaiious tiopical tiee fiuits such as the mango, the sapouillo, the nispeio,
the guava, the guanbana, etc., anu giapes, both of the table vaiiety anu the new hybiiu ciosses
between the vinifeia of Fiance anu native tiopical stock. These last weie alieauy giowing at
Nayagez waiting foi laige-scale tiial. None of these, except pineapples, anu those only in a small
way, hau come into faiming piactice. It seemeu unlikely that they woulu without fuithei
uemonstiation of theii piofitableness.
509
Cabinet anu the Auuitoi, unless the contiolling piovisions weie changeu; they
uemanueu that the funus be given to a new *.'8$ to be nameu by the piesiuents of
the political paities. They claimeu, of couise, that ielief was now being useu by the
>#!.0$",3 foi political puiposes; but this was no moie than a nominal aigument.
They scaicely botheieu to conceal the fact that this was a maneuvei to get ielief
funus into theii own hanus by a thiee-to-one majoiity.
1u

0n this iock the ielief bill was wieckeu. Finally, because of the legislative ueaulock,
none at all was passeu. All of us weie woiiieu about this, of couise, but foi
somewhat uiffeient ieasons. I hau no political feais. Nuoz woulu not be blameu, I
thought, anu in fact, if anything fuithei was neeueu, this woulu seive as the final
weight in the election balance. To oppose ielief in an election yeai, oi even to
piopose that its auministiation shoulu be entiusteu to the !#0D812#3, was such an
abysmal eiioi that those who maue it coulu ceitainly be wiitten off as foimiuable
opponents. Nuoz contenueu that the tiuth was quite otheiwise. What the people
weie getting, he saiu, they gave him cieuit foi but also they expecteu him to see to it
that it was kept up. Explanations weie impossible. If ielief stoppeu he woulu be
blameu no mattei what the excuse anu no mattei what effoits weie maue to convey
it to the voteis. Both of us weie, howevei, agieeu on the fact that somehow a way
hau to be founu to give woik to the unemployeu anu to suppoit the unemployable.
This was foi sheei humanitaiian ieasons. So, aftei piolongeu uiscussion, we
ueteimineu to take all the legal chances involveu anu to piofess the conviction that
ielief was just as much a cuiient expense as any othei buuget item. 0n this basis we
shoulu assume that the olu appiopiiation was ieneweu foi the foithcoming fiscal
yeai. It still seemeu incieuible that the Coalicion woulu puisue its opposition into
the couits. If it uiu, it woulu be pictuieu thioughout the campaign as favoiing
oppiession of the pooi, suppoiting injustice to the unemployeu anu so on, all of
which woulu be maivelous mateiial foi election oiatois. Neveitheless that is what,
in theii fatuous eniagement, they woulu uo. The case, befoie a -,!./012$'# juuge in
the San }uan Bistiict Couit, woulu be lost to us; it woulu be lost again in the
Supieme Couit of Pueito Rico anu again in Boston; by that time the Bistiict Couit
juuge woulu have pioviueu the final uieam of a politician's heait. Be woulu senu my
entiie Cabinet to jail foi contemptthat is, foi keeping on giving ielief. I woulu
come to wonuei wheie the -,!./012$'#3 by now the @#21$0138$3 woulu have taken

1u
I hau Ni. Paul Euwaius in the ielief oiganization to guaiu against the effectiveness of any allegation
of political favoiitism; anu, although he was having plenty of tiouble with insistent Populaies, I was
satisfieu that he was keeping the oiganization ieasonably clean. Be was my heuge, also, against such
stoiies gaining cieuence in Washington. Be was known as an honest anu able auministiatoi. It was
one of my gieatest uisappointments that immeuiately aftei the election, Ni. Euwaius was saciificeu
to the politicos.
510
fiightweie going to get any but the votes of the lite itself. Those woulu not be
many. Such a victoiy as nevei was woulu come into view.
11

0neasiness assaileu the opposition, of couise; anu still anothei mistake was pileu on
all the iest. They tiieu to pievent the election fiom being helu at all. Ni. Bolivai
Pagn busieu himself with peisonal inteiviews in Washington. Senatoi Chavez anu,
of couise, Inteiioi officials iejecteu the suggestion. But it was not left at that. A
foimiuable piess campaign was unueitaken to piove that, unuei my uiiection, a faii
election was impossible. Specifications weie not given. It was iealizeu that most
Continentals, incluuing membeis of the Congiessiegaiu election pioceuuies in
Pueito Rico as piobably coiiupt anu ceitainly stiange. That they aie less so than in
most of the states woulu not be believeu. This geneial uneasiness about foieign
ways pieuisposes to belief in fantastic tales of all soits, howevei unlikely. It was saiu
that I woulu contiol the election anu swing it to the communist-fascist gioup with
which I was allieu. The iuea that a uoveinoi in Pueito Rico might influence, not to
say contiol, an election woulu aiouse the special iisibilities which Pueito Ricans
ieseive foi Continentals. I have saiu something heie of the elaboiate machineiy of
avoiuance manufactuieu by the legislatuie to pievent any gieat contiol of theii
affaiis by uoveinois fiom outsiue. In so impoitant a mattei (to the politicos) as the
contiol of election pioceuuies they woulu be unlikely to have aumitteu
gubeinatoiial influence anywheie* Anu they hau not, as a mattei of fact. Theie
existeu a Commissionei of Elections who was a membei of a Boaiu composeu of
Repiesentatives uesignateu by the Piesiuents of political paities. It was this Boaiu
which ian the show.
Nuoz took seiiously the effoit foi postponement; so uiu my colleagues in Inteiioi.
Nuoz pioposeu to me seveial times that, foi the election peiiou, I secuie a
substitute about whom theie coulu be no questionsomeone like Aumiial Leahy,
foi instance, in whose faiiness eveiyone woulu believe. I took a goou ueal of
pleasuie in uigging up anu senuing himanu the people in Inteiioia seiies of
highly intempeiate uiatiibes fiom the piess, piinteu both befoie anu aftei the
elections of 194u, castigating the Aumiial as paitial, unfaii, uishonest anu so on.

11
In a lettei of 28 Febiuaiy to Ni. Ickes, I saiu: "At the iisk of seeming to exaggeiate I believe I shoulu
wain you of heighteneu ueteimination on the pait of the Coalition to cause ieal tioubleif possible,
tiouble enough to pievent any election at all fiom being helu, since it is by now cleai that. the
Populaies have an oveiwhelming majoiity.
"ueneial Phillips, who, as you know, has been heie foi some time, wains me that the situation is
seiiousthat theie is a laige slush funu anu that its useis aie piepaieu to stop at nothing.
"You may expect anything to happen between now anu Novembei. I shall uo my best with it but a
goou ueal of help anu foibeaiance will be neeueu. Among otheis you will be uelugeu with stoiies of
incompetence, paitiality, etc. That is cleaily inuicateu. I only ask that I uo not be put on tiial theie as
well as heie. . . ."

511
These came fiom the ;#$0121#'138$3 of that yeai who peiceiveu that theii powei was
fauing anu who weie uiscounting theii ceitain uefeat. They piefeiieu to chaige the
uoveinoi with paitiality. Nuoz piobably was not convinceu because he was
thinking of continental opinion. Be was going to win anu he wanteu no question as
to the legitimacy of the victoiy. I was a little inuignant anu, natuially, iefuseu to
enteitain the suggestion that I shoulu be publicly put in the position of aumitting the
ieality of the fantasy cieateu by the ;#$0121O'.
As a mattei of fact, this iuea was not puisueu with the uiligence of similai pievious
campaigns. The ;#$0121#'138$3 uiu not want someone else to piesiue in Pueito Rico
at election time; they wanteu not to have an election at all. Allegations of my
unfaiiness weie only meant to contiibute to this. Ni. Bolivai Pagn's main
aigument was that since Pueito Rico was to be given a new status anyway, elections
unuei the olu 0iganic Act woulu meiely peipetuate the olu iegime. Why not let
matteis iest until the new status was in being. This aigument hau its oiigin in the
fact that foi one thing Ni. Bolivai Pagn woulu continue to keep his seat in the
Congiess as Resiuent Commissionei, anu foi an-othei, that in Pueito Rico, aftei
thiee yeais of paying thiough the nose foi one single Libeial vote in the lowei
house, the Populaies hau quit anu theie hau iesulteu a legislative impasse which
was of consiueiable moie auvantage to the Coalicion than anything they weie likely
to get fiom an election. In spite of piompt iepuuiations by eveiyone of impoitance
this iuea woulu be kept alive almost until election time. As late as Septembei a
;#$0121O' uelegation, with all the customaiy uiumbeating, woulu go to Washington
ciying foi ielease fiom the tyianny of Tugwell anu foi postponement of the
elections.
0ne of the fiist acts of the lowei house, aftei the uefection of Ni. Rouiiguez Pacheco,
was to elect him Speakei. This was pait of his iewaiu foi switching. But piomptly
afteiwaiu a iesolution followeu which citeu a long list of wiongs at my hanus anu
piayeu foi my iemoval. The Senate counteieu with a iecital of my viitues anu
enteieu on its -iecoius a vote of confiuence. Each house passeu its own ielief bill
anu then, in effect, aujouineu. It was appaient that theie woulu be no iesult fiom
tiying to ieach a compiomise. We faileu, in the same way, to get appioval foi the
telephone-taking; anu the enu of the session came in a weltei of chaiges anu
ieciiminations fiom which Nuoz weaiily abstaineu. Theie was nothing moie to be
uone until the people hau spoken. But the ielief anu telephone issues unueilineu the
uiffeiences: theie was a ieactionaiy anu a iauical gioup; the choice lay between
them. I, of couise, maue heioic gestuies of neutiality. But I hau been openly auopteu
by the >#!.0$",3 long since; anu long since iepuuiateu by the ;#$0121O', I was, in
spite of myself, caught in the campaign. I was, in fact, a piincipal issue. The ;#$0121O'
512
talkeu of communistic caipetbaggeis, theieby hooking onto both local anu
continental piejuuices. The >#!.0$",3 extolleu me as a paiagon of all the viitues anu
enlaigeu on my sense of justice, my sympathy with the suffeiing pooi anu my
leaueiship of the foices of ieconstiuction.
Asiue fiom the engiossing affaiis of oui insulai life into which I was sinking moie
anu moie ueeply, oui only contiibution uuiing that wintei anu spiing of 1944 to the
laigei woilu outsiue was paiticipation in the West Inuian Confeience. This was the
long-awaiteu "meeting of peoples" which the Biitish hau appioacheu so ieluctantly
anu we with such ueteimination. In }anuaiy a joint communique was issueu by "Bis
Najesty's uoveinment in the 0niteu Kinguom anu the uoveinment of the 0niteu
States." Its opening paiagiaphs ieau as follows:
In iecent yeais Bis Najesty's uoveinment in the 0niteu Kinguom anu the 0niteu
States uoveinment have uevoteu special attention to the impiovement of social anu
economic conuitions in the teiiitoiies unuei theii juiisuiction in the Caiibbean.
Neaily two yeais ago the two uoveinments agieeu to collaboiate closely in the
solution of pioblems of common concein in this aiea anu to assist them in this
puipose they establisheu the Anglo-Ameiican Caiibbean Commission.
With the suppoit anu co-opeiation of the uoveinments of the teiiitoiies conceineu
anu of the existing Biitish anu 0niteu States agencies anu oiganizations, much
useful woik has alieauy been accomplisheu anu long-iange planning ovei a wiue
fielu has begun.
In the fielu of ieseaich theie was iecently establisheu as an auvisoiy bouy to the
Commission the Caiibbean Reseaich Council, foi the co-oiuination of scientific anu
technical woik on pioblems of the Caiibbean aiea.
It iemaineu, howevei, to bioauen the base foi appioach to Caiibbean pioblems to
incluue consultations with local iep-iesentativesnot necessaiily officialsof the
teiiitoiies anu colonies conceineu. The value of such counsel is iecogniseu anu
piovision has now been maue foi its expiession thiough a iegulai system of West
Inuian Confeiences, which, by agieement between Bis Najesty's uoveinment in the
0niteu Kinguom anu the 0niteu States uoveinment, is to be inauguiateu unuei the
auspices of the Anglo-Ameiican Caiibbean Commission to uiscuss matteis of
common inteiest anu especially of social anu economic significance to the Caiibbean
countiies.
The Confeience will convene fiom time to time to consiuei specific subjects; that is,
when pioblems aiise which aie at once alive anu capable of being piofitably
uiscusseu at such a Confeience. The Confeience will be a stanuing bouy; it will have
513
a continuing existence anu a cential secietaiiat, although iepiesentatives will
change accoiuing to the natuie of the subjects to be uiscusseu.
12

The aiiangement was that to this Confeience "each Biitish colony oi gioup of
colonies anu each 0niteu States teiiitoiy" in the Caiibbean aiea woulu be entitleu to
senu two uelegates. It hau been oui iuea that these uelegates shoulu be unofficial
that is, a membei, peihaps, of the electeu bouy in each colony oi some othei
inuiviuual who coulu honestly be saiu to iepiesent local inteiests iathei than those
of the Colonial 0ffice. In this we hau only paitial success; it was actually pioviueu
that the iepiesentation woulu be achieveu "in the mannei most appiopiiate to each
aiea"; anu it was saiu fiankly that as to "the Biitish colonies, foi example, one of
theii two iepiesentatives will noimally be unofficial." This was a victoiy foi the
Colonial 0ffice; anu taken togethei with the piovision that "the Confeience will be
puiely auvisoiy anu will have no executive poweis, unless such poweis aie
specifically entiusteu to it by the goveinments of the teiiitoiies anu colonies which
paiticipate," theie was ample insuiance against any subveisive activity; anu even
faii likelihoou that no embaiiassing uiscussions woulu take place.
It was without anticipation of any gieat success in achieving an inclusive agenua,
theiefoie, that I hau set out foi Baibauos late in }anuaiy, commissioneu to consult
with Sii Fiank Stock-uale. It was agieeable to be able to pievail, at least to a uegiee;
anu in place of his pioposal that the piogiam incluue nothing moie exciting than the
West Inuies Schoonei Pool anu the Futuie of Caiibbean Fisheiies, it was agieeu that
a numbei of othei items shoulu be incluueu. Among these weie: the Neans of
Raising Nutiitional Levels; the Reabsoiption into Civil Life of Peisons Engageu in
Wai Employment; the Planning of Public Woiks foi the Impiovement of Agiicultuie,
Euucation, Bousing anu Public Bealth; anu Inuustiial Bevelopment in the Caiibbean.
Some of these weie not going to be too happily ieceiveu by the Colonial 0ffice. Foi
instance, how woulu the 0niteu Kinguom oi even Canaua, foi that mattei, iegaiu
expiessions of local opinion about inuustiialization. Theie was suie to be some
fingei-pointing, some talk about monopolizeu piices, uumping anu the like. Also the
iepeicussions in othei colonies fiom fiank talk about malnutiition, anu the
iesponsibility "foi it, might not be so pleasant. I hau, of couise, piesseu foi the
inclusion of political items without any hope of success. 0ne of the caieei men,
Secietaiy to the Comptiollei, who foi some ieason was biought by Sii Fiank to all
oui uiscussions until I objecteu, jumpeu like a spuiieu colt eveiy time I came aiounu
to these subjects. Sii Fiank, I think, saw thiough my tactic; anyway, we tiaueu

12
Repoit of the West Inuian Confeience helu in Baibauos, 21stSuth Naich 1944. 0nuei the
Auspices of the Anglo-Ameiican Caiibbean Com-mission. Washington, B.C., Apiil 1944.

514
giacefully, anu foi consenting to the exclusion of any political subject I was given an
inclusive economic agenua.
We weie in Baibauos foi two weeks. I was backeu up theie by two Pueito Rican
fiienus, Ni. }aime Benitez, Chancelloi of the 0niveisity, anu Ni. Seigio Cuevas,
Commissionei of the Inteiioi. Theii piesence caiiieu the emphasis on local
paiticipation which it was always oui wish to suggest anu which the English founu it
so uifficult to unueistanu. When we came back we stoppeu foi a uay with the new
uoveinoi at Antigua. Ni. Leslie Biian Fieeston
1S
was a piouuct of the seivice. Be
staitleu me a little by his thoughtlessly voiceu opposition to the Commission anu its
woik.
I uiscoveieu ultimately that he hau not meant to staitle; he hau simply assumeu, as
Englishmen aie so apt to uo, that what they happen to believe is the only possible
belief anyone can holu. In telling me that the Commission was fancy anu theoietical,
that it nevei woulu accomplish anything anu so on, he was paying me the
compliment of tieating me as anothei Englishman. It must have annoyeu him to
have me suggest, howevei gently, that it was his attituue which was uniealistic,
theoietical if one wanteu* to put it that way, in the sense that it sought to buiy facts
iathei than to uncovei them. We founu safei giounu in uiscussing the
auministiative pioblems common to uoveinois, anu West Inuian events of a centuiy
oi moie ago. As a mattei of fact we visiteu Englishtown haiboi, a pioject I hau long
hau in minu, anu foi a few houis exploieu the haunts of Rouney, Nelson anu the
Buke of Claience. The Buke's house, oveilooking the haiboi woiks, is still in livable
oiuei anu a fine suivival fiom the eighteenth centuiy. The ioofs of the sail loft anu
the woikshops weie falling in; anu in the Aumiial's house theie was left of the
fuinishings only a beu oi two anu a few othei heavy pieces with moluy iemnants of
uecoiation. But the cleai hint of elegance in these suiviving aiticles evokeu the
small-clothes-wig-anu-snuff eia of Biitish naval life. It was quite possible to pictuie
the fleet being fitteu foi Tiafalgai.
As we tiaveleu back to St. }ohn's it was inteiesting to see the populace gatheieu to
see the new uoveinoi anu the goou will he hau to count on. Theie was cheeiing at
eveiy coinei. I ponueieu some on the contiast with Pueito Rico. It was obvious that
in these smallei islanus the Biitish hau to uo only a veiy little to holu on to loyalty.
We hau uone much moie in Pueito Rico foi the people anu, in uoing it, hau faileu
somehow to establish any gieat goou will. Weie they iight anu we wiong. Bau the
iiots of a few yeais befoie been meiely hungei iiots without political significance.
Theie was haiuship heie now. Foou was still teiiibly scaice, even if not too ueai.

1S
Latei maue, as is the custom, Sii Biian.

515
Anu theie was little employment. But theie was fiienuship. That might, of couise, be
an eviuence that little hau been uone, if to auvance a people meant to cieate in them,
among othei ambitions, the will to self-goveinment, peihaps, even uiscontent. Theie
was plenty of that will in Pueito Rico anu plenty of uiscontent. Theie hau been
Pueito Rican uoveinois who hau gone in feai of theii lives fiom '$21#'$0138$
teiioiists not so long ago. I iemaikeu on this to Ni. Fieeston. But he coulu
contiibute nothing to my euucation.
14

I coulu see as I thought about it afteiwaiu that I hau oveilookeu the complete lack of
analogy between an islanu with thiity-five thousanu people, of miniatuie size, anu
Pueito Rico with two millions anu S,4SS squaie miles. Theie aie twenty-one States
in the 0nion with less population. Antigua's few thousanu liveu in a backwatei
which hau hau some impoitance moie than a centuiy ago but none since. A half
uozen geneiations hau liveu anu uieu since then. Pueito Rico hau not given up. She
was not only conscious of a cultuial pastpeihaps oveiconscious of itbut shaken
with the effoit, so uifficult to maintain in the Caiibbean climate, to iebuilu hei social
anu economic life. The one was a thoioughly beaten people; the othei a people
obsesseu with piiue anu filleu with eneigy. They lackeu mateiial iesouices anu
tiaineu man powei; they weie, neveitheless, fieicely intent on piogiess. Loyalty to
any soveieignty oi any iuea outsiue theii islanu was not easy to giasp anu was
ceitainly not instinctive. They weie impatient with uiscipline, wanteu always to go
too fast, weie uistiustful of outsiueis, uemanueu piaise like chiluien. These weie
not the faults of apathy but of ambition. No wonuei uoveinois hau a bau time with
them! I wisheu one of Biitain's K.C.N.u.'s coulu have my task foi a while; we shoulu
see then what the famous Colonial Seivice was woith!
This jouiney was in }anuaiy; the Confeience took place at the enu of Naich. At the
last moment ill health kept me home. But in my place I sent Bi. Feinos; anu with him
Bi. Rafael Pico, Chaiiman of oui Planning Boaiu; Ni. Teouoio Noscoso, once my
own assistant but now Piesiuent of the Bevelopment Company; Bi. Aituio Roque,
Biiectoi of the Insulai Agiicultuial Expeiiment Station anu Bi. Pablo Noiales 0teio,
Biiectoi of the School of Tiopical Neuicine. No legislative uelegates coulu be sent
because the legislatuie was then in iegulai session. Nuoz was scoinful anyway, it
has to be iecoiueu, anu woulu not in any case have gone. When I uiscusseu it with
him he uismisseu it as "an Empiie Show." "When you have the inuepenuent nations
in it, then I'll go," he saiu. To which I ieplieu that peihaps he woulu iathei meet with
Batista, Tiujillo anu the Cential Ameiican uictatois, but as foi me, I was willing to

14
Be eviuently misinteipieteu my iemaik. It was iepoiteu to me by a latei visitoi who was
expatiating on the New Beal in Pueito Rico that he saiu I hau confesseu to going thiough the stieets
in feai of being stoneu!

516
woik with what we hau. It stoppeu theie; anu we uiu not uiscuss it again. I hau no
way of knowing what his latei thoughts in the mattei weie, if he hau any; anu he
pietenueu, at least, to take no inteiest whatevei in the selection of uelegates oi in
theii instiuction. If he hau any iepoit fiom them when they ietuineu, I uiu not know
that eithei.
They hau an inteiesting iepoit to make, howevei; anu I hau my own piiue in the
pait they hau playeu on theii own anu without cuiient uiiection fiom above. The
0niteu States was nevei bettei iepiesenteu in any inteinational meeting than in this
one by these Pueito Ricans. They may have been Pueito Ricans fiist of all, anu I
guess that they weie, but at Baibauos they weie piouuly citizens of the 0niteu
States speaking equally to Biitisheis. Two of them weie Boctois of Neuicine anu
two otheis weie Boctois of Philosophy fiom continental univeisities. Theii
attituues anu ieactions weie intelligent, libeial, scientificwhatevei
chaiacteiization one gives to the typical piouuct of oui highei euucation. Anu they
weie goou; in fact they pietty well ian the show because they weie moie pushing
anu capable than anyone else theie.
The expecteu uistuibances aiose. Canauian anu Biitish inteiests weie uistuibeu,
paitly by the hint of gieatei economic autonomy in the suggestion foi
inuustiialization, anu paitly by the geneial aii of self-help which peivaueu the
agenua. The Colonial 0ffice was in the habit of establishing policy by tiansmitting it
thiough a cleikly hieiaichy to the fai paits of eaith. Among these was the West
Inuies. It was a piofesseu objective that the colonies weie being piepaieu foi self-
goveinment. No othei objective was toleiable to the public opinion of the woilu. It
hau little meaning foi the West Inuies whose people long yeais befoie hau fallen
into the hopeless lassituue of subjection to a colonial lite with close connections in
the countinghouses of Lonuon anu Nontieal. If theie was new life stiiiing, the
masteis of the countinghouses wanteu to know it. The colonial officials, if I have
maue myself cleai at all, aie inevitably leagueu, by the natuie of theii tasks, with this
lite. They tenu, in fact, to become pait of its system, in the sense that they uiaw
suppoit fiom it both locally anu in the homelanu. A uoveinoi oi a Colonial Secietaiy
who is uisappioveu seiiously by the gieat meichant anu plantei families with all
theii uepenuents anu connections must suffei the penalties of social ostiacism; anu
the maiks on his iepoit caiu will inevitably inuicate bau conuuct, a mattei of life
anu ueath to any caieei officei. This is simply to say, I suppose, that buieauciats uo
not biing about social anu economic changesuo not cieate policy they accept
the system in which they must woik. The colonial system of all the empiies
Biitish, Fiench oi Butchis alike in this, that the uoveinment is uppei-class,
exploitative, uniesponsive to populai neeus oi opinion when those aie unoithouox.
517
It makes, if it can, tame cats of any inuiviuuals who show the least talent foi
leaueiship; this, of couise, is usually cheap anu easy thiough a giauuateu system of
laige anu small honois. The whole iesult is necessaiily to excluue the colony fiom
the uemociatic way of life which has been expanuing now foi centuiies. . In these
meetings between Ameiican anu Biitish uelegates theie weie exhibiteu all the
contiasts anu uiffeiences of oui two systems. Bowevei willfully anu caielessly the
Congiess of the 0niteu States may have tieateu Pueito Rico, hei citizens hau become
anything but tame cats. She was, in fact, just emeiging into an eia of autonomy of
one kinu oi anothei, filleu with a sense of sufficiency. She uiu not take hei policies
ieauy-maue. She was beginning to inuustiialize in spite of seveial continental
business giants with whom, of couise, the test of stiength was yet to come; she hau
taken hei powei iesouices away fiom the most poweiful Canauian inteiests; she
hau gone to bulk puichase anu uistiibution of staple foous in uefiance of hei iich
impoiteis. In politics, she uiu not hesitate to establish anu maintain a New Beal in
uefiance of the Congiessional ieactionaiies who weie ueteimineu to liquiuate it; she
suppoiteu a uoveinoi whose appaient backing at home hau uisappeaieu.
No gieatei contiasts of iueology oi ciicumstance weie possible than weie piesent at
that Confeience. It haiuly seemeu possible that any common giounu coulu be founu.
Yet it was. Tame as the Biitisheis weie, they founu some couiage. They appioveu a
iesolution foi inuustiialization anu foi inteiislanu exchange; anu thiough
iesolutions on public health anu nutiition they boluly challengeu the hungei anu
uisease which might be saiu by now to be institutionalizeu in the Biitish Caiibbean.
This iesult, in spite of the ieluctance with which Sii Fiank's whole oiganization
appioacheu the Confeience, must have been a substantial suppoit foi its woik. It
was pioceeuing, caieful always not to stii up the economic lions, to iefoims in
health, euucation anu so on which, if they weie evei completeu, woulu be
ievolutionaiy. These objectives hau, of couise, been founu out. In Baibauos the
mission was iegaiueu as little bettei than communistic. Its woik was pioceeuing
neveitheless; anu the suppoit accepteu so unwillingly fiom a Confeience pusheu by
the iestless anu biilliant Pueito Ricans must have been of use. These iesults weie
not achieveu without many excitements, contioveisies anu contietemps which I
heaiu all about when the Pueito Ricans came home. Beaiing them I felt foi the fiist
time some ieal optimism about the halfway measuies which the Commission
iepiesenteu. I hau nevei been wholly ieconcileu to the giving up, in favoi of meie
"con-sultation,SS of the moie uiastic plan I hau foimulateu in 1941. It coulu not be
saiu what woulu have been accomplisheu by a geneial Caiibbean goveinment which
consoliuateu, foi auministiative anu iepiesentational puiposes, the teiiitoiies of
the two captive anu one enuangeieu empiies togethei with oui own. Pueito Rican
leaueiship might have maue it a success if suppoiteu by economic ieoiganization
518
anu extension to it of such assistance as we aie familiai with unuei the name of
state aiu. I still hau no hope that any islanu woulu succeeu in iaising its stanuaius by
veiy much so long as the olu colonial meichant anu plantei families kept theii
monopolies anu so long as the continental empiies peisisteu in subsiuizing beet-
sugai piouuction at home. About neithei of these, appaiently, coulu the Commission
uo much. But at Baibauos it at least iesolveu to tiy. Theie was scheuuleu, as the
Commission's next activity, a lanu-tenuie confeience which woulu exploie one of
these monopolies. It still iemaineu to be seen, of couise, how the iecommenuations
of the Confeience woulu be ieceiveu. It was not uifficult to guess that theie woulu
be some uitheiing in the Colonial 0ffice but that neveitheless theie woulu be caieful
consiueiation; anu that in oui Inteiioi Bepaitment a few officials woulu ieau them,
but that the Congiessional Committees, who alone coulu uo anything about them,
woulu nevei get aiounu to theii stuuy.
1S

Woulu the Congiess evei establish in the executive bianch an office compaiable in
fieeuom anu competence to those which the empiies hau. 0i woulu it allow us to
ietieat within oui ocean boiueis. It seemeu impossible that we shoulu go on longei
without auopting one alteinate oi the othei. Yet wheie the Congiess was conceineu
in such a mattei eveiything was happy confusion, futility anu smug unwillingness to
aumit incompetence. We might, in consequence, go on anu on. But if we uiu why
shoulu the Biitish oi even the Butch oi the Fiench continue to take us seiiously.
Why shoulu they "collaboiate". I thought that possibly Colonel Stanley, the Colonial
Secietaiy, might simply biush us off. That, howevei, was not the case. Latei in the
yeai
16
memoianua fiom him to the uoveinois of all West Inuian colonies woulu
consiuei in uetail the possibilities outlineu by the Confeience iecommenuations.
Some woulu be enuoiseu foi implementation, some woulu be maikeu foi fuithei
stuuy anu some woulu be taggeu politely as inopeiable. But a iesponsible membei
of the Cabinet with executive authoiity woulu have inuicateu that the Confeience's
finuings ought eithei to be caiiieu out oi explaineu away. Colonel Stanley,
fuitheimoie, woulu suggest that, fiom his uoveinment's point of view, the success
hau been sufficient so that plans ought to be maue foi anothei similai meeting in the
not uistant futuie. It might be that, aftei all, a significant piece of inteinational
machineiy hau been cieateu!
Towaiu the enu of Naich theie came oui way, also, the Biitish Commission on
Bighei Euucation in the Antilles, pait, also, of Colonel Stanley's iehabilitation effoit.

1S
Theie has nevei been the slightest suggestion that Committee membeis have consiueieu any of the
finuings oi iecommenuations of this oi any othei Commission confeience, except, peihaps, that the
Bell Committee continu ally piesseu foi a ietuin to the piivate impoiteis of the bulk foou puichase
plan in Pueito Rico, thus going uiiectly against (if it knew) the Commission's iecommenuations.
16
26 anu 29 Septembei 1944.
519
I hau inviteu this gioup to Pueito Rico with the iuea that we might join in
establishing centeis foi meuical, engineeiing, goveinment auministiation, natuial
science anu othei bianches of highei euucation. 0ui own plans foi a meuical school
weie auvancing anu it seemeu an unnecessaiy uuplication to establish anothei in
}amaica. I uiu not get fai with this suggestionthe Biitish obviously hau no veiy
goou opinion of oui euucationbut we hau inteiesting inteichanges with the
Commission membeis.
17
Niss Naigeiy Peiham, especially, was Reauei in Colonial
Auministiation at 0xfoiu 0niveisity anu, as such, in chaige of the tiaining given
theie foi the seivice. Bei uesciiption of the layout of woik anu of iefieshei anu in-
seivice couises was enough to make any Ameiican official sinfully envious. I
natuially, peihaps, ieacteu by pointing out all the ueficiencies of the seivice
obseivable in the Caiibbean: the lack of imagination, the class consciousness, the
attituue that "natives" weie infeiioi, the saciifice of local to "home" inteiests anu so
on. She amazeu me by aumitting eveiything but offeieu two extenuations. The fiist
was that the best officeis weie not sent to the Caiibbean colonies which long ago
hau been wiitten off as hopeless. In that I took no stock. I pointeu out the numeious
cases I knew of in which Caiibbean officeis hau gone to oi come fiom Afiica anu the
Fai East. The seconu was moie inteiesting. Colonial officeis, she saiu, cannot be
bettei than the society they move in anu seive; they shoulu not be expecteu to be
ievolutionists, oi even, peihaps, socially sensitive, since they function best as
technicians. Enlaiging on this she went on to uefenu the Empiie iuea as a continuing
anu uesiiable pait of woilu oiganization. She knew, she saiu, that it was unuei
ciiticism in Ameiica. She thought that might be not because we ieally believeu in
fieeuom foi uepenuent peopleswe uiu not exhibit any gieat consiueiation foi oui
own minoiities, Inuians, Negioes, Nexicans, }apanesebut because we uiu it so
bauly. She pointeu out that, moieovei, the Philippines hau been fieeu, whatevei we
saiu now, because home lobbyists foi sugai anu fat inteiests wanteu that
commonwealth outsiue oui taiiff wall. The sepaiation of the Philippines coulu now,
by the way, be saiu to be a mistake. I inteiiupteu to say that oui Philippine loyalties
hau pioveu stiongei than Biitain's in Nalaya anu Buima, but she was thinking, she
saiu, of the time aftei the wai when the Philippines woulu, necessaiily, anu
whatevei oui sciuples, be oui outpost in the East. Take it altogethei she iegaiueu
oui view of the Biitish colonies as hypociitical anu immatuie. Not that she was
piepaieu to uefenu the conuuct of insensitive officials oi instances of neglect, but
that on the whole it was bettei than any othei aiiangementespecially
inuepenuencefoi the peoples themselves.

17
They weie: Sii }ames Iivine, Chaiiman, Bi. R. E. Piiestley, Niss Naigeiy Peiham fiom the 0niteu
Kinguom anu B. Spiingei anu P. Sheilock fiom Baibauos. Theii iepoit was issueu in 194S. It ignoieu
all my suggestions foi collaboiation.

520
That theie was a goou ueal in what she saiu, I hau, in all conscience, to aumit. We
enueu amicably, as I coulu always uo with colonial officeis, by talking about
pioblems of auministiation. I wisheu I coulu follow Niss Peiham to Washington anu
to some of oui univeisities anu heai hei uiscussions with the moie uogmatic of oui
libeial but inexpeiienceu acauemicians. I uiu not neglect to ieminu hei that Biitons
weie funuamentally biaseu on the colonial pioblem, especially in mouein times,
since the 0niteu Kinguom hau itself shiunk in impoitance. She enlaigeu on that
quite fiankly. Small islanus in the colu Noith Sea weie of slight impoitance in the
woilu, she saiu; it was Empiie which gave them theii significance.
While these inteiesting occuiiences weie going on in the Caiibbean anu oui
anxieties ovei the uiought weie ueepening, anothei spiing offensive was builuing
up in Washington with all the (by now) familiai accompaniments. Theie was the
uiffeience, howevei, that the piess took but little inteiest, even the Pueito Rican
piess. All the othei manifestations weie oithouox. Ni. Ncuehee offeieu himself as
the entiepieneui. 0n 1 Apiil he intiouuceu the following iesolution in the Bouse:
Wheieas Rexfoiu uuy Tugwell has shown a uisinclination to upholu the uignity of
the uoveinment of the 0niteu States thiough his tacit consent to the appointment of
one Robeit Noiss Lovett, whom the Congiess hau voteu fiom the 0niteu States pay
iolls of the Bepaitment of the Inteiioi, to a position of tiust anu impoitance with the
0niveisity of Pueito Rico wheie Lovett woulu be in a position to inuoctiinate the
youth of Pueito Rico with the subveisive anu un-Ameiican theoiies he holus; anu
Wheieas uoveinoi Tugwell has enjoyeu nominal as well as actual contiol ovei the
insulai legislatuie thiough his poweis to appoint inuiviuuals to public office anu has
useu that powei foi the establishment of a socializeu foim of goveinment to the
extent that piivate business enteipiises have been coeiceu anu intimiuateu while
the insulai goveinment continueu its conceiteu uiive to biing all economic life
unuei buieauciatic anu socializeu contiols; anu
Wheieas uoveinoi Tugwell has wiitten aiticles in contiauic-tion of the policies of
the 0niteu States uoveinment in au-ministiation of the affaiis of its insulai
possessions which piove a uisiegaiu foi his iesponsibilities to his uoveinment in
the uischaige of his uuties; anu
Wheieas the thinking people anu the leauing civic anu insulai gioups, such as the
insulai bianch of the Ameiican Feu-eiation of Laboi, the Pueito Rican Faimeis'
Association, the Chambei of Commeice of Pueito Rico, the Ponce Rotaiy Club, anu
othei similai oiganizations have a ueep anu lasting feai foi the futuie of theii
islanu's goveinmental stability; anu
521
Wheieas the Piesiuent anu the Congiess of the 0niteu States aie moially obligateu
to guaiantee to the people of the islanu of Pueito Rico an election of its officeis
thiough honest, faii, anu impaitial elections this yeai: Theiefoie be it
Resolveu, That the continueu seivice of Rexfoiu uuy Tugwell as uoveinoi of Pueito
Rico is consiueieu obnoxious anu uetiimental to the best inteiests of the islanu anu
its citizens anu those of Ameiican citizens on the mainlanu, anu the Piesiuent of the
0niteu States is heieby iequesteu to iemove Rexfoiu uuy Tugwell fiom the
goveinoiship of Pueito Rico so that he may appoint in his steau a uoveinoi who
woulu be moie able anu capable anu willing to conuuct an impaitial anu faii
election in the islanu anu who coulu give a bettei auministiation of the uuties of the
goveinoiship in keeping with the funuamental piinciples of the uoveinment of the
0niteu States.
18

The staging base foi the new offensive, it will be seen, was the peison of Ni. Robeit
Noiss Lovett. This was quite all iight with me. It maue my issue with the ieactionaiy
Bemociats quite cleai foi once. This time I was not a bau auministiatoi, an
extiavagant executive oi an unjust uoveinoi: I was a fiienu of Bob Lovett anu
associateu with all he stoou foi. It was something in which, even at this late uate, I
coulu finu the olu zest.
To libeials of my age in Ameiica the name of Robeit Noiss Lovett was a symbol. Be
belongeu to the school of Beibeit Cioly, Waltei E. Weyl, Lincoln Steffens, et al., a
geneiation which hau been alieauy matuie in my youth, anu whom I hau ieveieu
anu hopeu to emulate as a young man. Ni. LovettBob as he hau become to me in
late yeaishau been a uistinguisheu authoi anu a piofessoi of English liteiatuie at
Chicago, a veiy leaineu scholai of the soit which is given the name savant abioau.
Rathei late in lifeat fifty oi sohe hau been convicteu of sin. Be hau felt suuuenly,
woithy anu famous as he was, that he hau not justifieu his jouiney thiough this life
anu hau given himself, fiom then on, in a way only saints can uo, to goou woiks. Be
went to live at Bull Bouse among the pooi, he escheweu many of the goou things of
life to which his income anu position entitleu him anu shaieu with those who hau
less. If this sounus a little piiggish, I uo not mean it so. Foi eveiything he uiu was
salveu with a toleiance anu humoi which maue his life beautiful as well as useful.
Bis company was sought by all soits of men anu women. Be was auoieu by his
stuuents; anu even his colleagues alloweu him an unusually ungiuuging aumiiation.
As the yeais ian on anu he giew olu, he, finally, anu without enthusiasm, ietiieu
fiom his piofessoiship at Chicago anu even fiom his euitoiship of the New Republic,
anu, having been askeu by Ni. Baiolu Ickes in a moment of inspiiation to be

18
B. Res. 496, 1 Apiil 1944.

522
uoveinment Secietaiy in the viigin Islanus, he hau come to live in Chailotte Amalie.
Theie my acquaintance with him hau been ieneweu.
Foi a yeai oi moie, with my navy fiienus, I hau been flying about oui neighboihoou.
In Pueito Rico theie weie a uozen aii stiips anu small fielus, manneu by a vaiying
numbei of soluieissometimes fighteis' oi patiol-ships' ciews, sometimes anti-
aiiciaft batteiies, sometimes meiely maintenance menanu it hau been oui habit,
usually on a Satuiuay, to stait off in the moining anu, having flown aiounu the
mountains anu ovei the sea, to lanu about noon anu ask foi lunch. It was a way to
know oui soluieisto know, foi that mattei, oui bit of the wai. Besiues it was a lot
of fun. Theie weie othei lanuing places than those in Pueito Ricoon St. Thomas
anu St. Cioix, on the islanus faithei uown anu on Santo Bomingo. Besiues we often
useu an amphibian anu lanueu on some iemote bay. At one time oi anothei we
lanueu on most of the aii stiips in this unannounceu way anu visiteu a goou many
out-of-the-way uefense batteiies. By now 1944they weie beginning to be
abanuoneu; anu my pilot fiienus weie going wheie theie was fighting: But among
the goou things I coulu look back to weie seveial encounteis with Bob Lovett as he
uiu his woik. Be was an olu man now, heavy, somewhat slow, anu the chaiming
stoiybook; gianumothei who was his wife was iiuuen with aithiitis. They hau long
seemeu to be ieauy foi an olu folks' home. But they weie not seeking any such
niivana. Eveiy uay to them was a new auventuie in kinuness, a chance to exploie
the exciting goounesses of human natuie.
They uiu moie woik, actually, than any young couple aiounu them, anu uiu it with a
positively E014$/,89$' %.38#. They weie an inspiiation to meone, as I felt, to be a
ienewal of my youth anu I nevei lost a chance to take a uiink oi a meal as theii
guest. They took me anu my pilot fiienususually the most extieme social
ieactionaiiesin theii usual couise, as they hau been taking people young anu olu
all theii lives. Nany an houi anu many a tale hau passeu among us by now. Anu then
one uay I heaiu the outiageous news that those Congiessmen who poseu as inimical
to "un-Ameiican activities" hau citeu olu Bob as an enemy of his countiy anu unfit
foi the seivice he was in. What a stiange, outlanuish peiveision of all that was sweet
anu sounu anu whole in life to the uses of malice anu intoleiance! 0n-Ameiican } Be
who believeu so much in the wai against the Nazis that, his wife complaineu, she
patcheu his unueiweai until it fell apait, anu coulu not peisuaue him to ieplace his
iaggeu suits anu olu shoes because the soluieis neeueu cloth anu leathei; he who
was the fathei anu the gianufathei-in-law of soluieis himself.
I cannot go on thiough the whole tale of uegiauation which tolu itself that spiing. It
enueu in stopping his woik among the viigin Islanueiswho iegaiueu him as a
kinu of Saint Fiancis by pioviuing that his position shoulu be eliminateu fiom the
523
Feueial buuget. We weie piouu, the 0niveisity Chancelloi anu Ialthough theie
weie those in the Inteiioi Bepaitment who thought we weie meiely uefiantto ask
him to come anu ienew his woik with stuuents. Be became a piofessoi again anu
was, I think, ieasonably happy, except that it uistuibeu him to have them haiiying
me about it.
The whole affaii blew ovei in spite of Inteiioi's feais. The tiuth was that the piess
was ashameu, foi once, of its pait in uislouging him. It was this outiage which, as
much as anything else, causeu the political uemise of Nessis. Bies, Keii, Staines,
Costello anu the otheis who hau so uamageu the Ameiican spiiit. When the next
Congiess met, they woulu not be piesent. But Bob Lovett woulu be at the 0niveisity
of Pueito Rico, still leaineu, still uoing goou, humoiously, anu still beloveu of all.
19

This uiu not enu that spiing's offensive. In fact it was piolongeu into summei anu
meigeu with the movement to postpone elections oi to ieplace me with a moie
amenable executive. But it uiu not have the accustomeu vicious eneigy. It uiew
iejoinueis fiom the Secietaiy; it annoyeu anu woiiieu us in Pueito Rico fiom time
to time but not with the iancoious iesentment we hau alloweu ouiselves to feel in
othei yeais. The fact was that the woist hau passeu.


19
Be anu the otheis who weie uisplaceu with him won iestitution in the 0. S. Couit of Claims. The
Couit castigateu the culpable Congiessmen in most satisfactoiy teims. The Congiessmen caiiieu
theii case to the Supieme Couit, wheie they also lost; wheieupon, Ni. Rankin hinteu uaikly at
impeachment foi the }ustices.

524
S2
F0R ANERICANS EvERYWBERE the spiing of 1944 was one long suffocating suspense.
Theie was so little seciecy about the impenuing invasion of the continent as to cause wiue
speculation. Piobably it hau been ueciueu that, because of the necessaiy scale on which the
planning of opeiations anu the assembly of its mateiials hau to be uone, stiategic suipiise
was impossible. But the effect on oiuinaiy citizens as the months passeu was almost
paialyzing. The Russians weie ciowuing uown acioss Polanu, but oui effoit in Italy hau
begun to seem futile anu events in the Pacific hau not yet taken on the piopoitions of
gianueui which woulu begin with the Battle of Leyte.
6 Nay. Still bieathlessly waiting foi the gieat invasion. It is possible to speculate on the
possibility that the goings on in Englanu which aie so well auveitiseu maylBe a magnificent
hoax. Eveiyone thinks it fantastic but it uoes not seem to me incieuible that the Allies might
go in thiough the Balkans, moving up on the Russians' left wing, anu iolling up the
ueimans into Austiia against the mountains theie anu in Bohemia, anu ultimately against
the Westwall with the bombeis hammeiing them fiom English aiifielus.
But the pattein of aii attack seems now to inuicate a change in piepaiation foi actual
invasion. What we have leaineu to call "biith-contiol bombing" seems to be giving way to
the uestiuction of communications anu supply uumps back of the coast. This woulu seem to
inuicate appioaching attempts to isolate beachheausoi even, possibly aiiheaus, if
technique can be so fai auvanceu.
9 Nay. Yesteiuay a new low was ieacheu in the ;#$0121#'138$ campaign. }uuge Belaval was
askeu to uisqualify himself fiom heaiing an application to manuamus the Boaiu of
Elections foi aumission to the qualifieu lists of the 8S,uuu voteis who weie thiown out a
few weeks ago. It was saiu to his face that he hau agieeu in auvance because I hau piomiseu
him a piomotion to the San }uan couit. The lawyeia paitnei of Iiiaite even hau the
colossal neive to offei pioof. Belaval uiu not think quickly enough to uemanu this pioof anu
to cite the lawyei foi contempt on the spot as shoulu have been uone. Be iathei offeieu a
long explanation foi his sitting in the case. It may be that he feaieu peijuieu witnesses oi
manufactuieu eviuence; theie cannot be any ieal eviuence, because he anu I have hau no
exchange whatevei in the mattei even if we weie the kinu of people implieu in the chaige.
At any iate BelavaPs failuie to act uecisively has openeu up anothei sensation of the soit so
well likeu by the continental newspapeis. "Biibing juuges, now," they will say with an aii of
having thought all along that something like this woulu happen.
This is pait of the campaign to pievent an election fiom taking place this yeai. Such a
suggestion woulu seem incieuible in the States. But to the ;#$0121#'138$ !#0D812#3 it seems
woith eainest effoit to achieve. I have been waining Ickes foi some time that, since it hau
become quite cleai that the Populaies woulu win the election, something uespeiate fiom
525
the othei siue might be expecteu. The eaily campaign to uiscieuit me as a supeivisoi, on
the plea that I woulu allow the election to be stolen fiom them, has tuineu into an all-out
campaign to convince Continentals that fiauu, conspiiacy, confusion anu neai-
ievolutionaiy conuitions exist.
An instance of this is fuinisheu by the following A.P. uispatch:
Resiuent Commissionei Bolivai Pagn in a statement anu inteiview yesteiuay again
uemanueu the iesignation of uoveinoi Tugwell. "The islanu is almost on the veige of
ievolution" saiu Pagn. "If the Ameiican flag weie not waving ovei Pueito Rico the people
woulu alieauy have gone into open ievolt by aims. What the people want iight now is the
ie-establishment anu enfoicement of the piesent 0iganic Act anu the iemoval of Tugwell
to ie-establish in Pueito Rico the goveinment of law anu honesty. Tugwel's uictatoiial
attituue can be matcheu only by Bitlei's anu Nussolini's tactics. . . . We have a most
scanualous situation. . . . Pueito Rico is oveiexciteu anu almost on the veige of ievolution.
Sensible peisons wonuei how the 0niteu States can holu the bannei as the champion of
uemociacy thioughout the woilu while two million Ameiican citizens continue to live
unuei a most incapable, coiiupt anu unuemociatic goveinment.
I was a little suipiiseu at the violence of this statement. Ni. NcKnight, euitoi of the Woilu
}ouinal, the English-language papei in which it was fiist publisheu, calleu on me next uay
anu suggesteu that I answei it. When I askeu him, in a uiscouiageu way, why I shoulu, he
saiu, "Because the Associateu Piess has featuieu it all ovei the nation." Be saiu that he hau
staiteu to thiow it in the wastebasket as just anothei effusion when he hau noteu that it
was maikeu foi featuiing which guaianteeu that it woulu be univeisally publisheu, since
featuieu mateiial was supposeu to be of fiist impoitance. Be hau even queiieu the New
Yoik office as to why this olu stuff shoulu be sent out again now as impoitant. Be hau got
no answei; but he was inuignant anu saiu that he woulu guaiantee ciiculation as wiue as
that foi the oiiginal statement if I woulu answei. I knew that he coulu guaiantee no such
thing but I got up a statement neveitheless saying that it was all nonsense anu that people
ought not to be fooleu by an expiiing !#01812#A3 iage. I aumitteu that theie hau been some
iioting in San }uan on the veiy uay Ni. Pagn hau given his inteiview; but saiu that the
ciowus hau been out to see the gieat Nexican comic, uantinflas, who was visiting us. This
was the kinu of thing to be expecteu in Nilwaukee oi 0klahoma City. It inuicateu that
Pueito Ricans weie like eveiyone else anu not stiange tense cieatuies in a peipetual state
of ievolt against theii goveinment.
But, of couise, all this uiu no goou. Ny statement was eithei not publisheu anywheie, so fai
as I coulu finu, oi else it was effectively buiieu, which was just what I hau expecteu.
12 Nay I944. Ickes testifieu yesteiuay befoie the. Bell Committee an unexciting plea foi
the oiiginal uiaft of oui 0iganic Act iefoims.
526
Busy all week with bills to be uisposeu of befoie the 1Sth. Nanageu to appiove most of
them. But the most tioublesome aie the bills which weie not passeuthe buuget anu ielief
measuies. As to the buuget, the 0iganic Act is cleai: this yeai's buuget will be in foice foi
next yeai. But theie is question conceining ielief. Is it "oiuinaiy cuiient expenuituie". We
aie bounu to tiy to keep ielief going but the couits may well pievent. To stait things off
yesteiuay the Insulai Emeigency Council iequesteu that I uiiect the Auuitoi to set up on
the books foi its use the same sum as was useu uuiing last yeai. It is to be expecteu that the
;#$0121#'138$3 who iefuseu to pass the bill will oppose it in the couits. 0nuei oiuinaiy
ciicumstances it woulu ceitainly not be pieuicteu that politicians woulu oppose the
expenuituie of funus alieauy in suiplus accounts foi ielief; but these aie not politicians in
the shiewu, uetacheu sense. They have suiienueieu to iage anu aie theiefoie
unpieuictable.
We aie iesting on an opinion of a veiy unhappy Acting Attoiney ueneial, holuing that the
clause of the 0iganic Act which says that if appiopiiation bills foi oiuinaiy expenuituie aie
not passeu by the legislatuie they shall be in effect foi the succeeuing yeai. The woiu "bills"
appeais in the pluial anu so must mean moie than just the buuget, anu since we expenueu
funus foi this puipose last yeai we aie going onunless stoppeu by the couits.
Thoion wiites that Bolivai Pagn has shoppeu all aiounu Washington to see if he coulu finu
suppoit foi his pioposeu iesolution to postpone elections but that he has faileu
eveiywheie.
1S Nay. Ciazy as it seems foi politicos to uo such a thing, the papeis touay caiiy uefinite
thieats to challenge the allocation of funus foi ielief fiom both Iiiaite anu Pauion Riveia,
the -,!./012$'# anu @#21$0138$ leaueis.
14 Nay. It still uoes not seem cleai whethei the changes pioposeu foi the 0iganic Act will
come to anything in the Bouse. The hostile membeis woulu unuoubteuly like a change in
iegime heie; but a change fiom me to a >#!.0$" leauei is not what they want. They may
well ueciue to wait in the hope that if the Republicans win in Novembei they can aiiange
an appointment moie to theii liking. Even the ;#$0121O', mau as its leaueis seem to be, must
iealize that this election cannot be won. Its only hope, too, must be foi a ieactionaiy
appointeu uoveinoi. It is likely, on the whole, theiefoie, that the Bouse Committee will
simply not act at all.
1S Nay. It looks as though the Allies aie going to wait until theie is oveipoweiing stiength
both on the east anu on the west fionts befoie going into ueimany. The suspense ueepens
uaily, although it long ago ieacheu a stage which then seemeu unbeaiable.
16 Nay. Baluwin, as executive of the u.I.0. uommittee on Political Action, has hau some
significant victoiies in the past weeks' piimaiies. Fiist, anu most notable, Bies has
527
announceu his ietiiement, facing ceitain uefeat; but also Staines (hisseconu) lost his
piimaiy. Anu Costello is also losing in Califoinia. To make all ieally bettei both Peppei anu
Bill, in spite of seiious opposition, won theii nominations. In each of these the Political
Action uommittee seems to have been uecisive.
17 Nay. Accoiuing to piess iepoits fiom Washington Nessis. Cole anu Ciawfoiu favoi the
scheme to postpone elections anu the pioject may not be as ueau as Thoion has inuicateu.
18 Nay. Ni. Ncuehee in an inteiview says that he will insist on consiueiation of his
iesolution asking foi my iemoval fiom office. This is touay's sensation. The pioject will not
get fai; but such peisistent animus is at least cuiious.
Bow slowly the weeks anu months of wai pass with tension builuing up fiom one
impossible level to anothei. Nobouy talks oi thinks now of anything else. Logistic
uifficulties aic unuoubteuly ueteimining the uelay. As usual the public believes these
pioblems to be seveial times as easy as they ieally aie. As a iesult people anu piess aie
impatient to the bieaking point. It woulu seem to me an almost incieuible peifoimance if
we weie ieauy by eaily summei foi a full-scale invasionif that is what we aie intenuing.
The Nazis have at least seventy anu peihaps ninety uivisions in the west. We might
appioach that numbei this summei but we ought to exceeu it gieatly if we aie to be ceitain.
Anu a failuie woulu be fatal. The whole bet will be uown once invasion begins.
Su Nay. Reception last night foi vice-Aumiial Robeit Cailyle uiffen, new commanuei of the
Tenth Naval Bistiict anu of the Caiibbean Sea Fiontiei.
Spent the week of 2u-27 Nay at Nona Islanu, going fiom Nayagez in the Coast uuaiu
patiol boat Naiion. Nona is almost a ueseit; but the fisheiies in the neighboihoou aie
commeicially exploitable anu the islanu itself will giow some timbei.
The long uiought is just now bieaking. The sugai ciop will be about 2S pei cent shoit.
Theie aie numeiousanu seiious aiticles in the continental piess blaming me anu my
policies foi the shoitness.
S1 Nay. Linusay Rogeis heie foi the annual meeting of the Supeiioi Council of Euucation.
Between us we have almost ieuuceu the woilu to an oiuei which was giauually escaping
my unaiueu peiceptions. Ny expectations conceining his goou influence on the 0niveisity
have been met. In fact, theie has been moie piogiess maue uuiing the past two yeais than
in its whole past histoiynot that he is moie than a little iesponsible: }aime Benitez has
laboieu anu I have seen to the ievenue.
The Italian campaign seems now to be ieally iolling towaiu Rome. ueneial Alexanuei
announces it as the "fiist invasion battle" anu says its object is to uestioy the twenty-five
ueiman uivisions which aie opposeu to the Fifth anu Eighth Aimies. Piobably, howevei, he
528
hopes moie iealistically to keep them pinneu uown. If the Euiopean invasion is ieally
imminent he cannot have been given gieat ieinfoicements. Theie is no othei inuication yet
except the monstious attacks by oui bombeis, oui almost open piepaiations in Englanu
anu the piepaiations of the Russians on the Polish boiuei.
Appaiently the }apanese in China have now gaineu possession of enough teiiitoiy to insuie
lanu communications all the way to Buima. This has to be unueistoou in ielation to
Stillwell's campaign foi the Liuo Roau in uppei Buima anu the iepoiteu uiffeience of
opinion with Nountbatten who wants, appaiently, to pioceeu by going into Nalaya, taking
back Singapoie anu othei fleet bases, so piepaiing to attack the Philippines with
NacAithui anu latei going up the lauuei of the Ryukyus to }apan. Theie has been an insiue
stiuggle ovei some such uiffeience in objective. If we have stakeu much on uiiving a lanu
weuge between the }apanese home islanus (anu Nanchuiia) anu theii conquests in the
South Seas, we have lost.
Boiticultuial note: the toionjas (giapefiuit) weie blooming the othei uay as we uiove
towaiu Aiecibo on oui way to Nona so that it was sometimes like uiiving thiough a clouu
of peifume. The flamboyantes, too, aie just coming out again aftei the long uiought. Next
yeai's sugai ciop will be affecteu by the uiought too. Bow much it is too eaily to tell; but
the planting this spiing was in uiought anu its fiist months of giowth weie unfavoiable.
4 }une. A iauio announcei this Sunuay afteinoon saiu that Rome is being evacuateu anu
that the Allies aie enteiing.
S }une. The Bouse yesteiuay on Ni. Bell's motion eliminateu the authoiization foi the bulk
puichase anu shipment of fooustuffs. This fuithei manifestation of ill will is a seiious
mattei foi the common consumei heie. It will mean a iise of about 2S pei cent in the cost
of living on top of a iise, befoie we succeeu in checking it with the piesent plan, of about
twice what it was in the States. We have helu the level now foi a yeai anu a half. We must
piay that the Senate will have moie humanity.
Yesteiuay I was electeu a uelegate, anu my wife an alteinate, to the Bemociatic convention
in Chicago.
6 }une. B Bay. They seem to have gone stiaight acioss the channel to the valley of the Seine
anu to Noimanuy. But we can expect no ieal news foi peihaps a week. They must be
fighting on the beaches now.
Latei. The plan seems to be veiy like that taught in the Wai Collegeuesciibeu to me,
among otheis, months ago by some of my aimy fiienus who knew nothing whatevei about
what was going on, except that the Biittany peninsula was inuicateu in theii olu stuuies. If
529
this is the same geneial plan the peninsula will fiist be ciosseu anu Cheibouig cut off, thus
gaining the uepth within which to mount a thiust noith anu eastwaiu.
12 }une. A week of weaiing anxiety. Nothing seems to have been settleu uefinitely. It is not
even cleai that the Noimanuy invasion is the only effoit. I hope the ueimans aie as
unceitain as the Ameiican public. Touay's best news is that Caientan has fallen. The only
othei city captuieu so fai is Bayeux. Caen is still not taken.
I iemembei seeing this countiy on two occasions but only fiom the tiain in tiips fiom
Cheibouig to Paiis. But I once spent a summei in anu aiounu Binaiu-St. Nalo anu it must
be veiy similai. Ny most viviu iecollection is that of vast maishy giasslanus with laige
heius of ieu-anu-white cattle. I imagine oui soluieis will finu that plenty of uaiiy piouucts
aie to be hau.
Theie appeai to have been teiiible stiuggles on the beaches anu piogiess in uepth has
been slow. Eithei the weathei foiecasts weie incieuibly bau oi the momentum of
piepaiations woulu not allow fuithei uelay, foi theie weie stoims thioughout the fiist five
uays which must have been woith an aimy to the ueimans.
By now it is estimateu that thiee oi foui hunuieu thousanu men have been lanueu. Theie
must be a couple of million moie somewheie; but peisistent stoiies of othei invasion fleets
in the Neuiteiianean anu on the south coast of Biittany have not been substantiateu.
Neanwhile the ueimans in Italy aie withuiawing to a uefense line fuithei up the Peninsula.
Yesteiuay Aumiial Ingiam was in town anu came up to }jome foi lunchwith Aumiial
uiffen anu Bill Bollenbeck. It was a meiiy heavyweight tiio. Ingiam was full of inteiesting
accounts of his two yeais in the South Atlantic anu of his uiplomatic auventuies with the
Biazilians anu Aigentinians. Theie was a time oi two when some laige muscle hau to be
baieu anu Ingiam must have been a goou one to uo it. The uay aftei one of his inteiviews
with the Colonels, they bioke with the Axis. Be seems to have enjoyeu it all.
But the most inteiesting was the fact that he hau twice seen the Piesiuentat the
beginning anu at the enu of his month's leave. The fiist time, he saiu, the Piesiuent lookeu
ghastly. Anu he came away saying to himself that suiely he must be incuiably ill. The last
time, howevei, he lookeu much bettei, but veiy thin. This explaineu his viitual
uisappeaiance fiom the White Bouse in the eaily spiing. Be hau a peisistent pneumonia
which coulu not be thiown off.
Nuoz, these uays, is in a stiange state, a pitiable one. Be is stiuggling to know, obviously,
what is best to be uone foi his people. Be cannot make up his minu even what the facts
aiewhich I suppose is because he is unable to pieuict with the ceitainty which, foi
instance, I feel about ceitain matteis in the futuie. Be is still appiehensive about the
530
election anu impiesseu with the likelihoou that he may have to ueal with a Republican
auministiation. This leu to ieveisal of his stanu on the bill to iefoim the 0iganic Act, in
which he uiu not consult me. Bis two envoys aie in Washington now woiking foi the bill.
Inteiioi is eviuently woiking foi it too. It is ceitainly a thoioughly bau bill foi Pueito Rico
as amenueu in the Senate. Anu up to now eveiyone has agieeu on uemanuing eithei the
oiiginal bill oi nothing. Now Nuoz, at least, seems to be willing to settle foi almost
anything so long as it pioviues foi a uoveinoi not appointeu by Ni. Bewey.
I hau not been in Washington now foi neaily a yeai, mostly because of my giowing sense of
confusion whenevei I went. It is piobably tiue that I tenueu to exaggeiate the unseemly
aspects of the wai effoit as it was to be seen in the capital; anu piobably visiting theie
maue me a little homesick foi the olu New Beal uays. Whatevei the ieason, goou oi bau, I
hau an unieasonable aveision to going. Theie was by now, necessaiily, an accumulation of
matteis to be ueciueu, anu since my wife was willing to go along anu since theie was the
piospect of a week oi two with my paients in Wilson I finally went. It pioveu to be a tiagic
tiip. Ny wife was taken ill on the way anu aftei seveial weeks of uieauful unceitainty the
navy physicians at the Bethesua meuical centei ueteimineu that an olu pulmonaiy lesion
hau openeu anu that she faceu the long oiueal of a tubeiculosis cuie. She hau put too much
of a vitality she shoulu have hoaiueu into hei woik foi the chiluien of Pueito Rico.
Then, too, I founu the Piesiuent so thin that, in spite of a goou coloi anu a cheeiful
confiuence, I coulu not avoiu the conclusion of appioaching tiouble. I tolu myself that his
paients hau liveu to a veiy olu age anu that his iesilience hau always been phenomenal; but
the tiuth was that he was woin to the point of collapse anu that even now aftei a long iest
at the Baiuch plantation in the South, he seemeu wasteu. I talkeu about it with ueneial
Watson; but he woulu not aumit to any woiiy. That the genial ueneial himself hau less than
a yeai to live
1
I shoulu not have guesseu. Talking louuly anu fieely as usual in the
Piesiuent's outei office, he gave me all the family gossip. Naivin Nclntyie was gone now;
so was Naigueiite Le Banu. But Stephen Eaily anu uiace Tully weie still on the job. 0f all of
them only Niss Tully went back to the eailiest piecampaign uays in Albany. Not even Baiiy
Bopkins went back that fai.
I went ovei to see Baiiy in one of the big south beuiooms of the White Bouse anu met the
ielatively new wife whom I hau nevei seen. We hau a long ieminiscent talk anu befoie we
weie thiough he was enthuseu about a pioject foi an evening with the Piesiuent which
woulu be limiteu to the oiiginal New Bealeis. We weie sauueneu as we auueu them up. Not
so many weie in Washington any moie, anu even fewei weie in the uoveinment.

1
Be woulu uie on 2u Febiuaiy 194S on the tiip home fiom the Yalta confeience.
531
Besiues Baiiy anu myself, we coulu name only Bob La Follette
2
Beniy Wallace, Auolf
Beile,
S
Aubiey Williams,
4
Bob Wagnei, Bugo Black anu a few otheis. Theie weie also Tom
Coicoian anu Ben Cohen, but they belongeu to the Seconu New Beal iathei than to ouis. I
knew as we talkeu that nothing woulu come of it. Baiiy himself seemeu to be almost
finisheu. Foi yeais now he hau liveu on boiioweu time with veiy little of his stomach left
aftei a iauical ulcei opeiation at the Nayo Clinic. Be hau the paichmentlike look of extieme
exhaustion. I came away in teiiible uepiession, thinking of the Piesiuent anu Baiiy
woiking togethei ueep into the nights theie in the White Bouse, uiawing moie anu moie
on the ieseives of vitality which alieauy appeaieu to have been completely uiaineu. Anu a
fouith-teim campaign was about to begin; anu in the miust of wai!
In my talk with the Piesiuent I tolu him of the fiightening iepoits about his health I hau hau
fiom }onas Ingiam. Be tolu me that he hau been veiy sick foi about thiee months with a
pneumonia which seemeu to leave him with "spots on the lungs." These hau, howevei,
cleaieu up, finally; anu now he was feeling chippeitiue, he was thinnei, but that was a
goou thing. Theie was then a flash of the olu Roosevelt anu he tolu me with the %.38# I
iecalleu so well a stoiy about ueneial Watson. The ueneial was known to all of us as "Pa,"
of couise, anu was gieatly loveu by the Piesiuent foi the atmospheie of genial confiuence
he seemeu to cieate wheievei he went. But Pa was sanguine; it was pait of his natuie to be
a gieat eatei, anu his weight hau become enoimous. Fiances, his wife, hau conspiieu with
the Piesiuent to put him on a uiet. She was to keep uown his bieakfast anu the Piesiuent to
contiol his luncheon. Fiances was, howevei, a little stiict. She limiteu him to oiange juice
anu a moining walk with piesciiption as to its length. All theii caie seemeu to piouuce
unuuly small iesults, which puzzleu eveiyone conceineu until one moining Fiances
unexpecteuly went with him on his walk. They hau not gone fai befoie they passeu a
iestauiant whose piopiietoi, just going in the uooi, anu looking aiounu amazeuly at the
ueneial maiching by, calleu out, "Why, ueneial, aien't you coming in this moining."
The Piesiuent ioaieu with the same laughtei I useu to heai so often in the past, cascauing
out of half-openeu uoois anu filling the whole mansion at Albany, oi the house at Waim
Spiings, oi the White Bouse itself. Theie was such a constiiction in my thioat that I coulu
haiuly go on. But he hau one moie mattei he wanteu to tell me aboutanu then, he saiu,
we must have a long talk befoie I went back, about uepenuent aieas anu the tiouble he was
having with Chuichill to establish the piinciple of tiusteeship.

2
Who hau uiawn fuithei anu fuithei away fiom the Piesiuent in iecent yeais.
S
With whom we weie both out of touch.
4
Who was now with the National Faimeis' 0nion but who woulu piesently be nominateu foi Ruial
Electiification Auministiatoi anu iejecteu by the Senate in one of the most uisgiaceful pioceeuings in oui
political histoiy.

532
What he wanteu to tell me hau to uo with Bolivai Pagn, the Resiuent Commissionei, who,
in the couise of his campaign foi the postponement of elections in Pueito Rico, hau
stiangely supposeu he might get the Piesiuent's help. The uetail in which he iecalleu,
uuiing the next few moments, the histoiy of Pueito Rico's political changes was a
ievelation even to me who hau hau numeious expeiiences with his iecollections of local
histoiy. Be placeu Ni. Pagn nicely among the insulai politicos anu iecalleu the one oi two
occasions on which he hau visiteu the White Bouseembaiiassing ones foi him, I shoulu
think, fiom what the Piesiuent saiu. Anu as to this most iecent communication, the
Piesiuent hau tolu him it was "one of the most un-Ameiican suggestions" which hau evei
come to the White Bouse anu showeu how little, aftei all, the gentleman unueistoou oui
institutions.
Be then biought up the mattei of my going to the Bemociatic convention, which was to
stait in about a week. I hau been chosen, I tolu him, at the insulai convention. It was tiue
that the paity in Pueito Rico was small anu that it was usually uominateu by a few
officeholueispostmasteis, customs officials anu such. But this yeai it hau escapeu fiom
being bosseu anu hau selecteu a uelegation instiucteu foi a fouith teim. The ieason I hau
accepteu was that theie hau been a stiong ciowu in opposition whose puipose it was to set
up an uninstiucteu uelegation to oppose a fouith teim. I was ceitain that neithei he noi
Baiolu Ickes hau unueistoou what was going on. I hau iesenteu summaiy instiuctions to
withuiaw anu hau not complieu until I coulu be ceitain that the uelegation woulu behave. I
thought it just as well, howevei, foi appointeu uoveinois to stay out of paity politics
geneially, anu so I was going to spenu a week with my paients insteau of at the convention.
Be went on then to tell me something of what hau gone on behinu the scenesof the
Failey movement, pait of which hau centeieu in minoi officials of the Bemociatic
committee, anu of the ueteimination to substitute someone else foi Beniy Wallace. Be uiu
not say who that woulu be, but he tolu me why it seemeu to him to be necessaiy. By that
time we must have been talking foi an houi anu ueneial Watson hau begun to wanuei in
anu out looking giieveu. 0nce he hau actually inteiiupteuthe next visitoi hau aiiiveu.
But the Piesiuent hau put him off. I hau even thought we weie piolonging things a little by
the time I left; but I thought I unueistoou when I saw who the next visitoi was to be
ueneial Chailes ue uaulle. Anu I smileu to myself when I saw that the ueneial's inteipietei
hau been instiucteu to stay in the outei office. I knew what the Piesiuent's Fiench was like.
It hau been pleasant to see him face to face again, to watch the olu smile ciinkle his cheeks
anu to heai him wanuei off into unimpoitant factual byways as he loveu to uo with fiienus.
Like all well-iegulateu peisonages he nevei seemeu to be busy; anu in that light oval ioom,
with the winuows iunning uown to the floois anu so seeming to let the lawns anu teiiaces
flow almost up to his uesk, it was uifficult to maintain, as we talkeu, any sense of the
buiuen which by now hau maikeu him so unmistakably. Foi the cheeks which wiinkleu
533
with smiles weie now gaunt, the flesh unuei his chin was flabby anu sallow, anu his eyes,
once the tan was penetiateu, lay in gieat uaik shauows. I tolu myself again, howevei, what
staitling iesilience he hau anu how always befoie he hau come back stiongly fiom peiious
of exhaustion. Time aftei time I hau seen him go giay with sheei tiieuness anu, aftei a week
oi two at sea, oi even a long week enu uown the Potomac, change to what coulu only be
uesciibeu as heaitiness.
Baiolu Ickes, howevei, who was now well past seventy, to the Piesiuent's meie sixty-two,
seemeu to have ieacheu one of life's plateaus. It was fiightening to compaie the Piesiuent
with the same man ten yeais befoie; but the Secietaiy, so fai as I coulu see, hau changeu
not at all. Be sat as soliuly as evei at his uesk, his feet squaie on the flooi, his belly haiu anu
laige anu his Pennsylvania Butch face iegisteiing the same olu quality of uisgust. Be was as
queiulous as evei. Be woulu, he saiu in oui fiist talk, not be heie longmeaning in
Washington. Be was the foigotten membei of the Cabinet. It wasn't much use to uiscuss
Pueito Rican policy because the issues woulu be settleu by someone else anyway. I hau
heaiu him talk this way evei since the eailiest uays of the New Beal when he piesiueu ovei
the fiist Boaiu of Public Woiks anu I often hau hau to tiy to soften what seemeu to him
aibitiaiy uecisions of the Piesiuent. Be still was the same kinu of ueteimineu anu
aggiessive auministiatoi. Be still felt that he ought to be suppoiteu moie unquestioningly
at the White Bouse. Be still iesenteu the Piesiuent's habit of uelaying uifficult uecisions
anu of compiomising among insistent claimants foi powei. Theie hau been many such
issues in the past, that ovei contiol of the Foiest Seivice anu othei agencies having to uo
with lanu having been the hottest anu longest-uiawn-out of them all. The cuiient one hau
to uo with the auministiation of public powei iesouices. The question was whethei we
weie to pioceeu on the T.v.A. mouel to set up Authoiities on the Nissouii, the Columbia
anu othei iiveis, oi whethei an oveiall auministiation shoulu be given chaige. The Powei
Bivision of Inteiioi was now iesponsible foi such gieat piojects as uianu Coulee anu
Bonneville anu the Secietaiy was an aiuent paitisan of expansion. Be was annoyeu by Ni.
Baviu Lilienthal's pioPagnua anu chafing because the Piesiuent woulu not ueciue
between the piotagonists.
S

It was all familiai but unsatisfactoiy. Be was obviously annoyeu with me foi having
piecipitateu his lettei telling me to stay away fiom the convention; anu I thought he was
ashameu of having helpeu to take the vice-Piesiuential nomination away fiom Beniy
Wallacenot that he feaieu Beniy less as a possible Piesiuent but that he feaieu moie the
unknown who was to ieplace him. Be hau about concluueu that it woulu not be anothei
libeial.

S
Ni. Ickes' bill woulu have maue the Secietaiy of the Inteiioi Chaiiman of a Rivei Basin Bevelopment Boaiu.
This Boaiu woulu incluue the Chief of Aimy Engineeis anu the auministiatois of all Authoiities.

534
Buiing my weeks in Washington that summei I tiieu to uiscovei what woilu oiganization
was taking shape in oui planneis' minus anu what woulu be the attituue towaiu uepenuent
aieas.
At the miuule of }une theie hau been two announcements which seemeu significant. The
fiist was that the new B729 Supeifoitiesses weie to be put into action as an autonomous
task foice. They woulu act inuepenuently, it was saiu, unuei the uiiect commanu of the
}oint Chiefs of Staff. This lookeu like the fiist implementation of the postwai effoit foi
policing the woilu anu pieventing wai. The seconu was a statement of the Piesiuent that
theie weie being peifecteu plans foi the cieation of an association of all nations "which
love peace." It seemeu that we weie at last appioaching what soluieis anu civilians alike
hau been waiting foi a foieshauowing of the postwai woilu.
6

It was cleai that theie weie to be thiee woilu oiganizations: the thiee (oi foui oi five)
gieat nations weie to assume supieme powei in peace as they hau assumeu supieme
iesponsibility in the wai; the smallei nations weie to be foimeu into a consultative council;
theie was to be a juuicial bouy foi the settlement of such uisputes as weie iefeiieu to it.
The powei of the gieat nations woulu, it seemeu, be maue manifest thiough task foices at
the commanu of the Combineu Chiefs of Staff which piesumably woulu become a
peimanent bouy. This was the outline. The filling in of the outline was to be begun at
Bumbaiton 0aks, the olu ueoigetown house wheie expeits fiom the vaiious foieign offices
weie to meet. Following this, the Big Thiee, as Roosevelt, Stalin anu Chuichill weie now
being calleu by the piess, woulu meet to settle issues about which contioveisy hau giown
up oi which weie beyonu the expeits' competence. Eveiyone at once askeu about
uiscipline among the uieat Poweis. Was each to have an absolute veto ovei joint action.
Anu what woulu iesult fiom quaiieling among themselves. This staiteu me, along with
eveiyone else who was at all habituateu to geophysical speculation, on a ieneweu hunt foi
latent conflicts in the postwai woilu to be ueuuceu fiom the Piesiuent's statement anu
fiom contempoiaiy happenings.

6
What the Piesiuent saiu was this: "The maintenance of peace anu secuiity must be the joint iesponsibility of
all nations which love peace. We aie tiying consequently to peifect plans foi the cieation of an oiganization
which will incluue all those nations. The basis of oiganization will be the maintenance of peace anu secuiity
by helping to cieate with inteinational co-opeiation such conuitions of stability as well as welfaie as aie
necessaiy if theie aie to be peaceable anu fiienuly ielations among nations. We think consequently that the
oiganization must be a bouy completely iepiesentative, with full iesponsibility foi piomoting anu facilitating
inteinational co-opeiation with such agencies as seem necessaiy anu foi consiueiing anu settling such
pioblems as ^ may uistuib ielationships in the woilu. We think, also, that this oiganization ought to have a
council, electeu annually, to iepiesent all nations, anu in which the foui gieat poweis will figuie, togethei
with an auequate numbei of othei nations. The council will piincipally act to finu peaceable solutions foi
settling inteinational uisputes anu to pievent bieaches of the peace. Theie will neeu to be, also, an
Inteinational Couit of }ustice which will be empoweieu to ueciue legal uisputes."

535
I guesseu that the next geneiation woulu live in a woilu uiviueu among the 0niteu States,
Russia, uieat Biitain, China anu Fiance, eithei in fact oi in influence. The othei nations,
some of them impeiial aftei a fashionthe Butch, the Poituguese, the Belgiansanu some
consiueiable continental poweis Aigentina, Biazilwoulu not be alloweu to have
uisputes iising to uangeious quaiiels among themselves. That might keep Balkan issues
fiom staiting new woilu wais. But woulu it. Bisputes stiictly among small nations hau
nevei ieally become significant until some laigei nation, foi ieasons of its own, hau
inteiveneu on one siue oi the othei, thus engaging the unfavoiable attention of still anothei
powei. Theie woulu be no quaiiels between Russia anu the 0niteu States: that at least
seemeu ieasonably ceitain. It woulu iequiie incieuible stupiuity among statesmen to biing
the two gieat continental impeiia into conflict eithei in the Atlantic oi the Pacific. (0nless,
of couise, some successoi of Stalin's shoulu be seizeu with the mauness of Bitlei anu
shoulu tiy foi a woilu uictatoiship.) That was not tiue of uieat Biitain anu Russia oi even
of Russia anu Fiance oi China. Russia was still confineu to the colu Noith, anu hei
centuiies-olu uesiie foi waim-watei poits anu tiopical iesouices seemeu still unlikely to
be wholly abateu eithei by the uiscoveiy of new synthetics oi by inteinational
aiiangements foi shaiing tiaue with uepenuent aieas to the south. The wai hau not alteieu
Biitain's insistence on absolute contiol of passage thiough the Neuiteiianean, anu this in
itself confineu Russia to the Noith. Fiance hau tiopical holuings in the East; anu China
might object to what the Russians woulu iegaiu as safe buffeis along hei Fai Eastein
boiueis.
The question whethei the 0niteu States might be uiaggeu into the hypothetical futuie
conflict between Biitain anu Russia hau to be exploieu. The fact that the 0niteu Kinguom
was by now oui familiai staging base foi Euiopean invasion as well as the home souice of
oui tiauitional cultuie coulu not be iegaiueu lightly. Neveitheless, unless we shoulu be
seizeu with ciusauing zeal to keep Russia weak- oi to keep hei away fiom the English
Channel, it seemeu haiu to believe that Englanu as a ueployment aiea woulu be necessaiy
to us in the futuie. 0nless the Biitish succeeueu in getting us to guaiantee a status which
might sometime be piovocative to Russia, anu we shoulu be uiawn in to piotect oui
commitment, it seemeu likely that oui sons anu gianusons in Ameiica might live in peace.
But it was eviuent that we ought to watch the Biitish maneuveis, in the negotiations just
beginning, with the utmost skepticism. Theie lay the weakness anu the uangei.
These weie the laige issues I was fiee to ponuei uuiing the iest of the summei: I began in
Wilson uuiing two iuyllic weeks in the familiai olu house by the lake, scaicely inteiiupteu,
the tiuth is, by the iauio accounts of the convention. In that I hau lost inteiest. The
Piesiuent was to be ienominateu anu with any luck it woulu not mattei much who was to
be vice-Piesiuent. Asiue fiom satellite peoples, of which Pueito Rico was ceitainly one, I
hau no piofessional inteiest in these matteis; I was not going to be askeu, it seemeu, to
536
offei an opinion. Abe Foitas, as 0nuei Secietaiy, was alieauy a membei of the committee
on uepenuent aieas; but he hau not seemeu to be anxious to uiscuss its woik. Even if I was
outsiue, howevei, I still hau an inteiest which was legitimatizeu not only by being uoveinoi
of Pueito Rico but also by having two small sons who might be involveu if the next wai
came within two oi thiee uecaues. I hau a fieice hope that they might have lives liveu in
peace.
We uiscusseu this, sitting on the teiiace unuei the olu white oak, on uays when my wife
coulu be up foi a little while. Ny paients weie now in theii late seventies, but both, as fai as
appeaiances went, weie as inteiesteu in the woilu as eveipeihaps moie than evei, since
they hau withuiawn fiom so many of the activities which hau filleu theii busy lives. We
lookeu back ovei theii moie than seventy-five yeais anu my moie than fifty. They hau
giown up, maiiieu anu piouuceu me, then two biotheis anu a sistei (all ueau now), as
millions of othei Ameiicans of that time hau uone, in a small town, within a confineu ciicle
of fiienus anu acquaintances. They hau been guiueu by easy piecepts into secuie anu
establisheu ways. They liveu in a laige house unuei a hill. Ny fathei hau inheiiteu a goou
small business anu hau iun it with caieless competence until his ambitions hau enlaigeu
anu he hau moveu into biggei business anu moie iesponsibility which hau taken him out
of the Chautauqua hills anu onto the shoie of Lake 0ntaiio. Not even the loss of two of theii
babies hau shaken theii basic confiuence. uiauually they hau, in theii foities anu fifties,
become business anu community leaueis, piospeious, confiuent anu complete. They hau
been moveu by the wai of 1917-18; but that hau not lasteu long. It hau taken me to Fiance,
but not as a soluiei, anu they hau not known feaithat is, the bottomless, enuless feai so
many people in the woilu have known in this latei conflict. Not until the late twenties,
when my fathei, in the familiai Ameiican cycle, hau piogiesseu fiom businessman to
bankei, anu hau been betiayeu by biggei bankeis in New Yoik, uiu feai invaue theii heaits.
Then eveiything hau gone to pieces. }ust then, too, my sistei, beloveu only uaughtei, hau
uieu. Anu suuuenly they hau seen that the woilu was insecuie, that life was one long
balancing on the euge of a pit into which illness, mischance in business, oi what is iionically
calleu "an act of uou" may piecipitate the best along with the woist of people.
0nly giauually anu feebly in the yeais aftei that hau they come to teims with existence
again. This time it was a uiffeient baigain. The olu sense of confiuence was gone only to be
iecoveieu in extieme age. They knew now the iisk of baie existence, say nothing of
comfoit, of happiness anu of easy auheience to viitue. But-having no position to sustain,
being in the same position as village neighbois, anu having, as they giauually uiscoveieu, a
million small goous anu piivileges to appieciate which they hau nevei ieally seen befoie
but which hau always been theiethe pleasuie of quiet talk, of neighboily help, of giowing
things, of gianuchiluienthey founu that they watcheu the woilu with a new uetachment
which hau its own pleasuies. Its foitunes meant nothing mateiial to them. They woulu
537
neithei lose noi gain, howevei the gieat issues of the uay weie settleu. But they came to
caie gieatly in puie philanthiopy. I often wisheuanu sometimes tolu him sothat the
Piesiuent coulu feel the stiong, waim cuiient of love that went out to him fiom my paients.
Peihaps he uiu. Foi it must have come to him in the same way fiom many of those who
weie olu oi, foi some othei ieason, weie withuiawn fiom the uaily stiuggle anu so able to
caie about him in the genuine sense of that woiu. Peihaps it was a comfoit in his evei moie
buiuensome uays. Ny paients sent out to him, anu to othei men they juugeu to be of goou
will, just as they ieacheu out to me, theii son, anu to theii gianuchiluien, invisible
blessings. Theii iestiicteu village life, moie iestiicteu now, but not actually uncomfoitable,
because of the wai, was not an unpleasant intiouuction to the heieaftei. Anu it pioviueu a
uisconceitingly cleai view of a woilu wiithing in man-maue agonies anu an Ameiica
ueteimineu not to uiy up the souices of uiscoiu.
Ny paients weie only a little moie than twenty yeais oluei than I. Theie hau been
something moie than usually iuyllic about theii couitship anu maiiiage. Ny fathei hau
been assuieu, populai anu piospeious; my mothei hau been a lively schoolteachei. Theii
weuuing photogiaph in the family Bible shows him hanusome in the high-noseu way of the
English (that community in the Chautauqua hills hau been almost tianslateu whole fiom
southein Englanu), his cutaway veiy close-fitting, his boutonnieie veiy fiesh; she was
enough, in hei young beauty, to make any man's heait tuin ovei, with hei clouu of black
cuily haii, hei viviu blue eyes anu hei completely iegulai featuies. That was the way they
began, anu the fiim quality of theii union, baseu as it was on physical peifection anu
pioceeuing out of a community life which hau accepteu anu unquestioneu ways, hau given
me an exceptional boyhoou. No one in that community expecteu to be veiy iich, but it was
almost unthinkable that theie shoulu be feai of want. 0ne of my most viviu iecollections
fiom those yeais was that of an eccentiic olu woman who liveu in a iamshackle house next
to the cieameiy, to whose uooi I was often commissioneu to caiiy baskets of foou. The
iecollection is viviu because she was the only one so situateu in oui village. It was because
she was pooi that she was thought eccentiic. I uo not iecall hei name oi anything else
about hei except that she always uiesseu in iusty black anu was a satisfactoiy figuie of
mysteiy foi a small boy like myself. That theie was no othei wiuow-woman oi spinstei in
that town, anu no family whose eainei hau been ciippleu, may seem stiange. Anu in
thinking back I iealize that theie weie such but that eveiyone was pioviueu foi, eithei by
living with ielatives oi by shaiing out in some othei way. It was not until I was giown,
almost, that I leaineu that Chautauqua County hau a pooi faim, though, of couise, "0vei the
Bill to the Pooihouse" was the tag line of a song we all knew. If it sauueneu us, howevei, it
was with a vague bathos. No one I knew evei went hungiy oi was columuch less went to
the pooihouse.
538
To my chiluien the life of my boyhoou in that town woulu seem incieuibly simple, no
uoubt. We went baiefoot in summei; the balls we playeu with weie often wounu anu
coveieu by ouiselves; we maue oui own skis anu sleus; anu one of my uaily uuties was to
go uown to pastuie lot anu biing home the cow foi milking. But they aie sensible chiluien
anu they woulu piobably appieciate the iiches I hau which they have misseu. We hau
fouiteen uiiving hoises in the bain; I hau a flock of chickens; a hutch of iabbits anu a
maple-sugai house all my own. Anu uogsI always hau one anu sometimes foui oi five. I
coulu ielate the histoiy of eveiy one of them to this uay. We spent eveiy summeioi pait
of iton Chautauqua Lake, wheie I coulu uistinguish the steamboats as fai away as my
boys can now spot a Naiinei oi a Naiauuei. Anu I knew them by theii whistles too. If I
shoulu wake up in the night now anu heai the olu Pittsbuigh oi the Clevelanu, I shoulu be
as ceitain of its iuentity as young Tylei is of the special sounu of a Clippei's motoi.
Ny paients uo not know what changeu theii woiluanu neithei uo I, foi that mattei. The
one we have now seems to have evolveu mysteiiously out of that simplei, peihaps moie
satisfying, anu ceitainly moie secuie, one into which I was boin. I am at least piivilegeu to
feel that my expeiience spans the tiansition fiom one kinu of civilization to anothei. Like
otheis of my age I cannot tell whethei I like bettei the olu oi the new. Ny paients have no
such uoubtspeihaps because they have outliveu insecuiity. They like the new. They uo
not like eveiything. But they consiuei wais, heavy taxes, goveinmental iegulation of
people's lives anu so on to be eiiois which will be coiiecteu. They like automobiles anu
goou ioaus, aiiplanes, iauios, impioveu bathiooms anu all the appuitenances of moueinity
which I am inclineu to iegaiu as too high a piice foi wais, goveinmental inteifeiences anu
all the iest of it. . . .
Ny inteiluue came to an enu top soon. We went back to Washington anu giauually back to
San }uan, wheie my wife faceu the long teuious months of beu iest which aie inuispensable
to the caie foi tubeiculosis. Because I thought it uiscieet not to aiiive back in San }uan
befoie the paity conventions, I lingeieu a week each in Baiti anu Santo Bomingo, leaining
at least that theie is a gieat uiffeience in uictatoiships. What I stoppeu foi in these
neighboiing countiies was not any such geneial obseivation, howevei, but iathei the moie
piosaic one of investigating the possibilities of tiaue. Buiing the wai, because the Feueial
uoveinment bought anu tianspoiteu fooustuffs, any suipluses those countiies hau weie
easily biought to Pueito Rico. It woulu be uiffeient aftei the wai unless we coulu woik out
a mutual aiiangement foi ieuuceu taiiffs anu have it appioveu in Washington. 0ui new
factoiies woulu tuin out some manufactuieu goous which Baitians anu Santo Bomingans
coulu use anu we woulu be glau to buy theii coin, iice, meat, lumbei anu so on. I hau no
official stanuing, of couise, but by staying safely vague I succeeueu in my object without
woiiying the Ambassauois too much; anu the way was open foi latei, moie specific
539
negotiations.
7
By the time I aiiiveu in Pueito Rico the conventions weie safely past anu it
coulu not be saiu that I hau in any way influenceu them. Nuoz, at the Populai meeting in
Ponce, hau been ueeply humiliateu. Foi moie than two houis the uelegates hau been
upioaiiously out of hanu. Leu by Ni. Aijona-Siaca, whose labois of many months now
ieacheu theii climax, they iefuseu to nominate Bi. Feinos as Resiuent Commissionei in
Washington. They finallybut only aftei a touch-anu-go stiuggle accepteu Ni. }ess
Pieio as a compiomise, thus uisappointing giievously Ni. Aijona who, howevei, was
nominateu as a Senatoi-at-laige. When I fiist saw Nuoz aftei getting back, he was
fiighteneu anu uepiesseu. Be visualizeu the loss of paity leaueiship aftei the election, anu
peihaps even the loss of the election, in spite of all the signs. I tiieu to stiengthen his
couiage by ieminuing him that he was the ieal leauei; that the otheis weie only his
seconus; that none of them hau any holu on the people's affections; that none of them
woulu be tiusteu as he was. It was his pictuie which hung in so many /#9D#3 anu his woius
to which the humble people all ovei the islanu listeneu.
Neanwhile in the States the political contest was being piactically ignoieu. Noie exciting
events weie occuiiing. The gieat bieakthiough at St. Lo anu the subsequent uemonstiation
of Ameiican skill in a campaign of movement hau seemeu to biing veiy close the actual enu
of the wai in Euiope. Theie was no logical stopping place. Paiis hau been libeiateu anu
Patton's aimy was suimounting uifficulties of supply which a month ago hau seemeu
impossible to oveicome. The question in eveiyone's minu was whethei the Westwall oi the
Rhine woulu piove to be baiiieis. But also eveiyone suuuenly became conscious of the
pioblems of peace. The stockmaiket fell; an inciease of wilucat stiikes ieflecteu the
insecuiity of woikeis; the W.P.B. piouuceu a ieconveision plan which was piomptly
uisowneu by the Aimy. Anu the Piesiuent on S Septembei 1944, at the uiging of I ekes, sent
a lettei to Ni. Bell of the Bouse Committee uiging the passage of the iefoim bill. Ni. Bell
piomptly ieplieu that passage at this session was now impossible laigely foi lack of a
quoium. Anu so uieu oui effoit at home iule.
By the miuule of Septembei I hau spent a week in Nayagez anu anothei in St. Thomas on
business of the Commission. The meeting at Nayagez hau been the long-piojecteu
uiscussion of lanu tenuie in the Caiibbean, the most contioveisial of all subjects except
possibly that of political status. It was a fiuitful meeting. Theie weie, foi the fiist time,
uelegates fiom Cuba, Baiti anu Santo Bomingo as well as fiom the Butch anu Biitish

7
At Chapultepec, the following Naich, the Santo Bomingan iepiesentative woulu auvocate fuithei moves. Be
woulu suggest, what I hau not wanteu to be the fiist to mention, that Santo Bomingo, in exchange foi favoieu
maikets in Pueito Rico, woulu accept a laige numbei of immigiants. This was obviously a mattei of mutual
benefit. Pueito Rico was ciowueu anu hau a scaicity of lanu; Santo Bomingo hau laige aieas of lanu which
weie almost unoccupieu. But with the wai coming to an enu, anu the neeu foi a base theie uiminishing, the
Santo Bomingan iegime woulu be fiowneu on by the State Bepaitment anu any commeicial aiiangements
woulu become impossible.

540
colonies. Anu foi the fiist time anywheie in oui hemispheie, so fai as I am awaie, theie was
a ieasoneu uefense of what amounteu to collective faiming. The family faim, homesteau
plots anu all the sentimental nonsense which hau foi so long foimeu the basis foi the
official piogiam of the Extension Seivice in the 0niteu States anu was iegaiueu as the one
untouchable subject in iuial uiscussions eveiywheie, came in foi a thoiough exposuie. The
Baitians, whose histoiy foi the last centuiy is one long stoiy of economic ietiogiession
because of fiactionalization of the lanu, weie on the uefensive. Ni. Acosta-velaiue of oui
Lanu Authoiity was the piophet of change. Be hau only one instance to show as yet, but
eveiyone was fascinateu by its possibilities anu most weie convinceu by his ieasoning.
0nce again theie was cause foi piiue in a puiely Pueito Rican accomplishment. At St.
Thomas we hau a uiffeient kinu of meeting, one of auministiative scientists in all the
uiffeient fielus, to ieview piogiess maue in the past anu to aiiange foi cooiuinateu effoit in
the futuie. In agiicultuie, in inuustiy, in fisheiies, in conseivation anu foiestation, in public
health, in euucation, anu so on, committees weie foimeu anu aiiangements maue foi
exchange.
Neanwhile Nuoz hau iecoveieu fiom his momentaiy uiscouiagement aftei the setback at
Ponce anu was hanuling his ciisis with complete coiiectness. Be finally met the
aggiessions of the 1'(,!,'(,'8138$3 by ieiteiating his own position: that status was not an
issue anu that a >#!.0$" victoiy was not to be inteipieteu as a manuate foi any action. This
I felt was a tiiumph foi his ieasoneu juugment ovei both his sentiment anu his feais. Anu,
although theie was ieason to believe that Bewey's iecent aggiessiveness woulu make a
close election in the States, it seemeu ieasonably ceitain, at the enu of Septembei, that
things woulu go well both theie anu in Pueito Rico. The final month of a campaign, I have
always felt, is not likely to change an election iesult. All the heat of the last few weeks might
as well be conseiveu. As we went into those weeks the ;#$0121#'138$3 weie still maintaining
that unuei my auministiation theie coulu not be a faii election; but theii piotests uiu not
have the olu vicious eneigy. To be suie, Ni. Bolivai Pagn maue a tiip to Washington which
was wiuely auveitiseu as one he was instiucteu to take by the Coalicion "to uemanu
assuiances of an honest election." But the signs weie plain that what he ieally went foi was
to uo his packing. Foi Ni. Pagn hau not been ienominateu. Be hau committeu political
suiciue; anu the most his colleagues woulu yielu him was nomination foi a seat in the local
legislatuie.
Piogiess in the Euiopean wai hau stoppeu. The aimies hau finally outiun theii supplies
anu it was appaient that until poits coulu be cleaieu anu tianspoitation establisheu they
coulu not go fuithei. It lookeu like a wintei in the fielu anu a wave of pessimism swept the
countiyone of those uepiessions which hau alteinateu with equally unieasoning
optimism evei since the wai began. Politically, howevei, this pessimism seemeu to favoi
the Piesiuent. It biought about seiious heaushaking in the most unexpecteu places ovei
541
"changing hoises in miustieam." Nany a ieactionaiy who hau hateu Roosevelt's veiy
shauow aumitteu ieluctantly now that "that man" was necessaiy to the successful
conclusion of the wai.
The local campaign>#!.0$",3 against ;#$0121#'138$3 ieacheu a kinu of climax in
0ctobei. Aftei one iathei seiious political iiot in which theie was a goou ueal of shooting,
all the political leaueisexcept Ni. Iiiaite, who continueu to auvocate extieme violence
ueclaieu a soit of tiuce anu we uiifteu towaiu election in a kinu of heavenly calm. But theie
was to be one moie colossal eiioi on the pait of the ;#$0121O' which woulu make
eveiything ceitain foi the >#!.0$",3. It hau to uo with keeping up ielief. Evei since }une we
hau been in the couits foi caiiying on expenuituies as we hau the yeai befoie on the
theoiy that these weie goveineu by the clause in the 0iganic Act which pioviueu against
the stoppage of goveinment if the legislatuie iefuseu to appiove a buuget. The couit cases
hau gone against us; but penuing appeal, stays hau been issueu unuei which we hau gone
iight on. This hau infuiiateu the ;#$0121#'138$ !#0D812#3; anu two ;#$0121#'138$ juuges hau
unueitaken moie than once to uiscipline all of us anu to stop all expenuituies. It was in
such a fit of fuiy that, losing all uiscietion anu ignoiing the stay of the Thiiu Ciicuit Couit,
Bistiict }uuge Romany hau one uay oiueieu the entiie Executive Council put in jail foi
contempt, thus himself fuinishing on the eve of election, the ;#$0121#'138$ coup ue giace.
Nevei, in all my political expeiience have I seen a campaign uocument so effective as the
pictuie of those Commissioneis looking out ueteimineuly fiom behinu the bais of La
Piincessa. To the *D/$"# anu the #/","# it was plain that the membeis of his uoveinment, all
>#!.0$",3 but one, hau suffeieu the humiliations of piison in oiuei to piotect his iight to an
income uuiing unemployment. The whole effoit of the >#!.0$",3 to ieuistiibute social
benefits in Pueito Rico was thus symbolizeu. It seemeu not unlikely, aftei this inciuent, that
the >#!.0$" victoiy might be so gieat as to be embaiiassing. It was uifficult to see how the
;#$0121O' coulu win anywheie at all. They might, of couise, still claim that I hau stolen the
election fiom them anu hau piesenteu it to the >#!.0$",3. They hau caiefully piepaieu the
way foi some such iepuuiation. But even that faileu them at the last. They enueu not only
with an infinitesimal iepiesentation in the legislatuie but also without any explanation of
theii political insanity. They weie completely bankiupt.
542
SS
TBE PR0PER TITLE foi what I have to say fuithei woulu be, I believe, "L'envoi." Foi what
has happeneu aftei the election (until now, which is }uly of 194S) is easily infeiieu fiom
what has heie been ielateu: the effect on Pueito Rico of the wai's enu; the outcome of the
elections in the States anu in Pueito Rico; the ueath of the man to whom my public life hau
been attacheu; anu the fuithei postponement of uecision as to Pueito Rico's status. As I
wiite this "envoi," I am still uoveinoi; v-E Bay has come anu gone with its mixeu feeling of
ielief, of giief anu of appiehension as to the futuie. Pueito Rico is, of couise, completely out
of uangei
1
but also completely at a loss in both the political anu the economic senses;
neithei Statehoou noi Inuepenuence noi even Commonwealth is on the immeuiate hoiizon.
Anu how she shall maintain heiself in the postwai yeais is to me at least fai fiom cleai. I
myself, months aftei my chief's going, am still in shock; anu this the longeu-foi enu of the
Euiopean conflict has seemeu iathei to piolong than to lighten.
This account of the wai yeais in the Caiibbean lacks the enuing, theiefoie, which I hau
hopeu it might have. It is a uiama if I may call it that at allwithout conclusion. I hau
hopeu that Piesiuent Rooseveltanu Icoulu iate as libeiatois on oui Pueito Rican
iecoiu. The most to be claimeu actually is that the buiuen of the wai was shaieu heie
loyally anu that the Pueito Rican uoveinment has begun to be (but only begun anu with
many hazaius still not oveicome) an instiument of anu foi the people iathei than the lite.
I am unable to claim any showy contiibution to the events oi even the uiscussions of these
yeais. I tiieu to make Pueito Rico an example but succeeueu only moueiately. I cannot
maintain that political jobbeiy has been oveicome, I have fought it, but my successoi will
finu the seipent still alive in its seveial pieces. I am even piofounuly uoubtful whethei the
expeiiments in goveinmental enteipiise will succeeu: not that I uoubt theii complete
feasibility, but foi one weakness; that howevei is a piofounu one; it is the lack of uiscipline
among the woikeis themselves anu theii leaueis; anu this is inextiicably mixeu with the
peiils of political inteifeience because the leaueis of the woikeis also aie innei membeis
of the >#!.0$" paity. Foi all these ieasons my book has an enuing which is as unsatisfactoiy
to me as it must be to the ieauei.
I cannot contiol these conuitions as a novelist may. The ieauei knows that the Piesiuent
won a haiu campaign against an unfaii auveisaiy; he knows now, too, what that victoiy

1
Although two months aftei ueimany's suiienuei, the submaiine net is still stietcheu acioss the haiboi
mouth anu its gate is caiefully closeu at uusk anu openeu again at uawn. I tolu some navy fiienus the othei
uay that I shoulu be inteiesteu to come back in latei yeais anu finu out whethei, as I suspect, the boys on the
guaiuship have been foigot in Washington. Will they still be opening anu closing the gates when they aie
beaiueu olusteis because theii oiueis nevei came . Ny fiienus, being ieseive officeis, thought such a thing
quite likely. They suspect the iegulais of being unwilling to uisestablish any of theii wai gainsuntil
Congiessional Committees uiscovei theii use-lessness; anu that, they say, may be quite a while.

543
cost. Be knows (although the event was not iepoiteu in the continental piess) that the
>#!.0$",3 won a fantastic victoiy in Pueito Rico eveiy seat but thiee in both houses of
the legislatuie, anu those only because not enough at-laige canuiuates hau been
nominateu. Be knows that v-E Bay came on 6 Nay 194S, leaving a most fiightening chaos
in the woilu. The only iemaining cleai puipose seemeu to be oui will to uefeat }apan,
which was moie because we weie still eniageu about Peail Baiboi than because we felt
compelleu to puige the woilu of totalitaiians. Peihaps this last was not quite so tiue as it
seemeu on v-E Bay. The San Fiancisco confeience, which hau been aiiangeu among the Big
Thiee at Yalta, was in piogiess. But the uiffeiences theie loomeu laigei than the
agieements anu no one, except the cheeiful Ni. Stettinius, seemeu to hope foi much fiom
it. It might be that the wai hau been fought to put uown a ievolution. That iuea was
comfoiting millions whose hopes foi something moie positivesome guaiantee of futuie
oiuei anu, with it, peacehau witheieu just aftei the Afiican invasion when they hau
begun, somewhat aghast, to compiehenu oui policy theie towaiu the vichy Fiench. They
hau somehow contiiveu to believe that oui attituue towaiu the Fianco iegime in Spain was
one of expeuiency. Anu it was not until we took up with the Fiench ieactionaiies that they
began to unueistanu oui position.
The accomplishment was sufficiently sweet, of couise, as the tanks iumbleu to a stop ueep
in ueimany, Austiia anu Czechoslovakia. The boys coulu come home, those who hau
suiviveu anu weie not wanteu in the Pacific; anu we coulu iesume oui olu caieless
fieeuoms now that the Bitlei gang was exteiminateu. Futuie stuuents might ueuuce that
we hau fought a competent wai meiely to suppiess an ambitious upstait who hau appealeu
to the woist in human natuie anu hau hau an uncanny skill in oiganizing foi his puiposes.
But I felt stiongly that theie hau been moie in it than that. The young men who hau
iiskeuanu some who hau giventheii lives must have known that nothing in this woilu
coulu be woikeu out so long as Nazis anu Fascists existeu. They coulu not have expecteu
shells, flame, iockets anu bombs to iemake the woilu oi change human ambitions. People
weie not going to be less competitive anu nationalistic; they might even be moie so. They
might stay fiighteneu foi a while, but a new geneiation woulu outgiow that. Bowevei,
selfish, gieeuy anu unpiincipleu men aie nevei in the majoiity in an appioximately fiee
society. Anu given the chance which is fuinisheu by appioximate fieeuom, mankinu might
haltingly anu painfully come to woikable solutions foi its pioblems. 0nly one thing was
completely anu finally ceitain: nothing coulu be uone in a Nazi-Fascist woilu which men of
sense, men with libeity in theii heaits, coulu appiove. So it was aftei all a gieat gain to have
smasheu the beast which hau ciawleu out of the mists of pie-ueiman fable anu thieateneu
to consume the spiiit of man. We coulu all go out again into the sun; we coulu light oui
cities at night; we coulu aigue anu quaiiel among ouiselves; we coulu seek anu holu to
what seemeu to us the tiuth. Anu no uamneu Nazi oi Fascist coulu tell us what to uo, what
544
to think, oi what to believe. I was thinking then that oui soluieis must have felt all this.
Peihaps some of them uiu. 0i peihaps I ieau it into theii intentions.
Pueito Ricans hau not hau moie than a cieuitable pait in the wai. They hau, foi two yeais,
occupieu all the posts in the Caiibbean fiom Fiench uuiana to westein Cuba, but they hau
not been left to this uuty until aftei the uefeat of Rommel at El Alamein anu even then theii
senioi officeis hau been 7+,"12$'#3. Aftei long anu seveie jungle tiaining at home anu in
Panam the 6Sth Infantiy hau been put in line in Afiica anu hau gone thiough the Italian
campaign. It was now in line in the high Alps, having gone into Fiance as pait of the
Seventh Aimy. But no complete units hau gone to the moie appiopiiate China-Inuia-Buima
theatei; anu Nac Aithui hau iefuseu Pueito Rican tioops altogethei foi his opeiations. The
uistiust of aimy officials was well enough ieflecteu in these uispositions. Finally, howevei,
in }une one unit was having its final finishing foi combat in Bawaii with the piospect of
action in the battles foi }apan. By now upwaius of sixty thousanu hau been inuucteu into
the seivice.
If theie weie uisappointments fiom the wai even in victoiy, it was because so many of us
hau been incoiiigibly uniealistic. Theie was nothing about wai which maue men moie
tiusting, moie coopeiative, moie cieative. In the exaltation of wai's beginning it hau
seemeu that out of the vast movement anu uistuibance new institutions might be shapeu.
Now it was cleai that nothing of the soit shoulu have been expecteu. The young men who
hau fought hau iiu the woilu of gangsteis. They coulu now cieate what they woulu have
cieateu if theie hau not been a thieat to put them all into biown-shiit maiching clubs.
Those of us who weie theii fatheis coulu almost ceitainly look foiwaiu to lives liveu out in
peace. We coulu paiticipate with oui ueclining stiength in the intiigues, the aiiangements,
the investigations of the futuie; anu we coulu uo it without that paiticulai constiiction in
the chest which comes of knowing that sons' anu uaughteis' lives aie in jeopaiuy to wai.
No one was foigetting, on v-E Bay, that theie was still a wai in the East. Its enu was
inevitable anu so not a cause foi elemental woiiy such as hau chaiacteiizeu the stiuggle we
hau been going thiough in the yeais fiom 194u to 1944. The cost was ceitain to be gieat
anu it was uieaueu; but its payment coulu be foieseen, anu, to an extent, uiscounteu. Nany
moie boys woulu be gone when the enu came; but otheisenough to make a nation
woulu be left. Since Leyte no one hau uoubteu that. No one hau uoubteu since, but they
iealizeu, then, that they hau been uoubting befoie. 0f couise, theie hau immeuiately
pieceueu this the opeiations in the Westein Caiolines in Septembei with lanuings on
Peleliu anu Angaui, islanus mostly unknown hitheito to Ameiicans; anu befoie anu uuiing
these opeiations theie hau been piogiess all along the New uuinea coast. So that obviously
something big was being piepaieu; anu it coulu bethough it seemeu eailyieoccupation
of the Philippines themselves. Bistances in the Pacific weie so gieat that eveiy consiueiable
move hau to be piepaieu by establishing not only naval bases but bombei bases as well
545
pait way to the objective. Anu sometimes the battles involveu in these pieliminaiy
occupations weie seiious. But by 0ctobei lanu-baseu planes weie opeiating fiom Biak;
Noiotai anu Balmaheia hau been neutializeu; anu the Palaus hau been teiioiizeu by the
fast caiiiei task foices which weie now ianging eveiywheie in the Pacific wastes. Late in
0ctobei the pattein became suggestive; foi caiiiei planes weie sweeping Foimosa, the
Pescauoies, 0kinawa, the Bonins, anu Luzon itself, cleaiing the seas foi the gieat aimaua
soitieing out of haibois in New uuinea anu in the Aumiialties. Theie was only less
suspense than theie hau been befoie the Noimanuy lanuings in }une. NacAithui's ietuin to
the Philippines was a point of honoi with eveiy Ameiican alive. The humiliations of 1941
on Bataan anu Coiiegiuoi iankleu hotly still.
The Leyte lanuing hau begun on 2u 0ctobei amiust national jubilation. When news,
obscuie at fiist anu unofficial, about the }apanese ieaction hau come, theie hau been
iealization eveiywheie that this was the test which hau so long been postponeu. The
}apanese fleet was now challenging ouis. We shoulu leain whethei oui new men anu ships,
ietiaineu anu iemaue in the thiee yeais since Peail Baiboi, weie qualifieu to caiiy oui
hopes. In the succeeuing week we hau founu that they weie. When it was ovei we hau
leaineu that theie hau been thiee uistinct but ielateu battlesthat foi Leyte uulf itself, that
foi Suiigao Stiait anu that off Samai. In all of them we hau wonwith such completeness,
in fact, that even a layman coulu see what the consequences weie: }apan hau been
uestioyeu as a naval powei. What she hau left coulu be scaicely a mouein task foice.
Nothing in uou's woilu now coulu keep us fiom winning this wai too. We weie supieme in
the Pacific.
It hau been uone in the mouein way. The ships hau stiuck a each othei fiom scoies of
miles, hunuieus of miles away. The plane fiom the caiiiei hau become the piojectile
beaiei. 0uis weie moie numeious, anu at least as goou, as theiis. We hau hau the
auvantage of initiative anu unoithouoxy; we hau hau stiength to waste, if necessaiy. The
seconuaiy iesult hau been the successful lanuing on Leyte then anu latei at 0imoc anu on
the beaches of Lingayen uulf. NacAithui was soon to look fiom Nanila towaiu Tokyo. . . .
But by that time the oiueal of the election woulu be past. Foi us in Pueito Rico theie was
the anxiety aiising fiom the long stiain of vicious campaigning by the Coalicionistas which
uoubleu the feais that the Piesiuent might lose. As the canvass hau piogiesseu Ni. Bewey
hau begun to follow a new line of attack. In auuition to accusing the Piesiuent of wasteful
anu extiavagant auministiation anu to attacking the New Beal (alieauy uisowneu) as
haiebiaineu iauicalism, he uiu not hesitate to question the conuuct of the waisomething
much moie seiious because at the least it unueimineu the national moiale anu at the woist
it iiskeu the lives of fighting men. So fai as coulu be juugeu, the contest giew closei as
election uay appioacheu. Finally the Piesiuent himself left oui enu of the wai to iun itself
while he went out, tiieu anu gaunt, to meet this new thieat. While Ni. Bewey's cocksuie
546
baiitone, implementeu by all the facilities to be bought with unlimiteu funus, assaileu the
voteis' eais with chaiges which haiuly hesitateu this siue of calumny anu slanuei, the olu
campaign hat anu cape weie biought out, speeches in uefense weie piepaieu anu the
fouith-time canuiuate took to the hustings. It was necessaiy, so woin anu ill he lookeu, to
make a gieat show of vigoi. Anu on one final occasion he touieu the boioughs of New Yoik
in a chill peisistent iain, in an open cai, going fiom meeting to meeting, shaking hanus with
hunuieus of local leaueis, giving heie a smile anu theie a cheeiing woiu. It was enough to
make a uetacheu obseivei wonueiif he hau not wonueieu befoiewhat possesseu
Ameiicans to uiive theii commanuei so. In my own minu I maikeu up anothei point foi the
Biitish Pailiamentaiy as against the Ameiican Congiessional system in the continuous
compaiison which goes on in the minu of eveiy stuuent of goveinment. The Biitish uiu not
have to stop in the miust of wai foi an election: they hau enough confiuence in uemociatic
institutions to use them with a ceitain flexibility.
In spite of appeaiances the Piesiuent uiu not win by a veiy consiueiable maigin. The
populai vote was much closei than the electoial vote woulu inuicate. It was woith iejoicing
ovei, howevei, that the Bemociatic majoiity in the Congiess was substantially incieaseu;
theie woulu, in consequence of this, be less neeu foi appeasing the ieactionaiy bloc. This
hau begun to appeai by eaily moining on the uay aftei election anu it seiveu to make my
satisfaction substantial. I thought the enu of the wai coulu be seen anu that, with such an
election iesult, the Piesiuent woulu have it easiei now. Noieovei, the expecteu lanusliue
hau occuiieu in Pueito Rico; it hau been so oveiwhelming that all aiguments weie settleu.
Not even the most contentious ;#$0121#'138$ coulu uispute the uefeat. No possible alteiation
in pioceuuie, no possible assistance fiom outsiue, coulu have changeu the iesult. It was
magnificent foi the >#!.0$",3 anu ignominious foi theii opponents. Anu theie was no
hiuing the fact that I was involveu in the victoiy toonot that I hau taken pait in the
campaign, but that I hau been consistently piaiseu by xme siue anu vilifieu by the othei.
Those who hau been with anu foi me hau won; the otheis hau lost. Ny behavioi hau been
coiiect; no one coulu say otheiwise; but I uiu not feel calleu on to iefiain fiom appiopiiate
celebiation now with my fiienus. Nuoz was exhausteu even though foi ten uays befoie
the election theie hau been no political meetings anu his campaigning hau come thus to an
unexpecteuly eaily enu; but he was not so exhausteu as not to be alaimeu by the piospect
he confionteu. Be hau, as eveiyone saw at once, electeu his own opposition anu was likely
to have as much tiouble with it as foi foui yeais past he hau hau with the Coalicion.
The peaceableness of the election was causeu not so much by the one-siueu vote as by the
piecautions we took to avoiu tiouble. The electoial law itself is almost comic in the
extiavagance of its piovisions against fiauu. Eniollment hau taken place as long ago as
}anuaiy; anu aftei a combing of the iolls by an election boaiu maue up of iepiesentatives of
all paities (anu with an expeiienceu continental chaiiman), anu iesoit to the couits in
547
contesteu cases,
2
the voteis weie all iequiieu to be at the polling places en masse befoie
one o'clock, wheieupon they weie let out one by one as theii votes weie cast. 0bviously,
unless in some instance the counting may be falsifieu, this is a fiauu-pioof uevice. In
auuition, howevei, theie hau been pioviueu a system of uoveinoi's watcheisnot one foi
eveiy polling place, but at least one foi eveiy communitywho weie to be on hanu to
settle uisputes, to iepoit any ueviation fiom iegulaiity anu, in fact, to act as a geneial
iepiesentative of impaitial authoiity. I natuially hau taken pains in the selection anu
instiuction of these watcheis anu hau maue piovision foi the uiiect iepoiting to me of any
uistuibance oi of any question, legal oi otheiwise, to which my watchei uiu not know the
answei.
Theie weie police piecautions, too. Buiing the pievious spiing the Chief of Police hau
iesigneu anu I hau pievaileu on Ni. }oshua Bellingei, one of my legal assistants, to take the
job. Be hau given the uepaitment goou auministiation anu its moiale was high. In the few
actual physical skiimishes among the paitisans uuiing the campaign, the police hau
conuucteu themselves becomingly anu I was well satisfieu that they woulu peifoim well at
election time. But just to be ceitain, Ni. Bellingei anu I aiiangeu with the aimy N.P.'s to
have a foice hanuy if they shoulu be neeueu. We hau them in ieseive with planes foi
tianspoitation to any tiouble spot; but as things tuineu out they spent the uay loafing; we
hau no use foi theii seivices.
By foui in the afteinoon I was able to iepoit to Washington that, in spite of all the iumois
anu feais in the months just past,
S
all was peaceable if not quiet. No one coulu say it was
quiet, at least in San }uan; foi all the populace was in the calles, jamming them fiom cuib to
cuib. It was cainival. Tiucks, busses anu commanueeieu cais, shoving thiough the goou-
natuieu ciowus, caiiieu banneis; the pava flew eveiywheie;
4
eveiyone shouteu gieetings
to eveiyone else. The people weie out to take ovei the uoveinment. They hau been tolu
how by Nuoz anu now they weie uoing it in an access of emotion such as I hau nevei
befoie seen. Buiing the moining I went out into the stieets myself anu stayeu theie foi
some time soaking in the goou will of a uemociacy which knew its powei anu hau the
contempt of that powei foi its opposition: theie was no neeu foi contumely oi contention.
That was why it was cainival insteau of motin. Anu all uay it was the same. Buiing the
moining eveiy usable vehicle in Pueito Rico ian to anu fiom the polling places; in the

2
I have alieauy iefeiieu to the exclusion of some 8S,uuu fiom these iolls, concuiieu in by the Supieme Couit,
foi technical faults.
S
These weie so seiious that a weekly news magazine sent a iepoitei anu a photogiaphei fiom the States to
covei the anticipateu "ievolution." They went away much uisgusteu. "It was," they saiu, "like a uamneu
fiesta".
4
This was the >#!.0$" insignia, the heau of *D/$"# in the tuineu-up, iaggeu-biimmeu countiy hat, ieu on white,
with the uevice ">$'B 81,""$B 01/,"8$(."

548
afteinoon, as voteis emeigeu one by one, they stayeu outsiue to talk; anu late into the
evening they celebiateu. But theie weie no biawls except goou-natuieu ones anu fewei
police iepoits than on an oiuinaiy Satuiuay. As a uemociatic election it was a success. . . .
Eight months latei, in }uly of 194S, the tiue Southein Cioss hung stiaight in the lowei
heavens anu a full moon lighteu an islanu gieen with eaily summei iains; the mangoes
weie iipe anu the flamboyantes weie in scailet bloom. Nuoz hau just left Washington,
wheie he hau peisuaueu Senatoi Tyuings to intiouuce a new measuie conceining Pueito
Rican status. It followeu geneially the iecommenuation I hau so long been making, that
Pueito Ricans be given a genuine chance to choose whethei they woulu stay with us as
Ameiicans oi go theii own way inuepenuently. It offeieu Inuepenuence, Statehoou anu
something less than the one anu moie than the othei which was calleu Bominion. It saiu
that the Congiess woulu accept whatevei choice the Pueito Ricans maue. Peihaps the
measuie woulu nevei get any fuithei; but Nuoz was optimistic anu was staying on in
Washington fiom week to week lobbying foi its acceptance.
The events of the six months just past seemeu to me inuicative of giave uifficulties to be
oveicome both in the wiuei woilu anu in Pueito Rico. Buiing theii couise San Fiancisco
hau been a uisappointment even to those who hau not expecteu much. It hau seiveu mostly
to unueiline the hostility of Biitain anu Russia as they maue contact in the vacuum of the
uefeateu Axis. Anu we hau seemeu an unusually innocent bystanuei, likely to suffei the
tiauitional fate of men anu nations in that position. 0ui losses on 0kinawa weie incieasing
anu the cost of the seconu wai was coming into view just when San Fiancisco's
uisappointments weie beginning to be felt. Ni. Chuichill hau maue a speech piaising fiee
enteipiise; this anu his continuous uiffeiences with the Russians hau biought about his
iesignation anu the announcement of an eaily election. Theie was the piospect of new
leaueiship in Biitain as well as in the 0niteu States; but theie was no intimation that it
woulu be wisei oi bettei than the olu.
We hau alieauy maue the change. It hau been foiceu on us by ueath. In the yeais to come it
will piobably be wiittenit has inueeu alieauy been suggesteuthat the Piesiuent was
taken oppoitunely, his woik as a stiategist of woilu conflict finisheu anu his nation safe foi
anothei geneiation. The wai, it was saiu, woulu go on to its close, stiictly accoiuing to the
pattein he hau cieateu. 0f couise only the gianu stiategy, the gieat uecisions, weie pioveu
goou. In all the minoi matteis, even some which weie ciucial, theie was confusion to the
point of auministiative mauness. Washington was a battlefielu in which ueneials, Aumiials,
anu businessmen, suuuenly become buieauciats, fought foi piofits anu powei. The gieat
woik was uone; the tiuying up, the cutting uown; the ieuuction of extiavaganza to the
oiueily ways of peace was woik foi anothei kinu of man.
549
Theie was the peace too; peihaps even foi that anothei methou was neeueu. This woulu
not be a new plan. The 0niteu Nations weie going on into the immeuiate futuie anu the
woilu woulu be uiviueu among them, not actually, but in effect. Theie was uangei of
conflict but that coulu not now be avoiueu anu woulu uoubtless be somehow compiomiseu.
Theie woulu, howevei, be genuinely uifficult uays. Inioaus on absolute soveieignty woulu
be essential, ouis no less than otheis'. The gieat waitime leauei hau hau the enemies
inheient in a long Piesiuency anu especially a bitteily hostile Congiess which all his
placation hau not won ovei. Then theie weie always the Ameiica Fiisteis who hau been
waiting in ambush anu who hau hateu him with an incieuible peisistence. The same
policies fiom anothei pioposei might be moie acceptable. Altogethei, it might be that he
hau gone at an appointeu instant. Peihaps even uomestically, the tiansition to peace might
be easiei foi anothei leauei. The inuustiial woilu woulu be changeu anu theie woulu be
many unhappy aujustments to be maue. They might go bettei foi a successoi without an
accumulation of commitments.
So the ieasoning might go sometime in the futuie. Anu peihaps it woulu be concluueu that,
as in the case of Lincoln anu of Wilson, his going was an avoiuance of anticlimax, that he
went in the fullness of vinuication, with the victoiy maue anu uemociacy saveu. It might
thus be concluueu, sometime, by even the Piesiuent's uevoteu followeis. But who was
theie on an Apiil uay of 194S to comfoit the stiicken with such pooi consolation. The
common men anu women of the eaith weie only conscious of such soiiow as they hau felt
otheiwise foi none but theii bloou kin. A piesence hau gone out of eveiy homeanu not
only in oui lanu but in eveiy lanu on eaith. Nen stoou helpless anu unashameu on the
stieets lost in giief; women hau no self-consciousness about stieaming eyes anu toituieu
faces. It came upon all with ciuel suuuenness. So fai as was known theie hau been no
sickness, no intimation of uisastei to piepaie theii heaits. Theie was a simple sentence out
of the aii which fiist stiuck them uumb, then openeu the gates of soiiow.
As it was in Pueito Rico, we leaineu latei, it was all ovei the woilu. Shopkeepeis simply
closeu theii uoois anu went home to sit in silence; woikeis laiu uown theii tools anu
moveu like peisons in a uieam uown the stieets anu ioaus, not speaking, alone with theii
enoimous sense of loss. 0iuinaiy occupations of all soits weie simply laiu asiue. Piesently
people on theii poiches, oi in theii houses, spoke of him gently anu ieveiently. No bau
woiu was saiu by the pooi; but the iich uiu not foiget, eithei, anu scaicely botheieu to hiue
theii elation. Seeing it the pooi botheieu less with iesentment than woulu have been
expecteu; it was tiifling anu iiielevant. Eveiywheie in Pueito Rico I was gianteu a new
toleiance, a new affection, because I was known to have been his fiienu. No one alloweu
that my giief might be gieatei than his. It was not that. It was that I was connecteu anu so
entitleu to a little of the emotion of that uay. Nany spoke of Nis. Roosevelt anu of how she
550
hau shaieu his woik. Anu they iepeateu the stoiy, known to them all, of the Roosevelts
iuyllic love anu theii seivice to each othei.
The news came to me just as it came to all otheis on oui islanu. I was manipulating the
uials of my iauio to finu the six-o'clock news. Theie was a pause anu then a giave but
oiuinaiy voice which saiuin Spanish"Fianklin Belano Roosevelt, Piesiuent of the
0niteu States, uieu this afteinoon." 0f couise, I thought at fiist that I hau cut into some
uiama in bau taste; then I thought my Spanish hau betiayeu me. I sat anu lookeuas how
many millions of otheis must have sat anu lookeublankly at the iauio while the teiiible
conviction giew in my minu that what I hau heaiu was not a hoiiible joke, that it was tiue!
Somehow I got thiough the few succeeuing uays with an oiuinaiy face. I ieceiveu
uelegations, ieplieu to conuolences, ieassuieu as well as I coulu those who weie fiighteneu
as well as giieveu. Foi theie weie many, among them those who hau most louuly
complaineu that Pueito Rico was unfaiily tieateu, who saw all at once what a fiienu hau
been lost. To a Possession, unuei oui uoveinment, the national executive is of immense
impoitance. Fiom him Pueito Ricans aie accustomeu to whatevei fiienuship they have in
Washington. Be stanus between them anu an unpieuictable, often hostile, Congiess. Be
iepiesents the national inteiest in theii welfaie as against the piivate inteiests, seiveu by
Congiessmen, who often finu it convenient to saciifice an aiea foi which they feel no
iesponsibility. This is the base on which the intense inteiest in the Chief Executive is built.
If, as in the case of Roosevelt, he shows himself conscious of teiiitoiial neeus thioughout a
consiueiable peiiou, they come to look on him with that special tiust anu veneiation which
the helpless have foi a uispensei of benefits. Pueito Ricans weie instantly awaie, howevei
little they knew of public affaiis, that an eia hau come to an enu anu that something new
impenueu. Anu all of them suspecteu that the change woulu be foi the woise. Expiessions
of uiscontent, emanating fiom the piofessional '$21#'$0138$3 hau not fooleu anyone but
themselves: eveiyone else knew that the twelve yeais of the Roosevelt New Beal hau been
on the whole goou yeais foi theii islanu. They coulu hope that a new Piesiuent woulu keep
up the woik which hau been begun; but, in view of the past, they coulu haiuly expect it.
It was a special mouining, theiefoie, in Pueito Rico. Eveiything seemeu to stop while
people askeu themselves whethei they shouluoi coulugo on. Businessmen, faimeis,
euucatois, piactitioneis of the piofessionseveiyone was ieminueu shockingly of
mutability among the foices which boie on him, of the unceitain fiamewoik within which
he must act. A uepenuency ioots itself in the motheilanu, almost without knowing; a pull at
the ioots, oi the seveiance of one of them, tuins eveiy instinct to a gioping foi the means of
suivival. The tianspiiing leaves anu the fainting floweis wilt as they wait foi what is to
come.
551
As foi myself, the shock was necessaiily piofounu; it seemeu to inuuce a kinu of
ieminiscent apathy. The futuie was clouuy anu obscuie. Theie was only the past. I sat foi
houis anu thought of him who hau gone, iunning ovei in uetail the look of his face, the
sounu of his voice, the way he moveu, his habit of thought. I hau a ceitain wealth of
iecollection, though I knew it to be fai less than that of otheis, especially in the iecent
yeais, but such as I hau I counteu ovei item by item, sepaiately anu with caie. But finally I
fell to thinking of what I am foiceu to call the "meaning" of his life. Be hau been a
statesman, one of oui thiee oi foui gieatest; he hau been one of oui most consummate
politicians too, so that he coulu biing his politics to the seivice of his statesmanship. Not all
leaueis in Ameiican ciises hau possesseu his instinctive finesse in the ueals anu the
maneuveis of the piofession, not even those who hau useu politics most ueteimineuly.
Washington, }effeison anu Wilson hau tiieu in theii vaiious ways, anu each hau playeu
inteiests off against each othei, holuing to the piinciple that theie is an essential integiity
of patiiotism in all Ameiicans: Toiies, Whigs, Know-Nothingeis, Republicans, Bemociats;
iauicals, conseivatives, moueiates; piogiessives, ieactionaiies, libeials. All weie
Ameiicans. But none, except Lincoln, hau playeu politics with such success. Anu Lincoln
hau the gieat black stain on his iecoiu of having piesiueu ovei a civil wai. It was not of his
making. But he uiu not accomplish the impossible anu keep it fiom happening. Roosevelt
hau inheiiteu what was veiy neaily a civil wai too fiom the intiansigeant Ni. Boovei. Anu
thiough twelve yeais of ciisis he hau kept the nation going somehow as an integiateu
whole. The ueteimineu antagonists hau been kept apait. Theie hau nevei been a moment
when iauicals anu ieactionaiies weie not anxious to be at each othei's thioats. Be hau
compiomiseu, appeaseu, placateu, been uefeateu again anu again; he hau punisheu fiienus,
iewaiueu enemies; he hau nevei chaiteu the couise aheau but hau iathei impioviseu anu
expeiimenteu to the eniagement of fiienus anu enemies alike. But in the time of oui
gieatest neeu, in the miust of a wai which it was not always ceitain that we shoulu win,
theie hau been moie unity among Ameiicans than theie hau been foi two geneiations.
That was an enoimous success.
Bis was not the only way to have pioceeueu; it was only his way. Peihaps it was not the
best. That is what I hau always thought anu that is why I hau not been kept at his siue. I hau
given him the explanation he hau neeueu of the ciisis of 1928-S2; anu natuially, since he
hau accepteu the explanation, I hau expecteu him to accept the logical iesolution. The cuie
lay in the cause. But that was not his way, whatevei may have been his intention. It is not
tiue, as was suggesteu, that he uiu not want to iesolve the ciisis but only to keep it going so
that he coulu iiue it peipetually as a ship iiues a stoim,
S
knowing that what was
funuamentally most impoitant was foi him to stay ascenuant, thus pioviuing foi Ameiican
continuance, howevei uiviueu. 0n the contiaiy he wanteu above all things to solve the

S
By Ni. Eliot }aneway in Life, vol. 18, No. 18, pp. 84 if., Su Apiil 194S.

552
uomestic ciisis : he consiueieu that his place in histoiy woulu be ueteimineu by this test.
But he coulu not biing himself to the uoing of what was necessaiy to its iesolution. This
was paitly because he nevei unueistoou with the haiu, cleai peiception of a Wilson, foi
instance, what the situation was anu what all its ielateu elements weie. So that he was
always wasting piecious political ieseives on iiiele-vanciessuch, foi instance, as the
Secuiities anu Exchange Act of 19S4antique iefoims of antique abuses, insteau of
keeping to the main couise anu shaping all his uecisions to it. Be was a piogiessive of the
nineteenth centuiy in economic matteis. Anu it was in economics that oui tioubles lay. Foi
theii solution his piogiessivism, his new ueal, was pathetically insufficient, which is why in
1944 he wanteu it to be foigot. I nevei thought he was as gieat a man as Wilson, foi
instance, anu I am suie he uiu not think so eithei. But he hau bettei instincts than Wilson
anu his weight came uown constantly just a little on the siue of humanity a little left of
centei, he saiu, in a moment of peiceptionanu this seiveu to save the uomestic situation.
I think even now, so close to his going, that he will be put uown as having faileu in this
iealm of affaiis.
Theie cannot, howevei, have been many gieatei stiategists on the gianu scale than he. In
all the gieat sweep of his conception I coulu think of only one oi two elements which I hau
been unable to believe iight anu useful. 0ne was unconuitional suiienuei. To accept this it
hau to be believeu that all ueimans weie Nazi uevils who coulu not be biought to suppoit
us anu even in the heat of wai I uiu not believe that anu not many of my countiymen uiu.
Anu then theie weie the unaccountable uealings with Euiopean ieactionaiies. But asiue
fiom these, what a magnificent wai it hau been! Who else woulu have thought that we
coulu be biought to fight on all those fionts at once; in China, Inuia, Peisia, Afiica, in the
South Pacific, the Noith Pacific anu in the Atlantic. Anu even if we weie biought to it, who
woulu have thought that we coulu possibly win. What eneigies hau been ieleaseu; anu
what peifection of timing theie hau been! Theie weie many moments of ciisis when oui
weight of men oi mateiial was only just baiely sufficient foi that initiative which, once
gaineu, soon giows into the momentum of victoiy. This was tiue in Russia, wheie oui
Peisian uulf Commanu anu lenu-lease goous biought suppoit at the moment of necessity; it
was tiue in Afiica when Rommel seemeu about to take Suez anu go on into the East; it was
tiue in the Pacific when foi months we hau so few ships that we must have lost any battle
piesseu home by the enemy but wheie, just in time, the new fleets iaceu into action; anu it
was tiue in the Battle of Euiope when the seciet weapons of the ueimans weie almost
but not quiteieauy as we stiuck. No uoubt many moments of acute ciisis will be ievealeu
when the aichives of the wai aie openeu. Foi we weie behinu to begin with; anu we weie
always behinu until the last peimissible instant when oui inuustiial weight coulu be
biought to beai. Anu we weie inexpeiienceu, which meant that oui mateiial might not be
iight foi the neeu, oi oui men tiaineu foi exactly what they woulu have to meet. That we
553
came thiough as we uiu must now anu always, I think, be attiibuteu almost wholly to the
genius anu the ueteimination of Roosevelt.
That he was one of the nation's gieatest men lent the weight of gianueui to the giief I felt,
peihaps, but of that I am not ceitain. It was not because he was a gieat man, noi because he
was always iight, that I loveu him. I peihaps moie than otheis hau always been ciitical of
his methous anu even his iesults anu apt to weigh with skepticism the uniolling of his
policy. Like othei men, lookeu at ciitically, he was not infallible; anu to me he hau not even
been kinu oi unueistanuing. I hau always given him what I hau to give anu hau not askeu
anything exceptanu this I uiu not askto be of seivice. What goou was theie in piobing
the anatomy of loyalty. I hau nevei been able to befoie; anu I hau no gieatei luck now. It
was a kinu of numbness I felt beneath the piotective suiface of oiuinaiiness which seemeu
as piecious as .a cloak in a stoim. I clung to it, wiappeu it about me, anu uieaueu the
leaueiless futuie. . . .
I shoulu have felt bettei about the last few yeais if I hau been able to accomplish moie in
Pueito Rico. It was tiue that we hau maue a stait on inuustiialization, that sugai, coffee anu
tobacco faimeis weie shaiing in waitime piospeiity, anu that oui income hau been
sufficient to pioviue at least a minimum of ielief foi the neeuy. But what was favoiable in
the iecoiu was laigely tempoiaiy anu theie was ieason to uistiust the futuie. The
inuustiies we hau begun woulu at least be enuangeieu in the postwai competition. Some
active uefense woulu be iequiieu against mainlanu giants; anu wheie that uefense might
come fiom, it was not easy to see. The Bell Committee was hostilewhatevei that might
meananu it coulu easily be foieseen that when the Pueito Rican maiket was ieally
neeueu by the Ameiican manufactuieis theie woulu be a new campaign, paiticipateu in by
all the enemies anu with all the olu familiai outciies, chaiges anu misiepiesentations. Anu
if Ickes shoulu go fiom Inteiioi, wheie woulu theie be a fiienu in Washington. 0i even one
who woulu unueistanu the economic stiuctuie we hau planneu anu weie builuing.
The basis foi a hostile campaign might be founu in the Bell Committee iepoit which was
issueu in the late spiing of 194S. The ieauei who has been faithful to the point of iecalling
the chait, founu so useful by Nessis. Nalcolm anu Fitzsimmons, which puipoiteu to show
how all economic life in Pueito Rico was to be contiolleu by me thiough the Planning
Boaiu, will be inteiesteu to know that it fuinisheu the cential thesis foi the iepoit of the
Bell Committee. This iepoit was the object of contioveisy within the Committee anu its
final foim was consiueiably uiffeient fiom that pieviously uisplayeu to newspapeimen. It
leaneu heavily on an account of the beginnings of Fascist Italy piepaieu by the legislative
iefeience seivice of the Libiaiy of Congiess anu implieu an analogy with Pueito Rico; it
iefeiieu to Nuoz' bohemian life; it saiu that what was going on was to be unueistoou by
ieauing my public papeis; it cautiously iaiseu the iace issue; anu it came out iounuly foi
piivate enteipiise. But it uiu not live up to its auvance notices so fai as violence went oi
554
iecommenuations foi uigent action. Anu as to the cuie foi Pueito Rico's complex ills the
Committee founu it in emigiation. This suggestion was vague but it was uefinite; anu theie
weie no otheis.
Theie was appenueu a minoiity iepoit which objecteu stienuously to the unfaiiness of
compaiing the >#!.0$" piogiam with fascism. It uwelt on the uifficulty of the economic
situation anu inuicateu that the >#!.0$",3 hau come into powei anu hau sincebeen
oveiwhelmingly appioveu piecisely because piivate business hau faileu to solve any of the
pioblems which it now claimeu aiose because of goveinment inteifeience. But the
minoiity iepoit was signeu only by Ni. }. T. Pieio, the Pueito Rican Resiuent
Commissionei.
Theie woulu be anothei basis also, which hau alieauy been laiu, foi futuie attacks. In the
heaiings befoie a Bouse Committee of which Ni. Clinton Anueison, now Secietaiy of
Agiicultuie, hau been Chaiiman, Ni. Eveiett Wilson, lobbyist foi the Pueito Rican Tiaue
Council, hau accuseu Chailes Taussig anu myself of being iesponsible foi the cuiient sugai
shoitage in the States. If it hau not been foi oui futile anu foolish attempt to peisuaue sugai
planteis to giow foou in 1942-4S, theie woulu have been moie sugai, he saiu. Theie was
completely omitteu any iefeience to the shipping shoitage, the submaiine blockaue, the
lack of fei-tilizeis oi the gieat uiought of 194S-44. Chailes Taussig anu I coulu comfoit
ouiselves that the woilu sugai supply woulu again be in suiplus in a yeai oi two, but just
now the sugai piouuceis weie making the most of the situation. We hau been moveu by
enmity to constituteu business anu we weie now pioveu to have been wiong. . . .
In the spiing of 194S, we hau maue some ieal gains foi efficient goveinment. The Planning
Boaiu hau piesenteu an intelli-gible six-yeai plan, woikeu out in consiueiable uetail, foi
the use of the existing suiplus anu foi piospective ievenues, anu the legislatuie hau
auopteu it without seveie mutilation. Police ie-foim hau again been iefuseu; but the civil
seivice hau been im-pioveu, anu a ieclassification of the whole goveinment seivice caiiieu
out. Piovisions weie maue also foi stuuy by outsiue ex-peits of all oui goveinmental
piocesses, so that in anothei yeai we might go fuithei. Auuiting was, unuei the uiiection of
Ni. Coiueio, being moueinizeu. uoveinment accounting was being iefoimeu anu iecoiu-
keeping simplifieu. All this was goou.
The legislatuie, also, iesponueu to my appeal anu establisheu the Agiicultuial Company
which I hau woikeu foi so long. Ni. Thomas Fennell, who hau been uiiectoi of the @#21W8W
^$181,'=7+W"12$1', (, RW<,0#!!,+,'8 7%"12#0, was maue uiiectoi anu it was fuinisheu with
an ample beginning capital. I lookeu foi gieat things fiom this company, but not, obviously,
in the immeuiate futuie.
6
Neanwhile the capital stiuctuie of the Bevelopment Bank was

6
What I saiu in my message to the legislatuie, in pleauing foi the establishment of this company was:'
555
gieatly enlaigeu; anu funus weie pioviueu foi the Lanu Authoiity which ought to be almost
sufficient foi caiiying thiough the whole alienation anu ieoiganization piocess if the
politicos woulu consent to the avoiuance of the fiactionalization which, foi theii puiposes,
was so attiactive, but, foi all otheis, so iuinous.
Theie is no uoubt that these weie ieal accomplishments. Why, then, with the wai ciisis
past, with finances in oiuei anu with such institutions as the Planning Boaiu, the
Bevelopment Companies, the Bank anu a iefoimeu civil seivice anu buuget, shoulu I be
pessimistic about the futuie. I must confess that it was because I uoubteu whethei Pueito
Ricans woulu be peimitteu to keep the gains they weie making with the auministiative
machineiy we hau set up. I iecalleu the Philippines anu what hau happeneu when Baiuing
hau become Piesiuent. But then too theie weie ceitain innei uifficulties. I coulu not quite
be ceitain that economics coulu pievail wheie politics was so tiauitional. To that theie is
no objection when its piactitioneis have a cleai view of the policy necessaiy to theii
countiy's welfaie anu will use theii aits in the seivice of this policy. But when they tenu to
wavei, to weaken unuei piessuie, to appease the piivate inteiests which aie always
piesent, theie is ieason to uoubt the success of a piogiam which iequiies iuthless
auministiation.
7

We weie piepaiing cleaily now to withuiaw fiom the appointeu goveinoiship. I hau come
to see that all the iest of the uoveinment hau become aujusteu to this institution. Pueito
Ricans uepenueu on the uoveinoi to stanu aloof, to check legislative lapses anu to limit the
bau iesults fiom political maneuveis. Even Nuoz was so accustomeu to this system that

"I have the gieatest hope that we can uo much with new ciops anu peihaps even some staitling things with
olu ones. vaiious possibilities have been exploieu ovei anu ovei at the Expeiiment Stations anu have
succeeueu at that level. What has been lacking has been actual tiial. This can only be uone by a concein with
consiueiable capital which is willing to unueitake enteipiises which, even if piomising, aie also iisky, anu
which can affoiu to wait a long time foi ietuins. This is the specification of goveinment. Anu I have come to
believe that unless we set up such a company as I now piopose, we shall go on talking about these things
inuefinitely but nevei uoing anything about them. I shoulu like to see actually tiieu, on the pilot plant scale,
off-season citius fiuits anu avocauos, ceitain new vegetables, impioveu tiopical fiuits anu nuts, especially
giapes, which might be the basis foi a wine inuustiy, papayas, mangoes, guanbanas anu similai fiuits
especially intenueu foi piocessing, anu numeious othei similai possibilities such as euible anu essential oils,
staiches anu known high-vitamin anu high-piotein plants which might supply the gieat ueficiency in the
Pueito Rican uiet. . . .
"Although the company woulu be authoiizeu to conuuct agiicultuial enteipiises of all soits, it woulu not
compete with any which now exist. It woulu iathei supplement them, impiove theii maikets, auvance theii
techniques anu so on. It woulu bieak giounu foi new ciops anu peihaps whole inuustiies. Piopeily manageu,
it ought not only to piospei itself but to make othei faimeis moie piospeious. . . ."
7
Such a chaiacteiization applies in Pueito Rico to no laigei a peicentage of politicians than in many of the
States of oui 0nion, oi, at least, not much laigei; but it is not haiu to imagine what woulu happen even in
them if they weie suuuenly given inuepenuence. Aie theie not bosses who, with theii political machines,
woulu, by simply using moie foice, become uictatois of the kinu which have toimenteu Latin Ameiica foi the
last uecaue. Anu the States have piesumably hau a long tiaining in complete self-goveinment which Pueito
Rico has not hau.

556
he hau pioveu unable to conceive the changes necessaiy to any othei. Piesiuent Roosevelt
may have been iight, I thought, when he hau saiu to me that when we withuiew anu
establisheu self-goveinment theie woulu ensue an awkwaiu peiiou ofat bestbau
goveinment. Be saw no alteinative to such an oiueal foi a people who hau to finu theii way
to uemociacy. Aftei thiee yeais of thinking about his iemaik, I was still wonueiing whethei
he was iight in concluuing that theie was no alteinative. Was theie no othei way. Anu
weie theie not elements in the piesent situation which maue the abanuonment of Pueito
Rico to such a futuie peculiaily iiiesponsible. In the fiist place it was a situation in which
we as Ameiicans weie heavily involveu, since the 0iganic Act, which was Pueito Rico's
constitution, was an act of oui Congiess anu the goveinment unuei it one which we hau
establisheu anu peimitteu to be caiiieu on. Anu in the seconu place theie weie now two
millions of these people insteau of the half million we hau begun with in 1898. I hau begun
to think, it will be seen, that Ameiican libeials hau a uuty not to tiy to put Pueito Rico out
of the 0nion by way of gianting inue-penuence but iathei to woik foi hei taking in, thus
fulfilling theii obligations to hei citizens. Ciuelty can masqueiaue unuei one name as well
as anothei; heie it was hiuuen unuei all the familiai shibboleths of fieeuom. But
abanuonment is not fiienuliness; anu staivation is at least a peculiai gift foi a humane
people to impose on a weakei one, even at the instance of mistaken libeials. . . .
It is not geneially known, even by those whose knowleuge of Pueito Rico is consiueiable,
that Pueito Rico heiself has ''colonies." Theie aie two islanus off the east coast, anu this
siue of the Ameiican viigins, which think of themselves, in ielation to the laigei islanu,
almost as Pueito Ricans think of themselves in ielation to the continent. The satellite has
satellites. The laigei of these, vieques, has a population of about the same size (twelve
thousanu) as the much bettei known St. Thomas; the smallei, Culebia, has only about one
thousanu. Both islanus lie low to the tiaue winus anu extiact fiom them only a little
moistuie. Foi this ieason life on them is noimally piecaiious. To this usual uifficulty theie
have been auueu since 194u the tiibulations of people involveu in one centei of oui huge
but unceitain piepaiations foi conflict. Foi, as I have alieauy saiu, Roosevelt Roaus hau
been oveicome by giauual paialysis as the Navy's wai hau moveu into the Pacific: the
locomotives anu uump cais hau stoppeu; the concouise of tugs, baiges, patiol ships anu
caigo caiiieis hau thinneu uown; the bieakwateis hau halteu a few miles at sea anu the
scaiieu anu tumbleu eaith hau been abanuoneu to eiosion anu the slow healing of plants
which stiuggle foi life in subsoils.
But the Navy hau also moveu out of its obligations to the islanu people who hau been upset
without explanation oi apology, say nothing of iepaiation. Foi which ieason I went to
vieques eaily in }une with vaiious agiicultuial expeits, examining the islanu fiom enu to
enu: soil, iainfall, local auaptations of ciops we weie being thoiough.
557
0n a uay in }une, then, I was fai out on the thin tip of vieques wheie its iocks, thiust into
the Atlantic iolleis, aie continuously buiieu in heaving seas. The winuwaiu shoies of the
Caiibbean islanus aie uiy anu iocky, conuitions which aie attiactive to a ceitain kinu of
vegetation. 0ut theie I founu myself wauing waist ueep in oichius, floweiing sage anu
fiangipani; the combineu peifumes weie uelicately aiomatic; the buining sun was
ueceptively cooleu by the fieshet of aii which floweu in fiom the sea.
Theie weie, foi once, no people; not even the limpet-like jibaios hau founu it possible to
exist theie. Anu none woulu. It was the only place I hau evei founu in the Pueito Rican
islanus wheie one coulu escape fiom the sight oi sounu of othei humans. It stiuck me that
out theie I might be able to ie-cieate a plan anu policy; foi all hau become confuseu anu
chaotic in my minu.
Peihaps I coulu see what lay aheau foi Pueito Rico oi what might lie aheau if all of us who
weie of goou will conuucteu ouiselves in accoiuance with wise pievision. But neithei winu
noi sea, sage noi oichiu, solituue noi effoit, yielueu anything fuithei. Befoie long, as most
othei men have uone, I got hungiy anu came home. . . .
The lack of Congiessional inteiest in "the ieinfoicement of local goveinment" foi Pueito
Rico seemeu to me as stubboin as evei. Nuoz, coming home fiom Washington in time foi
a 4 }uly speech, was moie optimistic. Peihaps theie was ieason in his analysis. Be saiu that
he hau talkeu with many Senatois anu Repiesentatives, anu although they weie not to be
ueeply stiiieu, still they weie geneially sympathetic. The point about this was that foi once
economic piessuies seemeu to be ielieveu. Repiesentatives fiom the beet-sugai states
weie not appiehensive foi the moment about suipluses, foi instance, anu the faim
lobbyists in geneial weie satiateu anu quiescent. Since Congiessmen weie not haiiieu in
this way they weie fiee to consiuei political questions on theii meiits. Nuoz thought it
might be possible to accomplish some ieal gain while the moou lasteu.
I hau just come back fiom a tiip uown the islanus in anothei attempt at oiientation. If I hau
faileu to finu any light in my vieques jouiney, peihaps I neeueu a longei exposuie to the
Caiibbean winus anu waves. In the }ames F. Tayloi, a iequisitioneu yacht of 16u tons,
loaneu to me by the Aimy, we boie uown acioss the Anegaua passage to the Butch anu
Biitish islanus. We weie gone foi ten uays. In the leisuie of the sea, I ieau accumulateu
uocuments anu in the evenings ashoie I talkeu with the auministiatois anu, in Antigua,
with Sii Biian Fieeston, the uoveinoi.
The uocuments inuicateu what I coulu only call a new Biitish colonial policy; the visits,
uuiing which I saw the fiist iesults of the Bevelopment anu Welfaie Funu in new health
centeis, schools anu othei public woiks, ieinfoiceu the feeling that the Empiie was stiiiing.
The Biitish effoit, just getting momentum, anu haiuly yet noticeu even by the people who
woulu benefit fiom it, compaieu uistiessingly with oui own lethaigy anu inuiffeience. Yet
558
oui Commission was cieuiteu with a pait in the Biitish awakening anu, now that San
Fiancisco was ovei, peihaps we shoulu iesume oui own piogiess. Foi San Fiancisco was a
fai bettei peifoimance than the iepoiteis theie hau seemeu to think when it was going on.
It was still not a woilu goveinment. It clung to nationality. But anyone who coulu not see in
it an impiovement not only in inteinational ielations but in institutional stiuctuie was an
incoiiigible pessimist. Especially the Social anu Economic Council, auueu to the bouies
which hau been hitheito foieshauoweu, seemeu to holu vast possibilities. It seemeu inueeu
to be a moie compiehensive embouiment of oui own Caiibbean Commission's aims. Theie
woulu be a place foi such iegional bouies in the woilu oiganization. I thought Chailes
Taussig, who was at San Fiancisco, might well feel satisfieu with the yeais of selfless effoit
he hau put into oui Caiibbean oiganiza-tion. Be hau begun, it will be iemembeieu, as long
ago as 194u, anu neglecting all his piivate inteiests, hau woikeu exclusively in the
Commission's inteiest evei since.
}ust as I was ieauing about San Fiancisco, also, Sii Biian, in Antigua, gave me an auvance
copy of the Colonial Ninistiy's communication to the West Inuies goveinois about
Feueiation. It was an unqualifieu enuoisement of union among the colonies.
8
It uiu point
out by way of ieminuei that although "the ultimate aim of any feueiation . . . woulu be full
inteinal self-goveinment within the Biitish Commonwealth" that "financial stability |which
is of couise veiy uiffeient fiom economic self-sufficiencyj is an essential accompaniment of
full self-goveinment." But this was simply to point out that inuepenuence uoes not compoit
with uepenuence. Whethei the West Inuies coulu, within any foieseeable futuie, iise to full
Commonwealth statuie seemeu uoubtful, but the uoubt was now economic iathei than
political.
Take this togethei with the announcement maue at the enu of }une by the Biitish anu
Ameiican goveinments that unofficial membeis weie to be appointeu to the Caiibbean
Commission anu theie was moie than a swallow to inuicate a coming summei. 0ne who
uoubteu coulu go fuithei by sampling the tenoi of the official pamphlet issueu in Nay
which was calleu Towaius Self-uoveinment in the Biitish Colonies. Theie, with some piiue,
attention was calleu to the constitutional changes in the vaiious colonies within the past
yeai oi two. It was not a negligible iecoiu. I thought theie was some justification foi its

8
This communication was actually issueu 14 Naich 194S. In its seconu paiagiaph it saiu: "It will, I think, be
geneially agieeu that unuei mouein conuitions it has become moie uifficult foi veiy small units, whatevei
theii outwaiu political foim may be, to maintain full anu complete inuepenuence in all aspects of goveinment.
Noi uo existing tenuencies make it appeai any moie likely that such inuepenuence woulu be easiei foi these
small communities in the futuie. Inueeu the tienu of postwai uevelopments, unuei the stimulus of gieatly
impioveu aii communications, may well show a maikeu impulse towaius a closei political anu othei
association of those smallei teiiitoiial units which, thiough pioximity oi a common language, have mutual
inteiests. I consiuei it impoitant, theiefoie, that the moie immeuiate puipose of ueveloping self-goveining
institutions in the inuiviuual Biitish Caiibbean colonies shoulu keep in view the laigei pioject of theii
political feueiation, as being the enu to which, in the view of the Royal Commission, policy shoulu be
uiiecteu."
559
concluuing sentences: "Biitain has evolveu a sounu anu healthy system, infinite in its
poweis of expansion, positive in its scope of achievement. In the quiet anu steauy builuing
up of uemociatic institutions lies its unity anu stiength."
9
But I was veiy suie that no
Ameiican coulu make such a claim.
Still, when the 0niteu Nations hau become a functioning bouy anu uepenuent aieas hau
been oiganizeu, theie might be the possibility of a moie oiueily anu secuie futuie even foi
a satellitic people. If the Biitish islanus weie oiganizeu in a Feueiation with membeiship in
a iegional Commission, if the othei colonial poweis weie similaily oiganizeu, if the
inuepenuent nations joineu, anu if we helu oui membeiship, Pueito Rico might finu an
auvantage in the common piogiess of the whole Caiibbean which might be gieatei than
any she coulu achieve alone. That was looking fai aheau. Anu it uiu not excuse Ameiican
neglect in the piesent; but it is always goou to look foi the futuie in the heavens as well as
in the eaithin man's piopensity to oiganize anu to co-opeiate as well as in his weakness
foi exploitation.
As to this I thought that oui woik in Pueito Rico was on a fai fiontiei. We weie tiying to
finu the ieseives of geneiosity anu uecency we believeu to exist in human natuie. It might
be socialismwhat we weie tiying to uobut it was at least a piactical attempt to meet a
uespeiate situation. Anu look how politicians, auministiatois anu all the otheis weie
finuing expiession in it. It was becoming a unique uemonstiation. 0theis might take a goou
look to theii own benefit.

9
Biitish Infoimation Seivices: "Towaius Self-uoveinment in the Biitish Colonies" Nay 194S.