Ach: Acetylcholine
ACTH: Adrino Cortico Trophic Hormone
ADH: Anti di Uretic Hormone
ADP: Adenosine Di Phosphate
ANS: Autonomic Nervous
System
ATP: Adenosine Tri Phosphate
C: Cervical, cervical vertebrae, (C cervical vertebrae !
cm: Centi meter
CNS: Central Nervous System
C"H: Corticotropin "eleasin# Hormone
CS$: Cerebro Spinal $luid
D%T: Di %odo Tyrosine
DNA: Deo&yribo Nucleic Acid
'd: Per day
(C$: (&tra Cellular $luid
(": (ndoplasmic "eticulum
$SH: $ollicular stimulatin#
hormone
#: )ram
)H%H: )ro*th Hormone %nhibitin#
Hormone )H"H: )ro*th Hormone
"eleasin# Hormone
)%: )astro %ntestinal
)n"H: )ondotrophin "eleasin# Hormone
HC): Human Chorionic )onadotrophin hormone
Hcl: Hydrochloric acid
h)H: Human )ro*th Hormone
%CSH: %nterstitial Cell Stimulatin# Hormone
%)$: %nsulin li+e )ro*th $actors
%UD: %ntra Uterine Device
,: ,umbar, lumbar vertebrae, (,-, lumbar vertebrae -!
l: liter
.
,(S: ,o*er esopha#eal sphincter
,H: ,eutini/in# Hormone
,PH: ,ito tropin Hormone
m: 0eter
0%T: 0ono %odo Tyrosine
ml1: 0ili liter
mm: 0illi meter
P: Phosphate
P2%: Protein 2ound %odine
P
H
: Po*er o3 Hydro#en
P%H: Prolactin %nhibitin#
Hormone
PNS: Peripheral Servous System
P40C: Pro54pio 0elano Cortin
P"H: Prolactin "eleasin# Hormone
PTH: Para Thyroid Hormone
"NA: "ibo Neuclic Acid
r"NA: "ibosomal "ibo Neuclic Acid
T: Thoracic, thoracic vertebrae, (T. thoracic vertebrae .!
T
-:
Tri iodo tyronin
T
:
Thyro&in
T)2: Tyro #lobulin
T"H: Tyro tropin "eleasin# Hormone
TSH: Thyroid Stimulatin# Hormone
U6: Ultra 6iolet
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION TO HUMAN ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY
Learning Objective
At the end o3 this chapter, the students should be able to:
5De7ne Anatomy and Physiolo#y
5(&plain Homeostasis
8
5Describe levels o3 structural or#ani/ation o3 the human body
5Discuss directional terms, anatomical position, planes and sections
used in Anatomy1
5Di9erentiate body cavities
! "#at are Anato$% an& P#%sio'og%(
Anato$%: the *ord anatomy is derived 3rom a )ree+ *ord :Anatome; meanin#
to cut up1 %t is the study o3 structures that ma+e up the body and ho* those
structures relate *ith each other1
The study o3 anatomy includes many sub specialties1 These are )ross anatomy,
0icroscopic anatomy, Developmental anatomy and (mbryolo#y1
Gross anato$% studies body structure *ith out microscope1 Systemic anatomy
studies 3unctional relationships o3 or#ans *ithin a system *hereas Regional
anatomy studies body part re#ionally1 2oth systemic and re#ional approaches may
be used to study #ross anatomy
Microsco)ic anato$% *Histo'og%+ re<uires the use o3 microscope to study
tissues that 3orm the various or#ans o3 the body1
P#%sio'og%: the *ord physiolo#y derived 3rom a )ree+ *ord 3or study o3 nature1 %t
is the study o3 ho* the body and its part *or+ or 3unction1
Hence, Anatomy and physiolo#y are studied to#ether to #ive students a 3ull
appreciation and understandin# o3 human body1
Ho$eostasis
=hen structure and 3unction are coordinated the body achieves a relative stability
o3 its internal environment called homeostasis ' stayin# the same1 Althou#h the
e&ternal environmental chan#es constantly, the internal environment o3 a healthy
body remains the same *ith in normal limits1
Under normal conditions, homeostasis is maintained by adaptive mechanisms
-
ran#in# 3rom control center in the brain to chemical substances called hormones
that are secreted by various or#ans directly into the blood streams1 Some o3 the
3unctions controlled by homeostasis mechanisms are blood pressure, body
temperature, breathin# and heart rate1
!, Leve' o- str.ct.ra' organi/ation o- t#e bo&%
The human body has di9erent structural levels o3 or#ani/ation, startin# *ith
atoms molecules and compounds and increasin# in si/e and comple&ity to cells,
tissues, or#ans and the systems that ma+e up the complete or#anism1
0ig.re1 ! Leve's o- str.ct.ra' organi/ation o-
t#e bo&% (source: (laine n1 0A"%(2, (8>>>!,
(ssentials o3 human anatomy and physiolo#y, Addison
*elsey lon#man inc1, San $rancisco, ?
th
ed!
Ato$s $o'ec.'es an& co$)o.n&s: 5 At its simplest level, the body is
composed o3 atoms1 The most common elements in livin# or#anism are carbon,
Clavicle
(8!
Scapul
a (8!
'rm
(
8
Humerus (8!
"orea
rm
Ulna
(8!
"adius
(8!
)rist
.?
Carpals (.?!
*and and +ngers
-H
0etacarpal
s (.>!
Phalan#es
Total a&ial bones
H>
Total Appendicular bones
.8?
U The number o3 s+ull bones is sometimes listed as 88, *hen the 4ssicles o3 the
ears (? bones! and the sin#le hyoid bone is counted separately1 Technically, the
hyoid bone is not part o3 the s+ull1
VThe thoracic vertebrae are sometimes included in this cate#ory1
W Technically, the term arm re3ers to the upper e&tremity bet*een the shoulder and
elbo*R the 3orearm is bet*een the elbo* and *rist1 The upper part o3 the lo*er
e&tremity, bet*een the pelvis and +nee, is the thi#hR the le# is bet*een the +nees
an an+le1
9!,!3 T#e A5ia' s?e'eton
9!,!3! T#e s?.''
%t Contain 88 bones1 The s+ull rests on the superior o3 vertebral column1 %t is
composed o3 cranial and 3acial bones1
Tab'e 9!3 Descri)tion an& -.nction o- Crania' 6ones (Source: Carola, "1,
Harley,D1P1, Nobac+ "1C1, (.EE8!, Human anatomy and physiolo#y, 0c )ra* hill inc,
Ne* For+, 8
nd
ed, pp .G>!
6one
Descri)tion an& -.nction
(thmoid (.! 2ase o3 cranium, anterior to body o3
sphenoid1 0ade up o3 hori/ontal, cribri3orm
plate, median perpendicular plate, paired
lateral massesR contains ethmoidal
sinuses, crista #alli, superior and middle
conchae1 $orms roo3 o3 nasal cavity and
septum, part o3 cranium JoorR site o3
attachment 3or membranes coverin# brain1
$rontal (.! Anterior and superior parts o3 cranium,
3orehead, bro* areas1
Shaped li+e lar#e scoopR 3rontal s<uama
3orms 3oreheadR orbital plate 3orms roo3 o3
orbitR supraorbital rid#e 3orms bro* rid#eR
contains 3rontal sinuses, supraorbital
3oramen1 Protects 3ront o3 brainR contains
passa#e*ay 3or nerves, blood vessels1
4ccipital (.! Posterior part o3 cranium, includin#
base1 Sli#htly curved plate, =ith turned5 up
ed#esR made up o3 s<uamous, base, and t*o
lateral partsR contains 3oramen ma#num,
occipital condyles, hypo5#lossal canals,
atlanto5occipital Aoint, e&ternal occipital crest
and protuberance1 Protects posterior part o3
brainR 3orms 3oramina 3or spinal cord and
nervesR site o3 attachment 3or muscles,
li#aments1
Parietal (8! Superior sides and roo3 o3 cranium,
bet*een 3rontal and occipital bones1
2road, sli#htly conve& platesR smooth
e&teriors and internal depressions1 Protect
top, sides o3 brain, passa#e*ay 3or blood
vessels1
Sphenoid (.! 2ase o3 cranium, anterior to occipital
and temporal bones1
=ed#e5shapedR made up o3 body, #reater
and lesser lateral *in#s, ptery#oid
processesR contains sphenoidal sinuses,
sella turcica, optic 3oramen, superior orbital
7ssure, 3oramen ovale, 3oramen rotundum,
3oramen spinosum $orms anterior part o3
base o3 craniumR houses pituitary #landR
contains 3oramina 3or cranial nerves,
menin#eal artery to brain1
Temporal (8! Sides and base o3 cranium at temples1
0ade up o3 s<uamous, petrous, tympanic,
mastoid areasR contain /y#omatic process,
mandibular 3ossa, ear 4ssicles, mastoid
sinuses1 $orm temples, part o3 chee+bonesR
articulate *ith lo*er Aa*R protect ear
ossiclesR site o3 attachments 3or nec+
muscles1
0ig.re1 9!9 Latera' vie: o- crania' s?.'' (source:
Carola, "1, Harley,D1P1, Nobac+ "1C1, (.EE8!, Human
anatomy and physiolo#y, 0c )ra* hill inc, Ne* For+,
8
nd
ed, pp .G>!
S.t.res
0eanin# to stitch, are immovable Aoint 3ound bet*een s+ull bones1 There are
3our main sutures in the s+ull1
a! Coronal suture: bet*een the 3rontal I the t*o5parital bone1
b! Sagital suture: bet*een the t*o parietal bones1
c! +ambdoidal suture: bet*een parietal I occiputal bone1
d! S/uamosal suture: bet*een parietal bone and temporal bone1
0ontane's
The s+eleton o3 a ne*ly 3ormed embryo consist cartila#e or 7brous membrane
structures, *hich #radually replaced by bone the process is called ossi3ication1
At birth membrane 7lled spaces on the s+ull are called 3ontanel1 They are 3ound
bet*een cranial bones1
%unction
Q They enable s+ull o3 the 3etus to compress as it pass throu#h the birth
canal
Q Permit rapid #ro*th o3 brain durin# in3ancy
Q Serves as a landmar+ (anterior 3ontanel! 3or *ithdra*al o3 blood 3rom the
superior sa#ital sinus
Q Aid in determination o3 3etal position prior to birth1 %n the s+ull o3 the 3etus
there are ? prominent 3ontanels:
a! The Anterior 3rontal! 3ontanel& bet*een an#le o3 t*o parietal bones I
se#ment o3 the 3rontal bone1 %t is diamond shaped and is the lar#est 3ontanel1 %t
closes .H to 8 months a3ter birth1
b! The posterior occiputal! 3ontanel& bet*een parietal I occiputal bone1 %t is also
diamond shaped but smaller than the anterior 3ontanel1 %t closes 8 months a3ter
birth1
c! The Antrolatral sphenoidal! 3ontanel& they are pair, one in each side1 $ound at
the Aunction o3 3rontal, parietal, temporal I sphenoidal bone1 They are small I
irre#ular in shape and closes at -rd month a3ter birth1
d! The postrolateral mastoid! 3ontanel& Paired one in each side1 $ound at the
Aunction o3 parietal, occiputal and temporal bones1 They are irre#ular in shape and
be#in to close at . or 8 months a3ter birth and completed by .8 months1
0ig.re1 9!D S.t.res an& 0ontane's (Source: Carola, "1, Harley,D1P1,
Nobac+
"1C1, (.EE8!, Human anatomy and physiolo#y, 0c )ra* hill inc,
Ne* For+,
8
nd
ed, pp .G8!
Tab'e 9!71 Descri)tion an& -.nction o- 0acia' bones (source: Carola, "1,
Harley,D1P1, Nobac+ "1C1, (.EE8!, Human anatomy and physiolo#y, 0c )ra* hill inc,
Ne* For+, 8
nd
ed, pp .G.!
6one Descri)tions
an& -.nction
%n3erior nasal ,ateral *alls o3 nasal cavities,
belo* superior and middle
Conchii (8! conchae o3 (thmoid bone1
Thin, cancellous, shaped li+e curved
leaves1
,acrimal (8! 0edial *all o3 orbit, behind
3rontal process o3 ma&illa1 Small, thin,
rectan#ularR contains depression 3or
lacrimal sacs, nasolacrimal tear duct1
0andible (.! ,o*er Aa*, e&tendin# 3rom chin
to mandibular 3ossa o3 temporal bone1
,ar#est, stron#est 3acial boneR
horseshoe5shaped hori/ontal bony
*ith t*o perpendicular ramiR contains
tooth soc+ets, coronoid, condylar,
alveolar processes, mental 3oramina1
3orms lo*er Aa*, part
o3 temporomandibular AointR site o3
attachment 3or muscles1
0a&illae (8! Upper Aa* and anterior part o3
hard palate1 0ade up o3 /y#omatic,
3rontal, palatine, alveolar processesR
contain in3raorbital 3oramina, ma&illary
sinuses, tooth soc+ets1 $orm upper
Aa*, 3ront o3 hard palate, part o3 eye soc+ets1
Nasal (8! Upper brid#e o3 nose bet*een 3rontal processes
o3 ma&illae1 Small, oblon#R attached to a nasal cartila#e1 $orm
supports 3or brid#e o3 upper nose1
Palatine (8! Posterior part o3 hard palate, Joor
o3 nasal cavity and orbitR posterior to
ma&illae1 ,5shaped, *ith hori/ontal and
vertical platesR contain #reater and
lesser palatine 3oramina1 Hori/ontal
plate 3orms posterior part o3 hard
palateR vertical plate 3orms part o3 *all
o3 nasal cavity, Joor o3 orbit1
6omer (.! Posterior and in3erior part o3 nasal
septum1 Thin, shaped li+e plo*share1
$orms posterior and in3erior nasal
septum dividin# nasal cavities1
Ty#omatic (8! Chee+bones belo* and lateral to
orbit1 Curved lateral part o3 (molar!
chee+bonesR made up o3 temporal
process, /y#omatic archR contain
/y#omatico53acial and /y#omatico5
temporal 3oramina1 3orm chee+bones,
outer part o3 eye soc+ets1
Hyoid(.! 2elo* root o3 ton#ue, above
laryn&1 U5shaped, suspended 3rom
styloid process o3 temporal boneR site o3
attachment 3or some muscles used
in spea+in#,
s*allo*in#1
4ssicles o3
ear
(?!
%nside cavity o3 petrous portion o3
temporal bone1 Tiny bones %ncus(8!
shaped li+e anvil, hammer, stirrup,
articulatin# *ith one another malleus
(8! and attached to tympanic
membrane1 Convey sound vibrations
stapes (8! 3rom eardrum to oval
*indo* (see Chapter
.?!1
0ig.re1 9!E Latera' se)arate& vie: o- -acia'
s?.''A ear ossic'es an& #%oi& bone (source:
Carola, "1, Harley,D1P1, Nobac+ "1C1, (.EE8!,
Human anatomy and physiolo#y, 0c )ra* hill inc,
Ne* For+, 8
nd
ed, pp .G.!
Orbits
A pyramid shaped space that contains the eyeball I associate structures1
%t is 3ormed by bones o3 the s+ull1 4rbit has 3our *alls and ape&:
Q The roo3 o3 the orbit consists o3 parts o3 the 3rontal I sphenoid bone1
Q The lateral *all is 3ormed by portions o3 /y#omatic and sphenoid bone1
Q The Joor o3 the orbit is 3ormed by parts o3 the ma&illa, /y#omatic and
palatine bone1
Q The medial *all is 3ormed by portion o3 the ma&illa, lacrimal, ethimoid
I sphenoid bone1
%n the orbit there are openin#s that pass structures1 Some o3 the principal
openin#s and And the structures passin# throu#h are: "ptic 3oramen canal!
passes optic nerve Superior orbital .ssure passes supra orbit nerve and artery1
#n3erior orbital .ssure passes ma&illary branch o3 tri#eminal and /y#omatic nerve
and in3ra orbital vessel1 Supra orbital 3oramen notch! passes occulomotor,
trochlear, ophthalmic branch o3 tri#eminal and abducent nerves1 Canal 3or naso
lacrimal duct passes naso lacrimal duct1
0ig.re1 9!F S?.'' anterior vie:sA an& t#e orbita'
cavit% (source: Carola, "1, Harley,D1P1, Nobac+ "1C1,
(.EE8!, Human anatomy and physiolo#y, 0c )ra* hill
inc, Ne* For+, 8
nd
ed, pp .G-!
T#e vertebra' co'.$n
The vertebral column to#ether *ith the sternum I ribs constitutes the s+eleton o3
the trun+ o3 the body1 %t composes 8'Cth o3 the hei#ht o3 the body and has
avera#e len#th in male o3 G. c1m1 and in 3emale ?. c1m1 The adult vertebral
column contains 8? vertebras1 Prior to 3usion o3 sacral I coccy#eal vertebrae the
total number is --1 %t is a stron# and Je&ible to either direction I rotated on it sel31
(ncloses I protect spinal cord, supports the head and serves as a point o3
attachment 3or the ribs I muscles o3 the bac+1
Inter vertebra' &iscs
2et*een adAacent vertebrae 3rom .
st
to sacrum there are inter vertebral discs1 They
are 7bro5cartila#inous1 (ach disc is composed o3 the outer 7brous rin# consistin#
7bro5cartila#e called annulus .brosis and the inner so3t, pulpy hi#hly elastic
structure called the nucleus pulpous( The disc permits various movement o3 the
vertebral column, absorb shoc+ and 3orm a stron# Aoint1
0ig.re1 9!G Intervertibra' &iscA co$)resse& an& r.)t.re& &isc
(source: Carola, "1, Harley,D1P1, Nobac+ "1C1, (.EE8!, Human
anatomy and physiolo#y, 0c )ra* hill inc, Ne* For+, 8
nd
ed, pp
.E?!
Nor$a' c.rves
The vertebral column *hen vie*ed 3rom side is not a strai#ht line rather have
bandin#s1 These are normal curves o3 the vertebral column1 There are normal
curves 3ormed by vertebras, t*o are concave and the other t*o are conve&1 The
presences o3 the curve have several 3unctionsR these are absorption o3 shoc+,
maintenance o3 balance, protection o3 column 3rom 3racture and increasin# the
stren#th o3 the column1
%n the a#e o3 the 3etus there is only a sin#le anterior concave curve, but
appro&imately the third post natal month, *hen the child be#in to hold head erect,
the cervical curve develops1 ,ater *hen the child sits up, stands and *al+s the
lumbar curve develops1 The cervical I lumbar curves are an anteriorly conve&
and because they are modi3ication o3 the 3etal position they are called secondary
curves( The thoracic and sacral curves are anteriorly concave, since they retain
the anterior concavity o3 the 3etal curve they are re3erred primary curves1
0ig.re1 9!H! T#e vertebra' co'.$n an&
vertebra' c.rves (source: Carola, "1, Harley,D1P1,
Nobac+ "1C1, (.EE8!, Human anatomy and
physiolo#y, 0c )ra* hill inc, Ne* For+, 8
nd
ed, pp
.H?!
T%)ica' vertebra
Althou#h there are variations in si/e and shape, the vertebras o3 the di9erent
re#ion have basically similar structure1 %t consist the body, vertebral arch and
seven processes1
The body Centrum!, thic+, disc shaped, anterior part1 %t has superior and in3erior
rou#hened area 3or attachment *ith intervertebral discs1
The vertebral neural! arch e&tends posterior 3rom the body o3 the vertebrae1 =ith
the body it surrounds the spinal cord1 %t is 3ormed by t*o short, thic+ process called
pedicles( %t proAects posteriorly to meet at laminae1 The laminae are Jat parts that
Aoin to 3orm the posterior portion o3 the vertebral arch1 The space that lies bet*een
the vertebral arch and body contains the spinal cord called vertebral 3oramina1 The
vertebral 3oramina o3 all vertebras to#ether 3orm the vertebral (spinal! canal1 The
pedicles are notched superiorly I in3eriorly to 3orm an openin# bet*een vertebrae
on each side o3 the column called #ntervertibral 3oramen( %ntervertibral 3oramen is
an openin# bet*een the vertebras that serves as passa#e o3 nerves that come out
o3 spinal cord to supply the various body parts1
There are seven processes that arise 3rom the vertebral arch at the point *here the
lamina and pedicle Aoins1
Q The transverse processes on both side e&tends laterally1
Q The Spinous processes e&tends posteriorly I in3eriorly 3rom the Aunction o3
the laminae1
Q 2oth the transverse I spinous processes are muscle attachments1 The
remainin# 3our processes 3orm Aoints *ith other vertebra1 T*o o3 them articulate
*ith the immediate superior vertebra1 And the other t*o articulate *ith the
immediate in3erior vertebra1
0ig.re1 9! T%)ica' vertebra (source: Carola, "1,
Harley,D1P1, Nobac+ "1C1, (.EE8!, Human anatomy and
physiolo#y, 0c )ra* hill inc, Ne* For+, 8
nd
ed, pp
.HH!
Tab'e 9!9 Descri)tion an& -.nction o- bones o- t#e
vertebra' co'.$n (8? bones+A *so.rce1 Carola, "1, Harley,D1P1,
Nobac+ "1C1, (.EE8!, Human anatomy and physiolo#y, 0c )ra* hill
inc, Ne* For+, 8
nd
ed, pp .HG!
6ones
Descri)tion an& -.nction
Cervical vertebrae (G! $irst (atlas!, second
(a&is!, and seventh vertebrae
are C.5CG modi7edR third throu#h
si&th are typicalR all contain
transverse 3ormina1 Atlas supports
head, permits XyesX motion o3 head
at Aoint bet*een s+ull and atlasR
a&is Permits XnoX motion at Aoint
bet*een a&is and atlas1
Thoracic vertebrae (.8! 2odies and transverse
processes have 3acets that
articulate T.5T.8 *ith ribsR
laminae are short, thic+, and broad1
Articulate *ith ribsR allo* some
movement o3 spine in thoracic area1
,umbar vertebrae(C! ,ar#est, stron#est
vertebraeR adapted 3or
attachment o3 bac+ ,.5,C
muscles1 Support bac+ mus clesR
allo* 3or*ard and bac+*ard
bendin# o3 spine1
Sacrum =ed#e5shaped, made up o3 7ve
3used bodies united by 3our (C
3used bones! intervertebral dis+s1
Support vertebral columnR #ive
stren#th and stability to pelvis1
Coccy& Trian#ular tailbone, united *ith
sacrum by intervertebral (- to C
3used bones! dis+1 6esti#e o3 an
embryonic tail1
Q %n a child there are -- separate vertebrae, the E in the sacrum and coccy& not
yet bein# 3used1
T#e T#ora5
"e3ers to the chest1 Thora& is a bony ca#e 3ormed by sternum (breast bone!, costal
cartila#e, ribs and bodie o3 the thoracic vertebra1
0ig.re1 9!, S?e'eton o- t#e t#ora5 (source:
Carola, "1, Harley,D1P1, Nobac+ "1C1, (.EE8!, Human
anatomy and physiolo#y, 0c )ra* hill inc, Ne*
For+, 8
nd
ed, pp .E-!
Stern.$ *breast bone+
Sternum is Jat, narro* bone measurin# about .C c1m1 (? inch! located in the
median line o3 anterior thoracic *all1 %t consists - basic portions: the manubrium
(superior portion!, the body (middle I lar#est portion! and the &iphoid process
(in3erior I smallest portion!1 The Aunction o3 the manubrium and the body
3orms the sternal angle( The manubrium on its superior portion has a depression
called Au#ular (supra sternal! notch1
4n each side o3 the Au#ular notch are clavicular notch that articulates
*ith medial end o3 clavicle1
The manubrium also articulates *ith the .
st
and 8
nd
rib1 The body o3 the
sternum articulates directly or indirectly *ith 8
nd
to
.>
th
rib1 The &iphoid process consists hyaline cartila#e durin#
in3ancy and child hood and do not ossi3y completely up to the a#e o3
>1
0ig.re1 9!3 T#e ribs an& stern.$ ( source:
Carola, "1, Harley,D1P1, Nobac+ "1C1, (.EE8!, Human
anatomy and physiolo#y, 0c )ra* hill inc, Ne*
For+, 8
nd
ed, pp .E!
Ribs
Human bein# contains .8 Pair o3 ribs that ma+e up the side o3 thoracic cavity1 "ibs
increase in len#th 3rom .
st
throu#h G
th
and they decrease in len#th
throu#h .8
th
1 (ach ribs posteriorly articulates *ith the body o3 its correspondin#
thoracic vertebra1
Anteriorly the .
st
seven ribs have direct attachment to sternum by costal
cartila#e hence they are called true vertebro 9 sternal! ribs( The remainin# C ribs
are called 3alse ribs( The H
th
L .>
th
ribs, *hich are #roups o3 the 3alse ribs are
called vertebro chondrial ribs because their cartila#e attach one another and then
attaches to the cartila#e o3 the G
th
rib1 The ..th I .8th ribs are desi#nated as
Joatin# ribs because their anterior part even doesnOt attach indirectly to sternum1
Althou#h there is variation *hen *e e&amine a typical rib (-
rd
to E
th
! contains a
head, nec+ and body parts1
The 2ead is a proAection at posterior end o3 the rib1 %t consist one or t*o 3acet that
articulate *ith 3acet o3 the vertebra1
The nec) is constricted portion Aust lateral to the head1 4ne or t*o +nob li+e
structures on the posterior end *here the nec+ Aoins the body is the tubercles&
*hich articulate *ith the transverse process o3 the vertebra and to attach *ith
muscles o3 the trun+1
The body sha3t! is main part o3 the rib1 1 The costal angle is the site *here the rib
chan#es its direction1 The inner side o3 the costal an#le is costal #rove1 =here
thoracic nerves and blood vessels are protected1
9!,!7 T#e A))en&ic.'ar s?e'eton
T#e .))er e5tre$ities *'i$bs+
The upper e&tremities consists o3 ? bones1 Connected and supported by the a&ial
s+eleton *ith only shoulder Aoint and many muscle 3rom a comple& o3 suspension
bands 3rom the vertebral column, ribs and sternum to the shoulder #irdle1
HE
0ig.re1 9!7 T#e .))er e5tre$it% (source: Carola, "1, Harley,D1P1,
Nobac+
"1C1, (.EE8!, Human anatomy and physiolo#y, 0c )ra* hill inc, Ne*
For+,
8
nd
ed, pp 8>!
0ig.re1 9!9 S#o.'&er gir&'e (source: Carola, "1, Harley,D1P1,
Nobac+
"1C1, (.EE8!, Human anatomy and physiolo#y, 0c )ra* hill inc, Ne*
For+,
8
nd
ed, pp 8>C!
Tab'e 9!D1 Descri)tion an& -.nction o- bones o-
t#e .))er e5tre$it% (source: Carola, "1, Harley,D1P1,
Nobac+ "1C1, (.EE8!, Human anatomy and physiolo#y,
0c )ra* hill inc, Ne* For+, 8
nd
ed, pp 8>!
6one
Descri)tion an& -.nction
S#o.'&er *Pectora'+
Gir&'e
C,A6%C,( (8! CollarboneR double5curved, lon# bone
*ith rounded medial end and Jattened
lateral endR held in place by li#aments1
Holds shoulder Aoint and arm a*ay 3rom
thora& so upper limb can s*in# 3reely1
Scapula (8! Shoulder bladeR Jat, trian#ular
bone *ith hori/ontal spine separatin#
3ossae1 Site o3 attachment 3or muscles o3
arm
and chest1
Ar$
Humerus (8! ,on#est, lar#est bone o3 upper
limbR 3orms ball o3 ball5 and soc+et Aoint
*ith #lenoid 3ossa o3 scapula1 Site o3
attachment 3or muscles o3 shoulder and
arm, permittin# arm to Je& and e&tend at
elbo*1
0orear$
"adius (8! ,ar#er o3 t*o bones in
3orearmR lar#e pro&imal end consists o3
olecranon process (prominence o3
elbo*!1 $orms hin#e Aoint at elbo*1
"rist
Carpals (.?! Small short bonesR in each
*rist, H carpals in 8 transverse ro*s
o3 1 =ith attached li#aments, allo*
sli#ht #lidin# movement1
Han&s an& 0ingers
0etacarpals (.>! $ive miniature lon# bones in
each hand in 3anli+e arran#ementR
articulate *ith 7n#ers at metacarpo5
phalan#eal Aoint (the Nnuc+le!1 Aid
opposition movement o3 thumbR enable
cuppin# o3 hand1
E8
Phalan#es (8H! 0iniature lon# bones, 8
in each thumb, - in each 7n#erR
articulate *ith each other at
interphalan#eal Aoint1 Allo*
7n#ers to participate in stable
#rips1
0ig.re1 9!D H.$er.sA ra&i.s an& .'na
(source: (laine n1 0A"%(2, (8>>>!, (ssentials o3
human anatomy and physiolo#y, Addison *elsey
lon#man inc1, San $rancisco, ?
th
(d!
0ig.re1 9!E 6ones o- t#e #an& (source:
0emmler, "uth ,undeen, 2arbara Dansen Cohen and
Dena ,in =ood (.EE?!, The Human 2ody in Health and
Disease, H
th
(d, pp .>>!
T#e 'o:er e5tre$it%
%t consist ?8 bones1 The lo*er e&tremity is connected to the a&ial s+eleton *ith the
hip #irdle1
0ig.re1 9!F T#e 'o:er e5tre$it% (source: Carola, "1, Harley,D1P1,
Nobac+
"1C1, (.EE8!, Human anatomy and physiolo#y, 0c )ra* hill inc, Ne*
For+,
8
nd
ed, pp 8.>!
Tab'e 9!E &escri)tion an& -.nction o- bones o-
t#e 'o:er e5tre$it% (source: Carola, "1, Harley,D1P1,
Nobac+ "1C1, (.EE8!, Human anatomy and physiolo#y,
0c )ra* hill inc, Ne* For+, 8
nd
ed, pp 8.>!
6one Descri)tion
an& -.nction
Pe'vic
Gir&'e
Hipbone %rre#ular bone 3ormed by 3usion o3 ilium,
ischium, pubisR *ith (Co&al! (8! sacrum and
coccy& 3orms pelvisR 3orms soc+et o3 ball5
and5 soc+et Aoint *ith 3emur1 Site o3
attachment 3or trun+ and lo*er limb
musclesR transmits body *ei#ht to 3emur1
T#ig#
$emur (8! Thi#hboneR typical lon# boneR
lon#est, stron#est, heaviest boneR 3orms
ball o3 ball5and5soc+et Aoint *ith pelvic
bonesR provides articular sur3ace 3or +nee1
Supports body1
Patella (8! NneecapR sesamoid bone *ithin <uadriceps 3emuris
tendon1
%ncreases levera#e 3or <uadriceps muscle by +eepin#
tendon
A*ay 3rom a&is o3 rotation1
Leg
$ibula (8! Smaller lon# bone o3 lo*er le#R
articulates pro&imally *ith tibia and distally
*ith talus1 2ears little body *ei#ht, but #ives
stren#th to an+le Aoint1
Tibia (8! ,ar#er lon# bone o3 lo*er le#R articulates *ith
3emur 7bula,
talus1 Supports body *ei#ht, transmittin# it 3rom 3emur to
talus1
An?'e
Tarsals (.! An+le, heel bonesR short bonesR G in
each an+le includin# talus, calcaneus,
cuboid, navicular, - cunei3ormsR *ith
metatarsals, 3orm arches o3 3oot1 2ear body
*ei#htR raise body and transmit thrust
durin# runnin# and *al+in#1
0oot an& Toes
0etatarsals (.>! 0iniature lon# bonesR C in each 3ootR
3orm soleR *ith tarsal, 3orm arches o3 3eet1
%mprove stability *hile standin#R absorb
shoc+sR bear *ei#htR aid in locomotion1
E?
Phalan#e (8H! ToesR miniature lon# bonesR 8 in each
bi# toe, - in each other toeR arran#ed as
in hand1 Provide stability durin#
locomotion1
0ig.re1 9!G T#e #i) bone*co5a' bone+A Ma'e an&
-e$a'e )e'vis (source: 0emmler, "uth ,undeen,
2arbara Dansen Cohen and Dena ,in =ood (.EE?!,
The Human 2ody in Health and Disease, H
th
ed, pp
.>.!
0ig.re1 9!,H T#e -e$.rA t#e tibia an& -ib.'a
#ere %o. can see :#ere t#e )ate''a is 'ocate&1
(Source: (laine n1 0A"%(2, (8>>>!, (ssentials o3
human anatomy and physiolo#y, Addison *elsey
lon#man inc1, San $rancisco, ?
th
(d!
0ig.re1 9!, 6ones an& arc#es o- t#e -oot
(source: 0emmler, "uth ,undeen, 2arbara Dansen
Cohen and Dena ,in =ood (.EE?!, The Human 2ody in
Health and Disease, H
th
ed, pp .>-!
Arc#es o- t#e -oot
The sole o3 your 3oot is arched 3or the same reason that your spine is curved1 2eside
its 3unction o3 absorbin# shoc+ it prevents nerves and blood vessels in the sole o3
the 3oot 3rom bein# crushed1
There are three arches in the 3oot, t*o lon#itudinal (medial I lateral! and one
transverse1
9!E Artic.'ations
2ones bein# structural 3rame*or+, muscles #ive it po*er1 2ut movable Aoints
provide the mechanism that allo*s the body to move1
Articulations :oints! are places *here t*o adAacent bones or cartila#es meet1
C'assi4cations
Doints are classi7ed by t*o methods
Q 2y 3unction5de#ree o3 movement
Q 2y structure L presence o3 cavity1
Accordin# to 3unctional classi3ication Aoints may be immovable (synartherosis!,
sli#htly movable (amphiartherosis! and 3reely movable (diarthrosis!1 Accordin# to
structure Aoints can be classi7ed in to, 7brous, cartila#inous I synovial1
Tab'e 9!F1 C'assi4cations o- joints (source: Carola, "1,
Harley,D1P1, Nobac+ "1C1, (.EE8!, Human anatomy and
physiolo#y, 0c )ra* hill inc, Ne* For+, 8
nd
ed, pp 88?!
! ! ! Contin.e&
Tab'e 9!G1 T%)es o- $ove$ents b% s%novia'
joints (source: Carola, "1, Harley,D1P1, Nobac+
"1C1, (.EE8!, Human anatomy and physiolo#y, 0c
)ra* hill inc, Ne* For+, 8
nd
ed,
pp 8-8!
! ! ! Contin.e&
Revie: ;.estions
.1 The main 3unction o3 the s+eletal system is:
a! Protection
b! Stora#e o3 minerals
c! Support
d! Producin# motion
e! All o3 the above
81 The t*o type o3 rid#ed connective tissue 3ound
in the human s+eleton are: 5
a! Spon#y I compact
bone b! 2one I cartila#e
c! Periosteum I
endosteum d! 0etaphysis
I Diaphysis e! Cancellous
I bone plate
-1 The maAor bone at the posterior aspect o3 the
base o3 the s+ull is: 5
a! Sphenoid b!
4cciputal c!
Temporal d!
,acrimal
e! Ty#omatic
1 =hich o3 the 3ollo*in# is not part
o3 the appendicular s+eletonK
a! Scapula b!
Clavicle c!
"adius d!
"ibs
e! Tibia
C1 The hip (co&al! Aoint is
a! 0ultia&ial
b! A ball and soc+et Aoint
c! A synovial Aoint
d! a and b only
e! a, b and c