10.06.

24 - 020
1
Theory
Electrical engineering
Electromagnetism, colour coding, direct and alternating
current, and transformers
Following a brief introduction, drawings are used to explain how an
electromagnet is made by passing an electric current through a coil.
An application of this principle is also described. Next, the terms direct current
and alternating current are then explained. This knowledge is then used in
explaining the transformer and a few applications. Finally, colour coding and
various wall sockets are discussed.
Contents of the lesson
1 Magnets
2 Electromagnets
3 Direct current, alternating current and three-phase current
4 Transformers and their applications
5 Colour coding electric cables
6 Wall sockets
7 Colour coding wall sockets
The copyright in this material is vested in Shell Global Solutions International B.V., The Hague, The Netherlands and Shell Netherlands Raffinaderij B.V. All rights
reserved. Neither the whole or any part of this document may be reproduced, stored in any retrieval system or transmitted in any form by any means (electronic,
mechanical, reprographic, recording or otherwise) without the prior written consent of the copyright owner.
Theory / 10.06.24 - 020
2
Lesson
1. Magnets
We are all familiar with magnetism - the peculiar way in which pieces of a
particular kind of iron either attract or repel each other. Magnets can be made
from the special ore which possesses these properties naturally. These are known
as natural magnets (see figure 1). It is also possible, however, to make magnets
from ordinary steel by placing it in a magnetic field. If the steel is relatively soft,
the magnetic properties will soon disappear again. If it is hard, however, the
steel will remain magnetic for a very long time; we then have a permanent
magnet
5578-020-001
Figure 1
(Natural magnets)
2. Electromagnets
There is another way of making a magnet, by using an electric current. If a
current passes through a straight wire, a (weak) magnetic field is created around
this wire. The field lines run in circles around the wire (see figure 2a). If we
wind the wire to form a coil (also known as a solenoid), however, we can
generate a much stronger magnetic field with the same current. The separate
fields around the wire windings reinforce one another, as indicated in figure 2b.
The coil now has the same properties as a permanent magnet. The strength of the
magnetic field is determined by the current and by the number of windings of
the coil. And we can obtain an even stronger magnetic field in this situation by
inserting a soft iron core in the coil. The core bundles the field lines. In this
way, the coil with core can function as an electromagnet.
- natural magnets
- permanent
magnet
- field lines
- coil
- solenoid
Theory / 10.06.24 - 020
3
Many electrical appliances work by means of these electromagnets, such as a
generator, motor, magnetic switch and the solenoid valve. In the case of the
solenoid valve, the core is fitted so that it can move in the coil. If the core is then
attached to a valve, for example (see figure 3), the valve can be opened by
switching on the current (the core is then drawn into the coil) and closed again
by switching off the current (a spring pulls the core out of the coil again).
5578-020-002
Figure 2
a. Weak magnetic field around a live conductor
b. Strong magnetic field in a live coil
c. Very strong magnetic field in a live coil with iron core
5578-020-003
Figure 3
Solenoid valve a. not energised (I = 0), b. energised
- electromagnet
- solenoid valve
Theory / 10.06.24 - 020
4
3. Direct current, alternating current and three-phase
current
In the above, we have not yet discussed the type of voltage or current. There are
different kinds, such as:
- direct voltage or current, indicated by =
- alternating voltage or current, indicated by ~
- three-phase voltage or current, indicated by or 3~
The latter is often also referred to as a rotary current.
Up to now, a direct voltage source has always been used. With such a direct
voltage source, one terminal is always positive and the other terminal negative.
Examples include batteries for a flashlight or transistor radio and car batteries. If
we connect a load resistance to these voltage sources, the current will flow in
one direction only.
Question 1
Give a practical example where it does not matter whether the positive and
negative terminals are reversed and an example where this definitely must not
happen.
With an alternating current source, there are no fixed positive and negative
terminals. In fact, the two terminals alternate between being positive and
negative (see figure 4). Therefore, the current is continuously changing
direction.
5578-020-004
Figure 4
AC circuit
If we connect a load resistance R to the alternating voltage source, the current
will also continuously change direction. It is therefore called an alternating
current. The number of times per second the current performs one complete
cycle (a period) is referred to as the frequency (see figure 5).
The frequency is expressed in hertz (Hz). 1 Hz is one period per second. The
mains frequency used is either 50 or 60 Hz depending on the country where you
live.
- direct voltage
- alternating voltage
- period
- frequency
- hertz
- mains
Theory / 10.06.24 - 020
5
Question 2
How often does the mains voltage change direction in 1 second?
5578-020-005
Figure 5
One period (cycle) of an alternating voltage
In talking about alternating voltage, we usually speak of live and neutral wire.
We will now look at what these terms actually mean.
The voltage from the power station is reduced in a transformer station from
3000 V to 220/380 V, for example. One of the two terminals with 220 V ~
across them is connected to an earthing electrode (see figure 6)
5578-020-006
Figure 6
Three-phase mains. There is 220 V~ across O and R, O and S, and O and T. There is
380 V~ across R and S, R and T, and S and T
There is now no voltage difference between the neutral terminal and earth,
whereas there is a voltage of 220 V~ between each phase and earth. Phase R, for
example, will now always be positive or negative relative to the neutral terminal,
thus maintaining an alternating voltage across these terminals.
Figure 6 also shows that three phases are produced in the transformer station: R,
S and T. All three of these terminals have a voltage of 220 V~ relative to the
neutral terminal, alternately becoming positive or negative.
- phase wire
- neutral
- three-phase mains
Theory / 10.06.24 - 020
6
If this combination of three alternating voltages is connected to a motor designed
for the purpose, a rotary field is created in the motor which causes the
armature to rotate. This is why this combination is known as a rotary current.
In the case of the transformer illustrated in figure 6, a coupled voltage of
380 V~ is generated between the phase terminals R, S and T.
The term 220 V~ or 380 V~ is curious, as the magnitude of the voltage is
continuously changing (50 times a second).
220 V~, for example, refers to the value of a direct voltage source supplying a
power equal to that of the alternating voltage source concerned. In this context,
this value is also known as the effective or root mean square (rms) value of the
alternating voltage.
4. Transformers and their applications
In section 2, we learned how an electromagnet is created by an electric current
passing through a coil. A direct current was used, so one end is the north pole
and the other end the south pole. If this coil is connected to an alternating
voltage, however, an alternating magnetic field will be generated by the
continuous change of direction of the current.
This principle can also be reversed. If a coil is placed in a continuously
alternating magnetic field, an alternating current is generated in the coil (see
figure 7).
5578-020-007
Figure 7
A moving magnet generates a voltage
When the magnet moves down, the voltmeter will for instance deflect clockwise,
and if the magnet moves up, the voltmeter will deflect anti-clockwise.
- rotary field
- effective value
Theory / 10.06.24 - 020
7
As soon as the magnet stops moving, however, the meter settles in the central
position (0 V).
The operation of the transformer can easily be explained by means of these
principles. The coil is now wound around a solid iron core (see figure 8).
5578-020-008
Figure 8
Principle of the transformer
This coil, known as the primary coil, is connected to an alternating voltage. As a
result, an alternating current will flow through the coil and an alternating
magnetic field is again generated in the core. By fitting a second coil, the
secondary coil, on the core, the alternating magnetic field can generate (induce)
an alternating voltage in the second coil. This induced voltage depends on the
number of windings of the secondary coil W
s
.
There is a fixed ratio between the primary and secondary voltages, depending on
the winding ratio: W
p
: W
s
.
W
p
: W
s
= V
p
: V
s
Example
A transformer has 1000 primary windings and 100 secondary windings.. The
primary voltage is 220 V. What will be the secondary voltage?
Answer
W
p
: W
s
= V
p
: V
s
1000 : 100 = 220 : V
s
V
s
=
10
220
= 220 volt
Consequently, the highest alternating voltage corresponds to the largest number
of windings. Another very important feature of a transformer is its high
efficiency. Losses in a good transformer are comparatively so small that in
calculations an efficiency of 100% is often used.
Question 3
What is the purpose of the iron core in a transformer?
Hint: Think of section 2 of this lesson.
- transformer
- primary coil
- secondary coil
- winding ratio
Theory / 10.06.24 - 020
8
Applications
Transformers can either increase or reduce an alternating voltage. This is done,
for example, in the transmission of energy over long distances. To transmit a
high power (P = V * I), a normal voltage can be used with a very large current,
or a very high voltage, 380 kV, for example, with a much smaller current (see
figure 9).
5578-020-009
Figure 9
Stepped voltage reduction from 380 kV (high voltage grid) to 220/380 V (low voltage
grid)
This last method has the advantage that with the smaller current, a much smaller
copper cross-section area can be used, as the copper cross-section area
determines the maximum allowable current. The small copper cross-section area
considerably reduces the cost of the cable. The high voltage does of course
require better insulation (protection against contact and voltage loss).
Question 4
Why are high voltage cables suspended high up in the air?
Another application of a transformer is the reduction of an alternating voltage
for use in hand tools or hand-held lamps. Hand tools are connected to a safe
voltage of 42 V, whereas hand-held lamps are connected to 24 V maximum. The
transformers used are 220/42 V and 220/24 V, respectively. The windings of
these transformers are completely isolated, like the isolating transformers we
will discuss later, so there is no risk whatsoever of a connection between the
220 V primary winding and the secondary winding, not even in the case of a
leakage in the transformer itself.
A transformer can also be used to make a non-earthed system. For this purpose,
isolating transformers are used. They have identical numbers of primary and
secondary windings, so that the primary and secondary voltages are also
identical, e.g. 220/220 V.
- transmission of
energy
- hand tools or
hand-held lamps
- isolating
transformers
Theory / 10.06.24 - 020
9
You may wonder, in that case, what is the point? We will use figure 10 to
explain why.
5578-020-010
Figure 10
Mains with phases R, S and T and the neutral wire (0)
The mains connections consist of a phase wire and a neutral wire. The neutral is
connected to earth either in the power station or in a transformer station (see
figure 10). Consequently, there is a voltage with respect to earth on the phase
wires. On touching one of the phase wires, a potentially fatal current will
therefore pass through the body.
Question 5
Why is not dangerous to touch the neutral wire?
An isolating transformer can be used to produce an isolated mains voltage of
220 V, with neither of the two wires connected to earth (see figure 11). In
principle, it is possible to touch one of the wires without a current passing
through the body. Even if due to a faulty lamp, for example, its casing becomes
live this does not present an immediate danger as a closed circuit cannot be
created. If you touch two wires at the same time, however, it is very dangerous,
but the chances of this happening accidentally are much smaller
5578-020-011
Figure 11
It is not dangerous to touch the phase wire (secondary side) if an isolating transformer
is used
There is also a danger if one of the secondary wires is in contact with earth due
to cable damage, for example. If that happens, the secondary system is earthed
and is just as dangerous as a normal 220 V mains. In the case of a faulty lamp, a
current will then flow along the dotted line shown in figure 12.
Theory / 10.06.24 - 020
10
5578-020-011
Figure 12
If the secondary coil is earthed, the danger is just as great as when touching it without
an isolating transformer
It is clear an isolating transformer is not always completely safe. Therefore, it
may only be used with special permission from the head of the electrical
engineering department.
5. Colour coding electric cables
Colour coding was introduced for both lighting and power installations to enable
recognition or the connection. When installing or repairing equipment,
electricians must never automatically rely on these colours, however, but must
check these by measurements, for example. Particularly in older installations,
different colours are frequently found. In these older installations, the neutral
wire is still red, the earth wire grey or white and the phase wire is often green. In
new installations in most European countries, the colours must be:
- phase or supply wire: brown;
- connecting wires: black;
- neutral wire: blue (or black with print);
- earth wire: green/yellow.
Brown, blue or green/yellow must not be used for the other wires.
6. Wall sockets
A wall socket, or wall plug, contains a number of slots to accommodate the pins
of the plug or connector. Wall sockets are available with and without earth
connection. The earth connection is be obtained by fitting spring contact blades
in the wall socket and sliding contacts in the plug. Inside the socket, these
contacts are connected to the earth wire. The wall sockets with earth connection
are compulsory everywhere in offices, laboratories and recreation areas, for
example. In plants, installations and workshops wall sockets are used in which
an extra slot is provided in the socket as an earth connection and the plug has an
extra earth pin. The design is such that when the plug is inserted, the earth
connection is always made first and only then the connection between the live
parts. Conversely, when the plug is removed, the live parts are disconnected
first, followed by the earth connection.
- colour coding
- socket
- plug
- wall socket with
earth connection
Theory / 10.06.24 - 020
11
The earth pin is always of a different shape (it can for instance be thicker, square
or another shape). Consequently, the plug must always be inserted in a certain
way.
In domestic installations, with conducting floors in rooms which may get wet,
such as kitchens, the wall sockets are fitted with an earth wire (wall socket with
earth connection). The earth wire must have a copper cross-section area of at
least 2 mm
2
and a green/yellow sheath.
In bathrooms, wall sockets are not allowed at all. Only a special type for the use
of an electric shaver is allowed. This type of wall socket incorporates an
isolating transformer for low power output.
7. Colour coding wall sockets
The following table lists the colour codes used for wall sockets and plugs as
prescribed by the IEC
terminal voltage Colour
24 V
42 V
110 V
220 V
380 V
500 V
frequency above 60 Hz to 500 Hz
Mauve
White
Yellow
Blue
Red
Black
Green
As a result, even the layman can tell which plug should be used in a specific
socket. In addition to the colour coding, measures have been taken to ensure
plugs do not fit into sockets of a different colour.
- domestic
installations
- shaving socket
- IEC
Theory / 10.06.24 - 020
12
Summary
A magnetic field can be generated by passing an electric current through a coil.
A direct current flows in one direction only, whereas an alternating current
continuously changes direction.
In an electrical installation, one of the wires in the power station or the
transformer station is usually earthed. This is known as the neutral wire. The
other wires are called phase wires and are coded with the letters R, S and T.
By means of a transformer, an alternating voltage can be increased or reduced. A
transformer can also be used to make a non-earthed system. This is done by
means of an isolating transformer.
All wall sockets used on plants are fitted with an earth connection. In addition,
special sockets are used in plants and installations because of the explosion
hazard.
The voltage between the neutral wire and one of the phase wires is 220 V~.
The voltage between any two phase wires is 380 V~.
Theory / 10.06.24 - 020
13
Test
Exercises
Do not send in your answers for correction
1. Explain the principle of operation of a solenoid valve with the aid of a
diagram.
2. What is the main difference between direct current and alternating current?
3. Give an example of a direct current source and an alternating current source
4. Describe, in your own words, the principle of a transformer.
5. Give three applications of a transformer
6. What is meant by the effective or root mean square value of an alternating
voltage:
Answers to the questions in the lesson
1. In the case of a light bulb, it does not matter in which direction the current
flows. If the battery of a transistor radio, electronic watch or calculator is
connected incorrectly, they usually break down immediately.
2. This happens twice in one period, i.e. 50 * 2 = 100 times a second.
3. The iron core guides the magnetic field through the second coil. Section 2 of
this lesson described the concentration of field lines in a core. In this
situation, the field remains completely within the iron.
4. Because in that case, no expensive insulation is required.
5. The neutral wire is earthed in the power station and carries the same voltage
as the person touching the wire. Therefore, there is no potential difference.
Theory / 10.06.24 - 020
14
Answers to the exercises
1. See figure 3.
If no current is flowing, the coil is not magnetic and the valve remains
closed. If an electric current flows through the coil, it becomes magnetic and
pulls the core into the coil. The valve then opens.
2. In the case of direct current, at a given load, current and direction are
constant.
In the case of alternating current, at a given load, the magnitude and
direction of the current are continuously changing.
3. Direct current source: battery, car battery
alternating current source: mains (220 V or 380 V~)
4. In a transformer, an alternating current induces a magnetic field in the
primary coil. Because of the iron core, this field is also effective in the
secondary coil. Here, the magnetic field in turn generates an alternating
voltage. The secondary voltage is higher or lower than (or equal to) the
primary voltage, depending on the winding ratio.
5. 1. Increasing the voltage to transmit electrical energy over a large distance.
2. Reducing the voltage for the use of electrical energy in certain work
areas (wet) or (transistor) radios and other audio-visual equipment.
3. 1 to 1 transformation is used in isolating transformers (such as the
shaving transformer). In this case, touching one of the wires on the
secondary side is not directly potentially fatal.
6. The effective value of an alternating voltage source, e.g. 220 V~, is the
voltage of a direct voltage source which supplies the same power as the
alternating voltage source.
Problems and assignments
Answer and send in for correction
1. In the lesson a non-earthed system is mentioned. What does this mean?
2. Is an isolating transformer completely safe? Explain your answer
3. Which colours must currently be used for the different wires in an electrical
installation?
4. What is special about the earth connection of a wall socket used in plants?
5. What do we mean by a pressure proof design?
6. Why is electrical energy transmitted over large distances at a very high
voltage (380 kV)?