Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete

Draft
DRAFT
Lecture Notes in:
Mechanics and Design of

REINFORCED CONCRETE
CVEN4555
c VICTOR
E. SAOUMA,
Fall 2001
Dept. of Civil Environmental and Architectural Engineering

University of Colorado, Boulder, CO 80309-0428
May 18, 2002
Draft
02
Victor Saouma
Mechanics and Design of Reinforced Concrete
Draft
Contents
1 INTRODUCTION
1.1 Material . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1.1 Mix Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.1.1.1.1 Constituents . . . . . . . .
1.1.1.1.2 Preliminary Considerations
1.1.1.1.3 Mix procedure . . . . . . .
1.1.1.1.4 Mix Design Example . . .
1.1.1.2 Mechanical Properties . . . . . . . .
1.1.2 Reinforcing Steel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.2 Design Philosophy, USD . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.3 Analysis vs Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.4 Basic Relations and Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . .
1.5 ACI Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2 FLEXURE
2.1 Uncracked Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-1 Uncracked Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2 Section Cracked, Stresses Elastic . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.1 Basic Relations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.2.2 Working Stress Method . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-2 Cracked Elastic Section . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-3 Working Stress Design Method; Analysis . . .
E 2-4 Working Stress Design Method; Design . . .
2.3 Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method .
2.3.1 Whitney Stress Block . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.2 Balanced Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.3 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.3.4 Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4 Practical Design Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.1 Minimum Depth . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.4.2 Beam Sizes, Bar Spacing, Concrete Cover . .
2.4.3 Design Aids . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.5 USD Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-5 Ultimate Strength; Review . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-6 Ultimate Strength; Design I . . . . . . . . . .
E 2-7 Ultimate Strength; Design II . . . . . . . . .
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11
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. 113
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21
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Draft
02
2.6
2.7
2.8
CONTENTS
T Beams, (ACI 8.10) . . . . . . . . . . .

2.6.1 Review . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.6.2 Design, (balanced) . . . . . . . . .
E 2-8 T Beam; Moment Capacity I . . .
E 2-9 T Beam; Moment Capacity II . . .
E 2-10 T Beam; Design . . . . . . . . . .
Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams . .
2.7.1 Tests for fs and fs . . . . . . . . .
2.7.2 Moment Equations . . . . . . . . .
E 2-11 Doubly Reinforced Concrete beam;
E 2-12 Doubly Reinforced Concrete beam;
Bond & Development Length . . . . . . .
2.8.1 Moment Capacity Diagram . . . .
3 SHEAR
3.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
3.2 Shear Strength of Uncracked Section
3.3 Shear Strength of Cracked Sections .
3.4 ACI Code Requirements . . . . . . .
3.5 Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 3-1 Shear Design . . . . . . . . .
3.6 Shear Friction . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 3-2 Shear Friction . . . . . . . . .
3.7 Brackets and Corbels . . . . . . . . .
3.8 Deep Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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Review
Design .
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. 217
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31
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4 CONTINUOUS BEAMS
4.1 Continuity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2 Methods of Analysis . . . . . . . . . . .
4.2.1 Detailed Analysis . . . . . . . . .
4.2.2 ACI Approximate Method . . . .
4.3 Eective Span Design Moment . . . . .
4.4 Moment Redistribution . . . . . . . . .
4.4.1 Elastic-Perfectly Plastic Section .
4.4.2 Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 4-1 Moment Redistribution . . . . .
4.5 Buildings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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5 SERVICEABILITY
5.1 Control of Cracking . . . . .
E 5-1 Crack Width . . . . .
5.2 Deections . . . . . . . . . .
5.2.1 Short Term Deection
5.2.2 Long Term Deection
E 5-2 Deections . . . . . .
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51
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Draft
CONTENTS
03
6 APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS

6.1 Vertical Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2 Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
6.2.1 Portal Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
E 6-1 Approximate Analysis of a Frame subjected to
Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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and Horizontal
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7 ONE WAY SLABS

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7.1 Types of Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
7.2 One Way Slabs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
7.3 Design of a One Way Continuous Slab . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
8 COLUMNS
81
9 COLUMNS
9.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.1.1 Types of Columns . . . . . . . . .
9.1.2 Possible Arrangement of Bars . . .
9.2 Short Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.1 Concentric Loading . . . . . . . . .
9.2.2 Eccentric Columns . . . . . . . . .
9.2.2.1 Balanced Condition . . .
9.2.2.2 Tension Failure . . . . . .
9.2.2.3 Compression Failure . . .
9.2.3 ACI Provisions . . . . . . . . . . .
9.2.4 Interaction Diagrams . . . . . . . .
9.2.5 Design Charts . . . . . . . . . . .
E 9-1 R/C Column, c known . . . . . . .
E 9-2 R/C Column, e known . . . . . . .
E 9-3 R/C Column, Using Design Charts
9.2.6 Biaxial Bending . . . . . . . . . .
E 9-4 Biaxially Loaded Column . . . . .
9.3 Long Columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.1 Euler Elastic Buckling . . . . . . .
9.3.2 Eective Length . . . . . . . . . .
9.3.3 Moment Magnication Factor; ACI
E 9-5 Long R/C Column . . . . . . . . .
E 9-6 Design of Slender Column . . . . .
10 PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
10.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . .
10.1.1 Materials . . . . . . .
10.1.2 Prestressing Forces . .
10.1.3 Assumptions . . . . .
10.1.4 Tendon Conguration
10.1.5 Equivalent Load . . .
10.1.6 Load Deformation . .
10.2 Flexural Stresses . . . . . . .
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91
. 91
. 91
. 91
. 93
. 93
. 93
. 94
. 95
. 96
. 97
. 98
. 98
. 98
. 910
. 914
. 915
. 918
. 919
. 919
. 920
. 922
. 925
. 926
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101
. 101
. 101
. 104
. 104
. 104
. 104
. 104
. 106
Draft
04
CONTENTS
E 10-1 Prestressed Concrete I Beam

10.3 Case Study: Walnut Lane Bridge . .
10.3.1 Cross-Section Properties . . .
10.3.2 Prestressing . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.3 Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.3.4 Flexural Stresses . . . . . . .
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. 108
. 1010
. 1012
. 1012
. 1013
. 1013
11 FOOTINGS
111
12 DEEP BEAMS
121
Victor Saouma
Draft
List of Figures
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
1.7
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. 12
. 110
. 111
. 111
. 111
. 112
. 113
Strain Diagram Uncracked Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Transformed Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Stress Diagram Cracked Elastic Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Desired Stress Distribution; WSD Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Cracked Section, Limit State . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Whitney Stress Block . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bar Spacing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T Beam as Rectangular Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
T Beam Strain and Stress Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Decomposition of Steel Reinforcement for T Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Doubly Reinforced Beams; Strain and Stress Diagrams . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Dierent Possibilities for Doubly Reinforced Concrete Beams . . . . . . . . . .
Strain Diagram, Doubly Reinforced Beam; is As Yielding? . . . . . . . . . . . .
Strain Diagram, Doubly Reinforced Beam; is As Yielding? . . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary of Conditions for top and Bottom Steel Yielding . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bond and Development Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Actual Bond Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Splitting Along Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Development Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Development Length . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Hooks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bar cuto requirements of the ACI code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Standard cuto or bend points for bars in approximately equal spans with uniformly distributed load . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
2.25 Moment Capacity Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 21
. 22
. 23
. 24
. 28
. 210
. 215
. 218
. 218
. 218
. 219
. 224
. 224
. 225
. 226
. 227
. 231
. 232
. 232
. 233
. 233
. 235
. 236
2.1
2.2
2.3
2.4
2.5
2.6
2.7
2.8
2.9
2.10
2.11
2.12
2.13
2.14
2.15
2.16
2.17
2.18
2.19
2.20
2.21
2.22
2.23
2.24
3.1
3.2
3.3
Schematic Representation of Aggregate Gradation

MicroCracks in Concrete under Compression . . .
Concrete Stress Strain Curve . . . . . . . . . . . .
Modulus of Rupture Test . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Split Cylinder (Brazilian) Test . . . . . . . . . . .
Biaxial Strength of Concrete . . . . . . . . . . . .
Time Dependent Strains in Concrete . . . . . . . .
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. 237
. 238
Principal Stresses in Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31

Types of Shear Cracks . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
Shear Strength of Uncracked Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
Draft
02
LIST OF FIGURES
3.4
3.5
3.6
3.7
3.8
3.9
3.10
3.11
Mohrs Circle for Shear Strength of Uncracked Section . . . . . . .

Shear Strength of Uncracked Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Free Body Diagram of a R/C Section with a Flexural Shear Crack
Equilibrium of Shear Forces in Cracked Section . . . . . . . . . . .
Summary of ACI Code Requirements for Shear . . . . . . . . . . .
Corbel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shear Friction Mechanism . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Shear Friction Across Inclined Reinforcement . . . . . . . . . . . .
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. 35
. 35
. 37
. 39
. 39
. 310
4.1
4.2
4.3
4.4
4.5
4.6
4.7
4.8
4.9
Continuous R/C Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Load Positioning on Continuous Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
ACI Approximate Moment Coecients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Design Negative Moment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Moment Diagram of a Rigidly Connected Uniformly Loaded Beam
Moment Curvature of an Elastic-Plastic Section . . . . . . . . . . .
Plastic Moments in Uniformly Loaded Rigidly Connected Beam . .
Plastic Redistribution in Concrete Sections . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Block Diagram for R/C Building Design . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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41
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43
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44
45
45
46
48
5.1
5.2
5.3
5.4
5.5
Crack Width Equation Parameters .

Uncracked Transformed and Cracked
Time Dependent Deection . . . . .
Time Dependent Strain Distribution
Short and long Term Deections . .
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52
54
55
56
56
6.1
6.2
6.3
6.4
6.5
6.6
6.7
6.8
6.9
6.10
6.11
6.12
6.13
6.14
Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Girder Moments . 62

Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Axial Forces63
Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Moments 63
Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Shear . . . 65
Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Girder Moment . . 65
Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Axial Force66
Example; Approximate Analysis of a Building . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Vertical Loads . . . . . . . 69
Approximate Analysis of a Building; Shears Due to Vertical Loads . . . . . . . . 610
Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Spread-Sheet Format . . . . . . . . . . 612
Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Equations in Spread-Sheet . . . . . . . 613
Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Lateral Loads . . . . . . . 614
Portal Method; Spread-Sheet Format . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616
Portal Method; Equations in Spread-Sheet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
7.1
7.2
7.3
7.4
Types of Slabs . . . . . . . . .
One vs Two way slabs . . . . .
Load Distribution in Slabs . . .
Load Transfer in R/C Buildings
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71
72
72
73
9.1
9.2
9.3
9.4
Types of columns . . . . . . .
Tied vs Spiral Reinforcement
Possible Bar arrangements . .
Sources of Bending . . . . . .
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91
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92
93
Victor Saouma
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Transformed X Sections
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Draft
LIST OF FIGURES
9.5
9.6
9.7
9.8
9.9
9.10
9.11
9.12
9.13
9.14
9.15
9.16
9.17
9.18
03
Load Moment Interaction Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Strain and Stress Diagram of a R/C Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Column Interaction Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Failure Surface of a Biaxially Loaded Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load Contour at Plane of Constant Pn , and Nondimensionalized Corresponding
plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Biaxial Bending Interaction Relations in terms of . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Bilinear Approximation for Load Contour Design of Biaxially Loaded Columns
Euler Column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Column Failures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Critical lengths of columns . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Eective length Factors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Standard Alignment Chart (ACI) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Minimum Column Eccentricity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
P-M Magnication Interaction Diagram . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
. 94
. 95
. 98
. 915
. 916
. 917
. 917
. 919
. 920
. 921
. 922
. 923
. 923
. 924
Pretensioned Prestressed Concrete Beam, (?) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

Posttensioned Prestressed Concrete Beam, (?) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
7 Wire Prestressing Tendon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Alternative Schemes for Prestressing a Rectangular Concrete Beam, (?) . . . .
Determination of Equivalent Loads . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
Load-Deection Curve and Corresponding Internal Flexural Stresses for a Typical Prestressed Concrete Beam, (?) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.7 Flexural Stress Distribution for a Beam with Variable Eccentricity; Maximum
Moment Section and Support Section, (?) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.8 Walnut Lane Bridge, Plan View . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
10.9 Walnut Lane Bridge, Cross Section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. 102
. 102
. 103
. 105
. 105
11.1
11.2
11.3
11.4
11.5
. 111
. 112
. 112
. 113
. 113
xxx
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. 106
. 107
. 1011
. 1012
Draft
List of Tables
1.1
1.2
1.3
1.4
1.5
1.6
ASTM Sieve Designations Nominal Sizes Used for Concrete Aggregates . . . .

ASTM C33 Grading Limits for Coarse Concrete Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . .
ASTM C33 Grading Limits for Fine Concrete Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . .
Example of Fineness Modulus Determination for Fine Aggregate . . . . . . . .
Recommended Slumps (inches) for Various Types of Construction . . . . . . .
Recommended Average Total Air Content as % For Dierent Nominal Maximum
Sizes of Aggregates and Levels of Exposure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.7 Approximate Mixing Water Requirements, lb/yd3 of Concrete For Dierent
Slumps and Nominal Maximum Sizes of Aggregates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.8 Relationship Between Water/Cement Ratio and Compressive Strength . . . . .
1.9 Volume of Dry-Rodded Coarse Aggregate per Unit Volume of Concrete for Different Fineness Moduli of Sand . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.10 Creep Coecients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.11 Properties of Reinforcing Bars . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
1.12 Strength Reduction Factors, . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
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13
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15
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. 16
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. 17
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. 113
. 114
. 114
2.1
2.2
Total areas for various numbers of reinforcing bars (inch2 ) . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214

Minimum Width (inches) according to ACI Code . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
4.1
Building Structural Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
6.1
6.2
Columns Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . 618

Girders Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads . . . . . . . . . . 619
7.1
Recommended Minimum Slab and Beam Depths . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
Draft
02
Victor Saouma
LIST OF TABLES
Draft
LIST OF TABLES
03
Tentative Schedule
Fall 1994
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
Aug. 28
Aug. 30
Sep. 4
Sep. 6
Sep. 11
Sep. 13
Sep. 18
Sep. 20
Sep. 25
Sep. 27
Oct. 2
Oct. 4
Oct. 9
Oct. 11
Oct. 16
Oct. 18
Oct. 23
Oct. 25
Oct. 30
Nov. 1
Nov. 6
Nov. 8
Nov. 13
Nov. 15
Nov. 20
Nov. 22
Victor Saouma
Intro; Material
Concrete mix design
Elastic Uncracked
WSD; USD singly reinforced
USD singly, examples
T Beams
T Beams, Doubly Reinf
Doubly Reinf Development length
Shear
Shear
TP Lab
Fall Break
Crack width
EXAM I
Deection
Crack Width-Defelction
Deection, Continuous Systems
Continuous Systems; One way slabs
Columns; Intro
Columns
LAB
Columns
Biaxial bending
Long column
Lab
Thanksgiving
Draft
04
Victor Saouma
LIST OF TABLES
Draft
Chapter 1
INTRODUCTION
1.1
Material
1.1.1
Concrete
This section is adapted from Concrete by Mindess and Young, Prentice Hall, 1981
1.1.1.1
1.1.1.1.1
Mix Design
Constituents
1 Concrete is a mixture of Portland cement, water, and aggregates (usually sand and crushed
stone).
Portland cement is a mixture of calcareous and argillaceous materials which are calcined in
a kiln and then pulverized. When mixed with water, cement hardens through a process called
hydration.
2
Ideal mixture is one in which:

1. A minimum amount of cement-water paste is used to ll the interstices between the
particles of aggregates.
2. A minimum amount of water is provided to complete the chemical reaction with cement.
Strictly speaking, a water/cement ratio of about 0.25 is needed to complete this reaction,
but then the concrete will have a very low workability.
In such a mixture, about 3/4 of the volume is constituted by the aggregates, and the remaining
1/4 being the cement paste.
4 Smaller particles up to 1/4 in. in size are called ne aggregates, and the larger ones being
coarse aggregates.
5
Portland Cement has the following ASTM designation

I Normal
II Moderate sulfate resistant, moderate heat of hydration
III High early strength (but releases too much heat)
Draft
12
INTRODUCTION
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Figure 1.1: Schematic Representation of Aggregate Gradation

IV Low heat Portland cement, minimizes thermal cracking but must control initial temperature
V Sulfate resistant (marine environment)
6 Aggregate usually occupy 70% to 80% of the volume of concrete. They are granular material
derived, for the most part, from natural rock, crushed stone, natural gravels and sands.
ASTM C33 (Standard Specications for Concrete Aggregates) governs the types of rock which
can produce aggregates.
7
The shape can be rounded, irregular, angular, aky, or elongated.
The surface texture can be glassy, smooth, granular, rough, crystalline or honeycombed.
The particle size distribution or grading of aggregates is very important as it determines

the amount of paste for a workable concrete, Fig. 1.1. Since cement is the most expensive
component, proper gradation is of paramount importance.
10
The grading of an aggregate supply is determined by a sieve analysis. A representative

sample of the aggregate is passed through a stack of sieves aranged in order of decreasing size
opening of the sieve.
11
12
We divide aggregates in two categories
Coarse aggregate fraction is that retained on the No. 4 sieve, Table 1.1.
Fine aggregate fraction is that passing the No. 4 sieve.
13
ASTM C33 sets grading limits for coarse and ne aggregates, Table 1.2 and 1.3 respectively.
If a concrete does not comply with these limits, than there will be a need for more paste,
and there will be the possibility of aggregate segregation.
14
Since aggregates contain some porosity, water can be absorbed. Also water can be retained
on the surface of the particle as a lm or moisture. Hence, it is necessary to quantify the
moisture content of the aggregates in order to make adjustments to the water. Because dry
aggregates will remove water from the paste, then the w/c is eectively reduced. On the other
hand moist aggregates may eectively increase the w/c ratio.
15
Victor Saouma
Draft
1.1 Material
13
ASTM
Design.
Size
mm
Coarse Aggregate
3 in.
75
1/2
2
in.
63
2 in.
50
1/2
1
in.
37.5
1 in.
25
3/4 in.
19
1/2 in.
12.5
3/8 in.
9.5
Fine Aggregate
No. 4
4.75
No. 8
2.36
No. 16
1.18
No. 30 0.60 (600 m)
No. 50
300 m
No. 100
150 m
in.
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.75
0.50
0.375
0.187
0.0937
0.0469
0.0234
0.0124
0.0059
Table 1.1: ASTM Sieve Designations Nominal Sizes Used for Concrete Aggregates
Sieve Size
% (Nominal Maximum Size)

in.
1 in.
3/4 in. 1/2 in.
95-100
100
95-100
100
35-70
90-100
100
25-60
90-100
10-30
20-55
40-70
0-5
0-10
0-10
0-15
0-5
0-5
0-5
11/2
11/2 in.
1 in.
3/4 in.
1/2 in.
3/8 in.
No. 4
No. 8
Table 1.2: ASTM C33 Grading Limits for Coarse Concrete Aggregates
Sieve Size
3/4 in.
No. 4
No. 8
No. 16
No. 30
No. 50
No. 100
% Passing
100
95-100
80-100
50-85
25-60
10-30
2-10
Table 1.3: ASTM C33 Grading Limits for Fine Concrete Aggregates
Victor Saouma
Draft
14
16
INTRODUCTION
Moisture states are dened as
Oven-dry (OD): all moisture is removed from the aggregate.

Air-dry (AD): all moisture is removed from the surface, but internal pores are partially full.
Saturated-surface-dry (SSD): All pores are lled with water, but no lm of water on the
surface.
Wet: All pores are completely lled with a lm of water on the surface.
17
Based on the above, we can determine
Absorption capacity (AC): is the maximum amount of water the aggregate can absorb
AC =
WSSD WOD
100%
WOD
(1.1)
most normal -weight aggregates (ne and coarse) have an absorption capacity in the range
of 1% to 2%.
Surface Moisture (SM): is the water in excess of the SSD state
SM =
WW et WSSD
100%
WSSD
(1.2)
The neness modulus is a parameter which describe the grading curve and it can be used
to check the uniformity of the grading. It is usually computed for ne aggregates on the basis
of

cumulative percent retained on standard sieves
(1.3)
F.M. =
100
where the standard sieves used are No. 100, No. 50, No. 30, No. 16, No. 8, and No. 4, and
3/8 in, 3/4 in, 11/2 in and larger.
18
The neness modulus for ne aggregate should lie between 2.3 and 3.1 A small number
indicates a ne grading, whereas a large number indicates a coarse material.
19
20
Table 1.4 illustrates the determination of the neness modulus.
Fineness modulus of ne aggregate is required for mix proportioning since sand gradation
has the largest eect on workability. A ne sand (low neness modulus) has much higher paste
requirements for good workability.
21
22
The neness modulus of coarse aggregate is not used for mix design purposes.
no-nes concrete has little cohesiveness in the frsh state and can not be compacted to a
void-free condition. Hence, it will have a low strength, high permeability. Its only advantage is
low density, and high thermal insulation which can be used if structural requirements are not
high.
23
Victor Saouma
Draft
1.1 Material
15
Sieve
Size
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
No.
4
8
16
30
50
100
Weight
Retained
(g)
9
46
97
99
120
91
Amount
Retained
(wt. %)
2
9
19
20
24
18
Cumulative
Cumulative
Amount
Amount
Retained (%) Passing (%)
2
98
11
89
30
70
50
50
74
26
92
8

= 259
Fineness modulus=259/100=2.59
Table 1.4: Example of Fineness Modulus Determination for Fine Aggregate

1.1.1.1.2
24
Preliminary Considerations
There are two fundamental aspects to mix design to keep in mind:
1. Water/Cement ratio: where the strength in inversely proportional to the water to cement
ratio, approximately expressed as:
fc =
A
B 1.5w/c
(1.4)
For fc in psi, A is usually taken as 14,000 and B depends on the type of cement, but may
be taken to be about 4. It should be noted that w/c controls not only the strength, but
also the porosity and hence the durability.
2. Aggregate Grading: In order to minimize the amount of cement paste, we must maximize
the volume of aggregates. This can be achieved through proper packing of the granular
material. The ideal grading curve (with minimum voids) is closely approximated by
the Fuller curve
q
d
(1.5)
Pt =
D
where Pt is the fraction of total solids ner than size d, and D is the maximum particle
size, q is generally taken as 1/2, hence the parabolic grading.
1.1.1.1.3
Mix procedure
Before starting the mix design process, the following material properties should be determined:
25
1. Sieve analysis of both ne and coarse aggregates

2. Unit weight of the coarse aggregate
3. bulk specic gravities
Victor Saouma
Draft
16
INTRODUCTION
4. absorption capacities of the aggregates

1. Slump1 must be selected for the particular job to account for the anticipated method
of handling and placing concrete, Table 1.5 As a general rule, adopt the lowest possible
Type of Construction
Foundation walls and footings
Plain footings, caissons
Beams and reinforced walls
Building columns
Pavement and slabs
Mass concrete
Max
3
3
4
4
3
3
Min
1
1
1
1
1
1
Table 1.5: Recommended Slumps (inches) for Various Types of Construction

slump.
2. Maximum aggregate size: in general the largest possible size should be adopted.
However, it should be noted that:
(a) For reinforced concrete, the maximum size may not exceed one-fth of the minimum dimensions between the forms, or three-fourths of the minimum clear spacing
between bars, or between steel and forms.
(b) For slabs on grade, the maximum size may not exceed one-third the slab depth.
In general maximum aggregate size is 3/4 in or 1 in.
3. Water and Air content Air content will aect workability (some time it is better to
increase air content rather than increasing w/c which will decrease strength). Air content
can be increased through the addition of admixtures. Table 1.6 tabulates recommended
values of air content (obtained through such admixtures) for dierent conditions (for
instance under severe freezing/thawing air content should be high).
Recommended water requirements are given by Table 1.7.
Exposure
Mild
Moderate
Extreme
in.
4.5
6.0
7.5
3/8
Sizes of Aggregates
1/2 in. 3/4 in. 1 in.
4.0
3.5
3.5
5.5
5.0
4.5
7.0
6.0
6.05
11/2 in.
3.0
4.4
5.5
Table 1.6: Recommended Average Total Air Content as % For Dierent Nominal Maximum
Sizes of Aggregates and Levels of Exposure
1
The slump test (ASTM C143) is a measure of the shear resistance of concrete to owing under its own weight.
It is a good indicator of the concrete workability. A hollow mold in the form of a frustum of a cone is lled
with concrete in three layers of equal volume. Each layer is rodded 25 times. The mold is then lifted vertically,
and the slump is measured by determining the dierence between the height of the mold and the height of the
concrete over the original center of the base of the specimen.
Victor Saouma
Draft
1.1 Material
17
Slump
in.
1-2
3-4
6-7
1-2
3-4
6-7
Sizes of Aggregates
3/8 in. 1/2 in. 3/4 in. 1 in.
Non-Air-Entrained Concrete
350
335
315
300
385
365
340
325
410
385
360
340
Air-Entrained Concrete
305
295
280
270
340
325
305
295
365
345
325
310
11/2 in.
275
300
315
250
275
290
Table 1.7: Approximate Mixing Water Requirements, lb/yd3 of Concrete For Dierent Slumps
and Nominal Maximum Sizes of Aggregates
4. Water/cement ratio: this is governed by both strength and durability. Table 1.8
provides some guidance in terms of strength.
28 days
fc
6,000
5,000
4,000
3,000
2,000
w/c Ratio by Weight

Non-air-entrained Air-entrained
0.41
0.48
0.40
0.57
0.48
0.68
0.59
0.82
0.74
Table 1.8: Relationship Between Water/Cement Ratio and Compressive Strength

For durability, if there is a severe exposure (freeze/thaw, exposure to sea-water, sulfates),
then there are severe restrictions on the W/C ratio (usually to be kept just under 0.5)
5. Cement Content: Once the water content and the w/c ratio are determined, the amount
of cement per unit volume of concrete is determined simply by dividing the estimated
water requirement by the w/c ratio.
6. Coarse Aggregate Content: Volume of coarse aggregate required per cubic yard of
concrete depends on its maximum size and the neness modulus of the ne aggregate,
Table 1.9. The oven dry (OD) volume of coarse aggregate in ft3 required per cubic yard
is simply equal to the value from Table 1.9 multiplied by 27. This volume can then be
converted to an OD weight by multiplying it by the dry-rodded2 weight per cubic foot of
coarse aggregate.
7. The ne aggregate content can be estimated by subtracting the volume of cement,
water, air and coarse aggregate from the total volume. The weight of the ne aggregate
can then be obtained by multiplying this volume by the density of the ne aggregate.
2
Dry Rodded volume (DRV) is the normal volume of space a material occupies.
Victor Saouma
Draft
18
INTRODUCTION
Agg. Size
in
3/8
1/2
3/4
1
11/2
Sand Fineness Moduli

2.40 2.60 2.80 3.00
0.50 0.48 0.46 0.44
0.59 0.57 0.55 0.53
0.66 0.64 0.62 0.60
0.71 0.69 0.67 0.65
0.76 0.74 0.72 0.70
Table 1.9: Volume of Dry-Rodded Coarse Aggregate per Unit Volume of Concrete for Dierent
Fineness Moduli of Sand
8. Adjustment for moisture in the aggregates: is necessary. If aggregates are air
dry, they will absorb some water (thus eectively lowering the w/c), or if aggregates are
too wet they will release water (increasing the w/c and the workability but reducing the
strength).
1.1.1.1.4
Mix Design Example
Concrete is required for an exterior column to be located above ground in an area where
substantial freezing and thawing may occur. The concrete is required to have an average 28day compressive strength of 5,000 psi. For the conditions of placement, the slump should be
between 1 and 2 in, the maximum aggregate size should not exceed 3/4 in. and the properties
of the materials are as follows:
Cement: Type I specic gravity = 3.15
Coarse Aggregates: Bulk specic gravity (SSD) = 2.70; absorption capacity= 1.0%; Total
moisture content = 2.5%; Dry-rodded unit weight = 100 lb/ft3
Fine Aggregates: Bulk specic gravity (SSD) = 2.65; absorption capacity = 1.3 %; Total
moisture content=5.5%; neness modulus = 2.70
The sieve analyses of both the coarse and ne aggregates fall within the specied limits. With
this information, the mix design can proceed:
1. Choice of slump is consistent with Table 1.5.
2. Maximum aggregate size (3/4 in) is governed by reinforcing details.
3. Estimation of mixing water: Because water will be exposed to freeze and thaw, it must
be air-entrained. From Table 1.6 the air content recommended for extreme exposure is
6.0%, and from Table 1.7 the water requirement is 280 lb/yd3
4. From Table 1.8, the water to cement ratio estimate is 0.4
5. Cement content, based on steps 4 and 5 is 280/0.4=700 lb/yd3
6. Coarse aggregate content, interpolating from Table 1.9 for the neness modulus of
the ne aggregate of 2.70, the volume of dry-rodded coarse aggregate per unit volume of
concrete is 0.63. Therefore, the coarse aggregate will occupy 0.63 27 = 17.01 ft3 /yd3 .
Victor Saouma
Draft
1.1 Material
19
The OD weight of the coarse aggregate is 17.01 100 = 1, 701 lb. The SSD weight is
1, 701 1.01 = 1, 718 lb.
7. Fine aggregate content Knowing the weights and specic gravities of the water, cement,
and coarse aggregate, and knowing the air volume, we can calculate the volume per yd3
occupied by the dierent ingredients.
Water
Cement
Coarse Aggregate (SSD)
Air
280/62.4
700/(3.15)(62.4)
1,718/(2.70)(62.4)
(0.06)(27)
=
=
=
=
4.49
3.56
1.62
1.62
19.87
ft3
ft3
ft3
ft3
ft3
Hence, the ne aggregate must occupy a volume of 27.0 19.87 = 7.13 ft3 . The required
SSD weight of the ne aggregate is 7.13 2.65 62.4 = 1, 179 lb.
8. Adjustment for moisture in the aggregate. Since the aggregate will be neither SSD or
OD in the eld, it is necessary to adjust the aggregate weights for the amount of water
contained in the aggregate. Only surface water need be considered; absorbed water does
not become part of the mix water. For the given moisture contents, the adjusted aggregate weights become:
Coarse aggregate (wet)=1,718(1.025-0.01) = 1,744 lb/yd3
Fine aggregate (wet)=1,179(1.055-0.013) = 1,229 lb/yd3
Surface moisture contributed by the coarse aggregate is 2.5-1.0 = 1.5%; by the ne aggregate: 5.5-1.3 = 4.2%; Hence the additional water required is then
280-1,718(0.015)-1,179(0.042) = 205 lb/yd3 .
Thus, the estimated batch weight per yd3 are
Water
Cement
Wet coarse aggregate
Wet ne aggregate
205 lb
700 lb
1,744 lb
1,229 lb
3,878 lb/yd3
143.6 lb/ft3
3,878
27
1.1.1.2
26
Mechanical Properties
Contrarily to steel to modulus of elasticity of concrete depends on the strength and is given
by

E = 57, 000 fc
(1.6)

fc
(1.7)
or
E = 33 1.5
where both fc and E are in psi and is in lbs/ft3 .

Victor Saouma
Draft
110
INTRODUCTION
27
Normal weight and lightweight concrete have equal to 150 and 90-120 lb/ft3 respectively.
28
Poissons ratio = 0.15.
Typical concrete (compressive) strengths range from 3,000 to 6,000 psi; However high strength
concrete can go up to 14,000 psi.
29
30
Stress-strain curve depends on

1. Properties of aggregates
2. Properties of cement
3. Water/cement ratio
4. Strength
5. Age of concrete
6. Rate of loading, as rate, strength
Non-linear part of stress-strain curve is caused by micro-cracking around the aggregates, Fig.
1.2
31
Non-Linear
~ 0.5 cf
Linear
Figure 1.2: MicroCracks in Concrete under Compression

32
Irrespective of fc , maximum strain under compression is 0.003, Fig. 1.3
33
Full strength of concrete is achieved in about 28 days

fct
=
t
f
4.0 + .85t c,28
or
t (days)

%fc,28
34
1
20
2
35
4
54
7
70
10
80
15
90
Concrete always gain strength in time, but a decreasing rate
Victor Saouma
Draft
1.1 Material
111
f
c
f / 2
c
u =
0.003
Figure 1.3: Concrete Stress Strain Curve

The tensile strength of concrete ft is very dicult to measure experimentally. Accepted
values
35
ft 0.07 0.11fc

3 5 fc
(1.8-a)
(1.8-b)
Rather than the tensile strength, it is common to measure the modulus of rupture fr , Fig.
1.4
36
11
00
00
11
00
11
11
00
00
11
00
11
Figure 1.4: Modulus of Rupture Test
Figure 1.5: Split Cylinder (Brazilian) Test
fr 7.5
Victor Saouma

fc
(1.9)
Draft
112
INTRODUCTION
ft
fc
ft
2
1
1
2
fc
~ 20% increase in strength

2
Figure 1.6: Biaxial Strength of Concrete

Using split cylinder (or brazilian test), Fig. 1.5 ft 68 fc . For this test, a nearly uniform
tensile stress
2P
=
dt
where P is the applied compressive load at failure, d and t are diameter and thickness of the
specimen respectively.
37
In most cases, concrete is subjected to uniaxial stresses, but it is possible to have biaxial
(shells, shear walls) or triaxial (beam/column connections) states of stress.
38
39
Biaxial strength curve is shown in Fig. 1.6
40
Concrete has also some time-dependent properties
Shrinkage: when exposed to air (dry), water tends to evaporate from the concrete surface,
shrinkage. It depends on the w/c and relative humidity. sh 0.0002 0.0007. Shrinkage
can cause cracking if the structure is restrained, and may cause large secondary stresses.
If a simply supported beam is fully restrained against longitudinal deformation, then
sh = Esh
3, 000
= 57, 000 3, 000(0.0002) = 624 psi >
10

ft
if the concrete is restrained, then cracking will occur3 .

Creep: can be viewed as the squeezing out of water due to long term stresses (analogous to
consolidation in clay), Fig. 1.7.
Creep coecient, Table 1.10
Cu =
Ct =
ct
ci 2
t0.6
C
10+t0.6 u
3
For this reason a minimum amount of reinforcement is always necessary in concrete, and a 2% reinforcement,
can reduce the shrinkage by 75%.
Victor Saouma
Draft
1.1 Material
113
Elastic recovery
creep
Creep recovery
Residual
no load
constant load
no load
Figure 1.7: Time Dependent Strains in Concrete

fc
Cu
3,000
3.1
4,000
2.9
6,000
2.4
8,000
2.0
Table 1.10: Creep Coecients

41
Coecient of thermal expansion is 0.65 105 /deg F for normal weight concrete.
1.1.2
42
Reinforcing Steel
Steel is used as reinforcing bars in concrete, Table 1.11.
Bars have a deformation on their surface to increase the bond with concrete, and usually
have a yield stress of 60 ksi.
43
44
Maximum allowable fy is 80 ksi.
Stirrups, used as vertical reinforcement to resist shear, usually have a yield stress of only 40
ksi
45
Steel loses its strength rapidly above 700 deg. F (and thus must be properly protected from
re), and becomes brittle at 30 deg. F
46
47
Prestressing Steel cables have an ultimate strength up to 270 ksi.
Welded wire fabric is often used to reinforce slabs and shells. It has both longitudinal and
transverse cold-drawn steel. They are designated by AAW B B, such as 66W 1.41.4
where spacing of the wire is 6 inch, and a cross section of 0.014 in2 .
48
Victor Saouma
Draft
114
INTRODUCTION
Bar Designation
No. 2
No. 3
No. 4
No. 5
No. 6
No. 7
No. 8
No. 9
No. 10
No. 11
No. 14
No. 18
Diameter
(in.)
2/8=0.250
3/8=0.375
4/8=0.500
5/8=0.625
6/8=0.750
7/8=0.875
8/8=1.000
9/8=1.128
10/8=1.270
11/8=1.410
14/8 =1.693
18/8 =2.257
Area
( in2 )
0.05
0.11
0.20
0.31
0.44
0.60
0.79
1.00
1.27
1.56
2.25
4.00
Perimeter
in
0.79
1.18
1.57
1.96
2.36
2.75
3.14
3.54
3.99
4.43
5.32
7.09
Weight
lb/ft
0.167
0.376
0.668
1.043
1.5202
2.044
2.670
3.400
4.303
5.313
7.650
13.60
Table 1.11: Properties of Reinforcing Bars
1.2
Design Philosophy, USD
ACI refers to this method as the Strength Design Method, (previously referred to as the
Ultimate Strength Method).
49
Rn i Qi
(1.10)
where
is a strength reduction factor, less than 1, and must account for the type of structural
element, Table 1.12 (ACI 9.3.2)
Type of Member
Axial Tension
Flexure
Axial Compression, spiral reinforcement
Axial Compression, other
Shear and Torsion
Bearing on concrete
0.9
0.9
0.75
0.70
0.85
0.70
Table 1.12: Strength Reduction Factors,

Rn is the nominal resistance (or strength).
Ru = Rd = Rn is the design strength.
i is the load factor corresponding to Qi and is greater than 1.
i Qi is the required strength based on the factored load:
Victor Saouma
Draft
1.3 Analysis vs Design
115
i is the type of load

Mn Mu
Vn Vu
Pn Pu
50
Note that the subscript d and u are equivalent.
51
The various factored load combinations which must be considered (ACI: 9.2) are
1. 1.4D+1.7L
2. 0.75(1.4D+1.7L+1.7W)
3. 0.9D+1.3W
4. 1.05D+1.275W
5. 0.9D+1.7H
6. 1.4D +1.7L+1.7H
7. 0.75(1.4D+1.4T+1.7L)
8. 1.4(D+T)
where D= dead; L= live; Lr= roof live; W= wind; E= earthquake; S= snow; T= temperature;
H= soil. We must select the one with the largest limit state load.
52 Serviceability Limit States must be assessed under service loads (not factored). The
most important ones being
1. Deections
2. Crack width (for R/C)
3. Stability
1.3
53
Analysis vs Design
In R/C we always consider one of the following problems:
Analysis: Given a certain design, determine what is the maximum moment which can be
applied.
Design: Given an external moment to be resisted, determine cross sectional dimensions (b and
h) as well as reinforcement (As ). Note that in many cases the external dimensions of the
beam (b and h) are xed by the architect.
54
We often consider the maximum moment along a member, and design accordingly.
Victor Saouma
Draft
116
1.4
INTRODUCTION
Basic Relations and Assumptions
In developing a design/analysis method for reinforced concrete, the following basic relations
will be used:
55
1. Equilibrium: of forces and moment at the cross section. 1) Fx = 0 or Tension in the

reinforcement = Compression in concrete; and 2) M = 0 or external moment (that is the
one obtained from the moment envelope) equal and opposite to the internal one (tension
in steel and compression of the concrete).
2. Material Stress Strain: We recall that all normal strength concrete have a failure strain
#u = .003 in compression irrespective of fc .
56
Basic assumptions used:
Compatibility of Displacements: Perfect bond between steel and concrete (no slip). Note
that those two materials do also have very close coecients of thermal expansion under
normal temperature.
Plane section remain plane strain is proportional to distance from neutral axis.
Neglect tensile strength in all cases.
1.5
ACI Code
Attached is an unauthorized copy of some of the most relevant ACI-318-89 design code provisions.
8.1.1 - In design of reinforced concrete structures, members shall be proportioned for adequate strength in accordance with provisions of this code, using load factors and strength
reduction factors specied in Chapter 9.
8.3.1 - All members of frames or continuous construction shall be designed for the maximum
eects of factored loads as determined by the theory of elastic analysis, except as modied
according to Section 8.4. Simplifying assumptions of Section 8.6 through
8.9 may be used.
8.5.1 - Modulus of elasticity Ec for concrete may be taken as Wc1.5 33 fc ( psi) for values
of Wc
between 90 and 155 lb per cu ft. For normal weight concrete, Ec may be taken as
57, 000 fc .
8.5.2 - Modulus of elasticity Es for non-prestressed reinforcement may be taken as 29,000
psi.
9.1.1 - Structures and structural members shall be designed to have design strengths at all
sections at least equal to the required strengths calculated for the factored loads and forces in
such combinations as are stipulated in this code.
9.2 - Required Strength
9.2.1 - Required strength U to resist dead load D and live load L shall be at least equal to
U = 1.4D + 1.7L
9.2.2 - If resistance to structural eects of a specied wind load W are included in design,
the following combinations of D, L, and W shall be investigated to determine the greatest
required strength U
U = 0.75(1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W )
Victor Saouma
Draft
1.5 ACI Code
117
where load combinations shall include both full value and zero value of L to determine the more
severe condition, and
U = 0.9D + 1.3W
but for any combination of D, L, and W, required strength U shall not be less than Eq. (9-1).
9.3.1 - Design strength provided by a member, its connections to other members, and its
cross sections, in terms of exure, axial load, shear, and torsion, shall be taken as the nominal
strength calculated in accordance with requirements and assumptions of this code, multiplied
by a strength reduction factor .
9.3.2 - Strength reduction factor shall be as follows:
9.3.2.1 - Flexure, without axial load 0.90
9.4 - Design strength for reinforcement Designs shall not be based on a yield strength of
reinforcement fy in excess of 80,000 psi, except for prestressing tendons.
10.2.2 - Strain in reinforcement and concrete shall be assumed directly proportional to
the distance from the neutral axis, except, for deep exural members with overall depth to
clear span ratios greater than 2/5 for continuous spans and 4/5 for simple spans, a non-linear
distribution of strain shall be considered. See Section 10.7.
10.2.3 - Maximum usable strain at extreme concrete compression ber shall be assumed
equal to 0.003.
10.2.4 - Stress in reinforcement below specied yield strength fy for grade of reinforcement
used shall be taken as Es times steel strain. For strains greater than that corresponding to fy ,
stress in reinforcement shall be considered independent of strain and equal to fy .
10.2.5 - Tensile strength of concrete shall be neglected in exural calculations of reinforced
concrete, except when meeting requirements of Section 18.4.
10.2.6 - Relationship between concrete compressive stress distribution and concrete strain
may be assumed to be rectangular, trapezoidal, parabolic, or any other shape that results in
prediction of strength in substantial agreement with results of comprehensive tests.
10.2.7 - Requirements of Section 10.2.5 may be considered satised by an equivalent rectangular concrete stress distribution dened by the following:
10.2.7.1 - Concrete stress of 0.85fc shall be assumed uniformly distributed over an equivalent compression zone bounded by edges of the cross section and a straight line located parallel
to the neutral axis at a distance (a = 1 c) from the ber of maximum compressive strain.
10.2.7.2 - Distance c from ber of maximum strain to the neutral axis shall be measured
in a direction perpendicular to that axis.
10.2.7.3 - Factor 1 shall be taken as 0.85 for concrete strengths fc up to and including
4,000 psi. For strengths above 4,000 psi, 1 shall be reduced continuously at a rate of 0.05 for
each 1000 psi of strength in excess of 4,000 psi, but 1 shall not be taken less than 0.65.
10.3.2 - Balanced strain conditions exist at a cross section when tension reinforcement
reaches the strain corresponding to its specied yield strength fy just as concrete in compression
reaches its assumed ultimate strain of 0.003.
10.3.3 - For exural members, and for members subject to combined exure and compressive axial load when the design axial load strength (Pn ) is less than the smaller of (0.10fc Ag )
or (Pb ), the ratio of reinforcement p provided shall not exceed 0.75 of the ratio b that would
produce balanced strain conditions for the section under exure without axial load. For members with compression reinforcement, the portion of b equalized by compression reinforcement
need not be reduced by the 0.75 factor.
10.3.4 - Compression reinforcement in conjunction with additional tension reinforcement
may be used to increase the strength of exural members.
Victor Saouma
Draft
118
INTRODUCTION
10.5.1 - At any section of a exural member, except as provided in Sections 10.5.2 and
10.5.3, where positive reinforcement is required by analysis, the ratio provided shall not be
less than that given by
200
min =
fy
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 2
FLEXURE
This is probably the longest chapter in the notes, we shall cover in great details exural
design/analysis of R/C beams starting with uncracked section to failure conditions.
1
1. Uncracked elastic (uneconomical)

2. cracked elastic (service stage)
3. Ultimate (failure)
2.1
Uncracked Section
c
d
As
Figure 2.1: Strain Diagram Uncracked Section

2
Assuming perfect bond between steel and concrete, we have s = c Fig. 2.1
s = c
where n is the modular ratio n =
fs
fc
Es
=
fs =
fc fs = nfc
Es
Ec
Ec
Es
Ec
Tensile force in steel Ts = As fs = As nfc
Replace steel by an equivalent area of concrete, Fig. 2.2.
(2.1)
Draft
22
FLEXURE
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
(n-1)A S 11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
2
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
(n-1)A S
2
Figure 2.2: Transformed Section

5
Homogeneous section & under bending

fc =
Mc
fs = nfc
I
(2.2)
+
Make sure that max
< ft
Example 2-1: Uncracked Section

in2
Given fc = 4,000 psi; ft = 475 psi; fy = 60,000 psi; M = 45 ft-k = 540,000 in-lb; As = 2.35
+ , f , and f
Determine fmax
s
max
yt
25" 23"
2
As = 2.35 in
yb
10"
Solution:
29, 000
= 8 (n 1)As = (8 1)(2.35) = 16.45 in2

57 4, 000
(10)(25)( 25
2 ) + (16.45)(2)
=
(25)(10) + 16.45
= 11.8 in
n =
yb
yb
y t = 25 11.8 = 13.2 in
(10)(25)3
I =
+ (25)(10)(13.2 12.5)2 + (16.45)(23 13.2)2
12
= 14, 722 in2
(540, 000) lb.in(13.2)in
Mc
=
= 484 psi
fcc =
I
(14, 722) in4
Victor Saouma
(2.3-a)
(2.3-b)
(2.3-c)
(2.3-d)
(2.3-e)
(2.3-f)
(2.3-g)
Draft
2.2 Section Cracked, Stresses Elastic
2.2
23
(540, 000) lb.in(25 13.2) in

Mc
=
= 433 psi < 475 psi
4
I
(14, 722) in
(540, 000)(23 13.2) in
Mc
= (8)
= 2, 876 psi
= n
I
(14, 722)
fct =
(2.3-h)
fs
(2.3-i)
Section Cracked, Stresses Elastic
7 This is important not only as an acceptable alternative ACI design method, but also for the
later evaluation of crack width under service loads.
2.2.1
Basic Relations
If fct > fr , fcc < .5fc and fs < fy we will assume that the crack goes all the way to the
N.A and we will use the transformed section, Fig. 2.3
8
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
(n-1)A S 11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
2
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
111111111
000000000
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
(n-1)A S
2
fc
C
kd/3
kd
d
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
(1-k/3)d=jd
T
Figure 2.3: Stress Diagram Cracked Elastic Section

9 To locate N.A, tension force = compressive force (by def. NA) (Note, for linear stress distri

bution and with Fx = 0; = by bydA = 0, thus b ydA = 0 and ydA = yA = 0, by
denition, gives the location of the neutral axis)

Es
10 Note, N.A. location depends only on geometry & n
Ec
Tensile and compressive forces are equal to C = bkd

2 fc & T = As fs and neutral axis is
determined by equating the moment of the tension area to the moment of the compression
area

kd
= nAs (d kd)
b(kd)
2nd degree equation
(2.4-a)
2
M
(2.4-b)
M = T jd = As fs jd fs
As jd
bkd
bd2
M
fc jd =
kjfc fc = 1 2
M = Cjd =
(2.4-c)
2
2
bd
kj
2
11
where j = (1 k/3).
Victor Saouma
Draft
24
2.2.2
FLEXURE
Working Stress Method
Referred to as Alternate Design Method (ACI Code Appendix A); Based on Working
Stress Design method.
12
13
Places a limit on stresses and uses service loads (ACI A.3).

fcc .45fc
fst 20 ksi for grade 40 or 50 steel
fst 24 ksi for grade 60 steel
14
(2.5)
Location of neutral axis depends on whether we are analysing or designing a section.
Review: We seek to locate the N.A by taking the rst moments:
= Abds

k = 2n + (n)2 n
b(kd) (kd)
= nAs (d kd)
2
(2.6-a)
Design: Objective is to have fc & fs preset & determine As , Fig. 2.4, and we thus seek the
optimal value of k in such a way that concrete and steel reach their respective limits
simultaneously.
c
fc
kd/3
C
kd
d
(1-k/3)d=jd
T
fs
Figure 2.4: Desired Stress Distribution; WSD Method
c
s
c
s
=
=
=
kd
dkd
fc
Ec
fs
Es
f c Es
Ec f s
n
r
=
=
=
k
1k
Es
Ec
fs
fc
k=
n
n+r
(2.7)
15 Balanced design in terms of : What is the value of such that steel and concrete will both
reach their maximum allowable stress values simultaneously
C
T
C
Victor Saouma
= bkd
2 fc
= As fs
= T
= Abds
fc
2 bkd
= b fs bd
n
k = n+r

b =
n
2r(n+r)
(2.8-a)
Draft
16
25
Governing equations
Review Start by determining ,

If < b steel reaches max. allowable value before concrete, and
(2.9)
M = As fs jd
If > b concrete reaches max. allowable value before steel and
M = fc
bkd
jd
2
(2.10)
or
1
M = fc jkbd2 = Rbd2
2
(2.11)
where

k = 2n + (n)2 n
Design We dene
1
R = fc kj
2
(2.12)
solve for bd2 from
M
R
assume b and solve for d. Finally we can determine As from
17
bd2 =
(2.13)
As = b bd
(2.14)
Summary
Review
b, d, As
M?
= Abds

k = 2n + (n)2 n
r = ffsc
n
b = 2r(n+r)
< b M = As fs jd
> b M = 12 fc bkd2 j
Design
M
b, d, As ?
n
k = n+r
j = 1 k3
r = ffsc
R = 12 fc kj
n
b = 2r(n+r)
bd2 = M
R
As = b bd or As =
M
fs jd
Example 2-2: Cracked Elastic Section

Victor Saouma
Draft
26
FLEXURE
Same problem as example 2.1 fc = 4,000 psi; ft = 475 psi; fy = 60,000 psi; As = 2.35 in2
however, M is doubled to M = 90 k.ft (instead of 45).
Solution:
Based on previous example, fct would be 866 psi >> fr and the solution is thus no longer
valid.
The neutral axis is obtained from
2.35
As
=
= 0.0102
bd
(10)(23)
n = (0.010)(8) = 0.08174

2n + (n)2 n
k =

2(0.08174) + (0.08174)2 (0.08174) = 0.33
=
=
kd = (.33)(23) = 7.6 in

0.33
(23) = 20.47 in
jd =
1
3
M
fs =
As jd
(90)(1, 000)(12)
= 22, 400 psi
=
(2.35)(20.47)
2M
fc =
bjkd2
(2)(90)(12, 000)
= 1, 390 psi
=
(10) (20.47) (7.6)

jd
I =
kd
(10)(7.6)3
+ (10)(7.6)
12
M
N.A
fcc
I
fs
k.ft
in
psi
in4
psi
in
Uncracked
45
13.2
485
14,710
2,880
1
7.6
2
(2.15-a)
(2.15-b)
(2.15-c)
(2.15-d)
(2.15-e)
(2.15-f)
(2.15-g)
(2.15-h)
(2.15-i)
(2.15-j)
2
+ 8(2.35)(23 7.6)2 = 5, 922 in4
Cracked
90
7.6
1,390 (< .5fc )
5,910
22,400
4
(2.15-k)
Cracked/uncracked
2
2.9
.4 ( I1 )
( 7 )
4
Example 2-3: Working Stress Design Method; Analysis

Same problem as example 2.1 fc = 4,000 psi; ft = 475 psi; fy = 60,000 psi; As = 2.35 in2 .
Determine Moment capacity.
Solution:
Victor Saouma
Draft
27
2.35
As
=
= .0102
bd
(10)(23)
= 24 ksi
(2.16-a)
=
fs
(2.16-b)
fc = (.45)(4, 000) = 1, 800 psi

(2.16-c)

k =
2n + (n)2 n = 2(.0102)8 + (.0102)2 (8)(.0102) = .331
(2.16-d)
k
j = 1 = .889
(2.16-e)
3
(2.16-f)
N.A. @ (.331)(23) = 7.61 in
8
n
=
= .014 >
Steel reaches elastic (2.16-g)
limit
b =
2r(n + r)
(2)(13.33)(8 + 13.33)
M
= As fs jd = (2.35)(24)(.889)(23) = 1, 154 k.in = 96 k.ft
(2.16-h)
Note, had we used the alternate equation for moment (wrong) we would have overestimated
the design moment:
M
1
= = fc bkd2 j
2
1
(1.8)(10)(0.33)(0.89)(23)2 = 1, 397 k.in > 1, 154 k.in
=
2
(2.17-a)
(2.17-b)
If we dene c = fc /1, 800 and s = fs /24, 000, then as the load increases both c and s
increase, but at dierent rates, one of them s reaches 1 before the other.
Load
Example 2-4: Working Stress Design Method; Design

Design a beam to carry LL = 1.9 k/ft, DL = 1.0 k/ft with fc = 4, 000 psi, fy = 60, 000 psi,
L = 32 ft.
Solution:
fc = (.45)(4, 000) = 1, 800 psi

Victor Saouma
(2.18-a)
Draft
28
FLEXURE
fs = 24, 000 psi
29, 000
Es
=
=8
n =
Ec
57 4, 000
24
fs
= 13.33
=
r =
fc
1.8
8
n
=
= .375
k =
n+r
8 + 13.33
d
.375
j = 1 =1
= .875
3
3
1
1
fc kj = (1, 800)(.375)(.875) = 295 psi
R =
2
2
8
n
=
= .01405
b =
2r(n + r)
2(13.33)(8 + 13.33)
(2.18-b)
(2.18-c)
(2.18-d)
(2.18-e)
(2.18-f)
(2.18-g)
(2.18-h)
Estimate beam weight at .5 k/ft, thus

M
(32)2
= 435 k.ft
8
435 k.ft in2 (12, 000) lb.in
M
=
= 17, 700 in3
R
(295) lbs ft k
(2.19-a)
= [(1.9) + (1.0 + .5)]
bd2 =
(2.19-b)
Take b = 18 in & d = 31.4 in h = 36

in
in2 ft2 k = .675 k/ft
Check beam weight (18)(36)
(.15)
2
3
145
in
ft
As = (.01405)(18)(31.4) = 7.94 in2 use 8# 9 bars in 2 layers As = 8.00 in2
2.3
Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method
2.3.1
Whitney Stress Block
fc
c
c
h
C= fcb
c
c= a
a/2 = c
C= fab
c
d
As
fs
fs
Actual
Figure 2.5: Cracked Section, Limit State

Figure
Victor Saouma
Draft
2.3 Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method
29
18 At failure we have, linear cross strain distribution (ACI 10.2.2) (except for deep beams),
non-linear stress strain curve for the concrete, thus a non-linear stress distribution.
19
Two options:
1. Analytical expression of exact integration
2. Replace exact stress diagram with a simpler and equivalent one, (ACI 10.2.6)
Second approach adopted by most codes.

For the equivalent stress distribution, all we we need to know is C & its location, thus and
We adopt a rectangular stress, with depth a = 1 c, and stress equal to fc (ACI 10.2.7.1)
20
C = fc bc = fc ab
fav
=
fc
a = 1 c
Thus
=
(2.20-a)
(2.20-b)
(2.20-c)
(2.21)
But the location of the resultant forces must be the same, hence
1 = 2
21
From Experiments
fc ( psi)
1 = 2
= /1
22
(2.22)
<4,000
.72
.425
.85
0.85
5,000
.68
.400
.80
0.85
6,000
.64
.375
.75
0.85
8,000
.56
.325
.65
0.86
Thus we have, (ACI-318 10.2.7.3):

1 = .85
1
= .85 (.05)(fc 4, 000) 1,000
23
7,000
.60
.350
.70
0.86
if fc 4, 000
if 4, 000 < fc < 8, 000
(2.23)
Failure can occur by either
yielding of steel: s = y ; Progressive

crushing of concrete: c = .003; Sudden; (ACI 10.3.2).
Victor Saouma
Draft
210
FLEXURE
u=0.003
0.85 fc
a= 1c
C=0.85fc ab
c
h
d
d
As
Figure 2.6: Whitney Stress Block
2.3.2
Balanced Design
Tension Failure:
fs = fy
As fs = .85fc ab = .85fc b1 c
c=
As
= bd
fy
.85fc 1 d
(2.24-a)
Compression Failure:
c = .003
fs
s =
Es
.003
c
=
c=
d
.003 + s
(2.25-a)
(2.25-b)
.003
fs
+.003
Es
(2.25-c)
Balanced Design:
Balanced design occurs if we have simultaneous yielding of the steel and crushing of the
concrete. Hence, we simply equate the previous two equations
bf 2d

fy
.003
.003
87,000
=
d
d
=
d

f
f
b = .851 ffyc 87,000+f
s
s
.85fc 1
.85fc 1
+.003
+.003
y
Es
Es
(2.26-a)
Es = 29, 000 ksi
= b
(ACI 8.4.3)
24
25
To ensure failure by yielding,

(2.27)
< .75b
26
ACI strength requirements

U
U
Md = M u
Victor Saouma
=
=
=
=
1.4D + 1.7L
0.75(1.4D + 1.7L + 1.7W )
Mn
.90
(ACI
(ACI
(ACI
(ACI
9.2.1)
9.2.2)
9.1.1)
9.3.2.2)
(2.28)
Draft
2.3 Cracked Section, Ultimate Strength Design Method

27
211
Also we need to specify a minimum reinforcement ratio

min
200
fy
(2.29)
(ACI 10.5.1)
to account for temperature & shrinkage

28 Note, that need not be as high as 0.75b . If steel is relatively expensive, or deection is of
concern, can use lower .
29
As a rule of thumb, if < 0.5b , there is no need to check for deection.
2.3.3
30
Review
Given, b, d, As , fc , fy , determine the moment capacity M .

act = Abds

87
b
= (.85)1 ffyc 87+f
y
(2.30)
act < b : Failure by yielding and

A f
s y
a = .85f
Fx = 0

cb
Md = As fy (d a2 ) M = 0
(2.31)
act > b is not allowed by code, in this case we have an extra unknown fs .
We now have one more unknown fs , and we will need an additional equation (from strain
diagram).
31
As f s
c = .85f

c b1
c
.003
=
d
.003+s
Md = As fs (d
Fx = 0
From strain diagram
1 c
2 ) M = 0
(2.32)
We can solve by iteration, or substitution and solution of a quadratic equation.
2.3.4
32
Design
We consider two cases:

I b d and As , unknown; Md known;

As f y
fy
fy
Fx = 0 a = 0.85f
a = 0.85f
b

2
c
c

Md = fy 1 .59 bd
(2.33-a)
fc
Md = As fy d a2
= Abds

R
or
Victor Saouma

fy
R = fy 1 .59
fc
(2.34)
Draft
212
FLEXURE
which does not depend on unknown quantities. Then solve for bd2 :
bd2 =
Md
R
(2.35)
Solve for b and d (this will require either an assumption on one of the two, or on their
ratio).
As = bd
II b & d known & Md known there is no assurance that we can have a design with b
If the section is too small, then it will require too much steel resulting in an over-reinforced
section.
Iterative approach
(a) Since we do not know if the steel will be yielding or not, use fs .
(b) Assume an initial value for a (a good start is a = d5 )
(c) Assume initially that fs = fy
(d) Check equilibrium of moments (M = 0)
As =
M
d
fs d a2
(2.36)
(e) Check equilibrium of forces in the x direction (Fx = 0)

a=
As fs
.85fc b
(2.37)
(f) Check assumption of fs by either comparing with b , or from the strain diagram
.003
dc
s
=
fs = Es
.003 < fy
dc
c
c
where c =
(2.38)
a
1 .
(g) Iterate until convergence is reached.
2.4
2.4.1
33
Practical Design Considerations

Minimum Depth
ACI 9.5.2.1 stipulates that the minimum thickness of beams should be
Solid One
way slab
Beams or
ribbed One way slab
Simply
supported
One end
continuous
Both ends
continuous
Cantilever
L/20
L/24
L/28
L/10
L/16
L/18.5
L/21
L/8
where L is in inches, and members are not supporting partitions.

34
Smaller values can be taken if deections are computed.
Victor Saouma
Draft
2.4 Practical Design Considerations
2.4.2
35
213
Beam Sizes, Bar Spacing, Concrete Cover
Beam sizes should be dimensioned as

1. Use whole inches for overall dimensions, except for slabs use
1
2
inch increment.
2. Ideally, the overall depth to width ratio should be between 1.5 to 2.0 (most economical).
3. For T beams, ange thickness should be about 20% of overall depth.
36
Reinforcing bars
1. Minimum spacing between bars, and minimum covers are needed to
(a) Prevent Honeycombing of concrete (air pockets)
(b) Concrete (usually up to 3/4 in MSA) must pass through the reinforcement
(c) Protect reinforcement against corrosion and re
2. Use at least 2 bars for exural reinforcement
3. Use bars #11 or smaller for beams.
4. Use no more than two bar sizes and no more than 2 standard sizes apart (i.e #7 and #9
acceptable; #7 and #8 or #7 and #10 not).
5. Use no more than 5 or 6 bars in one layer.
6. Place longest bars in the layer nearest to face of beam.
7. Clear distance between parallel bars not less that db (to avoid splitting cracks) nor 1 in.
(to allow concrete to pass through).
8. Clear distance between longitudinal bars in columns not less that 1.5db or 1.5 in.
9. Minimum cover of 1.5 in.
10. Summaries in Fig. 2.7 and Table 2.1, 2.2.
2.4.3
37
Design Aids
Basic equations developed in this section can be easily graphed.
Review Given b d and known steel ratio and material strength, Mn can be readily obtained
from Mn = Rbd2
Design in this case
Set Md = Rbd2
From tabulated values, select max and min often 0.5b is a good economical choice.
Select R from tabulated values of R in terms of fy , fc and . Solve for bd2 .
Select b and d to meet requirements. Usually depth is about 2 to 3 times the width.
Using tabulated values select the size and number of bars giving preference to larger
bar sizes to reduce placement cost (careful about crack width!).
6. Check from tables that the selected beam width will provide room for the bars chosen
with adequate cover and spacing.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
Victor Saouma
Draft
214
Bar
Size
#3
#4
#5
#6
#7
#8
#9
#10
#11
#14
#18
FLEXURE
Nominal
Diam.
0.375
0.500
0.625
0.750
0.875
1.000
1.128
1.270
1.410
1.693
2.257
1
0.11
0.20
0.31
0.44
0.60
0.79
1.00
1.27
1.56
2.25
4.00
2
0.22
0.40
0.62
0.88
1.20
1.58
2.00
2.54
3.12
4.50
8.00
3
0.33
0.60
0.93
1.32
1.80
2.37
3.00
3.81
4.68
6.75
12.00
Number of Bars
4
5
6
7
0.44
0.55
0.66
0.77
0.80
1.00
1.20
1.40
1.24
1.55
1.86
2.17
1.76
2.20
2.64
3.08
2.40
3.00
3.60
4.20
3.16
3.95
4.74
5.53
4.00
5.00
6.00
7.00
5.08
6.35
7.62
8.89
6.24
7.80
9.36
10.92
9.00
11.25 13.50 15.75
16.00 20.00 24.00 28.00
8
0.88
1.60
2.48
3.52
4.80
6.32
8.00
10.16
12.48
18.00
32.00
9
0.99
1.80
2.79
3.96
5.40
7.11
9.00
11.43
14.04
20.25
36.00
10
1.10
2.00
3.10
4.40
6.00
7.90
10.00
12.70
15.60
22.50
40.00
Table 2.1: Total areas for various numbers of reinforcing bars (inch2 )
Bar
Size
#4
#5
#6
#7
#8
#9
#10
#11
#14
#18
Number of bars
2
3
4
6.8
8.3
9.8
6.9
8.5 10.2
7.0
8.8 10.5
7.2
9.1 11.0
7.3
9.3 11.3
7.6
9.9 12.1
7.8 10.3 12.9
8.1 10.9 13.7
8.9 12.3 15.7
10.6 15.1 19.6
in single layer of reinf.

5
6
7
8
11.3 12.8 14.3 15.8
11.8 13.4 15.1 16.7
12.3 14.0 15.8 17.5
12.8 14.7 16.6 18.5
13.3 15.3 17.3 19.3
14.4 16.6 18.9 21.2
15.4 18.0 20.5 23.0
16.6 19.4 22.2 25.0
19.1 22.5 25.9 29.3
24.1 28.6 33.2 37.7
Table 2.2: Minimum Width (inches) according to ACI Code
Victor Saouma
Draft
2.5 USD Examples
215
Figure 2.7: Bar Spacing
2.5
USD Examples
Example 2-5: Ultimate Strength; Review

Determine the ultimate moment capacity of example 2.1 fc = 4,000 psi; ft = 475 psi; fy =
60,000 psi; As = 2.35 in2
yt
25" 23"
2
As = 2.35 in
yb
10"
Solution:
2.35
As
=
= .0102
bd
(10)(23)
87
4
f 87
b = .851 c
= .0285 > act
= (.85)(.85)
fy 87 + fy
60 87 + 60
As fy
(2.35)(60)
a =
=
= 4.15 in
.85fc b
(.85)(4)(10)

a
4.15
= (2.35)(60) 23
= 2, 950 k.in
Mn = As fy d
2
2
act =
Md = Mn = 0.9(2, 950) = 2, 660 k.in
(2.39-a)
(2.39-b)
(2.39-c)
(2.39-d)
(2.39-e)
Note:
Victor Saouma
Draft
216
FLEXURE
1. From equilibrium, Fx = 0 c =
As f y
.851 bfc
(2.35)(60)
(.85)(.85)(4)(10)
= 4.87 in
2. Comparing with previous analysis
c
M
uncracked
13.2
45
cracked
7.61
90
ultimate
4.87
245
1.7 = 144
3. Alternative solution:
Mn = act fy bd2 (1 .59act
= As fy d(1 59act
fy
)
fc
fy
)
fc
60
(.0102)] = 2, 950 k.in = 245 k.ft
4
= Mn = (.9)(2, 950) = 2, 660 k.in
= (2.35)(60)(23)[1 (.59)
Md
(2.40-a)
(2.40-b)
(2.40-c)
(2.40-d)
Example 2-6: Ultimate Strength; Design I

Design a R/C beam with L = 15 ft; DL = 1.27 k/ft; LL = 2.44 k/ft; fc = 3,000 psi; fy =
40 ksi; Neglect beam owns weight; Select = 0.75b
Solution:
Factored load
wu = 1.4(1.27) + 1.7(2.44) = 5.92 k/ft
2
2
wu L
(5.92)(15)
=
= 166.5 k.ft(12) in/ft = 1, 998 k.in
Md =
8
8
f 87
= 0.75b = (0.75)(0.85)1 c
fy 87 + fy
87
3
= .0278
= (0.75)(.85)2
40
87
+
40

fy
R = fy 1 .59
f

c
40
= 0.869 psi
= (.0278)(40) 1 (0.59)(.0278)
3
1, 998
Md
=
= 2, 555 in3
bd2 =
R
(0.9)(0.869)
(2.41-a)
(2.41-b)
(2.41-c)
(2.41-d)
(2.41-e)
(2.41-f)
(2.41-g)
Take b = 10 in, d = 16 in As = (.0278)(10)(16) = 4.45 in2 use 3 # 11

Victor Saouma
Draft
2.6 T Beams, (ACI 8.10)
217
Example 2-7: Ultimate Strength; Design II

Design a R/C beam for b = 11.5 in; d = 20 in; fc = 3 ksi; fy = 40 ksi; Md = 1, 600 k.in
Solution:
Assume a =
d
5
20
5
= 4 in
As =
(1, 600)
Md
= 2.47 in2
a =
fy (d 2 )
(.9)(40)(20 42 )
(2.42)
As fy
(2.47)(40)
=
= 3.38 in

(.85)fc b
(.85)(3)(11.5)
(2.43)
check assumption,
a=
Thus take a = 3.3 in.
As =
a =
act =
b =
max =
2.6
(1, 600)
= 2.42 in2
(.9)(40)(20 3.3
)
2
(2.42)(40)
= 3.3 in
(.85)(3)(11.5)
2.42
= .011
(11.5)(20)
87
3
= .037
(.85)(.85)
40 87 + 40
.75b = .0278 > act
(2.44-a)
(2.44-b)
(2.44-c)
(2.44-d)
(2.44-e)
T Beams, (ACI 8.10)
38 Equivalent width for uniform stress, Fig. 2.8 must satisfy the following requirements (ACI
8.10.2):
1.
1
2 (b
bw ) 8hf
2. b < 4bw for isolated T beams only

3. hf >
4. b <
39
bw
2
L
4
Two possibilities:
1. Neutral axis within the anges (c < hf ) rectangular section of width b, Fig. 2.9.
2. Neutral axis in the web (c > hf ) T beam.
Victor Saouma
Draft
218
FLEXURE
be
b
1111111111
0000000000
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
0000000000
1111111111
hf
bw
Figure 2.8: T Beams
b
h
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
h d
As
Figure 2.9: T Beam as Rectangular Section
b
hf
hd
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
As
u =0.003
0.85 fc
a=1 c
c
C=0.85f a
c
d
s
T=As yf
bw
Figure 2.10: T Beam Strain and Stress Diagram
Victor Saouma
Draft
2.6 T Beams, (ACI 8.10)
219
For T beams, we have a large concrete area, start by assuming that failure will occur by steel
yielding, Fig. 2.10.
40
41
The approach consists in decomposing As into 2 components Fig. 2.11.

1. Asf resists compression force in (b bw )hf
2. (As Asf ) resists compression force in bw c
2.6.1
42
Review
Given, b, d, hf , As , fc , fy , determine the moment capacity M , Fig. 2.11.

b
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
hf
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
+
A sf
bw
As
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
A s A sf
(bb w)h f
bwc
Figure 2.11: Decomposition of Steel Reinforcement for T Beams

43
The moment is obtained from
Flanges:
Asf
Mn1 =
Web:
.85fc (bbw )hf

fy
h
Asf fy (d 2f )
(A A
F = 0
(2.45)
M = 0
)f
s
sf y
F = 0
a =
.85fc bw
a
Mn2 = (As Asf )fy (d 2 ) M = 0
(2.46)
Mn = Mn1 + Mn2
(2.47)
Total moment:
2.6.2
44
Design, (balanced)
Let us derive an expression for b and use it for design

c
d
As fy
u
= u+
Strain Compatibility
y

= .85fc 1 cbw + .85fc (b bw )hf F = 0

(2.48)
Asf fy
thus,

As fy = .85fc 1 cbw + Asf fy

u
fc
As
w = bw d
w = .85 1
+f
(2.49)
fy u + y
Asf
f = bwd
Victor Saouma
Draft
220
FLEXURE
Hence,
wb = b + f
(2.50)
w,max = .75(b + f ) (2.51)
Example 2-8: T Beam; Moment Capacity I

For the following beam: As = 8 # 11 ( 12.48 in2 ); fc =3,000 psi; fy = 50,000 psi. Determine
Mn
30"
7"
36"
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
u=0.003
0.85 fc
a= 1c
C=0.85fc ab
T=Asfy
14"
Solution:
1. Check requirements for isolated T sections
(a) bw = 30 in should not exceed 4bw = 4(14) = 56 in
(b) hf b2u 7 14
2
2. Assume Rectangular section

a=
As fy
(12.48)(50)
=
= 8.16 in > hf

.85fc b
(0.85)(3)(30)
(2.52)
3. For a T section
Asf
=
=
Asw =
w =
b =
=
Victor Saouma
.85fc hf (b bw )
fy
(.85)(3)(7)(30 14)
= 5.71 in2
50
Asf
5.71
= .0113
=
bwd
(14)(36)
As Asw = 12.48 5.71 = 6.77 in2
12.48
Asw
=
= .025
bw d
(14)(36)
f 87
.851 c
fy 87 + fy
3
87
(.85)(.85)
= .0275
50 87 + 50
(2.53-a)
(2.53-b)
(2.53-c)
(2.53-d)
(2.53-e)
(2.53-f)
(2.53-g)
Draft
2.6 T Beams, (ACI 8.10)
221
4. Maximum permissible ratio

max = .75(b + f )
= .75(.0275 + .0113) = .029 > w
(2.54-a)
(2.54-b)
5. The design moment is then obtained from

7
= 9, 280 k.in
Mn1 = (5.71)(50) 36
2
(As Asf )fy
a =
.85fc bw
(6.77)(50)
= 9.48 in
=
(.85)(3)(14)
9.48
) = 10, 580 k.in
Mn2 = (6.77)(50)(36
2
Md = (.9)(9, 280 + 10, 580) = 17, 890 k.in 17, 900 k.in
(2.55-a)
(2.55-b)
(2.55-c)
(2.55-d)
(2.55-e)
Example 2-9: T Beam; Moment Capacity II

Determine the moment capacity of the following section, assume ange dimensions to satisfy
ACI requirements; As = 6#10 = 7.59 in2 ; fc = 3 ksi; fy =60 ksi.
28"
6"
26"
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
u=0.003
0.85 fc
a= 1c
C=0.85fc ab
T=Asfy
10"
Solution:
Assume rectangular beam
7.59
= .0104
(28)(26)

87
3
= .0214 > fs = fy
b = (.85)(.85)
60
87 + 60
(As Asf )fy
a =
.85fc bw
=
Victor Saouma
(2.56-a)
(2.56-b)
(2.56-c)
Draft
222
FLEXURE
=
Asf
Asw
w =
f
max =
(7.59)(60)
= 6.37 in > 6 in T beam
(.85)(3)(28)
(.85)(3)(18)(6)
= 4.59 in2
60
7.59 4.59 = 3.00 in2
7.59
= .0292
(26)(10)
4.59
= .0177
(26)(10)
.75(.0214 + .0177) = .0294 > .0292 Ductile failure
Mn1 = (4.59)(60)(26 3) = 6, 330 k.in

As Asf
(2.56-d)
(2.56-e)
(2.56-f)
(2.56-g)
(2.56-h)
(2.56-i)
(2.56-j)
= 7.59 4.59 = 3. in
(3)(60)
a =
= 7.07 in
(.85)(3)(10)
7.07
) = 4, 050 k.in
Mn2 = (3.00)(60)(26
2
Md = (.9)(6, 330 + 4, 050) = 9, 350 k.in
2
(2.56-k)
(2.56-l)
(2.56-m)
(2.56-n)
Example 2-10: T Beam; Design

given L = 24 ft; fy = 60 ksi; fc = 3 ksi; Md = 6, 400 k.in; Design a R/C T beam.
3"
20"
11"
47"
Solution:
1. Determine eective ange width:
bw ) 8hf
16hf + bw = (16)(3) + 11 = 59 in
L
24
= 72 in
4 = 4 12
Center Line spacing
= 47 in
1
2 (b
b = 47 in
(2.57-a)
2. Assume a = 3 in
As =
Victor Saouma
6, 400
Md
= 6.40 in2
a =
fy (d 2 )
0.9)(60)(20 32 )
(2.58-a)
Draft
2.7 Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams
a =
223
As fy
(6.4)(60)
=
= 3.20 in > hf

(.85)fc b
(.85)(3)(47)
(2.58-b)
3. Thus a T beam analysis is required.

Asf
Md1
Md2
.85fc (b bw )hf
(.85)(3)(47 11)(3)
= 4.58 in2
=
fy
60
hf
3
) = (.90)(4.58)(60)(20 ) = 4, 570 k.in
= Asf fy (d
2
2
= Md Md1 = 6, 400 4, 570 = 1, 830 k.in
=
(2.59-a)
(2.59-b)
(2.59-c)
(2.59-d)
4. Now, this is similar to the design of a rectangular section. Assume a =

As Asf =
1, 830

= 1.88 in2
(.90)(60) 20 42
d
5
20
5
= 4. in
(2.60)
5. check
a =
1.88)(60)
= 4.02 in 4.00
(.85)(3)(11)
As = 4.58 + 1.88 = 6.46 in2

6.46
= .0294
w =
(11)(20)
4.58
= .0208
f =
(11)(20)

87
3
= .0214
b = (.85)(.85)
60
87 + 60
max = .75(.0214 + .0208) = .0316 > w
(2.61-a)
(2.61-b)
(2.61-c)
(2.61-d)
(2.61-e)
(2.61-f)
6. Note that 6.46 in2 (T beam) is close to As = 6.40 in2 if rectangular section was assumed.
2.7
45
Doubly Reinforced Rectangular Beams
Negative steel reinforcement is needed to

1. Increase internal moment resistance capacity (not very ecient)
2. Support stirrups
3. Reverse moments (moving load)
4. Provide ductility (earthquake)
5. Reduce creep (long term deections)
Victor Saouma
Draft
224
FLEXURE
0.85 fc
u=0.003
As
As fs
0.85 fc
As fs
a= 1c
a= 1c
dd
d
Asfs
As
(As As )f s
Asfs
Figure 2.12: Doubly Reinforced Beams; Strain and Stress Diagrams

Approach will again be based on a strain compatibility analysis & equilibrium equation, Fig.
2.12.
46
47
If max = .75b we can disregard compression steel
48
As for T beams, we decompose the tension steel into two components

1. As to resist the force in the top steel (assuming both yield)
2. As As to resist compression in the concrete.
and we dene
=
2.7.1
49
As
bd
(2.62)
Tests for fs and fs
Dierent possibilities: Fig. 2.13

Yes
Yes
As yield?
No
As yield?
No
Not Allowed by ACI
Yes
As yield?
No
II
III
IV
f = fy
f = fy
f < fy
f < fy
f = f y
f < f
f = f
f < f y
s
s
s
s
s
s
Figure 2.13: Dierent Possibilities for Doubly Reinforced Concrete Beams
Test 1 fs = fy ?
Assuming s = y , and fs = fy , we have from the strain diagram, Fig. ??
Victor Saouma
Draft
225
u =0.003
s
d
As
h
d
s = y
As
b
Figure 2.14: Strain Diagram, Doubly Reinforced Beam; is As Yielding?
s = u
d
(u + y )
d
fs = Es s
u
d
c =
u + y
(2.63-a)
(2.63-b)
(2.63-c)
(2.63-d)
From equilibrium:
bdfy = bdfs + .85fc 1 bc
Combining:
b = 1 =
f
fs
u
+ .85 c 1
fy
fy u + y

(2.64)
(2.65)
thus
fs
+ b
fy
f
= 0.75b + s
fy
b = 1 =
max
(2.66)
(2.67)
Note that 0.75 premultiplies only one term as in the other failure is ipso facto by yielding.
We also note the similarity with max of T Beams (where 0.75 premultiplied both terms).
Test 2 fs = fy is fs = fy ?
We set s = y , and from the strain diagram
c=
from equilibrium
Victor Saouma
u
d
u y
bdfy = bdfy + .85fc 1 cb
(2.68)
(2.69)
Draft
226
FLEXURE
u =0.003
s = y
d
As
h
d
s > y
As
b
Figure 2.15: Strain Diagram, Doubly Reinforced Beam; is As Yielding?
combining
min 2 = + .851
fc d 87
fy d 87 fy
(2.70)
which corresponds to the minimum amount of steel to ensure yielding of compression steel
at failure. Thus, if < min then fs < fy .
Test 3 fs < fy , is fs = fy ?
From strain diagram:
c =
s =
u
d
u y
dc
y
c d
(2.71-a)
(2.71-b)
From equilibrium
bdfs = bdfy + .85fc 1 bc
combining
= 3 =

c d
f c
+ .851 c
dc
fy d
(2.72-a)
(2.73)
Summary of the tests are shown in Fig. 2.16
2.7.2
Moment Equations
Case I fs = fy and fs = fy , (small bottom and top reinforcement ratios)

As fy = As fy + .85fc ab
(As As )fy
a =
.85fc b
a
+ As fy (d d )
MnI = .85fc ab d
2
Victor Saouma
(2.74-a)
(2.74-b)
(2.75)
Draft
min
f < fy
s
Test 3
Test 1
Test 2
II
227
III
I
f = f y
s
f=fy f <fy
s
s
IV
f < f y f = f y
s
Figure 2.16: Summary of Conditions for top and Bottom Steel Yielding
Case II We have fs = fy and fs < fy (small bottom and large top reinforcement ratios, most
common case)
c d
c
= Es s
(2.76-b)
As fs
(2.76-c)
s = u
fs
As fy =
(2.76-a)
.85fc b1 c
solve for c and fs by iteration.

Using a = 1 c
a
MnII = .85fc ab d
+ As fs (d d )
2
(2.77)
Case III fs < fy and fs = fy (large bottom and small top reinforcement ratios, rare)
dc
c
= E s s
s = u
fs
As fs =
As fy
(2.78-a)
(2.78-b)
.85fc ab
a = 1 c
(2.78-c)
(2.78-d)
solve for a
a
+ As fy (d d )
MnIII = .85fc ab d
2
(2.79)
Case IV fs < fy and fs < fy (large bottom and top reinforcement ratios, rare)
c d
c
dc
= u
c
= As fs + .85fc ab
s = u
(2.80-a)
(2.80-b)
As fs
a = 1 c
Victor Saouma
(2.80-c)
(2.80-d)
Draft
228
FLEXURE
solve for a
a
+ As fs (d d )
MnIV = .85fc ab d
2
(2.81)
Note that in most beams of normal size and proportions, it will be found that fs < fy when
fs = fy . We nevertheless use As in order to ensure ductility, stiness and support for the
stirrups.
50
Example 2-11: Doubly Reinforced Concrete beam; Review

Given, fc = 4, 000 psi, fy = 60,000 psi, As = 3 (1.56) = 4.68 in2 , As = 4 (1.56) = 6.24 in2 ,
determine the moment carrying capacity of the following beam.
0.85 cf
u =0.003
As = 3 # 11
3"
0.85 f
c
As fy
As fs
a=1 c
a= c
27.3"
dd
d
As sf
As yf
(As A
)
s s
16"
As = 4 # 11
Solution:
1. Determine :
4
fc 87
87
= (.85)(.85)
= .0285
fy 87 + fy
60 87 + 60
6.24
= .0143
(16)(27.3)
4.68
= .0107
(16)(27.3)
b = (.85)1
=
=
(2.82-a)
(2.82-b)
(2.82-c)
2. Check for min

fc d u
1
fy d u y
3
.003
4
= .0278 >
= .0107 + (.85) (.85)
60
60
27.3 .003 29,000
min = + .85
(2.83-a)
(2.83-b)
Hence
< min <

b
.0143 < .0278 < .0285
(2.84)
and thus fs = fy and fs < fy and we have case II
Victor Saouma
Draft
229
3. We have two equations (strain compatibility and summation of forces) and two unknowns
c and fs
c3
c d
= (29, 000)(.003)
c
c
c3
= 87
c
= As fs + .85fc b1 c
fs = Es u
As fy
(4.68)fs + (.85)(4)(16)(.85)c
4.68fs + 46.24c
(6.24)(60) =
374.4 =
fs
= 9.9c + 80.2
(2.85-a)
(2.85-b)
(2.85-c)
(2.85-d)
(2.85-e)
(2.85-f)
Note that if we were to plott those two equations,

50
25
-25
-50
-75
-100
We note that f s increases with c from the strain diagram, but fs decreases with c from
equilibrium. Graphically the solution is around 4.9.
4. Combining those two equations1
c2 + .7085c 26.42 = 0
(2.86)
we obtain c = 4.80 in a = 0.85(4.8) = 4.078 in, and fs = (.003)(29, 000) 4.803
4.80 = 32.6 ksi
5. Substituting into the moment equation
a
+ As fs (d d )
(2.87-a)
Mn = .85fc ab d
2

4.078
+ (4.68)(32.62)(27.3 3) (2.87-b)
= (.85)(4)(4.078)(16) 27.3
2
(2.87-c)
= 9, 313 k.in
Md = 0.9(9, 313) = 8, 382 k.in = 699 k.ft
(2.87-d)
6. Check
max = .75b +
fs
fy
= (.75)(.0285) +
(2.88-a)
32.6
(.0107) =
.027
60
(2.88-b)
In this problem, unfortunately an iterative method diverges if we were to start with a = d5 .
Victor Saouma
Draft
230
FLEXURE
Example 2-12: Doubly Reinforced Concrete beam; Design

Given Md = 505 k.ft, fc = 4 ksi, fy = 60 ksi, b = 12 in, h = 24.5 in, d = 21 in, and
= 2.5 in, determine the reinforcement As and possibly As .
Solution:
d
1. Check if T or rectangular:
Md = (505)(12) = 6, 060 k.in
87
4
f 87
= .0285
= (.85)(.85)
b = .851 c
fy 87 + fy
60 87 + 60
max = .75b = (.75)(.0285) = .0213
Amax
s
(2.89-a)
(2.89-b)
(2.89-c)
= (.0213)(12)(21) = 5.37 in
(2.89-d)
As fy
(5.37)(60)
=
= 7.89 in
(2.89-e)
a =
.85fc b
(.85)(4)(12)

a
7.89
= (.9)(5.37)(60) 21
= 4, 943 k.in < 6, 060
(2.89-f)
k.in
Mmax = (0.9)As fy d
2
2
Thus compression steel is required.
2. Assuming that fs = fy
Md2 = 6, 060 4, 943 = 1, 117 k.in
1, 117
Md2
=
= 1.12 in2
As =

fy (d d )
(0.9)(60)(21 2.5)
As =
1.12 in2
As = 5.37 + 1.12 = 6.49 in2
(2.90-a)
(2.90-b)
(2.90-c)
(2.90-d)
3. Check that fs = fy

1.12
= .00444
(12)(21)
6.49
= .0257
=
(12)(21)
f d u
min = + .851 c
fy d u y
87
4 2.5
= .0229 < (.0257)
= .00444 + (.85)(.85)
60 21.0 87 60
=
(2.91-a)
(2.91-b)
(2.91-c)
(2.91-d)
Note that if it turned out that fs < fy , then we will need to make an assumption on As (such
as As = A2s , as we will have three equations (2 of equilibrium and one of strain compatibility)
and four unknowns (As , As , fs and c).
Victor Saouma
Draft
2.8 Bond & Development Length
2.8
231
Bond & Development Length
Considering the equilibrium of forces acting on an innitesimal portion of a rebar, Fig. 2.17,
and dening U as the force per unit length, we have
51
M +M
111
000
000
111
000
111
111
000
111
000
C + dC
T
Z
T
V+dV
T+dT
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
000000000000000000
111111111111111111
T+dT
dx
dx
Figure 2.17: Bond and Development Length
U dx = dT U =
52
(2.92)
The tensile force is a function of the moment

M
= T jd
dM
=
jd
dT
53
dT
dx
(2.93-a)
(2.93-b)
But the shear is related to the moment

V =
dM
dx
(2.94)
V
jd
(2.95)
Combing those equations together, we obtain

U=
54
We dene u as the bond stress, and is equal to

u=
U
0
(2.96)
where 0 is the sum of all the bars perimeters.

If plain bar weak adhesion slip need end anchorage no bond u = 0 dT = 0
max
total steel elongation >than if bond
steel stress is constant over entire length T = Mjd
present large deection and large crack width.
55
56
Actual stress distribution along steel bar is quite complex, Fig. 2.18.
57
If bond stress is too large splitting along reinforcement, Fig. 2.19.
Victor Saouma
Draft
232
FLEXURE
u stresses on concrete
u stresses on rebar
1111111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000000
0000000000000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111111111111
1111111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000000
Steel tension slope =dT
dx
Bond stress u
Figure 2.18: Actual Bond Distribution
Figure 2.19: Splitting Along Reinforcement
Victor Saouma
Draft

58
233

Failure will initiate at points of high shear large
dM
dx

.
It frequently starts at diagonal cracks dowel action increases the tendancy of splitting
shear and bond failures are often interrelated.
59
Basedon tests with one single bar, ultimate average bond force/inch of length of bar is
Un 35 fc .
60
If we have several bars in one layer spaced 6 in or less, then the ultimate bond capacity is
80% of the single bar case.
61
62
In terms of bond stress, Fig. 2.20

35 fc
un =
0
(2.97)
1111111111111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000000000000
Ts = 0
Ld
Ts= A yf
b
Figure 2.20: Development Length

Putting it dierently, the minimum length necessary to develop through bond a force As fy
is, Fig. ??.
A f
Ld = Ubny
0.028Ab fy
Un = un
0

(2.98)
ld =
fc
35 fc
un =
0
63
A sf y
Figure 2.21: Development Length

64
For small bar spacing, we have to decrease the bond stress

ld =
Victor Saouma
0.035Ab fy
1 0.028Ab fy

=

0.8
fc
fc
(2.99-a)
Draft
234
FLEXURE
If actual development length l is smaller than ld , then we must provide anchorage in order
to avoid a bond failure.
65
66
Note:
1. Un is independent of diameter
2. For a given fs
T
ld
= Ab fs
d2
ld =
= fs 4 b
Ab f s
= Un
fs d2b
4Un
(2.100-a)
ld increases with the square of db small bar diameters require shorter development
length.
Top bars, with more than 12 inch of concrete below them, will have a reduced bond stress
(due to rise of water during vibration). This reduction in bond results in an increase of ld by
40%
67
ACI 12.2.2 may be obtained from above but rather than use we increase ld by 15% for
safety.
68
ldb = .04 b
=
=
A fy
fc
fy
.085
fc
f
.125 y
fc
#11 or smaller; and deformed wire

#14
(2.101)
#18
> 12 in. in all cases

Consult ACI 12.5 code for hooks geometry, and corrections to this basic equation.
Check ACI code for modications related to top reinforcement, lightweight aggregate, high
strength reinforcement, excess reinforcement, and spiral connement.
69
(2.102)
ld = d dd ldb
70
If not enough development length can be provided provide hooks, Fig. 2.22 at
1. 90 degrees: bar must extend by 12db
2. 180 degrees: see code.
where
lhb = 1200 db
fc
(2.103)
ldh = d lhb
and d is given in the ACI code.
Victor Saouma
Draft
235
db
As in part (b)
Critical
section
12db
ldh
(a)
db
Critical
section
4db or 2 1/2
in. min.
ldh
4db
Nos. 3 through 8
5db
Nos. 9, 10, 11
6db
Nos. 14 and 18
(b)
Figure 2.22: Hooks
2.8.1
Moment Capacity Diagram
Ideally, the steel should be everywhere as nearly fully stressed as possible. Since the steel
force is proportional to the moment, then the steel area is nearly proportional to the moment
diagram.
71
72
Requirements include, Fig. 2.23:

1. At least A3s in simple beams and
in. into support.
As
4
for continuous beams should be extended at least 6
2. If negative bars are cut, they must extend at least ld beyond face of support.
3. Negative bars must extend d or 12db beyond theoretical cuto point dened by moment
diagram.
4. At least one third of top reinforcement at support must extend at least ld beyond theln
oretical cuto point of other bars, and d, 12db or 16
beyond the inection point of the
negative moment diagram.
Determination of cuto points can be rather tedious, for nearly equal spans uniformly loaded,
in which no more than about one half the tensile steel is to be cut o or bent, locations shown
in Fig. 2.24 are satisfactory (note that left support is assumed simply supported).
73
74
Fig. 2.25 is an illustration of the moment capacity diagram for a beam.
Victor Saouma
Draft
FLEXURE
Theoretical
positive
moment
Inflection point
for (+As)
Theoretical
negative
moment
of span
Moment Capacity
of bars O
Inflection point
for (-As)
C
L
Face of support
236
Moment capacity
of bars M
Greatest of d, 12 d , ln/16
b
d or 12 db
for at least 1/3 of (-AS)
ld
Bars M
ld
Bars N
ld
Bars L
ld
Bars O
d or 12 db
6" for at least

1/4 of (+AS)
(1/3 for simple spans)
Figure 2.23: Bar cuto requirements of the ACI code
Victor Saouma
Draft
L1
4
L1
3
0"
6"
L1
L1
8
L1
4
6"
237
L2
3
0"
6"
0"
L1
L1
4
L2
8
6"
L1
3
L1
7
L2
3
L2
L2
3
L2
3
0"
6"
6"
L2
4
L2
8
L2
L2
4
Figure 2.24: Standard cuto or bend points for bars in approximately equal spans with uniformly distributed load
Victor Saouma
Draft
238
FLEXURE
2 bars
5 bars
4 bars
AA
BB
Ld
Ld
Mcap
of 5 bars
CC
Mcap of 4 bars
Md=Mn
Ld
Mcap
of 2 bars
d or 12
Figure 2.25: Moment Capacity Diagram
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 3
SHEAR
3.1
Introduction
Beams are subjected to both exural and shear stresses. Resulting principal stresses (or stress
trajectory) are shown in Fig. 3.1.
1
45
90
Tension trajectories
Compression trajectories
45
Figure 3.1: Principal Stresses in Beam

2
Due to exure, vertical exural cracks develop from the bottom bers.
As a result of the tensile principal stresses, two types of shear cracks may develop, Fig. 3.2:
Large V
Small M
Web Shear Cracks
Large V
Large M
Flexural Cracks
Web Shear Cracks
Flexural Cracks
Figure 3.2: Types of Shear Cracks

Web shear cracks: Large V, small M. They initiate in the web & spread up & down at 45o .
Flexural shear cracks: Large V, large M. They initiate as an extension of a pre-existing
exural crack, initially vertical, then curve.
Draft
32
SHEAR
Shear failure is sudden = 0.85
Some of the important parameters controlling shear failure:

1. Shear span ratio
M
Vd
2. Steel ratio = Abds

3. ft = 4 fe note that fr = 7.5 fc
6 We shall rst examine the shear strength of uncracked sections, then the one of cracked
sections (with shear reinforcement).
3.2
Shear Strength of Uncracked Section
7 Q: What is the maximum shear force which can be applied before a exural crack develop
into a exural shear crack?
1. Apply M exural crack

2. Apply V exural shear crack
Note that all shear resistance is provided by the concrete. As with exural reinforcement,
steel is ineective as long as the section is uncracked.
8
vc
jd
Flexure
Shear
Figure 3.3: Shear Strength of Uncracked Section

9
Solution strategy:
1. Determine the exural compressive stress fc in terms of M
2. Determine shear stress v in terms of V
3. Compute the principal stresses
4. Equate principal tensile stress to the tensile strength
10
Using a semi-analytical approach

1. Assume that fc is directly proportional to steel stress
fc = fns
f = Mn
Mn
Mn
c
nAs jd
fc =
= F1
As
2
2
njbd
nbd
=
n
bd
Mn = As fs jd fs = AMs jd
Victor Saouma
(3.1)
Draft
3.2 Shear Strength of Uncracked Section
33
2. Shear stress
vn = F2
Vn
bd
(3.2)
3. From Mohrs circle, the tensile principal stress is
vn
fc
f1
Figure 3.4: Mohrs Circle for Shear Strength of Uncracked Section
fc
+
f1 =
2

fc
2
2
+ vn2
(3.3)
4. Set f1 equal to the tensile strength

f1 = ft f1
Vn
bd
=
=
ft Vn
f1 bd
ft
Vn
Vn
= ft
bd
bd
(3.4-a)
(3.4-b)
(3.4-c)
f1 bd
Vn
Combining Eq. 3.1, 3.2, and 3.3

Vn
=
bd
ft
1/2
(3.5)
F E
F1 Ec Mn
1 c Mn
2
+
+ F2

2 E Vn d 2 Es Vn d
s

C
C1
C1

5. set ft = 4 fc
Vn
=
bd fc
6. Let the variables be

Victor Saouma
V
n
bd fc
1

C1
fc Mn
Vn d
C1
fc Mn
Vn d
(3.6)
2
+ C2
&
Mn fc
Vn d
Draft
34
SHEAR
7. This is how far we can go analytically. To determine the exact factors associated with
this equation, one has to undertake a series of tests.
8. From 440 tests, Fig. 3.5 it is found that
Vn
bd fc
3.5
2.0
1.9
Vn d
M f
n
c
Figure 3.5: Shear Strength of Uncracked Section
Vn d
Vn
= 1.9 + 2, 500
3.5

bd fc
Mn fc
or if we set vc =
Vn
bd ,
(3.7)
then

Vn d
vc = 1.9 fc + 2, 500
3.5 fc
Mn
9. Note that vc is in terms of
Vn d
M
(ACI 11.3.2.1)
(3.8)
or inverse of shear span ( M

V )
10. This equation is usually found acceptable for predicting the exure shear cracking load
for shear span/depth ratio VMnnd of 2.5 to 6 & is found to be very conservative for lower
values
11. Increasing has a benecial eort as a larger amount of steel results in narrower & smaller
exural tension cracks before formation of diagonal cracks larger area of uncracked
concrete can resist the shear.
12. Use of Vu & Mu instead of Vn =
3.3
Vu
& Mn =
Mu
Shear Strength of Cracked Sections

If the shear stress exceeds 1.9 fc + 2, 500 VMndd , then the exural crack will extend into a
exural shear crack, Fig. 3.6. and if
11
1. No shear reinforcements failure

Victor Saouma
Draft
3.3 Shear Strength of Cracked Sections
35
C
Vc
A v fv z
Va
Vd
T=As fs
p
Figure 3.6: Free Body Diagram of a R/C Section with a Flexural Shear Crack
2. Stirrups are present stirrups will carry part of shear force
12
If the section is cracked, Fig. 3.7

Vext = Vc + n Av fv + Vd + Vay

(3.9)
Vint
where
Vc
n
Av
fv
Vd
Va
Shear resisted by uncracked section

# of stirrup traversing the crack n =
Area of shear reinforcement
Shear reinforcement stress
Dowel force in steel
Aggregate interlock
p
s
V int
in
V cz
Vd
V ay
Failure
Yield of stirups
Inclined cracking
Flexural cracking
Vs
Vext
Figure 3.7: Equilibrium of Shear Forces in Cracked Section

13
We must determine the internal (resisting) shear forces at failure where fv = fy
Victor Saouma
Draft
36
SHEAR
1. Due to yielding large separation between 2 sides of cracks Va 0
2. Neglect Vd
3. Vext = Vn =
Vc +nAv fy

unknown
4. We will assume that at failure the shear force provided

by concrete is equal to the one
which caused the diagonal crack to form va = 1.9 fc + 2, 500 VMndd . Thus, Vc = va bw d
5. Finally, if we assume p = d (implying a crack at 45 )
d
Vn = Vc + Av fy
s
(ACI 11.1.1)
(3.10)
Vs
3.4
14
ACI Code Requirements
#
The ACI code requirements ( 11) are summarized by Fig. 3.8:
1. Design for Vu (factored shear) rather than Vn =
Vu
(ACI 11.1.1), plot Vu diagram.
2. Determine Vc (nominal shear carried by the concrete) where

Vc
=
2 fc bw d
(ACI 11.3.1.1)
or

=
[1.9 fc + 2, 500w VMuud ]bw d 3.5 fc bw d (ACI 11.3.2.1)
Vc
where
Vu d
<
1
Mu
(3.11)
3. If Vu <0.5 Vc no shear reinforcement is needed (ACI 11.5.5.1)

4. If 0.5Vc < Vu Vc use minimum shear reinforcement; select Av (usually #3 bars) and
determine
Av f y
s = 50b
(ACI 11.5.5.3)
w
d
(3.12)
s < 2
(ACI 11.5.4.1)
s < 24 in (ACI 11.5.4.1)
5. If Vu > Vc provide stirrup such that
Vu
= Vn = Vc + Vs = Vc +
or
s =
(ACI 11.17)
Av fy
Av fy d
=
(vu vc )b
Vc
d
4
(3.13)
(3.14)
Vu

6. If Vu Vc > 4 fc bw d, then s <
7. Upper limit:
Av fy d
s
and s < 12 in, (ACI 11.5.4.3).

Vu Vc < 8 fc bw d
(ACI 11.5.6.8)
(3.15)
8. fy 60 ksi, (ACI 11.5.2)

9. Critical section is at d from support (reduces design shear force), (ACI 11.1.3.1)
Victor Saouma
Draft
3.5 Examples
37
d
V
b wd
Vu
f c
f c
f c
Steel
f c
4
f c
10
Concrete
s max=d/4 or 12"
s=
A vfy d
Vu
Vc
s max=d/2 or 24"
Avfy
(v uv c) b
s =
distance from support
no stirups
not allowable
A v fy
min. stirups
50b w
f c
Figure 3.8: Summary of ACI Code Requirements for Shear
3.5
Examples
Example 3-1: Shear Design

b = 12 in.; d=22 in.; wu = 8.8 k/ft; L= 20 ft.; As = 3# 11; fc = 4 ksi; fy = 40 ksi;
Design vertical stirrup
Solution:
1. At support: Vu = 8.8 (20)
2 = 88 k and vu =
2. At d from support Vu = 88
22
12 (8.8)
88
(12)(22)
= .333 ksi
= 71.9 k and vu =
71.9
(12)(22)
= .272 ksi
3. vc = 2 fc = 2 4, 000 = 126 psi; vc = (0.85)(126) = 107.1 psi

4. vc = 4 fc = 2(126) = 252 psi; v2 c = 53.6 psi

5. vu vc = 272 126 = 146 psi < 4 fc
Victor Saouma
Draft
38
SHEAR
psi
333
Vu
272
v c
107.1
v c
2
53.6
x
19"
min. reinforcement no reinforcement
38.6"
6. vu vc = 0
333
(10)(12) x
= 107.1 x = 38.6 in = 3.2 ft from mid-span
vc
2
333
(10)(12) x
= 53.6 x = 19.3 in = 1.6 ft
7. vu
=0
8. Selecting #3 bars, Av = 2(.11) = .22 in2

smax =
Av f y
50bw
(.22)(40,000)
= 14.66
(50)(12)
d
22
2 = 2 = 11

in
in
smax = 11 in
(3.16)
9. at support
s =
Av fy d
Av fy
=
(v
Vc
u vc )b
Vu
(3.17-a)
(.85)(.22)(40, 000)
(272 107.1)(12)
(3.17-b)
3.78 in
(3.17-c)
(3.17-d)
3.6
Shear Friction
Previous design procedure was applicable to diagonal tension cracks (where tension was
induced by shear), for those cases where we do have large pure shear, Fig. 3.9 use shear friction
concept.
15
The crack for which shear-friction reinforcement is required may not have been caused by
shear. However once the crack has occurred a shear transfer mechanism must be provided, Fig.
16
Victor Saouma
Draft
3.6 Shear Friction
An=
39
#7
N uc
fy
Vu
weld
Nuc
A n part of A v f
close sriru
(usually #3)
Avf
assumed crack
+ shear plane
remainder of A v f
assumed crack
Vu
Figure 3.9: Corbel
crack
Vn
Vn
Vn
Vn
crack separation
due to slip
Vn
A vf f y
Sheartransfer
reinforcement
A
Avf f y
2
vf
fy
Avf f y
2
Figure 3.10: Shear Friction Mechanism
Victor Saouma
Draft
310
SHEAR
3.10. The shear friction theory is based on the assumption that a crack will occur and then
reinforcement across it will resist relative displacement along the crack.
17
If we assume separation to be sucient steel will yield

Vn = Avf fy
18
(3.18)
If the shear reinforcement is inclined with respect to the crack, Fig. 3.11
Tsin f
Tcos f
assumed crack
applied shear=Vn
A vf fy
C=Tsin f
f
T
Figure 3.11: Shear Friction Across Inclined Reinforcement

Component of tensile force in reinforcement gives rise to compression force at interface C
c vertical force due to friction;

Vn = T (cos f sin f )
Vn = T cos f + C
Vn = Avf fy (cos f + sin (3.19-a)
f
C = T sin f
T = Avf fy
19
20
Note: Vu = Vn and = 0.85
21
The preceding equation can be rewritten as
22
Avf
Vu
fy
Avf
Vu
ACI 11.27 (3.21)
fy (cos f + sin f )
(3.20)
ACI-11.7.4.3 species as such that

concrete cast monolithically
= 1.4
concrete against hardened concrete = 1.0
concrete against steel
= 0.7
where = 1.0 for normal weight concrete and = .75 for lightweight concrete. and
$
0.2fc Ac
(3.22)
Vn <
800Ac
Victor Saouma
Draft
3.7 Brackets and Corbels
311
and Ac ( in2 ) is the area of concrete resisting shear.

Example 3-2: Shear Friction
Design reinforcement needed at the bearing region of a precast beam 14 wide & 28 deep
supported on a 4 bearing pad. Vu = 105k, horizontal force due to restraint, shrinkage, creep
is 0.3 Vu
possible crack
20
vf
3#6
15
N uc
2#6
15
N uc
Vu
4"
Vuc
24"
Solution:
1. Assume all the shear Vu will be acting parallel to crack (small angle 20 )
2. Assume all Vu is parallel to crack required Avf =
Vu
fy
105
(0.85)(60)(1.4)
= 1.47 in2
(0.3)(105)
2
ac
3. As = N
fy = (0.85)(60) = 0.62 in for horizontal force
As = Avf + An = 1.47 + 0.62 in2 = 2.09 in2 use 5# 6 (As = 2.20 in2 )
4. Note: ACI 11-9-3-4 Nuc > 0.2 Vu for Corbels;
3.7
Brackets and Corbels
23
Nu might be due to shrinkage, prestressing
24
Design based on truss analogy
25
A.C.I. provisions (Chapter 11)

1. For
a
d
< 12 , use shear friction theory
2. For
a
d
> 1, use ordinary beam theory
3. For
1
2
a
d
Vn = [6.5 5.1

&
%
Nu 3
Nuc
](1 0.5 ) 1 + [64 + 160 (
) ]
fc bw d
Vu
d
Vu
(3.23)
u
where = A??s ; and 0.13 ffyc ; N
Vu not to be taken < 0.20 in calculating vu ; Nu = (+ve)
compression, and (-ve) tension; Ah < As also Ah 0.50As distributed uniformly; thru
fc
As
2
3 d adjacent to As ; = bd .04 fy .
Victor Saouma
Draft
312
3.8
SHEAR
Deep Beams
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 4
CONTINUOUS BEAMS
4.1
Continuity
R/C bldgs constructions commonly have oor slabs, beams, girders and columns continuously
placed to form a monolithic system
1
Figure 4.1: Continuous R/C Structures

+ve
In a continuous system, load must be placed in such a way to maximize desired eect (Mmax
ve V
Mmax
max , Fig. 4.2
2
Max +ve M @
AB_CD_EF
Max -ve M @ B
Min -ve @ B
Max -ve @ C
Min -ve @ C
Max -ve @ D
Min -ve @ D
Figure 4.2: Load Positioning on Continuous Beams

Given the moment diagram for various load cases, a designer should draw the moment
enveloppe and design for the maximum negative and positive moments (eventhough they may
not be caused by the same load case).
3
Draft
42
4.2
4
CONTINUOUS BEAMS
Methods of Analysis
Two approaches:
1. Detailed analysis
(a) Moment distribution
(b) Computer analysis
2. Approximate (but conservative) based on ACI 8.3.3 moment coecients
4.2.1
5
Refer to CVEN3525/3535/4525
4.2.2
6
Detailed Analysis
ACI Approximate Method
This method, Fig. 4.3 can be used if:

1. 2 or more spans
2. Spans are approximately equals, and the larger of adjacent ones not greater than the
shorter by more than 20%
3. Loads are uniformably distributed
4. LL < 3DL
5. Prismatic members
Positive Moment
End Spans
Continuous end unrestrained
Continuous end integral with support
Interior spans
Negative Moment
Negative moment at exterior face of rst of rst interior support
Two spans
> Two spans
Negative moment at other faces of interior support
......................................
Shear
Shear in end member at face of rst interior support
Shear at face of all other supports
1
2
11 wu Ln
1
2
14 wu Ln
1
2
16 wu Ln
1
2
9 wu Ln
1
2
10 wu Ln
1
2
11 wu Ln
......
1.15 wu2Ln
wu Ln
2
where wu is the factored load, and Ln is the cleas span.

7
These moment coecients take into account some inelastic action.
They are conservative compared to an exact analysis.
Victor Saouma
Draft
4.2 Methods of Analysis
43
Figure 4.3: ACI Approximate Moment Coecients
Victor Saouma
Draft
44
CONTINUOUS BEAMS
C
L column
C
L column
CL span
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
VaL
6
VaL
3
VaL
2
C
L beam
aL
2
Column width aL
VaL
3
VaL
6
L
2
Moment curve based on prismatic member
aL
2
VaL
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
6
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
Adjusted
Moment Curve
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
C
beam
0000000000000000000000000 L
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000 CL beam
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
0000000000000000000000000
1111111111111111111111111
Figure 4.4: Design Negative Moment
4.3
9
Eective Span Design Moment
Negative moments should be the one at the face of the columns which is, Fig. 4.4
ve
Mdve Mmax
10
(4.1)
This can substantially reduce high M ve .
4.4
4.4.1
11
Vb
3
Moment Redistribution
Elastic-Perfectly Plastic Section
Let us consider a uniformly loaded rigidly connected beam, Fig. 4.5

2
WL
24
1
0
0
1
0
1
11
00
00
11
00
11
WL
12
WL
12
Figure 4.5: Moment Diagram of a Rigidly Connected Uniformly Loaded Beam
Victor Saouma
Draft
4.4 Moment Redistribution
45
M
Mp
Curvature
Figure 4.6: Moment Curvature of an Elastic-Plastic Section

12
The beam has an elastic plastic moment curvature relation, Fig. 4.6
13
|M ve | > |M +ve | as w , M ve Mp rst

12Mp
wL2
= Mp w =
12
L2
14
Thus we will have a plastic hinge at the support however this is not synonymous with collapse.
Collapse or failure occurs when we have a mechanism or 3 adjacent hinges (plastic or otherwise). This can be easily determined from statics, Fig. 4.7
15
Figure 4.7: Plastic Moments in Uniformly Loaded Rigidly Connected Beam

2Mp =
wu =
16
wu L2
8
16Mp
L2
Thus capacity was increased 33% after rst plastic hinge occurred.
This is accompanied by large rotation of the plastic hinges at the supports, and when compared with the linear elastic solution M ve and M +ve
17
18
The section must be designed to accomodate this rotation.
4.4.2
Concrete
Concrete is brittle hence by itself no appreciable plastic deformation can occur, however in
R/C, Fig. 4.8
19
If certain rotation capacity exists (i.e., if is low) M is controlled by yielding of the steel
while the concrete strain is still low compared to 0.003 reserve rotation capacity u y is
then available for a redistribution of moment to occur before 0.003
20
Victor Saouma
Draft
46
CONTINUOUS BEAMS
ce
ce
fc
kd
dkd
dc
Asf y
s= y
M
fc
.003
c
u
Steel yielding
M
M
Asf y
s> y
y
First crack
cr
cr y
Strain caused by
moment redistribution
Unit rotation
Figure 4.8: Plastic Redistribution in Concrete Sections

M ve moment at support of continuous exural members calculated by elastic theory can
be decreased by no more than
21
M = 20(1

)% ACI 8.4.1
b
(4.2)
87
) provided that
where b = 0.851 ffyc ( 87+f
y
1. Moments are exactly determined (i.e., not ACI coecients)

2. or < 0.5b
22
M +ve must be increased accordingly.
This capacity to redistribute moments (reduce M ve and increase M +ve ) is a characterisitc

of ductile members.
23
Earthquake resistant structures must have a certain ductility to absorb the lateral oscillating
load large amount of reinforcement at the joints.
24
Example 4-1: Moment Redistribution

Determine the moment redistribution for the following singly reinforced beam with = 0.5b
2
WL
20
WL
24
+
WL
12
Victor Saouma
WL
12
0.9
WL
12
0.9 W L
12
Draft
4.5 Buildings
47
Solution:
From above, amout of redistribution
M
M ve
M +ve
4.5
25
= 20(1

b )%
= 20(1 0.5) = 10%

2
= 0.9 wL
12
2
wL2
= 1.2 wL
24 = 20
Buildings
Building types, Table 4.1

Structural System
Frame
Shear Wall-Frame
Single framed tube
Tube in Tube
Number of Stories
Up to 15
up to 40
up to 40
up to 80
Table 4.1: Building Structural Systems

26
We analyse separately for vertical and horizontal loads.
Vertical loads: DL and LL. This is typically done for a oor, through a grid analysis. No
need to model the entire structure. We can use
ACI Approximate equations
Exact (Moment distribution, computer)
Lateral laod: WL, EL. This requires the analysis of a 2D or 3D frame. Two approaches:
Approximate method: Portal method, or cantilever method.
Exact Moment distribution, computer.
27
Recommended analysis/design procedures

1. Use ACI approximate equations for the design of the slab. Then, there is no need to worry
about optimal placement of load to maximize positive or negative moments, or moment
redistribution.
2. Once the slab is designed, use exact method for beams, girders. Reduce negative moments.
3. Tabulate maximum +ve and -ve moments for each beam.
4. Determine the column loads, tabulate.
Victor Saouma
Draft
48
CONTINUOUS BEAMS
5. Can use approximate or exact method of analysis for frames. Tabulate results.
6. Add maximum positive and negative moments due to vertical and lateral loads.
7. Design accordingly.
28
A block diagram for the various steps is shown in Fig. 4.9
E-W SLAB
N-S BEAM
E-W GIRDER
L
h
N-S GIRDER
hf
DL
w0
w0
LL
wu
M
L
hf
h
M
V
R
PW
WL
W0
Wa
Col
Fou
V
Span
Slab thickness
Beam/girder depth
Flexure
Shear
Reation
Partition wall
Wind load
Self weight
Total factored load
Column
Foundation
PW
PW
wu
WL
w0
PW
WL
wu
wu
w0
Col
W
Fou
S
R/C Bldg Design
Figure 4.9: Block Diagram for R/C Building Design
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 5
SERVICEABILITY
So far we have focused on the ultimate structural behaviour (failure), Vu & Mu , i.e the strength
of a member.
1
2 It is important to also control the behaviour of structural elements under service load (unfactored)
1. Cracking
2. Deection
5.1
Control of Cracking
3 As y , y larger crack width is associated with large fy . This is why the ACI code
places a limitation on max fy = 80ksi. (ACI 9.4)
4
The concern is not the # of crack (we can not control it) but rather the crack width.
Crack width should be minimized because:

1. Appearance
2. Corrosion of steel
3. Redistributions of internal stresses
4. Eect on deection
The controlling parameters are:

1. Surface of the reinforcing bar
(a) Round & smooth few wide cracks (bad)
(b) Irregular & deformed many small cracks (better)
2. Steel stress
3. Concrete cover
Draft
52
SERVICEABILITY
4. Distribution of steel over the tensile zone of concrete
Based on purely experimental research, the following emperical relation was determined, Fig.
5.1:

(5.1)
w = .076fs 3 dc A
Gergely & Lutz Eq.
7
where
w
fs
dc
width in 1/1,000 in
Steel service stress ksi (if not computed can be assumed as 0.6 fy )
Thickness of concrete cover measured from tension face to center of bar
closest to this face, in.
h2
h1
Area of concrete surrounding one bar = Total eective tensile area in2
# of bars
Neutral Axis
2y
y
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
h1
Steel Centroid
w
Figure 5.1: Crack Width Equation Parameters
8
ACI
1. Expresses the crack width indirectly by z where
z=
and assumes =
Interior beams
Exterior beams
h2
h1

w
= fs 3 dc A
.076
(ACI 10.6.4)
(5.2)
= 1.2 w = .091z
z 175
z 145
(w = .016 in)
(w = .013 in)
2. Only deformed bars can be used

3. Bars should be well distributed in tension zone
4. fy < 80ksi
5. In lieu of an accurate evaluation, fs = 0.6fy .
9
Maximum acceptable crack width (ACI Committee 224).
Victor Saouma
Draft
5.1 Control of Cracking
53
Exposure
dry air, or protective membrane
humidity, moist air, soil
deicing chemicals
seawater, salt
water retaining structures
wmax (in.)
.016
.012
.007
.006
.004
Example 5-1: Crack Width
20"
22.5"
fc = 3,000 ksi; fy = 40 ksi; As = 4 # 8; LL = 2.44 k/ft; DL = 1.27 k/ft; L = 15 ft.;

Determine z and crack width
11.5"
Solution:
1. w = .076fs 3 dc A
2. Ec = 57 3, 000 = 3, 120 ksi

3. n =
4.
29103
3,120
b(kd)2
2
= 9.29
nAs (d kd) = 0 k = .393 j = 1
k
3
= .869 kd = 7.85 in
(12)
5. fs = AM
fs = (1.27+2.44)(15)
8(3.14)(.869)(20) = 22.9 ksi
s jd
Note that ACI allows 0.6fy = (0.6)(40) = 24 ksi conservative
6. =
22.57.85
207.85
14.65
12.15
= 1.206 (note ACI stipulates 1.2)
(2.5)(2)(11.5)
4
= 14.38 in2

1
8. w = (.076)(1.206)(22.9) 3 (2.5)(14.38) 1,000
= .00696 in .
9. or z = fs3 dc A = (22.9) 3 (2.5)(14.38) = 75.64

7. A =
Victor Saouma
Draft
54
5.2
SERVICEABILITY
Deections
10
ACI Code Sect. 9.5
11
Every structural design must satisfy requirements of strength, stiness & stability
With the increased usuage of: a) high strength material (resulting in smaller cross section)
& b) use of rened design methods, we can no longer rely on the factor of safety to take care
of deection, we but must detemine it
12
13
Deection should be controlled because of:

1. Visually unacceptable
2. Possible ponding of water
3. Cracking in partition walls
4. Functional diculties (windows, doors, etc )
5. Machine misalignment
6. Vibration
14
Deection are computed for service loads only
15
Both long term & short term deection should be considered.
16
As a rule of thumb, deections seldom control if < 0.5b
5.2.1
Short Term Deection

f (w,L)
EI ,
17
In general =
i.e., uniform load over simply supported beam in
18
f (w, l) and E are known, but how do we determine I?, Fig. 5.2
c ut
5wL4
384EI
c e 1 c e 2 c cr
2
1
cr
B B
Figure 5.2: Uncracked Transformed and Cracked Transformed X Sections

19
It would be too complicated to have I = I(M )
Victor Saouma
Draft
5.2 Deections
20
55
ACI recommends to use a weighted average expression for I Ie

'

(

Mcr 3
Mcr 3
Icr (ACI 9.5.2.3)
Ie =
Ig + 1
Ma
Ma
where
(5.3)
Ie Ig
I
Mcr = fr ygb

fr = 7.5 fc
and Ma is the maximum (service) moment at stage in which deection is computed

21
For continuous beams average

Ie = 0.70Im + 0.15(Ie1 + Ie2 )
22 For beams with one end continuous Ie = 0.85Im + 15(Icon ) where Im , Ie are the moment of
inertia at the middle and the end respectively.
23
Note that Ig may be substituted for Iut
Deection evaluation is a nonlinear problem, as w M

ous beam
$
5 wL4
w
=
I
384 EI
24
5.2.2
Mcr
Ma
Ie and for a continu-
Long Term Deection
inst.
Figure 5.3: Time Dependent Deection

25
Creep coecient:
Cc =
Ect =
f
i
= i (1+Cc )
Ec
1+Cc
Creep tends to reduce the elastic modulus of concrete, Fig. 5.4

26
From Strain diagram:

1. Steel strain remains unchanged
2. As concrete undergoes creep, the N.A. moves down larger area of concrete is under
compression but since C = T stress in concrete is slightly reduced
Victor Saouma
Draft
56
SERVICEABILITY
b
Cracked
elastic
neutral axis
fci
fct
t
kd
A s fs
As
s
Figure 5.4: Time Dependent Strain Distribution
3. But since C is now lower and we still satisfy Mext = Mint both stresses in steel & concrete
must increase with time
27
According to ACI section 9.5.2.5:

1. Additional long term deection t
t = i
where
=
(5.4)
1+50

As
bd
and
3
1.0
Time (months)
6
1.2
12
1.4
60
2.0
Thus compressive reinforcement can substantially reduce long term deections

(5.5)
total = initial (1 + )
LL short
DL sustained
1111
0000
0000
1111
1111
0000
1111
0000
Figure 5.5: Short and long Term Deections

Victor Saouma
Draft
5.2 Deections
28
57
Short and long term deections, Fig. 5.5

A i,sust
B i,sust + t,sust
C sust + i,short
and
i, short = i, sust + short i, sust

Ie (DL+LL)
29
(5.6)
Ie (DL)
ACI max. deections (ACI 9.5.2.6)
Flat roof not supporting nonstructural elements likely to be damaged

Floors not supporting nonstructural elements likely to be damaged
Roofs or oors supporting nonstructural elements likely to be damaged
Floors not supporting nonstructural elements not likely to be damaged
i,sh
i,sh
t,sust + i,sh
t,sus + i,sh
<
<
<
<
Example 5-2: Deections

b = 11.5 in.; h = 22.5 in,; d = 20 in.; As = 4 # 8; fc = 3,000 psi; fy = 40 ksi; DL = 1.27
k/ft; LL = 2.44 k/ft; L = 15 ft.
1. Determine the short term deection
2. Find the creep portion of the sustained load deection & immediate live load deections
Solution:
1. i, short = i,short + sust i, sust

2.44
1.27
1.27
2. Moment of inertias:
Ie =
Ig =
Mcr
Ma
bh3
12

Ig + 1
(11.5)(22.5)3
12
Mcr
Ma
3
Ict
= 10, 916 in4
3. to nd Ict , need to locate N.A @ service
Victor Saouma
L
180
L
360
L
480
L
240
Draft
58
SERVICEABILITY
11.5"
7.85"
20"
12.15"
b(kd)2
nAs (d kd) = 0 k =
2

2
(11.5)(7.85)3
+ (11.5)(7.85) 7.85
12
2
Ict =
fr = 7.5 3, 000 = 410.8 psi

fI
Mcr = rybg
(410.8)(10,916)
11.25
.393 kd = 7.85 in
+ (9.29) (3.14)(12.152 ) = 6, 130 in4

n
As
= 33.2 k.ft = 399 k.in
4. Ma for sustained load

(1.27)(15)2 (12)
= 428.6 k.in = 35.72 k.ft
8
Masust =
5. Ma for sustained and short load

Masust+short =
6. Moment of inertias
Ie, sust + short =
Ie, sust =
7. Deections
(1.27 + 2.44)(15)2 (12)

= 1, 252 k.in = 104 k.ft
8
33.2 3

33.2 3
(10, 916) + 1 104.3
(6, 130) = 6, 209 in4
104.3
)
33.2 3
33.2 3 *
(6, 130) = 9, 993 in4
(10, 916) + 1 35.7
35.7
E = 57 3, 000 = 3, 120 ksi

5 wL4
= 384
EI
5 (1.27+2.44)[(15)(12)]4
i, short + sust = 384
= .218 in
(3,120)(6,209)
4
5 (1.27)[(15)(12)]
i, sust = 384
(3,120)(9,993) = .046 in
i = .218 .046 = .172 in
8. creep = i, sust
=
Victor Saouma
2.
= 2. creep = (2)(.046) = .092 in
1+0
Draft
Chapter 6
APPROXIMATE FRAME
ANALYSIS
1 Despite the widespread availability of computers, approximate methods of analysis are justied by
1. Inherent assumption made regarding the validity of a linear elastic analysis vis a vis of
an ultimate failure design.
2. Ability of structures to redistribute internal forces.
3. Uncertainties in load and material properties
2
Vertical loads are treated separately from the horizontal ones.
We use the design sign convention for moments (+ve tension below), and for shear (ccw +ve).
Assume girders to be numbered from left to right.
In all free body diagrams assume positivee forces/moments, and take algeebraic sums.
6.1
Vertical Loads
6 The girders at each oor are assumed to be continuous beams, and columns are assumed to
resist the resulting unbalanced moments from the girders.
7
Basic assumptions
1. Girders at each oor act as continous beams supporting a uniform load.
2. Inection points are assumed to be at
(a) One tenth the span from both ends of each girder.
(b) Mid-height of the columns
3. Axial forces and deformation in the girder are negligibly small.
4. Unbalanced end moments from the girders at each joint is distributed to the columns
above and below the oor.
Draft
62
APPROXIMATE FRAME ANALYSIS
Based on the rst assumption, all beams are statically determinate and have a span, Ls
equal to 0.8 the original length of the girder, L. (Note that for a rigidly connected member, the
inection point is at 0.211 L, and at the support for a simply supported beam; hence, depending
on the nature of the connection one could consider those values as upper and lower bounds for
the approximate location of the hinge).
8
End forces are given by
Maximum positive moment at the center of each beam is, Fig. 6.1
w
M
lft
V
V
rgt
rgt
lft
0.1L
0.1L
0.8L
L
0000
1111
0000
1111
111
000
000
111
1
0
0
1
0
1
0
1
0
1
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
Figure 6.1: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Girder Moments
1
1
M + = wL2s = w (0.8)2 L2 = 0.08wL2
8
8
(6.1)
Maximum negative moment at each end of the girder is given by, Fig. 6.1
w
w
M lef t = M rgt = (0.1L)2 (0.8L)(0.1L) = 0.045wL2
2
2
(6.2)
Girder Shear are obtained from the free body diagram, Fig. 6.2
V lf t =
wL
2
V rgt =
wL
2
(6.3)
Column axial force is obtained by summing all the girder shears to the axial force transmitted by the column above it. Fig. 6.2
rgt
P dwn = P up + Vi1
Vilf t
Victor Saouma
(6.4)
Draft
6.1 Vertical Loads
63
above
rgt
lft
V i1
Vi
below
Figure 6.2: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Axial Forces
h/2
h/2
above
M col
lft
i1
rgt
Mi1
lft
rgt
Mi
rgt
Vlft
Vi1
i1
Li1
Mbelow
col
lft
i
rgt
i
Li
h/2
h/2
Figure 6.3: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Vertical Loads; Column Moments
Victor Saouma
Draft
64
Column Moment are obtained by considering the free body diagram of columns Fig. 6.3
rgt
bot
M top = Mabove
Mi1
+ Milf t
M bot = top
(6.5)
Column Shear Points of inection are at mid-height, with possible exception when the columns
on the rst oor are hinged at the base, Fig. 6.3
V =
M top
h
2
(6.6)
Girder axial forces are assumed to be negligible eventhough the unbalanced column shears
above and below a oor will be resisted by girders at the oor.
6.2
10
Horizontal Loads
We must dierentiate between low and high rise buildings.
Low rise buidlings, where the height is at least samller than the hrizontal dimension, the
deected shape is characterized by shear deformations.
High rise buildings, where the height is several times greater than its least horizontal dimension, the deected shape is dominated by overall exural deformation.
6.2.1
Portal Method
Low rise buildings under lateral loads, have predominantly shear deformations. Thus, the
approximate analysis of this type of structure is based on
11
1. Distribution of horizontal shear forces.

2. Location of inection points.
12
The portal method is based on the following assumptions

1. Inection points are located at
(a) Mid-height of all columns above the second oor.
(b) Mid-height of oor columns if rigid support, or at the base if hinged.
(c) At the center of each girder.
2. Total horizontal shear at the mid-height of all columns at any oor level will be distributed among these columns so that each of the two exterior columns carry half as
much horizontal shear as each interior columns of the frame.
13
Forces are obtained from
Victor Saouma
Draft
6.2 Horizontal Loads
65
H/2
H/2
Figure 6.4: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Shear
Column Shear is obtained by passing a horizontal section through the mid-height of the
columns at each oor and summing the lateral forces above it, then Fig. 6.4

V
ext
F lateral
V int = 2V ext
2No. of bays
(6.7)
Column Moments at the end of each column is equal to the shear at the column times half
the height of the corresponding column, Fig. 6.4
M top = V
h
2
M bot = M top
(6.8)
Girder Moments is obtained from the columns connected to the girder, Fig. 6.5
h/2
h/2
above
M col
lft
rgt
M i1
M i1
lft
rgt
rgt
Vlft
lft
Vi1
rgt
Mi
Mi
i1
Vi
below
Li1/2
Li1/2
M col
Li /2
Li /2
h/2
h/2
Figure 6.5: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Girder Moment
Victor Saouma
Draft
66
rgt
above
below
Milf t = Mcol
Mcol
+ Mi1
Mirgt = Milf t
(6.9)
Girder Shears Since there is an inection point at the center of the girder, the girder shear
is obtained by considering the sum of moments about that point, Fig. 6.5
V lf t =
2M
L
V rgt = V lf t
(6.10)
Column Axial Forces are obtained by summing girder shears and the axial force from the
column above, Fig. ??
P
above
rgt
lft
V i1
Vi
below
Figure 6.6: Approximate Analysis of Frames Subjected to Lateral Loads; Column Axial Force
P = P above + P rgt + P lf t
(6.11)
Example 6-1: Approximate Analysis of a Frame subjected to Vertical and Horizontal Loads
Draw the shear, and moment diagram for the following frame. Solution:
Vertical Loads
Victor Saouma
Draft
67
0.25 k/ft
6 0.5 k/ft13 7
15 k
5 12
30 k
9
1
10
11
00
11
00
11
00
20
30
14
11
8
4
14
16
11
00
24
Figure 6.7: Example; Approximate Analysis of a Building

1. Top Girder Moments
lf t
M12
cnt
M12
rgt
M12
lf t
M13
cnt
M13
rgt
M13
lf t
M14
cnt
M14
rgt
M14
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0.045w12 L212 = (0.045)(0.25)(20)2

0.08w12 L212 = (0.08)(0.25)(20)2
lf t
M12
0.045w13 L213 = (0.045)(0.25)(30)2
0.08w13 L213 = (0.08)(0.25)(30)2
lf t
M13
0.045w14 L214 = (0.045)(0.25)(24)2
0.08w14 L214 = (0.08)(0.25)(24)2
lf t
M14
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
4.5 k.ft
8.0 k.ft
4.5 k.ft
10.1 k.ft
18.0 k.ft
10.1 k.ft
6.5 k.ft
11.5 k.ft
6.5 k.ft
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
9.0 k.ft
16.0 k.ft
9.0 k.ft
20.3 k.ft
36.0 k.ft
20.3 k.ft
13.0 k.ft
23.0 k.ft
13.0 k.ft
2. Bottom Girder Moments

M9lf t
M9cnt
M9rgt
lf t
M10
cnt
M10
rgt
M10
lf t
M11
cnt
M11
rgt
M11
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
0.045w9 L29 = (0.045)(0.5)(20)2

0.08w9 L29 = (0.08)(0.5)(20)2
M9lf t
0.045w10 L210 = (0.045)(0.5)(30)2
0.08w10 L210 = (0.08)(0.5)(30)2
lf t
M11
0.045w12 L212 = (0.045)(0.5)(24)2
0.08w12 L212 = (0.08)(0.5)(24)2
lf t
M12
3. Top Column Moments

M5top
M5bot
M6top
M6bot
M7top
M7bot
M8top
M8bot
Victor Saouma
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
lf t
+M12
M5top
rgt
lf t
M12
+ M13
= (4.5) + (10.1)
top
M6
rgt
lf t
M13
+ M14
= (10.1) + (6.5)
M7top
rgt
M14
= (6.5)
M8top
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
4.5
4.5
5.6
5.6
3.6
3.6
6.5
6.5
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
Draft
68
4. Bottom Column Moments

M1top
M1bot
M2top
M2bot
M3top
M3bot
M4top
M4bot
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
+M5bot + M9lf t = 4.5 9.0

M1top
lf t
+M6bot M9rgt + M10
= 5.6 (9.0) + (20.3)
top
M2
rgt
lf t
+M7bot M10
+ M11
= 3.6 (20.3) + (13.0)
top
M3
rgt
+M8bot M11
= 6.5 (13.0)
M4top
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
4.5
4.5
5.6
5.6
3.6
3.6
6.5
6.5
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
5. Top Girder Shear

lf t
V12
rgt
V12
lf t
V13
rgt
V13
lf t
V14
rgt
V14
= w122L12 =
lf t
= V12
= w132L13 =
lf t
= V13
= w142L14 =
lf t
= V14
(0.25)(20)
2
(0.25)(30)
2
(0.25)(24)
2
=
=
=
=
=
=
2.5 k
2.5 k
3.75 k
3.75 k
3.0 k
3.0 k
=
=
=
=
=
=
5.00
5.00
7.50
7.50
6.00
6.00
6. Bottom Girder Shear

V9lf t
V9rgt
lf t
V10
rgt
V10
lf t
V11
rgt
V11
= w92L9 = (0.5)(20)
2
= V9lf t
= w102L10 = (0.5)(30)
2
lf t
= V10
= w112L11 = (0.5)(24)
2
lf t
= V11
7. Column Shears
V5 =
V6 =
V7 =
V8 =
V1 =
V2 =
V3 =
V4 =
M5top
H5
2
M6top
H6
2
M7top
H7
2
M8top
H8
2
M1top
H1
2
M2top
H2
2
M3top
H3
2
M4top
H4
2
4.5
= 0.64 k
5.6
= 0.80 k
3.6
0.52 k
6.5
0.93 k
4.5
= 0.56 k
5.6
= 0.70 k
3.6
0.46 k
6.5
0.81 k
14
2
14
2
14
2
14
2
16
2
16
2
16
2
16
2
k
k
k
k
k
k
8. Top Column Axial Forces
Victor Saouma
P5
P6
P7
P8
=
=
=
=
lf t
V12
= 2.50 k
rgt
lf t
V12 + V13 = (2.50) + 3.75 = 6.25 k
rgt
lf t
V13
+ V14
= (3.75) + 3.00 = 6.75 k
rgt
V14 Mechanics and Design of=Reinforced
3.00 k
Concrete
Draft
69
0.25K/ft
12
13
10
20
30
+8.0k
+18.0k
-4.5k
+16.0k
-9.0k
+4.5k
+5.6k
-4.5k
+4.5k
+5.6k
14
16
24
+11.5k
-6.5k
+23.0k
+32.0k
-20.2
-4.5k
-10.1k -10.1k -6.5
-9.0k
11
3
-4.5k
14
0.50K/ft
k
-13.0
-20.2
k
-13.0k
-5.6k
+3.6k
-5.6k
-3.6k
-6.5k
+3.6k
+6.5k
+6.5k
-3.6k
-6.5k
Figure 6.8: Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Vertical Loads
Victor Saouma
Draft
610
+2.5K
+3.75K
+3.0K
-2.5K
-3.75K
+7.5
+5.0
+6.0
-5.0K
-0.64K
-0.56K
-3.0K
-6.0K
-7.5K
-0.80K
+0.51K
-0.70K
+0.45K
+0.93K
+0.81K
Figure 6.9: Approximate Analysis of a Building; Shears Due to Vertical Loads
Victor Saouma
Draft
611
9. Bottom Column Axial Forces

=
=
=
=
P1
P2
P3
P4
P5 + V9lf t = 2.50 + 5.0

rgt
P6 V10
+ V9lf t = 6.25 (5.00) + 7.50
rgt
lf t
P7 V11 + V10
= 6.75 (7.50) + 6.0
rgt
P8 V11
= 3.00 (6.00)
=
=
=
=
7.5 k
18.75 k
20.25 k
9.00 k
Horizontal Loads, Portal Method

1. Column Shears
V5
V6
V7
V8
V1
V2
V3
V4
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
15
(2)(3)
2(V5 ) = (2)(2.5)
2(V5 ) = (2)(2.5)
V5
15+30
(2)(3)
2(V1 ) = (2)(7.5)
2(V1 ) = (2)(2.5)
V1
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
=
2.5 k
5k
5k
2.5 k
7.5 k
15 k
15 k
7.5 k
2. Top Column Moments

M5top
M5bot
M6top
M6bot
= V12H5 =
= M5top
= V62H6 =
= M6top
(2.5)(14)
2
(5)(14)
2
=
=
=
=
17.5
17.5
35.0
35.0
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
M7top = 7 2 7 =
M7bot = M7top
V up H
(5)(14)
2
V up H
=
35.0 k.ft
= 35.0 k.ft
M8top = 8 2 8 =
M8bot = M8top
(2.5)(14)
2
=
17.5 k.ft
= 17.5 k.ft
3. Bottom Column Moments

M1top = 1 2 1 =
M1bot = M1top
V dwn H
(7.5)(16)
2
=
60 k.ft
= 60 k.ft
M2top = 2 2 2 =
M2bot = M2top
V dwn H
(15)(16)
2
=
120 k.ft
= 120 k.ft
M3top = 3 2 3 =
M3bot = M3top
V dwn H
(15)(16)
2
=
120 k.ft
= 120 k.ft
M4top = 4 2 4 =
M4bot = M4top
V dwn H
(7.5)(16)
2
=
60 k.ft
= 60 k.ft
4. Top Girder Moments

lf t
M12
rgt
M12
lf t
M13
rgt
M13
lf t
M14
rgt
M14
Victor Saouma
=
=
=
=
=
=
M5top
lf t
M12
rgt
M12
+ M6top = 17.5 + 35
lf t
M13
rgt
M13
+ M7top = 17.5 + 35
lf t
M14
=
=
=
=
=
=
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
17.5
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
Draft
612
Approximate Analysis Vertical Loads
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
Height
14
16
Span
Load
Load
APROXVER.XLS
Victor E. Saouma
L1
20
0.25
0.5
L2
L3
30
24
0.25
0.25
0.5
0.5
MOMENTS
Bay 1
Bay 2
Bay 3
Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
Lft Cnt Rgt
Lft Cnr Rgt
Lft Cnt Rgt
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SHEAR
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AXIAL FORCE
Bay 1
Bay 2
Bay 3
Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
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Col
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7.50 AAAA
18.75
20.25
9.00
Figure 6.10: Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Spread-Sheet Format
Victor Saouma
Victor Saouma
L1
20
0.25
0.5
H
L2
30
0.25
0.5
APROXVER.XLS
M
L3
24
0.25
0.5
Victor E. Saouma
=-0.045*D5*D3^2 =0.08*D5*D3*D3 =+D13
=-F13+I13+G12
=-G14
=-0.045*I5*I3^2 =0.08*I5*I3*I3 =+I13
=-K13+N13+L12
=-L14
=-0.045*N5*N3^2 =0.08*N5*N3*N3 =+N13
=-P13+Q12
=-Q14
=+C28+D22
Bay 2
Beam
0
=+I3*I5/2
=-I22
Column
=2*L14/A5
Bay 3
Beam
0
=+N3*N5/2
=-N22
Col
=2*Q14/A5
=+G28-F22+I22
=-F20+I20
=+L28-K22+N22
=-K20+N20
=+Q28-P22
=-P20
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=+D20
Column
AXIAL FORCE
Bay 1
Col
Beam
0
=2*G14/A5
=-D22
=2*C14/A5
=+D3*D5/2
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A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A AAAA
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A
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Bay 2
Bay 3
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
Lft
Rgt
Lft
Rgt
Lft
Rgt
AAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAA
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AAA
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AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
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AAA
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A
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA=-I20 AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA =+N3*N4/2
AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAA
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AAAAA =-N20 AAAA
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AAAAAAAA
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A AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
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A
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AAAA =2*G11/A4
AAAAAAAA
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=2*C11/A4
A =2*L11/A4
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A
SHEAR
Bay 1
Col
=+D13+C12
=-C14
AAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
Bay 2
Bay 3
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
Lft
Cnt
Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAALft
Cnr
Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA Lft
Cnt
Rgt
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAA
AAAA
=-0.045*D4*D3^2
=0.08*D4*D3*D3
=+D10
=-0.045*I4*I3^2
=0.08*I4*I3*I3
=+I10
=-0.045*N4*N3^2
=0.08*N4*N3*N3
=N10
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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A
=+D10
=-F10+I10
=-K10+N10
=-P10
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAAAA =-L11
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AAAAAA
MOMENTS
Bay 1
Col
29
30
Span
Load
Load
24
25
26
27
28
22
23
16
17
18
19
20
21
13
14
15
A
1
2
3 Height
4 14
5 16
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Approximate Analysis Vertical Loads
Draft
613
Figure 6.11: Approximate Analysis for Vertical Loads; Equations in Spread-Sheet
Draft
614
5. Bottom Girder Moments

M9lf t
M9rgt
lf t
M10
rgt
M10
lf t
M11
rgt
M11
15K
=
=
=
=
=
=
M1top M5bot = 60 (17.5)

M9lf t
M9rgt + M2top M6bot = 77.5 + 120 (35)
lf t
M10
rgt
M10 + M3top M7bot = 77.5 + 120 (35)
lf t
M11
12
30K
13
10
20
+60
+17.5K
+17.5K
-35K
+60K
-120K
+17.5K
-120K
+77.5
+77.5
-17.5K
-60K
+17.5K
-17.5K
K
16
24
-35K
+120K
-60K
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
k.ft
14
+35K
+35K
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
77.5
11
30
-17.5K
+120K
+17.5K
14
=
=
=
=
=
=
+77.5
-77.5K
-17.5K
-17.5K
-77.5K
-77.5K
Figure 6.12: Approximate Analysis of a Building; Moments Due to Lateral Loads
Victor Saouma
Draft
615
6. Top Girder Shear

lf t
12
= L12
= (2)(17.5)
V12
20
rgt
lf t
V12
= +V12
2M lf t
= 1.75 k
= 1.75 k
lf t
13
V13
= L13
= (2)(17.5)
30
rgt
lf t
V13
= +V13
2M lf t
= 1.17 k
= 1.17 k
lf t
14
V14
= L14
= (2)(17.5)
24
rgt
lf t
V14 = +V14
2M lf t
= 1.46 k
= 1.46 k
= (2)(77.5)
V9lf t = L12
20
9
V9rgt = +V9lf t
2M lf t
= 7.75 k
= 7.75 k
lf t
10
V10
= L10
= (2)(77.5)
30
rgt
lf t
V10
= +V10
2M lf t
= 5.17 k
= 5.17 k
lf t
11
V11
= L11
= (2)(77.5)
24
rgt
lf t
V11
= +V11
2M lf t
= 6.46 k
= 6.46 k
7. Bottom Girder Shear
8. Top Column Axial Forces (+ve tension, -ve compression)

P5
P6
P7
P8
=
=
=
=
lf t
V12
= (1.75) k
rgt
lf t
+V12 V13 = 1.75 (1.17) = 0.58 k
rgt
lf t
+V13
V14
= 1.17 (1.46) = 0.29 k
rgt
V14 = 1.46 k
9. Bottom Column Axial Forces (+ve tension, -ve compression)

P1
P2
P3
P4
=
=
=
=
P5 + V9lf t = 1.75 (7.75)

rgt
P6 + V10
+ V9lf t = 0.58 7.75 (5.17)
rgt
lf t
P7 + V11
+ V10
= 0.29 5.17 (6.46)
rgt
P8 + V11 = 1.46 6.46
=
=
=
=
9.5 k
3.16 k
1.58 k
7.66 k
Design Parameters On the basis of the two approximate analyses, vertical and lateral load,
we now seek the design parameters for the frame, Table 6.2.
Victor Saouma
Draft
616
Portal Method
A
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
PORTAL.XLS
Victor E. Saouma
PORTAL METHOD
# of Bays
# of Storeys
2
Force Shear
H Lat. Tot Ext Int
H1
14 15 15 2.5
H2
16 30 45 7.5 15
L1
20
L2
L3
30
24
MOMENTS
Bay 1
Bay 2
Bay 3
Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
Lft Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA Lft Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA Lft Rgt AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
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17.5
-17.5
17.5 -17.5AAAA
A 17.5 -17.5 AAAA
A
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17.5 AAAA
35.0
35.0
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-35.0
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AAAA
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AAA 77.5 -77.5 AAAAAAAA
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A 77.5 -77.5 AAAA
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60.0 AAAA
120.0
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SHEAR
Bay 1
Bay 2
Bay 3
Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam
Col
Lft Rgt
Lft Rgt
Lft Rgt
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
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A
A
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A -1.75 -1.75 AAAA
A
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AAA -1.17 -1.17 AAAAAAAA
AAAA -1.46 -1.46AAAAAAAA
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2.50 AAAA
5.00
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5.00
5.00
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A -7.75 -7.75 AAAA
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AAA -5.17 -5.17 AAAAAAAA
AAAA -6.46 -6.46AAAAAAAA
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7.50 AAAA
15.00
15.00
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7.50 AAAA
15.00
15.00
7.50
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
AXIAL FORCE
Bay 1
Bay 2
Bay 3
Col
Beam
Column
Beam
Column
Beam Col
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
A
A
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAA
AAAAAAAA
A
A
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AAA
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AAAA
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AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAA
AAAAA
0.00
0.00
0.00
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AAAAAAAA
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AAAAA
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AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
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AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
AAAA
A
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AAAA
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AAAA
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AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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AAAAAAAAAAAAAAAA
AAAA
1.75
-0.58
0.29
-1.46
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
AAAAAAAA
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A
A
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AAAA
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Figure 6.13: Portal Method; Spread-Sheet Format
Victor Saouma
Draft

Portal Method
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5 # of Storeys
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Figure 6.14: Portal Method; Equations in Spread-Sheet
Victor Saouma
Draft
618
Mem.
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Moment
Axial
Shear
Vert.
Hor.
4.50
7.50
0.56
5.60
18.75
0.70
3.60
20.25
0.45
6.50
9.00
0.81
4.50
2.50
0.64
5.60
6.25
0.80
3.60
6.75
0.51
6.50
3.00
0.93
60.00
9.50
7.50
120.00
15.83
15.00
120.00
14.25
15.00
60.00
7.92
7.50
17.50
1.75
2.50
35.00
2.92
5.00
35.00
2.63
5.00
17.50
1.46
2.50
Design
Values
64.50
17.00
8.06
125.60
34.58
15.70
123.60
34.50
15.45
66.50
16.92
8.31
22.00
4.25
3.14
40.60
9.17
5.80
38.60
9.38
5.51
24.00
4.46
3.43
Table 6.1: Columns Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads
Victor Saouma
Draft
619
Mem.
10
11
12
13
14
-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear
-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear
-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear
-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear
-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear
-ve Moment
+ve Moment
Shear
Vert.
Hor.
9.00
16.00
5.00
20.20
36.00
7.50
13.0
23.00
6.00
4.50
8.00
2.50
10.10
18.00
3.75
6.50
11.50
3.00
77.50
0.00
7.75
77.50
0.00
5.17
77.50
0.00
6.46
17.50
0.00
1.75
17.50
0.00
1.17
17.50
0.00
1.46
Design
Values
86.50
16.00
12.75
97.70
36.00
12.67
90.50
23.00
12.46
22.00
8.00
4.25
27.60
18.00
4.92
24.00
11.50
4.46
Table 6.2: Girders Combined Approximate Vertical and Horizontal Loads
Victor Saouma
Draft
620
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 7
ONE WAY SLABS

7.1
1
Types of Slabs
Types of slabs, Fig. 7.1
Beam
Beam
Beam
Beam
Beam
Beam
oneway slab
twoway slab
oneway slab
Flat plate slab
Grid slab
Flat slab
Figure 7.1: Types of Slabs

2
Two types of slabs, Fig. 7.2

1. One way slab: long span/short span > 2. Load is transmitted along the short span.
2. Two Way slab: Long span/short span <2. Load is transmitted along two orthogonal
directions.
If
L
s
> 2 than most of the load ( 5%) is carried in the short directions, Fig. 7.3
4 Load transfer in one way slabs is accomplished hierarchically through an interaction of slab,
beam, girder, column and foundations, Fig. 7.4
Draft
72
ONE WAY SLABS
1111
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10"
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Beam 1
Strip
Beam 1
Beam 1
B
10"
11111
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11111
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Figure 7.2: One vs Two way slabs
111
000
000
111
P A
A 1010
1
0
A
0
1
0
1
0
1
000
111
000
B111
Figure 7.3: Load Distribution in Slabs
Victor Saouma
Draft
7.1 Types of Slabs
73
Figure 7.4: Load Transfer in R/C Buildings
Victor Saouma
Draft
74
ONE WAY SLABS
Solid One
way slab
Beams or
ribbed One way slab
Simply
supported
One end
continuous
Both ends
continuous
Cantilever
L/20
L/24
L/28
L/10
L/16
L/18.5
L/21
L/8
Table 7.1: Recommended Minimum Slab and Beam Depths
7.2
5
One Way Slabs
Preliminary considerations for one way slabs:

1. Load on slabs ksf.
2. Design an imaginary 12 in strip.
3. The area of reinforcement is As /ft of width or

12 in
As
= Ab
ft
bar spacing in inches
(7.1)
where Ab is the area of one bar. or

Bar spacing in inches =
12Ab
As
(7.2)
4. Slab thickness t is usually assumed, and we design reinforcement. ACI 9.5.2.1 recommended minimum thickness of beams/slabs are given by Table 7.1. where L is in inches,
and members are not supporting partitions. If a slab is so dimensioned
(a) Deection need not be checked
(b) Usually, neither exure, nor shear controls
5. In reinforcement design, a good initial guess for
a
d
is 0.15.
6. Slab thickness are rounded to the neares 1/4 inch for slabs less than 6 inch, and 1/2 for
thicker ones.
7. ACI Sect. 7.7.1 gives minimum cover for corrosion control
(a) Concrete not exposed to weather or in contact with ground, No.11 or smaller 3/4
inch.
(b) Concrete exposed to weather or in contact with ground:
i. No. 5 bars and smaller, 1.5 inch.
ii. No. 6 and larger, 2. inch.
8. Transverse reinforcement (shrinkage, temperature) must be provided
0.002 Grade 40 and 50 bars

As
ACI 7.12.2.1
=
bh
0.0018 Grade 60 and welded wire fabric
Victor Saouma
(7.3)
Draft
7.3 Design of a One Way Continuous Slab
75

9. Shear does not usually control & no minimum reinforcement is needed (vc = 2 fc )
10. Principal reinforcement shall not be spaced at more than 3 times the slab thickness nor
18 in (ACI 7.6.5).
11. Usually No. 4 and larger bars are used for exural reinforcement, as No. 3 may be
bent out of position by workers walking on it. This is more critical for top than bottom
reinforcement.
12. Sometimes, No.3 is used for bottom, and No. 4 for top.
13. Shrinkage/temperature reinforcement shall not be spaced at more than 5 times the slab
thickness nor 18 in (ACI 7.12.2.2).
7.3
Design of a One Way Continuous Slab
Design an 8 span oor slab. Each span is 15 ft long, fc = 3, 750 psi, fy = 60 ksi, wl =100 psf,
oor cover is 0.5 psf, mechanical equipment 4 psf, and ceiling 2 psf. Interior supporting beams
have a width of 14 inch, and exterior ones 16 inches. First span is measured from exterior of
exterior beam to center of rst interior beam.
Thickness: of the oor is based on ACI recommendation:
16 14
= 165 in
2
2
14
= (15)(12) 2 = 166 in
2
165
l
=
= 6.88 in
=
24
24
166
l
=
= 5.93 in
=
28
28
le = (15)(12)
(7.4-a)
li
(7.4-b)
hemin
himin
We round h up to h = 7.25 in. Assuming 3/4 in. cover and No. 4 bars

0.5
= 6.25 in
d = 7.25 0.75 +
2
Factored Loads
(7.4-c)
(7.4-d)
(7.5)
Slab
wd =
7.25
(150) = 90.6 psf of oor surface
12
(7.6)
Total dead load 90.6 + 0.5 + 4 + 2 = 97.1 psf

Factored load
wu = 1.4(97.1) + 1.7(100) = 306 psf
(7.7)
The load per foot of strip is 306 lbs/ft

Since wl < 3wd we can use the ACI 8.3.3 coecients to compute the moments.
Net spans
1. First interior span ln = (15)(12)
Victor Saouma
16
2
14
2
= 165 in = 13.75 ft
Draft
76
ONE WAY SLABS
2. Second interior span ln = (15)(12) 14 = 166 in = 13.83 ft

1
3. Average span ln = 12 (165 + 166) 12
= 13.79 ft
Flexural Design
ai = 0.15d = 0.15(6.25) = 0.9375 in
Mu
12Mu
0.222
As =
Mu
=
=
fy (d a2 )
0.9(60)(6.25 a2 )
6.25 a2
As fy
60
a =
=
As = 1.569As

0.85fc b
(0.85)(3.75)(12)
(7.8-a)
(7.8-b)
(7.8-c)
= 0.0018bh = 0.0018(12)(7.25) = 0.157 in2 /f t

Amin
s
(7.8-d)
For maximum spacing, ACI species 3h = 3(7.25) = 21.75 in but no more than 18 in,
smax = 18 in.
ln , ft
wu ln2
M Coe.
Mu ft-kip/ft
a
As
a
As
a
As
Amin
s
Reinf.
Aprov
s
Support
13.75
57.85
1/24
2.41
0.937
0.092
0.145
0.087
0.136
0.087
0.157
#4@15
0.16
Midspan
13.75
57.85
1/14
4.13
0.937
0.159
0.249
0.150
0.235
0.150
0.157
#4 @15
0.16
Support
13.79
58.19
1/10
5.82
5.82
0.937
0.223
0.351
0.213
0.334
0.212
0.157
#4@12
0.20
1/11
5.29
Midspan
13.83
58.53
1/16
3.66
0.937
0.141
0.221
0.132
0.207
0.132
0.157
#4@15
0.16
Support
13.83
58.53
1/11
5.32
0.937
0.204
0.320
0.194
0.304
0.194
0.157
#4@12
0.20
Midspan
13.83
1/16
3.66
Shear Since we have unequal spans we must check at

1. Exterior face of the rst interior support
Vu = 1.15wu
(1.15)(306)(157)
ln
=
= 2, 302 lb/ft of width
2
2
(7.9)
(1.0)(306)(166)
ln
=
= 2, 117 lb/ft of width
2
2
(7.10)
2. Typical interior span

Vu = 1.0wu
The shear resistance is

Vc = (0.85)2 f cbw d = (0.85)(2) 3, 750(12)(6.25) = 7, 808lb/f t
(7.11)
hence the slab is adequate for shear.
Victor Saouma
Draft
7.3 Design of a One Way Continuous Slab
77
Shrinkage and Temperature Reinforcement must be provided perpendicular to the span

of the slab
(7.12)
As = 0.0018bh = 0.0018(12)(7.25) = 0.157 in2 /f t
and maximum spacing is 18 in. Therefore, we can provide # 4 bars at 15 in. as shrinkage
and temperature reinforcement. They should be placed on top of the lower layer of steel.
Note that in this problem a 6.5 in. thickness was acceptablee for the six interior spans, but a
7.25 in. thickness was required for the end spans.
If the entire oor were made of 6. in. thick slab instead of 7.25 in. about 45 cubic yards of
concrete could have been saved (for a total oor width of about 90 ft) per or or 180 kips of
dead load per oor. This would represent a considerable saving in say a 20 story building.
In this case, it would be advisable to use 6., and check for delfections in the end spans.
Victor Saouma
Draft
78
Victor Saouma
ONE WAY SLABS
Draft
Chapter 8
COLUMNS
Draft
Chapter 9
COLUMNS
9.1
Introduction
Columns resist a combination of axial P and exural load M , (or M = P e for eccentrically
applied load).
1
9.1.1
Types of Columns
Types of columns, Fig. 9.1

Tied column
Composite colu
tie steel
main longitudinal steel reinforcement
Pipe column
Spiral column
Figure 9.1: Types of columns

2
Lateral reinforcement, Fig. 9.2

1. Restrains longitudinal steel from outward buckling
2. Restrains Poissons expansion of concrete
3. Acts as shear reinforcement for horizontal (wind & earthquake) load
4. Provide ductility
very important to resist earthquake load.
9.1.2
3
Possible Arrangement of Bars
Bar arrangements, Fig. 9.3
Draft
92
COLUMNS
P
Spiral
X
X Tied
Figure 9.2: Tied vs Spiral Reinforcement
6 bars
4 bars
8 bars
Corner column
10 bars
12 bars
Wall column
16 bars
14 bars
Figure 9.3: Possible Bar arrangements
Victor Saouma
Draft
9.2 Short Columns
9.2
Short Columns
9.2.1
4
93
Concentric Loading
No moment applied,
Elastic Behaviour
= fc Ac + fs As
= fc (Ac + nAs )
P
Ultimate Strength
Pd = Pn
Pn = .85fc Ac + fy As
note:
1. 0.85 is obtained also from test data
2. Matches with beam theory using rect. stress block
3. Provides an adequate factor of safety
9.2.2
5
Eccentric Columns
Sources of exure, Fig. 9.4

P
P
M
ML
MR
e=
Figure 9.4: Sources of Bending

1. Unsymmetric moments M L = M R
2. Uncertainty of loads (must assume a minimum eccentricity)
3. Unsymmetrical reinforcement
6
Types of Failure, Fig. 9.5

1. Large eccentricity of load failure by yielding of steel
2. Small eccentricity of load failure by crushing of concrete
3. Balanced condition
Assumptions As = As ; =
Victor Saouma
As
bd
As
bd
= fs = fy
Draft
94
COLUMNS
Pn
cu
cu
Compression
failure range
e = 0; a = h; c =
Radial lines show

constant e=
e small
Mn
Balanced Failure
cu
Pn
Load path for

givin e
Tension failure
range
eb
cu
c ~ h; e=
e large
M
Mn
su
> y
Figure 9.5: Load Moment Interaction Diagram

9.2.2.1
Balanced Condition
There is one specic eccentricity eb =
M
P
such that failure will be triggered by simultaneous
1. steel yielding
2. concrete crushing
From the strain diagram (and compatibility of concrete and steel strains), Fig. 9.6
c = .003
fy
y =
Es
u
c =
d=
u + y
(9.1-a)
(9.1-b)
.003
fy
Es
+ .003
(9.1-c)
(9.1-d)
Furthermore,
s
c d
s =
c
c
c d
c
c
(9.2-a)
(9.2-b)
thus the compression steel will be yielding (i.e. s = y ) for c = .003 and d = 2 in if c > 6 in
10
Equilibrium:
Pn
Pn = .85fc ab + As fy As fs a = .85fc b
a = 1 cb
fs = fy
.003
c =

d
b
fy
As = As
+.003
Pn,b = .851 fc bd fy

Es
.003
+ .003
(9.3)
Es
Victor Saouma
Draft
9.2 Short Columns
95
d
d
h/2
A
cs
s
A sf y
s
Pn
A sf s
A sf s
0.85fc
Asf s
Asf y
a
e
e
Figure 9.6: Strain and Stress Diagram of a R/C Column

or
Pnb = .851 fc bd
87, 000
fy + 87, 000
(9.4)
To obtain Mnb we take moment about centroid of tension steel As of internal forces, this
must be equal and opposite to the externally applied moment, Fig. 9.6.
11
a
Mnb = Pnb eb = .85fc ab(d ) + As fy (d d )

2

M
ext
12
(9.5)
Mint
Note: Internal moments due to As fy and As fy cancel each other for symmetric columns.
9.2.2.2
Tension Failure
Case I, e is known and e > eb

In this case a and Pn are unknowns, and for failure to be triggered by fy in As we must
have e > eb .
Can still assume As fy = As fy
Fy = 0 Pn = .85fc ab a =
Victor Saouma
Pn
.85fc b
(9.6-a)
Draft
96
COLUMNS
a
M = 0 Pn e = Pn (d ) + As fy (d d )
2
(9.6-b)
Two approaches
1. Solve iteratively for those two equations
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
Assume a (a < h2 )
From strain compatibility solve for fsc , center steel stress if applicable.
Fy = 0 solve for Pn
M = 0 with respect to tensile reinforcement, solve for Pn
If no convergence among the two Pn , iterate by solving for a from Fy = 0
2. Combine them into a quadratic equation in Pn

2

e
e
d
e
+
1
Pn = .85fc bd ( 1) +
+ 2 1
d
d
d
d
where
(9.7)
As
As
bd = bd
fy
.85fc
=
=
Case II c is known and c < cb ; Pn is unknown
In this case, we only have two unknown, Pn and fs .

a
fs
e=
=
def
fs
Pn
Mn
1 c
(9.8-a)
fy
(9.8-b)
c
c

0.85fc ab
c E s
d
fy
(9.8-c)
(9.8-d)
As fs
C+
As fy

h
h
ha

C
+ as fs
d + As fs d
2
2
2
Mn
Pn
(9.8-e)
(9.8-f)
(9.8-g)
Note this approach is favoured when determining the interaction diagram.

9.2.2.3
Compression Failure
Case I e is known and e < eb ; Pn , a and fs are unknown

Compression failure occurs if e < eb u = .003, assume fs = fy , and fs < fy
From geometry
c =
Victor Saouma
u
fs
Es
+ u
Draft
9.2 Short Columns
97
fs = Es u
= E s u
dc
c
d a1
(9.9-a)
a
1
Pn = .85fc ab + As fy As fs
a
Pn e = .85fc ab(d ) + As fy (d d )
2
(9.9-b)
(9.9-c)
this would yield a cubic equation in Pn , which can be solved analytically or by iteration.
1. Assume a (a h)
2. Solve for M = 0 with respect to tensile reinforcement & solve for Pn
3. From strain compatibility solve for fs
4. Check that Fy = 0 & solve for a
5. If ai+1 = ai go to step 2
Case II: c is known and c > cb ; fs , fs , and Pn are unknown
In this case
a = 1 c
(9.10-a)
dc
c
c
d
fs = c Es
c
C = 0.85fc ab
fs = c Es
fy
(9.10-b)
fy
(9.10-c)
(9.10-d)
As fs
Pn = C + As fs +

h
h
ha

+ As fs
d + As fs d
Mn = C
2
2
2
9.2.3
(9.10-e)
(9.10-f)
ACI Provisions
1. Governing equations
min
max
s
=
=
=
=
=
1%
8%

A
0.45( Agc 1) ffyc
0.7 for tied columns
0.75 for spiral columns
ACI 10.9.1
ACI 10.5
(9.11)
where
s minimum ratio of spiral reinforcement
Ag gross area of section
Ac area of core
2. A minimum of 4 bars for tied circular and rect
Victor Saouma
Draft
98
COLUMNS
3. A minimum of 6 bars for spirals (ACI10.9.2)

4. increases linearly to 0.9 as Pn decreases from 0.10fc Ag or P0 , whichever is smaller,
to zero (ACI 9.3.2).
5. Maximum strength is 0.8P0 for tied columns ( = 0.7) and 0.85P0 for spirally reinforced
columns ( = 0.75).
9.2.4
13
Interaction Diagrams
Each column is characterized by its own interaction diagram, Fig. 9.7
Tied:
Pn(max) = 0.80 P0
Spir. reinf: P n(max) = 0.85 P0
Compression
control region
P0
P n(max)
1
e
(M
P nM n
n Pn )
Bal
P d M d
(M
mi
Pn(max)
eb
re
ailu
df
nce
nb
Pnb )
Tension
control region
0.10f c A g
M n
Mn
Figure 9.7: Column Interaction Diagram
9.2.5
Design Charts
To assist in the design of R.C. columns, design charts have been generated by ACI in term
As +As
e
Pn
Mn
of non dimensionalized parameters = bhf
and
vs bh2 f = h for various t where t =
bh
14
fy
.85fc
Example 9-1: R/C Column, c known

A 12 by 20 in. column is reinforced with four No. 4 bars of area 1.0 in2 each, at each
corner. fc = 3.5 ksi, fy = 50 ksi, d = 2.5 in. Determne: 1) Pb and Mb ; 2) The load and moment
for c = 5 in; 3) load and moment for c = 18 in.
Solution:
Victor Saouma
Draft
9.2 Short Columns
99
Balanced Conditions is derived by revisiting the fundamental equations, rather than mere
substitution into previously derived equation.
d
cb
h d = 20 2.5 = 17.5 in
.003
.003
17.5 = 11.1 in
d = 50
fy
+
.003
+
.003
29,000
E
(9.12-a)
(9.12-b)
fs
def
fs
Pnb
Mnb
=
=
eb
1 cb = (0.85)(11.1) = 9.44 in
(9.12-c)
fy = 50 ksi
(9.12-d)

11.1 2.5
cd
c = (29, 000)(
(0.003) = 67.4 ksi > fy fs = 50(9.12-e)
Es
ksi
c
11.1
(9.12-f)
0.85fc ab = (0.85)(3.5)(9.44)(12) = 337 k
C + As fs As fs = 337 + (2.0)(50) + (2.0)(50) = 337 k
(9.12-g)
a
Pnb e = .85fc ab(d ) + As fy (d d )
(9.12-h)
2

9.44
+ (2.0)(50)(17.5 2.5) = 5, 807 k.in = 484 k.ft (9.12-i)
337 17.5
2
5, 807
(9.12-j)
= 17.23 in
337
Tension failure, c = 5 in
fs
fs
def
=
=
C
Pn
Mn
fy
(9.13-b)
(9.13-d)
0.85fc ab
(9.13-e)
(0.85)(3.5)(4.25)(12) = 152 k
(9.13-f)
(0.003)(29, 000)
As fs
As fy
(9.13-c)
C+
(9.13-h)
152 + (2.0)(43.5) (2.0)(50) = 139 k

h
h
ha
+ As fs
d + As fs d
about section centroid (9.13-i)
C
2
2
2

20 4.25
20
20
(152)
+ (2.0)(43.5)
2.5 + (2.0)(50) 17.5 (9.13-j)
2
2
2
=
=
(9.13-a)
5.0 2.5
= 43.5 ksi
5.0
1 c = 0.85(5.0) = 4.25 in
=
a
fy = 50 ksi
c d
c E s
c
(9.13-g)
2, 598 k.in = 217 k.ft
(9.13-k)
2, 598
= 18.69 in
139
(9.13-l)
Compression failure, c = 18 in
a = 1 c = 0.85(18) = 15.3 in
dc
fy
fs = c Es
c
Victor Saouma
(9.14-a)
(9.14-b)
Draft
910
COLUMNS
= (0.003)(29, 000)
fs = c Es
c d
c
17.5 18.0
= 2.42 ksi As is under compression
18.0
fy
(9.14-d)
18.0 2.5
= 75 ksi > fy fs = 50 ksi
18.0
C = 0.85fc ab = (0.85)(3.5)(15.3)(12) = 546 k
= (0.003)(29, 000)
Pn = C +
Mn
As fs
(9.14-c)
+ As fs
(9.14-e)
(9.14-f)
(9.14-g)
= 546 + (2.0)(50) + (2.42)(2) = 650 k

(9.14-h)

ha
h
h
+ As fs
d + As fs d
= C
about section centroid (9.14-i)
2
2
2

20
20
20 15.3
+ (2.0)(50)
2.5 + (2.0)(2.42) 17.5 (9.14-j)
= (546)
2
2
2
=
e =
2, 000 k.in = 167 k.ft
(9.14-k)
2, 000
= 3.07 in
650
(9.14-l)
Example 9-2: R/C Column, e known

For the following column, determine eb , Pb , Mb ; Pn and Mn for e = 0.1h and e = h.
fc = 3, 000 psi and fy = 40, 000 psi. The area of each bar is 1.56 in2 .
12"
20"
3"
3"
24"
.003
Cc
Balanced Condition:
y =
Victor Saouma
fy
40
= .001379
=
Es
29, 000
(9.15-a)
Draft
9.2 Short Columns
911
u
.003
.003 = 14.4 in
d=
u + y
.003 + .001379
a = 1 cb = (.85)(14.4) = 12.2 in
cb =
Cc =
sc
fsc
(9.15-b)
(9.15-c)
.85fc ab
= (.85)(3)(12.2)(20) = 624 k
14.4 12
.003 = .0005
=
14.4
= (29, 000)(.0005) = 15 ksi center bars
(9.15-d)
(9.15-e)
(9.15-f)
Cs = (.0005)(29, 000)(2)(1.56) = 46.8 k
(9.15-g)
Pnb = 624 + 46.8 = 670.8 k
(9.15-h)
Note that the co0mpression steel is yielding because d > 2 and c > 6 (as previously
proven)
Taking moment about centroid of section
Mnb = Pnb e
h a
2 2
h
h
d + As fy
d
+ As fy
2
2

12.2
+ 4(1.56)(9)(40)
= (.85)(3)(12.2)(20) 12
2
+4(1.56)(40 .85 3)(12 3)
= .85fc ab
(9.16-a)
(9.16-b)
(9.16-c)
= 3, 671 + 2, 246 + 2, 246
(9.16-d)
8, 164 k.in; 680 k.ft
(9.16-e)
8, 164
= 12.2 in
670.8
(9.16-f)
eb =
e= .1 h e = (.1)(24) = 2.4 in < eb failure by compression. Pn , a and fs are unknown
Victor Saouma
Draft
912
COLUMNS
12"
20"
3"
hcd
3"
24"
c=23.5"
9"
sc
e=2.4"
e=11.4
.003
Pn
h/2=12"
.85fc
A sf
A scf
sc
Cc
a=20"
1. Assume a = 20 in
c=
A sf
a/2
a
20
= 23.5 in
=
1
.85
(9.17)
2. For center steel (from geometry)

sc
c h2
.003
c
(9.18-a)
c h2
.003
c
= Es sc
sc =
fsc
c
.003
c
23.5 12
.003 = 42.5 ksi > fy fsc = fy
= 29, 000
23.5
= Es
h
2
(9.18-b)
(9.18-c)
(9.18-d)
(9.18-e)
3. Take moment about centroid of tensile steel bar

a
h
Pn e = 0.85fc ab(d ) + As fy (h 2d ) + Asc fy ( d )
2
2
Victor Saouma
(9.19-a)
Draft
9.2 Short Columns
913
20
) + 4(1.56)(40)(24 6) + 2(1.56)(40)(9)
(9.19-b)
2
= 11, 220 + 4, 493 + 259.7
(9.19-c)
Pn (9 + 2.4) = (.85)(3)(20)(20)(21
Pn = 1, 476 k
(9.19-d)
4. Get s in tension bar

s
h 23.5
d
.003
c
.003
(24 3 23.5)
=
23.5
= .000319
=
fs = Es = (29, 000)(0.000319) = 9.25 ksi
(9.20-a)
(9.20-b)
(9.20-c)
(9.20-d)
5. Take F = 0 to check assumption of a

Pn = 0.85fc ab + As fy + Asc fsc + As fy
(9.21-a)
(9.21-b)
1, 476 k = (.85)(3)(a)(20) + (4)(1.56)(40) + (2)(1.56)(40) + (4)(1.56)(9.25)
1, 476 = 51a + 432.1
a = 20.4 in
Pn =
(9.21-c)
(9.21-d)
1, 476 k
(9.21-e)
Mn = (1, 476)(2.4) = 3, 542 k.in = 295 k.ft
e=h
(9.21-f)
1. In this case e = 24 in > eb failure by tension. Pn and a are unknown.

2. Assume a = 7.9 in c =
a
1
7.9
.85
= 9.3 in
3. Steel stress at centroid

c
.003
sc
fsc
12 c
sc
12 9.3
.003 = .00087
=
9.3
= (29, 000)(0.00087) = 25.3 ksi
(9.22-a)
(9.22-b)
(9.22-c)
4. Iterate
F = 0 Pn = (.85)fc ab + Asc fsc
= (.85)(3)(7.9)(20) 2(1.56)(25.3)
(9.23-a)
(9.23-b)
(9.23-c)
= 403 79 = 324 k
a
M = 0 Pn (e + h/2 d ) = .85fc ab(d ) + As fy (d d )
2
d d
Asc fsc (
)
(9.23-d)
2
7.9
) + 4(1.56)(40)(21 3)
Pn (24 + 9) = (.85)(3)(7.9)(20)(21
2
+2(1.56)(25.3)(9)
(9.23-e)
Pn (33) = 6, 870 + 4, 493 710 = 10, 653 k.in
Pn = 323 k
Victor Saouma
(9.23-f)
(9.23-g)
Draft
914
COLUMNS
5. Determine Mn
Mn = Pn e = (323)(24) = 7, 752 k.in = 646 k.ft
(9.24)
Example 9-3: R/C Column, Using Design Charts

Design the reinforcement for a column with h = 20 in, b = 12 in, d = 2.5 in, fc = 4, 000 psi,
fy = 60, 000 psi, to support PDL = 56 k, PLL = 72 k, MDL = 88 k.ft, MLL = 75 k.ft,
Solution:
1. Ultimate loads
201
= 287 k
0.7
251
= 358 k.ft
= (1.4)(88) + (1.7)(75) = 251 k.ft Mn =
0.7
Pu = (1.4)(56) + (1.7)(72) = 201 k Pn =

Mu
(9.25-a)
(9.25-b)
2. Chart parameters
e
h
=
=
e
h
(358)(12)
= 0.75
(9.26-a)
(287)(20)
h 2d 20 (2)(2.5)
= 0.75 interpolate between A3 and A(9.26-b)
4
h
20
287
Pn
= 0.3
(9.26-c)
=

bhfc
(12)(20)(4)
= (0.3)(0.75) = 0.225
(9.26-d)
3. Interpolating between A.3 and A.4 t = 0.4

4. Reinforcement
t =
=
At
bh
fy
.85fc

At =
(0.4)(b)(h)(.85)(fc )
1
2
= 5.45 in(9.27-a)
= (0.4)(12)(20)(.85)(4)
fy
(60)
use 4 # 9 & 2 # 8, At = 5.57 in2
Victor Saouma
Draft
9.2 Short Columns
915
Pn
M0x
1111111
0000000
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
M0y
Mny
Mnx
Figure 9.8: Failure Surface of a Biaxially Loaded Column
9.2.6
15
Biaxial Bending
Often columns are subjected to biaxial moments (such as corner columns)
An exact approach entails the trial and eror determination of an inclined neutral axis, this
is an exact method but too cumbersome to use in practice.
16
Hence, we seek an approximate solution, the most widely used method is the load contour
method or Bresler-Parme method.
17
The failure surface of a biaxialy loaded column is shown in Fig. 9.8, and the general nondimensional equation for the moment contour at a constant Pn may be expressed as

Mny 1
Mnx 1
+
= 1.0
M0x
M0y
18
where
Mnx
Mny
M0x
M0y
and 1
=
=
=
=
and
Pn ey
Pn ex
Mnx capacity at axial load Pn when Mny (or ex ) is zero
Mny capacity at axial load Pn when Mnx (or ey ) is zero
2 are exponent which depend on geometry and strength.
Bresler suggested that we set 1 = 2 = . For practical purposes, a value of = 1.5 for
rectangular columns, and between 1.5 and 2.0 for square sections has proven acceptable.
19
An improvement of Bresler equation was devised by Parme. The main assumption is that at
any load Pn , Fig. 9.9
M0y
Mny
=
Mnx
M0x
or
Mny = M0y
Mnx = M0x ;
20
Victor Saouma
Draft
916
M 0y
COLUMNS
M ny /M0y
1.0
C
M ny M
0x
C
M 0y
M 0y
M0x
A
M0x M nx
45
A
1.0Mnx /M0x
Figure 9.9: Load Contour at Plane of Constant Pn , and Nondimensionalized Corresponding

plots
Thus, is the portion of the uniaxial moment strength permitted to act simultaneously on
the column section. It depends on the cross section, strength, and layout.
21
22
The usual range is between 0.55 and 0.70, with a recommended value of 0.65 for design.
23
Hence, once is selected, we can substitute in Breslers equation

M0y
M0x
M
+
= 1.0
M0y
0x
= 12
log = log 0.5
0.5
= log
log
thus,
Mnx
M0x
log 0.5/log

+
Mny
M0y
log 0.5/log
= 1.0
24
Eect of is shown in Fig. 9.10.
25
Gouwens proposed to replace the above curves, by a bilinear model, Fig. 9.11
Review of a section

Mny
Mny
Mnx 1
Mnx
= 1 If
+
M0y
M0x
M0y
M0x

Mny
Mnx Mny 1
Mnx
+
= 1 If
M0x
M0y
M0y
M0x
(9.28)
(9.29-a)
(9.29-b)
Design of a column

M0y
Mny
M0y
1
= M0y If
Mny + Mnx
M0x
Mnx
M0x

Mny
M0y
M0x
1
Mnx + Mny
= M0x If
M0y
Mnx
M0x
Victor Saouma
(9.30-a)
(9.30-b)
Draft
9.2 Short Columns
917
Biaxial Bending Interaction Diagram

1.0
0.90
0.
0.8 85
0
0.7
5
0.7
0
0.6
5
0.8
0.6
be
ta
0.6
0.
55
=0
Nny/M0y
.5
0.4
0.2
0.0
0.0
0.2
0.4
0.6
0.8
1.0
Mnx/M0x
Figure 9.10: Biaxial Bending Interaction Relations in terms of
Mnx
M ny /M 0y + M nx /M 0x (1 / ) =1
1.0
(M nx /M 0x ) +(M ny /M 0y) =1
M0y
0y
M0x
111111
000000
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
M ny /M
Pn
M nx /M 0x + M ny /M 0y (1 / ) =1
Mny
45
A
M nx /M 0x
1.0
Figure 9.11: Bilinear Approximation for Load Contour Design of Biaxially Loaded Columns
Victor Saouma
Draft
918
COLUMNS
Note, circular or square columns with symmetric reinforcement should always be considered
rst for biaxially loaded columns.
26
Example 9-4: Biaxially Loaded Column

Determine the adequacy of a 16 in. square tied column with 8 # 9 bars. d = 2.5in, and there
are 3 bars on each side. The section is to carry factored loads of Pu = 144 k, Mux = 120 k.ft
and Muy = 54 k.ft, fc = 3 ksi and fy = 40 ksi. P0 = 952 k, M0x = M0y = 207 k.ft.
Solution:
ey =
ex =
Mux
Pu
Muy
Pu
(120)(12)
= 10.0 in
144
(54)(12)
= 4.5 in
144
=
=
The interaction diagram for e = 10 in, e = 4.5 in and e = 0 will give Pn equal to 254, 486, and
952 kips respectively.
The required load Pn = 144
0.7 = 205 k, the corresponding moments are M0x = M0y = 207 k.ft
from the interaction diagram. Using = 0.65
Required Mnx
M0x
Required Mny
M0y
=
=
120
0.7
207
= 0.828
207
= 0.373
54
0.7
We shall use both solutions

Bresler-Parme which is exact solution
Mnx
M0x
log 0.5/log
M
+ Mny
0y
(0.828)1.609 + (0.373)1.609
Note that we could have rst solved for

This would have given
is safe.
log(0.5)
log
log 0.5/log
Mny
M0y
Mnx
M0x ,
log 0.5
log 0.65
=
=
0.943
= 1.609
and then determined
Mny
M0y
from Fig. 9.10.
0.45 which is greater than the actual value, hence the design
Gouwens which is an approximate solution

Mny 1
Mnx
1
+
M0x
M0y
10.65
= 0.828 + 0.1815 = 1.0095
0.828 + 0.337 0.65
which indicates a slight overstress.
We note that the approximate method is on the conservative side.
Victor Saouma
Draft
9.3 Long Columns
9.3
9.3.1
919
Long Columns
Euler Elastic Buckling
Column buckling theory originated with Leonhard Euler in 1744. An initially straight member is concentrically loaded, and all bers remain elastic until buckling occur.
27
For buckling to occur, it must be assumed that the column is slightly bent as shown in Fig.
9.12. Note, in reality no column is either perfectly straight, and in all cases a minor imperfection
28
x and y are
principal axes
Slightly bent position

L
Figure 9.12: Euler Column

is present.
At any location x along the column, the imperfection in the column compounded by the
concentric load P , gives rise to a moment
29
Mz = P y
(9.31)
Note that the value of yis irrelevant.

30
Recalling that
d2 y
Mz
=
2
dx
EI
upon substitution, we obtain the following dierential equation
d2 y
P
=0
2
dx
EI
31
Letting k 2 =
P
EI ,
(9.33)
the solution to this second-order linear dierential equation is

y = A sin kx B cos kx
32
(9.32)
(9.34)
The two constants are determined by applying the essential boundary conditions
1. y = 0 at x = 0, thus B = 0
2. y = 0 at x = L, thus
A sin kL = 0
Victor Saouma
(9.35)
Draft
920
COLUMNS
This last equation can e satised if: 1) A = 0, that is there is no deection; 2) kL = 0, that is
no applied load; or 3)
kL = n
(9.36)

2
P
= n
or
Thus buckling will occur if EI
L
P =
n2 2 EI
L2
The fundamental buckling mode, i.e. a single curvature deection, will occur for n = 1; Thus
Euler critical load for a pinned column is
33
2 EI
L2
(9.37)
2E
cr = 2
L
(9.38)
Pcr =
The corresponding critical stress is
where I = Ar.
34
Note that buckling will take place with respect to the weakest of the two axis.
9.3.2
35
Large
Eective Length
kL
r
kL
r
column buckling, small
column crushing, Fig. 9.13.

Pfail
Pn
1
tan E
fp
Pcr
Crushing
1
tan
Buckling
(kl/r) lim
(kl/r)
Figure 9.13: Column Failures

36
Recall from strength of material slenderness ratio

=
Le
r
[ e = kL and r the radius of gyration (r =

where Le is the eective length and is equal to L
37
I
A ).
Le is the distance between two adjacent (ctitious or actual) inection points, Fig. 9.13
Victor Saouma
Draft
9.3 Long Columns
P cr
921
P cr
Pcr
i.p.
i.p.
l/4
kl= l
2
l
2
kl=l
<kl<l
i.p.
i.p.
l/4
i.p.
i.p.
Pcr
P cr
k=1
P cr
k=1/2
1/2<k<1
Pcr
cr
cr
l
kl=21
Pcr
l<kl<
i.p.
i.p.
kl=1
Pcr
Pcr
l<kl<
i.p.
k=2
i.p.
k=1
Figure 9.14: Critical lengths of columns
Victor Saouma
Draft
922
COLUMNS
k is known for some simple highly idealized cases, but for most cases k depends on A + B
(relative stinesses of columns to connected beams), Fig. 9.15
38
( EI
L )of columns
EI
( L )of oor members
(9.39)
and k is then determined from the chart shown in Fig. 9.16.

( EI
ln
A
( EI
ln
( EI
ln
P
( EI
ln
MA
MA
MA
MB
MB
MB
Single curvature
Double curvature
Braced
Unbraced
Figure 9.15: Eective length Factors
9.3.3
39
Moment Magnication Factor; ACI Provisions
The critical stress in a column is given by

P
2E
= 2
kL
A cr
r
Code recommends some minimum eccentricity to account for imperfectly placed load, Fig.
9.17
40
41
For an eccentrically placed load

Mmax = M0
1
P
1 1P
cr

Moment magnication factor
(9.40)
42 The moment magnication factor reects the amount by which the beam moment M0 is
magnied by the presence of an axial load, Fig. 9.18
The previous equation assumes the presence of hinges at each end (Euler column). In the
most general case we will have
43
Mmax = M0
Victor Saouma
Cm
1 PPcr
(9.41-a)
Draft
9.3 Long Columns
923
Sidesway Inhibited
50.
10.
5.
3.
Ga
1.0
0.9
2.
Sidesway Uninhibited
Gb
50.
10.
5.
3.
100.
50.
30.
20.
2.
0.8
1.
1.
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.7
0.3
0.2
Ga
0.3
0.6
20.
10.
5.
4.
10.
9.
8.
7.
6.
5.
3.
10.
9.
8.
7.
6.
5.
4.
2.
4.
3.
3.
2.
2.
1.5
0.2
1.
0.1
0.
Gb
100.
50.
30.
20.
1.
0.1
0.5
0.
1.
Figure 9.16: Standard Alignment Chart (ACI)
Figure 9.17: Minimum Column Eccentricity
Victor Saouma
Draft
924
COLUMNS
P
P
P0(max)
P cr
M
Pu
Pu
Pu e
em
in
Pn
M 0
M 0
M c = M 2
kl/r
M0
Mn
M2
Mc
Figure 9.18: P-M Magnication Interaction Diagram

Cm = .6 + .4
where
M1
M1
M2
M1
M2
>0
<0
Cm < 1
Cm =1
44
45
M1
.4
M2
(9.41-b)
is numerically smaller than M2 (not algebracially)

if single curvature
if double curvature
if members are braced against sidesway
if members are not braced against sidesway
ACI Code
Lu
k 1.0
k 1.0
r = .3h
r = .25d
M1
kLu
r < 34 12 M2
kL
r < 22
unsupported length ACI 10.11.1

braced columns ACI 10.11.2
unbraced columns ACI 10.11.2
rectangular x section ACI 10.11.3
circular cross section
braced, neglect slenderness ACI 10.11.4
unbraced, neglect slenderness
From conventional elastic analysis get Pn &Mn

Mc = M2
(9.42)
Cm
=
1.0 (9.43)
Pn
1 P
cr
2 EI
10.11.5
(kLu )2
M1
= .6 + 4
M2
Pn =
(9.44)
Cm
(9.45)
EI =
or EI =
d =
Ec Ig
5
+ Es Is
1 + d
Ec Ig
2.5
1 + d
MD
MD + ML
(9.46)
(9.47)
(9.48)
d is the ratio of maximum design load moment to maximum design total load moment (always
Victor Saouma
Draft
9.3 Long Columns
925
+ve) as EI dead load has a detrimental eect (creep)

Example 9-5: Long R/C Column
A 15 ft long, 14 circular column is connected to 40 ft long 14 by 22 beams. The column

is on the last oor, below it the column is circular and has a 16 diameter.
Given, Pn = 500 k, 14 22 has = .015, fc = 5, 000 psi, fy = 40, 000 psi
Solution:
22
= 13.17 ft
12
r = .25d = (.25)(14 in) = 3.5 in

Ec = 57, 000 fc = 57, 000 5, 000 = 4, 030 ksi
(14)4
d4
=
= 1, 886 in4
Ig =
64
64
Lu = 15 ft
EIcol =
Ec Ig
2.5
1+d
EIcol = (4, 030)(1, 886)
d = 0
EI
L
1
= 3, 040, 000 ksi
2.5
3, 040, 000
= 16, 890 k.in
(15)(12)
=
c
Ig
(14)(22)3 1
=
= 6, 210 in4
Ibeam = Icr
2
12
2

(4, 030)(6, 210)
EI
= 52, 140 k.in
=
L beam
(12)(40)
(EI/L)col
2(16, 890)
= .324
=
A =
(EI/L)beam
2(52, 140)
bottom column I =
(16)4
64
(9.49-a)
(9.49-b)
(9.49-c)
(9.49-d)
(9.50-a)
(9.51-a)
(9.51-b)
(9.51-c)
(9.51-d)
= 3, 217 in4
EI =

EI
=
L col
B =
(4, 030)(3, 217)

= 5, 186, 000
2.5
5, 186, 000
= 28, 800 k.in
(15)(12)
16, 890 + 28, 800
= .438
2(52, 140)
(9.52-a)
(9.52-b)
(9.52-c)
From ACI commentary A = .324, B = .438, k .65 and

kLu
r
M1
34 12
M2
kL
r
Victor Saouma
(.65)(13.16)(12)
= 29.3
3.5
(9.53-a)
= 34 12 = 22 assuming M1 = M2
(9.53-b)
> 22 consider column instability
(9.53-c)
Draft
926
COLUMNS
2 EI
2 (3, 040, 000)
=
= 2, 848 k
2
(kl)
[(.65)(13.16)(12)]2
M1
=1
CM = .6 + .4
M2
1
1
=
=
= 1.3
500
Pu
1 (.75)(2,848)
1 Pcr
Pcr =
(9.53-d)
(9.53-e)
(9.53-f)
Example 9-6: Design of Slender Column

Given: frame not braced, design AB as square column. PD = 46 k, MD = 92 k.ft, PL = 94 k,
ML = 230 k.ft, fc = 4 ksi, fy = 60 ksi
Lu =18
L
3
l =43.3in
111
000
000
111
000
111
111
000
000
111
000
111
Solution:
Pu = 1.4 46 + 1.7 94 = 224 k

Mu = 1.4 92 + 1.7 230 = 520 k.ft
(1.4)92
= .24
d =
520
(9.54-a)
(9.54-b)
(9.54-c)
Assume a 22 22 inch column and t = .03

2.5
8.5
22"
22"
Victor Saouma
Draft
9.3 Long Columns
If
Is
Ec
927
224
= 19, 500 in4
12
= (2)(.015)(22)2 (8.5)2 = 1, 050 in4

= 57, 000 4, 000 = 3.6 106 psi
=
(9.55-a)
(9.55-b)
(9.55-c)
Es = 29 10 ksi
6
EI =
=
EIc
L
EIb
L
kL
r
+ Es Is
1 + d
(3.6106 )(19,500)
5
+ (29 106 )(1, 050)

= 3.59 1010
1 + .24
(9.55-e)
3.59 1010
= 1.66 108
12 18
(9.55-f)
= (3.6 106 )(43.3) = 1.56 108
(9.55-g)
AtA&B =
if
(9.55-d)
Ec Ig
5
2(1.66 108 )
= 2.13 from ACI commentary k = 1.65
1.56 108
(9.55-h)
= 22 neglect slenderness
r = (.3)(22) = 6.6
(1.65)(18)(12)
kL
=
= 54 > 22
r
6.6
2 EI
2 (3.59 1010 )
Pcr =
=
= 279 106 lbs
(kL)2
[(1.65)(18)(12)]2
Pu = 2.24 105 lb
Cm = 1.0(unbraced)
1
=
Moment Magnication =
Pu
1 P
1
cr
= 1.13
(9.56-a)
(9.56-b)
(9.56-c)
(9.56-d)
(9.56-e)
1
(2.24105 )
(.7)(2.79106 )
(9.56-f)
(9.56-g)
Moment for which the column is to be designed (1.13) (520) = 587 k.ft and Pu = 224
Victor Saouma
Draft
928
Victor Saouma
COLUMNS
Draft
Chapter 10
PRESTRESSED CONCRETE
10.1
Introduction
Beams with longer spans are architecturally more appealing than those with short ones.
However, for a reinforced concrete beam to span long distances, it would have to have to be
relatively deep (and at some point the self weight may become too large relative to the live
load), or higher grade steel and concrete must be used.
1
2 However, if we were to use a steel with fy much higher than 60 ksi in reinforced concrete
(R/C), then to take full advantage of this higher yield stress while maintaining full bond between
concrete and steel, will result in unacceptably wide crack widths. Large crack widths will in
turn result in corrosion of the rebars and poor protection against re.
One way to control the concrete cracking and reduce the tensile stresses in a beam is to
prestress the beam by applying an initial state of stress which is opposite to the one which will
be induced by the load.
3
For a simply supported beam, we would then seek to apply an initial tensile stress at the
top and compressive stress at the bottom. In prestressed concrete (P/C) this can be achieved
through prestressing of a tendon placed below the elastic neutral axis.
4
5 Main advantages of P/C: Economy, deection & crack control, durability, fatigue strength,
longer spans.
6
There two type of Prestressed Concrete beams:
Pretensioning: Steel is rst stressed, concrete is then poured around the stressed bars. When
enough concrete strength has been reached the steel restraints are released, Fig. 10.1.
Postensioning: Concrete is rst poured, then when enough strength has been reached a steel
cable is passed thru a hollow core inside and stressed, Fig. 10.2.
10.1.1
Materials
7 P/C beams usually have higher compressive strength than R/C. Prestressed beams can have
fc as high as 8,000 psi.
8
The importance of high yield stress for the steel is illustrated by the following simple example.
Draft
102
Vertical
bulkhead
Harping
hold-up
point
Harping
hold-down
point
Jacks
Anchorage
Prestressing
bed slab
Continuous
tendon
Precast Concrete
element
Tendon
anchorage
Jacks
Support
force
Casting bed
Jacks
Casting bed
Hold-down
force
Tendon
Figure 10.1: Pretensioned Prestressed Concrete Beam, (?)
Anchorage
Anchorage
Intermediate
diaphragms
Jack
Beam
Jack
Tendon in conduct
Anchorage
Jack
Slab
Wrapped tendon
Figure 10.2: Posttensioned Prestressed Concrete Beam, (?)
Victor Saouma
Draft
10.1 Introduction
103
If we consider the following:

1. An unstressed steel cable of length Ls
2. A concrete beam of length Lc
3. Prestress the beam with the cable, resulting in a stressed length of concrete and steel
equal to Ls = Lc .
4. Due to shrinkage and creep, there will be a change in length
Lc = (sh + cr )Lc
(10.1)
we want to make sure that this amout of deformation is substantially smaller than the
stretch of the steel (for prestressing to be eective).
5. Assuming ordinary steel: fs = 30 ksi, Es = 29, 000 ksi, s =
30
29,000
= 1.03 103 in/ in
6. The total steel elongation is s Ls = 1.03 103 Ls

7. The creep and shrinkage strains are about cr + sh .9 103
8. The residual stress which is left in the steel after creep and shrinkage took place is thus
(1.03 .90) 103 (29 103 ) = 4 ksi
Thus the total loss is
304
30
(10.2)
= 87% which is unacceptably too high.
9. Alternatively if initial stress was 150 ksi after losses we would be left with 124 ksi or a
17% loss.
10. Note that the actual loss is (.90 103 )(29 103 ) = 26 ksi in each case
9
Having shown that losses would be too high for low strength steel, we will use
Strands usually composed of 7 wires. Grade 250 or 270 ksi, Fig. 10.3.
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
0000000
1111111
0000000
1111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
0000000
1111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
0000000
1111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
0000000
1111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
0000000
1111111
000000
111111
0000000
1111111
000000
111111
0000000
1111111
000000
111111
0000000
1111111
000000
111111
0000000
1111111
000000
111111
0000000
1111111
000000
111111
0000000
1111111
000000
111111
0000000
1111111
111111
000000
0000000
1111111
Figure 10.3: 7 Wire Prestressing Tendon

Tendon have diameters ranging from 1/2 to 1 3/8 of an inch. Grade 145 or 160 ksi.
Wires come in bundles of 8 to 52.
Note that yield stress is not well dened for steel used in prestressed concrete, usually we take
1% strain as eective yield.
Steel relaxation is the reduction in stress at constant strain (as opposed to creep which
is reduction of strain at constant stress) occurs. Relaxation occurs indenitely and produces
signicant prestress loss. If we denote by fp the nal stress after t hours, fpi the initial stress,
and fpy the yield stress, then

fp
log t fpi
=1
.55
(10.3)
fpi
10
fpy
10
Victor Saouma
Draft
104
10.1.2
11
Prestressing Forces
Prestress force varies with time, so we must recognize 3 stages:

1. Pj Jacking force. But then due to
(a) friction and anchorage slip in post-tension
(b) elastic shortening in pretension
is reduced to:
2. Pi Initial prestress force; But then due to time dependent losses caused by
(a) relaxation of steel
(b) shrinkage of concrete
(c) creep of concrete
is reduced to:
3. Pe Eective force
10.1.3
12
Assumptions
The following assumptions are made;

1. Materials are both in the elastic range
2. section is uncracked
3. sign convention: +ve tension, ve compression
4. Subscript 1 refers to the top and 2 to the bottom
5. I, S1 =
I
c1 ,
S2 =
I
c2 ,
(section modulus)
6. e + ve if downward from concrete neutral axis
10.1.4
Tendon Conguration
Through proper arrangement of the tendon (eccentricity at both support and midspan)
various internal exural stress distribution can be obtained, Fig. 10.4.
13
10.1.5
Equivalent Load
An equivalent load for prestressing can be usually determined from the tendon conguration
and the prestressing force, Fig. 10.5.
14
10.1.6
15
Load Deformation
The load-deformation curve for a prestressed concrete beam is illustrated in Fig. 10.6.
Victor Saouma
Draft
10.1 Introduction
105
W
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
fy
Q
P
fc
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
fc
h/2
fc
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
fc =f t
2f c
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
2Q
2f c
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
0
2f c
11
00
0000000
00 +1111111
11
0000000
1111111
00
11
0000000
1111111
=
00
11
0000000
00 1111111
11
0000000
1111111
2f c
2f t =2f c
fc
Midspan
000
111
000 +
111
=
0
000
111
111
000
111
000
Ends
fc
2f c
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
2h/3
2Q
P
2f c
0
11
00
0000000
00 +1111111
11
0000000
1111111
00
11
0000000
1111111
=
00
11
0000000
1111111
00 1111111
11
0000000
2f c
2f =2f
t
c
h/2
h/3
0
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
2f c
Q
P
fc
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
fc
h/2
h/3
f
c
000
111
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
ft =f c
Midspan
+
Ends
0
fc
00
11
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
fc
fc
00
11
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
fc
fc
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
fc
Figure 10.4: Alternative Schemes for Prestressing a Rectangular Concrete Beam, (?)
Member
(a)
P
(b)
(d)
P
e
P P sin
P cos
P P sin
P cos
(c)
P
Equivalent load on concrete from tendon
P
P
Pe
P M
P sin
P sin
P cos
2P sin
P sin
P cos
Pe
(f)
P
(g)
P
P sin M
P cos
P cos
(e)
P
Moment from prestressing
PP P sin
P cos
P sin
2P sin
P cos
None
P
None
Figure 10.5: Determination of Equivalent Loads
Victor Saouma
Draft
106
Load
Ru
ptu
Steel yielding
Service load limit
including
tolerable overload
Overload
re
Tn
Service
load
range
First cracking load

f cr
Decompression
or higher
cgs (f=0)
Balanced
Full dead load
Deformation
(deflection of camber)
pi = Initial prestress camber

pe = Effective prestress camber
O = Selfweight deflection
D= Dead load deflection
L= Live load deflection
pe
pi
Figure 10.6: Load-Deection Curve and Corresponding Internal Flexural Stresses for a Typical
Prestressed Concrete Beam, (?)
10.2
16
Flexural Stresses
We now identify the following 4 stages:
Initial Stage when the beam is being prestressed (recalling that r2 =

force, Pi only
Pi
Pi
Pi ec1
=
+
Ac
I
Ac
Pi
Pi
Pi ec2
=
=
Ac
I
Ac
f1 =
f2
ec1
r2
ec2
1+ 2
r
1
I
Ac
1. the prestressing
(10.4)
(10.5)
2. Pi and the self weight of the beam M0 (which has to be acconted for the moment the
beam cambers due to prestressing)
Pi
Ac
Pi
=
Ac
f1 =
f2
ec1
r2
ec2
1+ 2 +
r
1
M0
S1
M0
S2
(10.6)
(10.7)
Service Load when the prestressing force was reduced from Pi to Pe beacause of the losses,
and the actual service (not factored) load is apllied
3. Pe and M0
Victor Saouma
Draft
10.2 Flexural Stresses
107
Pe
Ac
Pe
=
Ac
f1 =
f2
ec1
r2
ec2
1+ 2 +
r
1
M0
S1
M0
S2
(10.8)
(10.9)
4. Pe and M0 + MDL + MLL

Pe
Ac
Pe
=
Ac
f1 =
f2
ec1 M0 + MDL + MLL
r2
S1
ec2 M0 + MDL + MLL

1+ 2 +
r
S2
1
(10.10)
(10.11)
The internal stress distribution at each one of those four stages is illustrated by Fig. 10.7.
Pi
Ac
11
00
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
00
11
c1
e
Pi e c 1
Ic
c2
11111
00000
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
00000
11111
Pi e c 2
Ic
Pi
Ac
Stage 1
Pi
(1Ac
e c1
)
r2
111111111
000000000
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
Pi
(1+
Ac
Stage 2
Pe
(1Ac
Stage 4
e c2
)
r2
e c1
Mo
)r2
S1
111111
000000
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
Pe
(1+
Ac
Mo
S1
111
000
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
000
111
Mo
S2
e c1
)
r2
111111111
000000000
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
000000000
111111111
Pi
(1+
Ac
Pi
(1Ac
Md + Ml
S
Md + Ml
S2
e c2
)
r2
e c1
Mo
)r2
S1
111111
000000
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
Pi
(1+
Ac
1
11111111111
00000000000
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
00000000000
11111111111
e c2
Mo
)+
r2
S2
Pi
(1Ac
Pe
(1Ac
e c2
Mo
)+
r2
S2
e c1
Mt
)r2
S1
111111
000000
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
000000
111111
Pe
(1+
Ac
e c2
Mt
)+
r2
S2
Figure 10.7: Flexural Stress Distribution for a Beam with Variable Eccentricity; Maximum
Moment Section and Support Section, (?)
Those (service) exural stresses must be below those specied by the ACI code (where the
subscripts c, t, i and s refer to compression, tension, initial and service respectively):
17
Victor Saouma
Draft
108

fci permitted concrete compression stress at initial stage .60f
ci
fti permitted concrete tensile stress at initial stage
< 3 fci

fcs permitted concrete compressive stress at service stage .45f
c

fts permitted concrete tensile stress at initial stage
6 fc or 12 fc

Note that fts can reach 12 fc only if appropriate deection analysis is done, because section
would be cracked.
18
Based on the above, we identify two types of prestressing:
Full prestressing (pioneered by Freysinet), no tensile stresses, no crack, but there are some
problems with excessive camber when unloaded.
Partial prestressing (pioneered by Leonhardt, Abeles, Thurliman), cracks are allowed to
occur (just as in R/C), and they are easier to control in P/C than in R/C.
19 The ACI code imposes the following limits on the steel stresses in terms of fpu which is the
ultimate strength of the cable: Pj < .80fpu As and Pi < .70fpu As . No limits are specied for
Pe .
Example 10-1: Prestressed Concrete I Beam

Adapted from (?)
The following I Beam has fc = 4, 000 psi, L = 40 ft, DL+LL =0.55 k/ft, concrete density
= 150 lb/ft3 and multiple 7 wire strands with constant eccentricity e = 5.19 in. Pi = 169 k,
and the total losses due to creep, shinkage, relaxation are 15%.
12"
4"
5"
2"
7"
4"
6"
24"
7"
6"
2"
5"
4"
The section properties for this beam are Ic = 12, 000 in4 , Ac = 176 in2 , S1 = S2 = 1, 000 in3 ,
= AI = 68.2 in2 .
Determine exural stresses at midspan and at support at initial and nal conditions.
Solution:
r2
1. Prestressing force, Pi only

Pi
ec1
1 2
Ac
r

(5.19)(12)
169, 000
1
= 83 psi
=
176
68.2
f1 =
Victor Saouma
(10.12-a)
(10.12-b)
Draft
10.2 Flexural Stresses
109
ec2
Pi
1+ 2
Ac
r

169, 000
(5.19)(12)
=
1+
= 1, 837 psi
176
68.21
f2 =
(10.12-c)
(10.12-d)
w0 =
M0 =
(176) in2
(.150) k/ ft3 = .183 k/ft
(144) in2 / ft2
(.183)(40)2
= 36.6 k.ft
8
(10.13-a)
(10.13-b)
The exural stresses will thus be equal to:

w0
=
f1,2
M0
(36.6)(12, 000)
= 439 psi
=
S1,2
1, 000
Pi
ec1 M0
1 2
Ac
r
S1
83 439 = 522 psi
3 fc = +190
ec2 M0
Pi
1+ 2 +
Ac
r
S2
1, 837 + 439 = 1, 398 psi
.6fc = 2, 400
(10.14)
f1 =
(10.15-a)
(10.15-b)
fti =
f2 =
=
fci =
(10.15-c)
(10.15-d)
(10.15-e)
(10.15-f)
3. Pe and M0 . If we have 15% losses, then the eective force Pe is equal to (1 0.15)169 =
144 k
ec1 M0
Pe
1 2
f1 =
(10.16-a)
Ac
r
S1

(5.19)(12)
144, 000
1
439
(10.16-b)
=
176
68.2
f2
= 71 439 = 510 psi

ec2 M0
Pe
1+ 2 +
=
Ac
r
S2

(5.19)(12)
144, 000
1+
+ 439
=
176
68.2
(10.16-d)
= 1, 561 + 439 = 1, 122 psi
(10.16-f)
(10.16-c)
(10.16-e)
note that 71 and 1, 561 are respectively equal to (0.85)(83) and (0.85)(1, 837)
respectively.
MDL + MLL =
Victor Saouma
(0.55)(40)2
= 110 k.ft
8
(10.17)
Draft
1010
and corresponding stresses

f1,2 =
(110)(12, 000)
= 1, 320 psi
1, 000
(10.18)
Thus,
Pe
ec1 M0 + MDL + MLL

1 2
Ac
r
S1
510 1, 320 = 1, 830 psi
.45fc = 2, 700
Pe
ec2 M0 + MDL + MLL
1+ 2 +
Ac
r
S2
1, 122 + 1, 320 = +198 psi
6 fc = +380
f1 =
(10.19-a)
(10.19-b)
fcs =
f2 =
=
fts =
(10.19-c)
(10.19-d)
(10.19-e)
(10.19-f)
10.3
1
-1398
3
-1122
+198
-1837
-83
-510
-522
-1830
5. The stress distribution at each one of the four stages is shown below.
Case Study: Walnut Lane Bridge
Adapted from (?)

The historical Walnut Lane Bridge (rst major prestressed concrete bridge in the USA) is
made of three spans, two side ones with lengths of 74 ft and a middle one of length 160 feet.
Thirteen prestressed cocnrete beams are placed side by side to make up a total width of 44
fet of roadway and two 9.25 feet of sidewalk. In between the beams, and cast with them, are
transverse stieners which connect the beams laterally, Fig. 10.8
20
Victor Saouma
Draft
10.3 Case Study: Walnut Lane Bridge
1011
80 ft
CENTER
LINE
ELEVATION OF BEAM HALF
9.25
44
ROAD
9.25
SIDEWALK
BEAM CROSS SECTIONS
TRANSVERSE DIAPHRAGMS
CROSS - SECTION OF BRIDGE
52"
10"
3"
7"
TRANSVERSE DIAPHRAGM
10"
7"
3-3"
6-7"
SLOTS FOR CABLES
6 1/2"
3 1/2"
7"
30"
CROSS - SECTION OF BEAM
Figure 10.8: Walnut Lane Bridge, Plan View
Victor Saouma
Draft
1012
52"
8.9"
22.5"
7"
22.5"
6-7"
= 79"
61.2"
8.9"
SIMPLIFIED CROSS - SECTION OF BEAM
Figure 10.9: Walnut Lane Bridge, Cross Section
10.3.1
21
Cross-Section Properties
The beam cross section is shown in Fig. 10.9 and is simplied

Ac = 2(8.9)(52) + (7)(61.2) = 1, 354 in2
'

(
79 8.9 2
(7)(61.2)3
(52)(8.9)3
+ (52)(8.9)
+
I = 2
12
2
2
12
c 1 = c2
S1 = S2
r2
10.3.2
= = 1, 277 103 in4

79
h
=
= 39.5 in
=
2
2
I
1, 277 103
=
=
= 32, 329 in3
c
39.5
I
1, 277 103
=
=
= 943. in2
A
1, 354
(10.20-a)
(10.20-b)
(10.20-c)
(10.20-d)
(10.20-e)
(10.20-f)
Prestressing
Each beam is prestressed by two middle parabolic cables, and two outer horizontal ones
along the anges. All four have approximately the same eccentricity at midspan of 2.65 ft. or
31.8 inch.
22
Each prestressing cable is made up 64 wires each with a diameter of 0.27 inches. Thus the
total area of prestressing steel is given by:
23
Awire = (d/2)2 = 3.14(

Victor Saouma
0.276 in 2
) = 0.0598 in2
2
(10.21-a)
Draft
1013
Acable = 64(0.0598) in2 = 3.83 in2

2
Atotal = 4(3.83) in = 15.32 in
(10.21-b)
(10.21-c)
Whereas the ultimate tensile strength of the steel used is 247 ksi, the cables have been
stressed only to 131 ksi, thus the initial prestressing force Pi is equal to
24
Pi = (131) ksi(15.32) in2 = 2, 000 k

25
The losses are reported ot be 13%, thus the eective force is

Pe = (1 0.13)(2, 000) k = 1, 740 k
10.3.3
26
(10.22)
(10.23)
Loads
The self weight of the beam is q0 = 1.72 k/ft.
The concrete (density=.15 k/ ft3 ) road has a thickness of 0.45 feet. Thus for a 44 foot width,
the total load over one single beam is
1
(10.24)
qr,tot = (44) ft(0.45) ft(0.15) k/ ft3 = 0.23 k/ft
13
27
Similarly for the sidewalks which are 9.25 feet wide and 0.6 feet thick:
1
qs,tot = (2)(9.25) ft(0.60) ft(0.15) k/ ft3 = 0.13 k/ft
(10.25)
13
We note that the weight can be evenly spread over the 13 beams beacause of the lateral
diaphragms.
28
29
The total dead load is

qDL = 0.23 + 0.13 = 0.36 k/ft
(10.26)
The live load is created by the trac, and is estimated to be 94 psf, thus over a width of
62.5 feet this gives a uniform live load of
1
(10.27)
wLL = (0.094) k/f t2 (62.5) ft = 0.45 k/ft
13
30
31
Finally, the combined dead and live load per beam is

wDL+LL = 0.36 + 0.45 = 0.81 k/ft
10.3.4
(10.28)
Flexural Stresses
1. Prestressing force, Pi only
ec1
Pi
1 2
Ac
r

6
(31.8)(39.5)
(2 10 )
1
= 490. psi
=
1, 354
943.
Pi
ec2
=
1+ 2
Ac
r

(31.8)(39.5)
(2 106 )
1+
= 3, 445. psi
=
1, 354
943.
f1 =
f2
Victor Saouma
(10.29-a)
(10.29-b)
(10.29-c)
(10.29-d)
Draft
1014
(1.72)(160)2
= 5, 504 k.ft
8
The exural stresses will thus be equal to:
w0
=
f1,2
M0 =
(10.30)
M0
(5, 50.4)(12, 000)
= 2, 043 psi
=
S1,2
943.
(10.31)
ec1 M0
Pi
1 2
Ac
r
S1
490 2, 043 = 1, 553 psi
3 fc = +190
Pi
ec2 M0
1+ 2 +
Ac
r
S2
3, 445 + 2, 043 = 1, 402. psi
.6fc = 2, 400
f1 =
(10.32-a)
(10.32-b)
fti =
f2 =
=
fci =
(10.32-c)
(10.32-d)
(10.32-e)
(10.32-f)
3. Pe and M0 . If we have 13% losses, then the eective force Pe is equal to (10.13)(2106 ) =
1.74 106 lbs
Pe
ec1 M0
f1 =
(10.33-a)
1 2
Ac
r
S1

(31.8)(39.5)
1.74 106
(10.33-b)
1
2, 043. = 1, 616 psi
=
1, 354
943.
ec2 M0
Pe
1+ 2 +
(10.33-c)
f2 =
Ac
r
S2

(31.8)(39.5)
1.74 106
1+
+ 2, 043. = 954. psi
(10.33-d)
=
1, 354
943.
MDL + MLL =
(0.81)(160)2
= 2, 592 k.ft
8
(10.34)
and corresponding stresses

f1,2 =
Thus,
ec1 M0 + MDL + MLL

Pe
1 2
Ac
r
S1
1, 616 962. = 2, 578. psi
.45fc = 2, 700
ec2 M0 + MDL + MLL
Pe
1+ 2 +
Ac
r
S2
954 + 962. = +8. psi
6 fc = +380
(10.35)
f1 =
(10.36-a)
(10.36-b)
fcs =
f2 =
=
fts =
Victor Saouma
(2, 592)(12, 000)

= 962. psi
32, 329
(10.36-c)
(10.36-d)
(10.36-e)
(10.36-f)
Draft
Victor Saouma
1015
Draft
1016
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 11
FOOTINGS
Read Text 12.1 to 12.4, ACI - Ch. 15, 11.12 31-1/5
Unedited
property line
Figure 11.1: xxx
Draft
112
FOOTINGS
Figure 11.2: xxx
45
Figure 11.3: xxx
Victor Saouma
Draft
113
Two-way
4
Vc
fc b0d
d/2
4
Vc= 2+
c
f c b0d
Beam
Cl
Cs
d
d/2
0.5
1.0
Figure 11.4: xxx
A2
A1
Figure 11.5: xxx
Victor Saouma
Draft
114
FOOTINGS
f
b
9.5"
9-6"
9.5"
Column
18"x18"
d
2.42
19"
4.00
9-6"
11-#8 each way
18"
9-0" long
#
18"
2-0"
18"
9-6"
8- 8 dowels
3-6" long
3"
clear
9-6"
Victor Saouma
9-6"
Draft
115
8-#7-6-0"
13-#7-6-0"
11-#9
19-6"
top
18"x24"
Column
6-6"
24" sq. col.
16-#7-6-3"
Bottom
9"
18-0"
4-6"
Dowels same
as col. bars
Grade
3" clear
6-0"
3" clear
2-6"
3-0"
3-5"
2-6"
23-3"
1,149,000
23.25 =
1-6"
16-3"
49,400lb./ft.
3-6"
418,000 lb
2-0"
9.30
173,000 lb
385,000 lb
Shear
Diagram
0.05
3,630,000 in.-lb.
3,460,000 in.-lb.
21,400,000 in.-lb.
Moment diagram
REWRITE AND TAKE EXAMPLES FROM NILSON

Victor Saouma
Draft
116
FOOTINGS
Footings
gure
Isolated spread
footing
Wall footing
Combined footing
Bearing capacity of soil

qa
2, 000 psf

soft clay
12, 000 psf
Safety factor
of 2.5 3.0
Wall Footings
Similar to the design of a cantilever slab.
Example
DL = 10 k/f t (including the
wall weight)
LL + 5 k/f t
Masonry wall
Reinforced & concrete

fc = 3, 000 psi
fy = 40, 000 psi
qa = 4, 000 psf
Design the footing
Assume
hf
wf
=
=
10 in.
10
12 150 pct = 125 psf
Eective bearing capacity qe = 4, 000 125 = 3, 875 psf

Victor Saouma
Draft
117
Consider a unit length of 12
no need to apply ke
overload fact or XXee safety
factor is already including in qa .
Required b
15
3.875
use b
=
=
3.87 f t
4 f t.
Determine thickness hf controlled by shear

Wu = 10 (1.4) + 5 (1.7) = 22.5 k/f t
qu =
22.5
4
= 5.625 ksf
= 5, 625 psf
V u = Vc = 2
Vu
= Vc
( 41
2 d)(5625) = 0.85 (2
1.5 d

fc bw d
5, 000)(12)(12)inf t (d)
= 2.38 d
d = 0.44 f t = 5.32 in.

hf
= 5.32 +
3 (cover)
+ 0.5 (radius 5/bar)
ACI 7.7.1
Assume # 8
= 8.82 in.
Use hf = 9 in.
Determine exural Steel
critical section from masonary walls
ACI
critical section
15.4.2
for concrete columns
or walls
Victor Saouma
Draft
118
FOOTINGS
For Masonry Wall,

b

a 2
4
Mu =
1
2
qu
1
2

(5.625) 2

1 2
4
= 8.61 f t kips
Mn =
Mu
= 9.57 f t kips
8.61
0.9
Mn = (b)(d)2 fy
1 0.59
fy

fc
9.57 12 = (12)(5.32)2 (40) 1 0.59
(40)
3
93142 118 + 1 = 0
= 0.0091
As = (0.0291)(12)(5.32) = 0.58 in2
Use # 6 bars
S
Ab
As /12
12
As /Ab
0.44 12
0.58
= 9.1
Smax = 3hf = 27 in. or 18 in ak

Use # 6 @ 9
Development length Aab =

=
0.04 Ab y
fc
0.04(0.44)(40,000)
3,000
= 12.85 in.
Ad = 12.85 0.8 = 10.3 in. < 2/in.
bar spacing
from critical
section to end
Column footings
gure
Failure Modes
Victor Saouma
Draft
119
1.
Shear Failure
Punching Shear - two-way action

Beam Shear - one-way action
2.
Flexure Failure
Bending in each direction
Shear Strength
Punching Shear
ACI 11.12.2
2+
4
c
fc b0 d
Vc
b0
= [(a + d) + (b + d)]
b
a
for b > a
or Vc
s d
b0
s = 40
or Vc

+ 2
fc b0 d
int. cols.
30
edge cols.
20
corner cols.
= 4

fc b0 d
Shear strength is larger under two-way action than under one-way action because of tri-axial
stress.

As e very large, Ve = 2 fc b d for beams
Beam Shear

Ve = 2 fc bd
critical section
V u Vc
Moment Strength (ACI: Ch. 15)
gure
Victor Saouma
Draft
1110
FOOTINGS
Reinf. in Band Width

Total Reinf. in
short direction
=
2
+1
:2
:1
Example
DL = 235 k, LL = 115 k

18 square
hf
fc
fy
qc
= 3, 000 psi
= 40, 000 psi
= 5, 500 psf
7f t.
Assume
hf
Wf
(max.)
= 2
= (2)(150) = 300 psf
qe = 5, 500 300 = 5, 200 psf

Required A =
(235+115)1,000
5,200 (7)
Use A = 9 8
= 9.6
Determine hf
Pu = 235 (1.4) + 115 (1.7) = 525 kips
qu
Pu
A
525 1,000
(7)(9.67)
= 7.756 psf
Punching Shear
Victor Saouma
Draft
1111
)

2 *
Vu = 7756 (7)(267) 18
+
d
12
Vc = (2 +

fc b0 d or 4 fc b0
4
c )
c = 1
Vc = (0.85)(4) 3, 000 (4)(18 + 12d)(12)

or Vc =

.
s d
+ 2
fc b0 d
b0

will not be critical
Vc = Vu
/
0
2
10 (7)(9.67) ( 18
= (18 + 12d)(12d)
12 + d)
154 d2 + 246 d 677 = 0
d = 1.4 f t = 17.3 in.
Beam Shear
Vu = 7, 756
Vc = 2
467
2
9
12

d (7)

f bd
= (0.85)(2)
3, 000 (7 12)(12d)
0.528(4.085 d) = d
d = 1.5 f t = 18 in.
use d = 18 in
hf
= 18 + 3 (cover) + 0.5 (upper layer) + 1.0 (bottom layer)

= 22.5 in
Select hf
= 23 in
Bending:
gure
Long direction:
Victor Saouma
Draft
1112
FOOTINGS
Mu = 7.76 (7)
Mn =
Mu
(4.085)2
2
= 453 f t. kips
= 504 f t. kips As
= 8.5 in2
14 #7
Short direction:
Mu = 7.76 (9 67)
Mn =
284
0.9
(2.75)2
2
= 284 f t. kips
= 315 f t kips = 5.5 in2

9 #7
Min Reinf. ACI - 7.12

g = 0.002
For one short direction, min As = 0.002 (9.67)(12)(23)

= 5.3 in2
Reinf. as Band Width
Total Reinf.
2
1+

9 bars
2
1+ 9.67
7
= 0.84
8 #7

gure
Check development length
min As = 0.005 Ag

gross area
of column
ACI 15.8.2.1
Victor Saouma
Draft
Chapter 12
DEEP BEAMS
DEEP BEAMS
Examples of occurance
tanks
folded plates
Shear wall & diaphragms
gure
All of these are plane stress problems, and stresses can not be found by classical elastic
theory because plane sections do not remain plane after bending (Bernoville-Novier Hypothesis
is not valid any more).
need 20 analysis
i)
ii)
iii)
elasticity
nite dierence
nite element
Deep beam design
gure
Main dierences between deep & shallow beams:
i) internal stress distribution before cracking
ii) location & orientation of cracks
iii) strength
iv) optimum reinforcement pattern
Usually deep beams are shear critical & not exure critical by reducing the span, momentum reduced but shear remains constant
Draft
122
DEEP BEAMS
Capacity to redistribute stresses is much higher in deep beams

M
plane section do not remain plane r = Iy + y = VIbQ are wrong

XX XX
& we have a warping of the x sections tend to relieve compressive stresse @ top
might get more than one neutral ones
stress trajectary
if no vertical compression
<
45
with vertical compression
tension is much reduced
cracks will form at almost vertical directions & thus web reinforcement are not very
ecient horz. steel more ecient main steel mostly distributed @ bottoms 13 depth
After cracking, stress redistributions occurs
crack stopped by high ve stresses
behaviour becomes similar to that of a tied crack.
J becomes irrelevant what cracking there is, as long as we have this mechanism.
before cracking fs =
m
As J d
after cracking (arch mechanism)

deection for tied arch is larger than for beam (because stress is larger): but we need to
watch out for bond failure, are hooks or to be the steel out & nd against the plate.
better to use horizontal hook XXXXX instead of vertical hook because might have a
failure along weak face
gure
FAILURE by
1. yielding of main longitudinal steel preferred use < < bal.
2. crushing in high moment region
on the basis of test for beam beams cu > > > .003 .008
mostly because simultaneous actions in compression XXXX
in any case beams would be underreinforced.
Victor Saouma
Draft
123
3. crushing of the concrete over the reactions XXXXXXXXXX

4. bond splitting failure
compare for normal beams =
s =
Av f y
(vu vc )bw
or
Av
s
vu vc
fy d
vu vc
fy
bw
bw
for very deep beams :1n small

Arch is most eective
as :dn eect of horzonital steel
Ln
d
Av .0015 bw S
Avh .0025 bw S2
d
5
S2
d
3
+ 18
d 18
A.C.I. 11.9
SHEAR WALLS ACI 10.10

of very high better to incorporate shear walls.
Introduction
Basic relations used:
a) Equilibrium
i)
ii)
b)
Material Stress Strain
c)
Compatibility of displacements
Tension = compression
Mint = Mext
Fx
M
=
=
(no slip)
Basic assumptions used:

a) Perfect bond between steel & concrete s = c
b) Plain section remain plane strain is
proportional to distance from N.A.
c) Neglect shrinkage & creep (for strength).
Design: we are going to consider a reinforced concrete beam subjected to an increasing
load with:
a) sections uncracked
b) sections cracked, elastic u.s.o.
c) sections cracked, inelastic U.s.o.
Victor Saouma
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