Age Effects On Iron-Based Pipes in Water Distribution Systems

Utah State University
DigitalCommons@USU
All Graduate Teses and Dissertations Graduate Studies, School of
12-1-2009
Age Efects on Iron-Based Pipes in Water
Distribution Systems
Ryan T. Christensen
Utah State University
Tis Dissertation is brought to you for free and open access by the
Graduate Studies, School of at DigitalCommons@USU. It has been
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Recommended Citation
Christensen, Ryan T., "Age Efects on Iron-Based Pipes in Water Distribution Systems" (2009). All Graduate Teses and Dissertations.
Paper 505.
htp://digitalcommons.usu.edu/etd/505

ACL LllLC1S Cn l8Cn-8ASLu lLS ln
WA1L8 ulS18l8u1lCn S?S1LMS

by

8yan 1. ChrlsLensen
A dlsserLaLlon submlLLed ln parLlal fulflllmenL
of Lhe requlremenLs for Lhe degree

of
uCC1C8 Cl PlLCSCP?
ln
Clvll and LnvlronmenLal Lnglneerlng
Approved:

Wllllam !. 8ahmeyer SLeven L. 8arfuss
Ma[or rofessor CommlLLee Member

Mlchael C. !ohnson Laurle S. Mcnelll
CommlLLee Member CommlLLee Member

8oberL L. Spall 8yron 8. 8urnham
CommlLLee Member uean of CraduaLe SLudles
u1AP S1A1L unlvL8Sl1?
Logan, uLah
2009
ll

A8S18AC1

Age LffecLs on lron-8ased lpes
ln ulsLrlbuLlon SysLems

by

8yan 1. ChrlsLensen, uocLor of hllosophy
uLah SLaLe unlverslLy, 2009

Ma[or rofessor: Wllllam !. 8ahmeyer
ueparLmenL: Clvll and LnvlronmenLal Lnglneerlng

lpes ln waLer dlsLrlbuLlon sysLems may change as Lhey age. 1he accumulaLlon
of corroslon byproducLs and suspended parLlcles on Lhe lnslde wall of aged plpes can
lncrease plpe roughness and reduce plpe dlameLer. 1o quanLlfy Lhe hydraullc effecLs of
lrregular accumulaLlon on Lhe plpe walls, eleven aged plpes ranglng ln dlameLer from
0.020-m (0.73-ln) Lo 0.100-m (4-ln) and wlLh varylng degrees of LurberculaLlon were
locaLed and sub[ecLed Lo laboraLory LesLlng. 1he laboraLory LesL resulLs were used Lo
deLermlne a relaLlonshlp beLween plpe dlameLer reducLlon and Pazen-Wllllams C. 1hls
relaLlonshlp, comblned wlLh a manlpulaLlon of Lhe Pazen-Wllllams equaLlon, provlded a
slmple and dlrecL meLhod for correcLlng Lhe dlameLers of aged plpes ln dlsLrlbuLlon
models. uslng LAnL1 2, Lhe lmporLance of correcLlng plpe dlameLers when modellng
waLer dlsLrlbuLlon sysLems conLalnlng aged plpes was lnvesLlgaLed. CorrecLlng Lhe plpe
lll

dlameLers ln Lhe sample neLwork reduced Lhe modeled waLer age by up Lo 10 and
changed Lhe paLLern of flucLuaLlng waLer age LhaL occurred as waLers wlLh dlfferenL
sources moved Lhrough Lhe plpe neLwork.
ln addlLlon, Lwo of Lhe aforemenLloned aged plpes wlLh dlameLers of 0.023-m (1-
ln) and 0.030-m (2-ln) were modeled uslng 8eynolds-Averaged navler-SLokes (8AnS)
Lurbulence modellng. llow was compuLed aL 8eynolds numbers ranglng from 6700 Lo
31,000 uslng Lhree Lurbulence models lncludlng a 4-equaLlon model, and 2-
equaLlon reallzable and models. ln comparlng Lhe 8AnS resulLs Lo Lhe
laboraLory LesLlng, Lhe model was found Lo be mosL accuraLe, produclng uarcy-
Welsbach frlcLlon facLors from 3 hlgher Lo 13 lower Lhan laboraLory-obLalned values.
1he capablllLy of 8AnS modellng Lo provlde a deLalled characLerlzaLlon of Lhe flow ln
aged plpes was demonsLraLed.
Large eddy slmulaLlon (LLS) was also performed on a slngle 0.030-m (2-ln) plpe
aL a 8eynolds number of 6800. 1he uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon facLor calculaLed uslng LLS
was 20 less Lhan obLalned from experlmenLal LesLs. 8oughness elemenLs smaller Lhan
Lhe grld scale and deflclencles ln Lhe subgrld-scale model aL modellng Lhe complex
Lhree-dlmenslonal flow sLrucLures due Lo Lhe lrregular plpe boundary were ldenLlfled as
llkely sources of error. Lven so, Lhe uLlllLy of LLS for descrlblng complex flows was
esLabllshed.
(108 pages)
lv

ACknCWLLuCMLn1S

llrsL, l would llke Lo Lhank SLeve 8arfuss, who has acLed as my research menLor
and dlrecLed my dlsserLaLlon sLudy. WlLhouL hls supporL and Llreless work on my behalf,
Lhls pro[ecL would have never been posslble. 8ob Spall also deserves speclal credlL as he
has been my Clu menLor and prlmary revlewer for Lhe secLlons of Lhls work devoLed Lo
Clu. 8lll 8ahmeyer, Mlke !ohnson, and Laurle Mcnelll have all glven valuable advlce
and dlrecLlon LhroughouL Lhe course of my research. 1hank you also Lo Alan 1aylor who
helped me ln Lhe shop wlLh [obs l wasn'L compeLenL Lo do for myself, and Lo my
coworkers Wade Coodrldge, 1yler Allen, and 8rlan CrooksLon who have provlded
valuable help ln a varleLy of ways. lurLhermore, porLlons of Lhls work were made
posslble by Lhe uLah SLaLe unlverslLy CenLer for Plgh reclslon CompuLlng, who
provlded compuLaLlonal resources.
MosL of all Lhank you Lo my wlfe, who has paLlenLly walLed Lo geL on wlLh llfe,
and Lo my Lwo chlldren who always glve me a reason Lo smlle. 1helr supporL has meanL
Lhe mosL.
8yan 1. ChrlsLensen

v

CCn1Ln1S

age
A8S18AC1 ............................................................................................................................. ll
ACknCWLLuCMLn1S ......................................................................................................... lv
LlS1 Cl 1A8LLS .................................................................................................................. vlll
LlS1 Cl llCu8LS .................................................................................................................. lx
CPA1L8
l. ln18CuuC1lCn ........................................................................................... 1
Ceneral lnformaLlon ....................................................................... 1
ulsserLaLlon CuLllne ........................................................................ 6

ll. 8ACkC8Cunu ........................................................................................... 11
LaboraLory 1esLlng ........................................................................ 11
Clu Modellng ................................................................................ 13

lll. lM8CvlnC WA1L8 CuALl1? MCuLLlnC ln
S?S1LMS CCn1AlnlnC 1u8L8CuLA1Lu lLS ......................................... 16

AbsLracL ......................................................................................... 16
lnLroducLlon .................................................................................. 16
LaboraLory 1esLlng ........................................................................ 20
lpe neLwork AppllcaLlon ............................................................. 24

neLwork demonsLraLlon ................................................... 24
Sample plpe neLwork ........................................................ 24
Case 1: reduce C facLors .................................................... 26
Case 2: ad[usL plpe dlameLers ........................................... 26
Comparlson of resulLs ....................................................... 30

Concluslons ................................................................................... 34

vl

lv. ALlCA1lCn Cl 1P8LL 8AnS 1u88uLLnCL
MCuLLS 1C ACLu WA1L8 18AnSMlSSlCn lLS .................................... 37

AbsLracL ......................................................................................... 37
lnLroducLlon .................................................................................. 37
lpe CeomeLry, CompuLaLlonal Mesh, and
8oundary CondlLlons.................................................................. 42

lpe geomeLry """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 42
CompuLaLlonal mesh """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 42
8oundary condlLlons ......................................................... 46

numerlcal MeLhod ........................................................................ 46
8esulLs ........................................................................................... 30

LxplanaLlon and valldaLlon """"""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""""" 30
LaboraLory daLa comparlsons ........................................... 34
loLs of model resulLs ........................................... 36

Concluslons ................................................................................... 60

v. ALlCA1lCn Cl LA8CL Luu? SlMuLA1lCn 1C
ACLu WA1L8 18AnSMlSSlCn lLS ........................................................ 62

AbsLracL ........................................................................................ 62
lnLroducLlon .................................................................................. 62
lpe CeomeLry, Mesh, and 8oundary
CondlLlons .................................................................................. 66

lpe geomeLry ................................................................... 66
CompuLaLlonal mesh ......................................................... 67
8oundary condlLlons ......................................................... 69
numerlcal meLhod ............................................................ 70

8esulLs ........................................................................................... 73
Concluslon ..................................................................................... 81

vl. SuMMA8? Anu CCnCLuSlCnS ................................................................ 83
Summary ....................................................................................... 83
Concluslons and 8ecommendaLlons ............................................. 83
vll

ConLrlbuLlons .................................................................... 83
neLwork modellng ............................................................ 83
Clu modellng .................................................................... 87

8LlL8LnCLS ...................................................................................................................... 90
ALnulx .......................................................................................................................... 96

vlll

LlS1 Cl 1A8LLS

1able age
1 Summary of Aged lpes .............................................................................................. 12
2 uescrlpLlon of Aged lpes ........................................................................................... 21
3 ercenL Change ln ressure urop ............................................................................... 31
4 Average and Maxlmum values of for Lach llow CondlLlon .................................. 32
3 Summary of lorces and MomenLum llux .................................................................. 34
6 Comparlson of uarcy-Welsbach lrlcLlon lacLors........................................................ 34

lx

LlS1 Cl llCu8LS

llgure age
1 hoLograph lnslde of a 4-lnch casL lron plpe LesLed for Lhls sLudy. ............................. 2
2 loL of Pazen-Wllllams C versus 8eynolds number wlLh confldence lnLervals. ......... 14
3 loL of d/u versus Pazen-Wllllams C. ......................................................................... 23
4 neLwork model uLlllzed for slmulaLlons - red lndlcaLes [uncLlons where hydranL
demands were slmulaLed, black [uncLlons represenL monlLorlng locaLlons. ............. 23
3 lpe slze dlsLrlbuLlon for Lhe sample neLwork. ........................................................... 23
6 Pead aL node !-23937 whlle slmulaLlng flre hydranL LesLlng aL !-23934. ................... 31
7 WaLer age ln Lhe sLorage Lank. ................................................................................... 32
8 WaLer age versus Llme aL node !-22432. .................................................................... 32
11 hoLograph of Lhe longlLudlnally cuL 0.030-m aged plpe ........................................... 41
12 CuLaway vlew of Lhe wall boundary mesh of Lhe 0.030-m aged plpe ........................ 43
13 8endered surface of Lhe 0.030-m aged plpe .............................................................. 44
14 Cross-secLlon showlng Lhe mesh of Lhe 0.030-m nomlnal dlameLer plpe ................. 43
13 veloclLy dlsLrlbuLlon normallzed by bulk veloclLy for Lhe 0.023-m plpe aL
. ConLours - mln = 0, max = 1.40, lnLerval = 0.14 .......................................... 36
16 1urbulence klneLlc energy dlsLrlbuLlon normallzed by for Lhe 0.023-m plpe
aL . ConLours - mln = 0, max = 0.18, lnLerval = 0.02............................. 37
17 veloclLy dlsLrlbuLlon normallzed by bulk veloclLy for Lhe 0.030-m plpe aL .
ConLours - mln = 0, max = 1.30, lnLerval = 0.10 ......................................................... 38
x

18 veloclLy dlsLrlbuLlon normallzed by bulk veloclLy for Lhe 0.030-m plpe aL
. ConLours - mln = 0, max = 1.17, lnLerval = 0.09 .......................................... 38
aL . ConLours - mln = 0, max = 9.0, lnLerval = 0.60 .................................. 39
aL . ConLours - mln = 0, max = 0.103, lnLerval = 0.007 ........................ 39
21 hoLograph of Lhe surface of Lhe 0.030-m plpe. ........................................................ 67
22 CuLaway vlew of Lhe wall boundary mesh of Lhe 0.030-m plpe. ................................ 68
23 8enderlng of Lhe 0.030-m plpe. .................................................................................. 68
24 Cross-secLlon of Lhe volume mesh. ............................................................................ 70
23 ower SpecLral uenslLy aL Lhe cenLrold of Lhe cross-secLlon. .................................... 73
26 1oLal pressure drop versus axlal poslLlon ................................................................... 77
27 Mean veloclLy magnlLude normallzed by bulk veloclLy. conLours - mln = 0, max =
1.20, lnLerval = 0.1 ...................................................................................................... 79
28 8ooL mean square veloclLy flucLuaLlons normallzed by bulk veloclLy. conLours - mln
= 0, max = 0.30, lnLerval = 0.03 ................................................................................... 80
29 LonglLudlnal ploL of rooL mean square veloclLy flucLuaLlons normallzed by bulk
veloclLy. conLours -mln = 0, max = 0.3, lnLerval = 0.03 .............................................. 80
30 loL of Lhe uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon facLor versus 8eynolds number wlLh confldence
lnLervals ....................................................................................................................... 97
31 loL of d/u versus uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon facLor ..................................................... 98

CPA1L8 l

ln18CuuC1lCn

Ceneral lnformaLlon
1he unlLed SLaLes has nearly 32,000 communlLy waLer sysLems whlch supply
waLer Lo over 292 mllllon people (uSLA 2008). ln all, nearly one mllllon mlles of plpe
have been lald ln order Lo LransporL waLer wlLh some plpes LhaL were lnsLalled ln Lhe
19
Lh
cenLury sLlll ln use Loday (n8C 2006). WaLer dlsLrlbuLlon neLworks are a vlLal parL of
Lhe lnfrasLrucLure LhaL socleLy uses every day, ofLen wlLhouL a second LhoughL.
Powever, as plpes age, corroslon, deposlLlon, and accreLlon can lead Lo changes ln Lhe
lnLernal surface proflle of dlsLrlbuLlon sysLem plpes. ln exLreme cases, Lhe lnLerlor
surface proflle of an aged plpe can slgnlflcanLly change. llgure 1 ls a phoLograph of Lhe
lnLerlor wall boundary of a 4-ln casL lron plpe LesLed durlng Lhls sLudy. 1he plpe was
used Lo LransporL cullnary waLer for an esLlmaLed 30 years and lllusLraLes how
LuberculaLlon (lrregular bulldup of corroslon byproducLs) can change Lhe surface proflle
of an aged plpe. Changes ln Lhe surface proflle lncrease headloss due Lo frlcLlon and
cause flow separaLlon, leadlng Lo decreased flow capaclLy. 1lme dependenL changes ln
Lhe surface proflle also add uncerLalnLy ln modellng Lhe hydraullcs of aged plpes ln
dlsLrlbuLlon sysLems.
WaLer dlsLrlbuLlon neLworks are complex sysLems made up of plpes, valves,
sLorage Lanks, and pumps. uue Lo Lhe complexlLy of waLer dlsLrlbuLlon neLworks, lL can
be dlfflculL Lo predlcL neLwork response Lo varylng demand scenarlos. Accordlngly,
2

llgure 1: hoLograph lnslde of a 4-lnch casL lron plpe LesLed for Lhls sLudy

neLwork models have become valuable Lools ln undersLandlng Lhe day Lo day and
exLreme evenL operaLlons of plpe neLworks and for pro[ecLlng neLwork response Lo
changlng scenarlos. ln recenL years Lhere has been rapld growLh ln Lhe use of neLwork
models. CurrenLly, neLwork models are belng used for a wlde range of appllcaLlons,
from clLy plannlng Lo flre flow calculaLlon and waLer quallLy modellng.
ulsLrlbuLlon modellng has been ln use for a long Llme, buL ln many ways ls sLlll a
work ln progress. More ls belng asked of Loday's neLwork models Lhan ever before and
one of Lhe greaLesL challenges ln developlng an accepLable dlsLrlbuLlon model ls ln Lhe
acqulslLlon of accuraLe daLa wlLh whlch Lo characLerlze Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon sysLem. llow
dlsLrlbuLlon, nodal heads, and Lhe physlcal properLles of dlsLrlbuLlon componenLs musL
all be accuraLely descrlbed ln order Lo develop an accuraLe neLwork model. 1he
prollferaLlon of modern daLa managemenL and gaLherlng Lools such as geographlc
3

lnformaLlon sysLems (ClS) and supervlsory conLrol and daLa acqulslLlon (SCAuA) sysLems
has helped enormously ln characLerlzlng neLworks. 1oday's neLwork modelers ofLen
have access Lo more and beLLer daLa Lhan ln Lhe pasL, sLlll, many of Lhe changes LhaL
occur ln aglng waLer dlsLrlbuLlon sysLems are Llme dependenL, glvlng rlse Lo furLher
compllcaLlon. lpe roughness and lnslde dlameLer are Lwo plpe properLles LhaL may
change as plpes age. Age relaLed changes ln plpe roughness can have a large effecL on
Lhe capaclLy and headloss of a dlsLrlbuLlon sysLem, and have recelved slgnlflcanL
aLLenLlon from researchers (cf. Colebrook and WhlLe 1937a, b, Wllllams and Pazen
1960). ulameLer changes, on Lhe oLher hand have been largely lgnored unLll more
recenLly (8oxall eL al. 2004, Walskl 2004). 1uberculaLlon ln aged plpes leads Lo a
comblnaLlon of lncreased roughness and reduced plpe dlameLer. lncreased roughness
leads Lo lncreased headloss, and reduced plpe dlameLer leads Lo lncreased veloclLles
(whlch also lncreased headloss). ln general modelers have preferred Lo ad[usL only
roughness coefflclenLs when callbraLlng a numerlcal dlsLrlbuLlon sysLem model and have
noL addressed poLenLlal changes ln plpe dlameLer. Whlle Lhls approach has been found
saLlsfacLory for calculaLlng nodal heads, correcL plpe dlameLers are necessary Lo
correcLly model waLer veloclLy. lurLhermore, waLer age ls dependenL on waLer veloclLy.
Clearly, ln order Lo accuraLely model Lhe waLer quallLy of a dlsLrlbuLlon sysLem LhaL
conLalns aged plpes Lhe reducLlon of plpe dlameLer should be consldered.
WaLer dlsLrlbuLlon neLwork models are based on relaLlvely slmple one-
dlmenslonal flow equaLlons. As dlsLrlbuLlon sysLems may conLaln Lhousands or even
4

Lens of Lhousands of plpes, Lhls slgnlflcanL reducLlon ln model complexlLy ls necessary,
and sLlll provldes good resulLs ln compuLlng nodal heads and flow dlsLrlbuLlon.
lnherenLly dlfferenL from neLwork modellng, compuLaLlonal flulds dynamlcs (Clu)
modellng ls an addlLlonal Lype of modellng LhaL was applled ln Lhls sLudy. 1he Clu
modellng uses Lhe Lhree-dlmenslonal navler-SLokes equaLlons for flow. ConsequenLly,
Lhe compuLaLlonal requlremenLs of Clu are much Loo hlgh Lo be feaslble for modellng
an enLlre plpe neLwork. lnsLead, Clu ls parLlcularly useful as an ald ln undersLandlng
mechanlsms LhaL occur aL a small scale buL requlre a hlgh degree of resoluLlon. 1he
ablllLy Lo descrlbe complex Lhree-dlmenslonal flows ln plpes wlLh lrregular boundarles ls
essenLlal for descrlblng Lhe mechanlcs of many flow processes. Lxamples lnclude: Lhe
LransporL of dlssolved maLerlals, dlslnfecLlon byproducL formaLlon ln cullnary waLer
Lransmlsslon plpes, Lhe mechanlcs of suspended parLlcle accreLlon and subsequenL
eroslon, and fluld mlxlng. Many of Lhese processes are noL fully undersLood ln aged
plpes and Clu has poLenLlal Lo provlde new lnslghL.
1he numerlcal modellng of fluld flow daLes back almosL Lo Lhe blrLh of modern
compuLers. erhaps because of Lhelr wldespread use ln englneerlng appllcaLlons, plpes
have been a promlnenL parL of Clu research. Powever, desplLe Lhe real world and
academlc worLh, very llLLle research has been performed wlLh respecL Lo aged plpes
havlng Lhree-dlmenslonally lrregular boundarles. lndeed, Lhls research appears Lo be
Lhe flrsL appllcaLlon of Clu Lo a plpe wlLh an lrregular boundary surface. 1wo caLegorles
of Clu modellng have been lncluded ln Lhls sLudy. 1he flrsL caLegory ls based on Lhe
3

8eynolds averaged navler-SLokes (8AnS) equaLlons. 1he lncluded 8AnS models offer
Lhe beneflLs of belng relaLlvely lnexpenslve compuLaLlonally along wlLh belng
sLralghLforward ln lmplemenLaLlon. Cne weakness of Lhe 8AnS formulaLlons ls LhaL Lhey
are sLeady sLaLe models and as a resulL cannoL resolve Lhe Llme-dependenL LurbulenL
flucLuaLlons of flow. 1he second caLegory of Clu models consldered ls large eddy
slmulaLlon (LLS). LLS ls an unsLeady modellng Lechnlque where Lhe smallesL eddles are
modeled uslng a subgrld-scale model, whlle Lhe largesL eddles are compuLed dlrecLly
uslng Lhe navler-SLokes equaLlons. LLS ls much more compuLaLlonally lnLenslve Lhan
8AnS (and Lherefore more expenslve Lo perform) buL has Lhe ablllLy Lo model Lhe
LurbulenL flucLuaLlons of flow. As Lhls ls Lhe flrsL appllcaLlon of Clu Lo Lhree-
dlmenslonally rough surfaces, Lhe prlmary ob[ecLlve of Lhe Clu modellng ls Lo deLermlne
how well Lhe Lwo Lypes of Clu models are able Lo accuraLely compuLe flow over Lhe
lrregular surfaces of aged plpes.
ulsLrlbuLlon neLwork models and Clu each possess dlfferenL seLs of sLrengLhs
and weaknesses. neverLheless, Lhe Lwo Lypes of modellng can be used ln a
compllmenLary manner. lor example, neLwork models are useful for calculaLlng Lhe
nodal heads and flow raLes of lndlvldual plpes wlLhln neLworks. Clu can Lhen be
performed, aL Lhe flow raLes calculaLed by Lhe neLwork model, Lo provlde more deLalled
lnformaLlon abouL Lhe flow wlLhln a parLlcular plpe. ln Lhls manner, Lhe sLrengLhs of
each Lype of model can be uLlllzed Lo obLaln more compleLe lnformaLlon Lhan can be
obLalned by elLher model lndlvldually.
6

ulsserLaLlon CuLllne
1he overall purpose of Lhls sLudy ls Lo enable beLLer accuracy ln modellng Lhe
hydraullcs of waLer dlsLrlbuLlon neLworks. 1he flndlngs of Lhls research are especlally
appllcable Lo Lhe modellng of dlsLrlbuLlon waLer quallLy. ln order Lo achleve Lhls
purpose, flve conLrlbuLlng ob[ecLlves were ldenLlfled:
1. LvaluaLe Lhe changes LhaL occur ln aged plpes wlLh respecL Lo hydraullc
roughness and flow area
2. Assess Lhe capablllLy of Clu for modellng Lhe complex flow of plpes wlLh
lrregular Lhree-dlmenslonal boundarles
3. LvaluaLe how Lhe changes ln aged plpes found for Cb[ecLlve 1 affecL Lhe
hydraullcs wlLhln a plpe neLwork
a. Macro-scale (dlsLrlbuLlon wlde)
b. Mlcro-scale (< 1-m)
4. uevelop a meLhod for predlcLlng Lhe effecLlve dlameLer of a plpe based on lLs
roughness and orlglnal dlameLer
3. ueLermlne Lhe effecLs of aglng on dlsLrlbuLlon sysLem performance uslng a
slmpllfled model of an exlsLlng neLwork
1he followlng paragraphs ouLllne Lhe lndlvldual chapLers of Lhls dlsserLaLlon and
descrlbe how Lhe conLenLs of each chapLer conLrlbuLe Loward meeLlng Lhe pro[ecL
ob[ecLlves.
7

1he purpose of ChapLer ll ls Lo presenL background lnformaLlon perLlnenL Lo
ChapLers lll Lhrough v LhaL ls noL conLalned elsewhere ln Lhls reporL. Speclflcally,
ChapLer ll summarlzes Lhe physlcal LesLlng of Lhe eleven aged plpes obLalned for Lhls
sLudy. Lach plpe was sub[ecLed Lo laboraLory LesLlng Lo quanLlfy Lhe age relaLed
changes LhaL had occurred ln Lhe plpes wlLh respecL Lo hydraullc roughness and flow
area. 1he plpe secLlons varled ln age from 23 Lo 30 years and ln nomlnal dlameLer from
0.020-m (0.73-ln) Lo 0.100-m (4-ln). ln general, for Lhe plpes varled beLween 20
and 40 where represenLs plpe lengLh and represenLs plpe dlameLer. Cf Lhe aged
plpes LesLed, area reducLlon was found Lo be as hlgh as 23. Pazen Wllllams C of Lhe
aged plpes was hlghly varlable wlLh an approxlmaLe range of 40 Lo 143 dependlng on
plpe condlLlon. Also speclfled ln ChapLer ll are Lhe plpes LesLed uslng Clu modellng.
1wo plpes wlLh nomlnal dlameLers of 0.023-m (1-ln) and 0.030-m (2-ln) were modeled
uslng 8AnS Lurbulence modellng and one plpe wlLh a nomlnal dlameLer of 0.030-m (2-
ln) was modeled uslng LLS. 1he background lnformaLlon ln ChapLer ll also helps address
Cb[ecLlve 1.
ChapLer lll demonsLraLes Lhe appllcaLlon of Lhe laboraLory LesL daLa ln callbraLlng
a model plpe neLwork LhaL conLalns aged plpes. ln order Lo apply Lhe laboraLory
flndlngs Lo Lhe model neLwork, a meLhod for esLlmaLlng Lhe effecLlve dlameLers of aged
plpes was developed based on Lhe laboraLory flndlngs and uslng a manlpulaLlon of Lhe
Pazen-Wllllams equaLlon. 1he lmporLance of uslng correcL plpe dlameLers ls lllusLraLed
by comparlng Lwo scenarlos. ln Lhe flrsL scenarlo only frlcLlon coefflclenLs are reduced
8

ln order Lo compensaLe for Lhe lncreased headloss of aged plpes. ln Lhe second scenarlo
dlameLer reducLlon ls also consldered. 8oLh neLworks were modeled uslng LAnL1 2
(uSLA 2000). Comparlson of Lhe Lwo neLworks demonsLraLes Lhe magnlLudes and
Lypes of errors LhaL can be lnLroduced by lgnorlng posslble changes ln Lhe flow area of
aged plpes. ln parLlcular, reduclng Lhe plpe dlameLers of aged plpes was found Lo
reduce Lhe age of waLer wlLhln Lhe sample dlsLrlbuLlon sysLem by up Lo 10 and was
found Lo slgnlflcanLly lmpacL Lhe varlaLlon ln waLer age LhaL occurs as a resulL of
flucLuaLlons ln dally demand. Cb[ecLlves 3.a, 4, and 3 are all addressed by ChapLer lll.
ln ChapLer lv Lhe 8eynolds-Averaged navler-SLokes (8AnS) equaLlons for Lhree-
dlmenslonal flow are solved Lo compuLe flow Lhrough Lwo of Lhe aged plpes LhaL
prevlously underwenL laboraLory LesLlng. llow ln a 0.023-m (1-ln) plpe ls solved aL a
8eynolds number of 13,000, and a 0.030-m (2-ln) plpe ls solved aL 8eynolds numbers of
6700 and 31,000. 1hree Lurbulence models were applled Lo each flow scenarlo
lncludlng a 4-equaLlon model, and 2-equaLlon reallzable and
models. 1he 8AnS Lurbulence models calculaLed headloss dlrecLly based on Lhe flow ln
Lhe rough plpe. 1he calculaLed headloss was Lhen used Lo deLermlne a frlcLlon facLor for
each model and flow scenarlo, whlch was Lhen compared agalnsL Lhe laboraLory resulLs.
1he model was Lhe mosL accuraLe model for repllcaLlng Lhe laboraLory measured
frlcLlon facLors, glvlng values LhaL ranged from 3 hlgher Lo 13 lower. veloclLy proflles
are also presenLed, glvlng a demonsLraLlon of Lhe deLalled flow lnformaLlon LhaL can be
9

obLalned vla 8AnS Lurbulence modellng. ChapLer lv dlrecLly addresses Cb[ecLlves 2 and
3.b.
ln ChapLer v Lhe fllLered navler-SLokes equaLlons are solved Lo perform large
eddy slmulaLlon (LLS) on a 0.030-m (2-ln) plpe aL a 8eynolds number of 6800. Slmllar Lo
Lhe 8AnS Lurbulence modellng, Lhe headloss compuLed by Lhe LLS was used Lo
deLermlne a correspondlng frlcLlon facLor for comparlson agalnsL Lhe laboraLory resulLs.
1he LLS produced uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon facLors were 20 lower Lhan Lhe frlcLlon
facLors obLalned vla experlmenLal LesLlng. Whlle ChapLer v also addresses Cb[ecLlves 2
and 3.b (Lhe same ob[ecLlve addressed by ChapLer lv), Lhe purpose for lncludlng LLS ls Lo
demonsLraLe Lhe ablllLy of LLS Lo resolve Lhe LurbulenL flucLuaLlons of flow. 1hls added
capablllLy ls necessary for undersLandlng flow processes LhaL are dependenL on
Lurbulence. roflles of veloclLy and rooL-mean-square veloclLy flucLuaLlons were
presenLed, demonsLraLlng Lhe deLalled lnformaLlon obLalnable vla LLS.
roperly applled, Lhe lnformaLlon presenLed ln Lhls sLudy wlll lmprove Lhe
modellng of waLer quallLy (and perhaps oLher processes) wlLhln waLer dlsLrlbuLlon
sysLems. 1he deplcLlon of Lhe changes ln flow LhaL may occur ln aged plpes along wlLh
Lhe groundbreaklng appllcaLlons of Clu Lo Lhree-dlmenslonally lrregular surfaces add Lo
Lhe llsL of sLudy conLrlbuLlons as summarlzed below.
1. 1he effecL of aglng plpes on dlsLrlbuLlon hydraullcs has been ouLllned wlLh
respecL Lo modellng correcL waLer age
2. A meLhod for correcLlng Lhe dlameLers of aged plpes has been descrlbed
10

3. Clu has been used Lo compuLe flow ln an aged plpe for Lhe flrsL Llme
a. 8AnS
b. LLS
4. Clu has been demonsLraLed Lo be a useful meLhod for descrlblng flow over small
(=1-m or less) secLlons of Lhree-dlmenslonally lrregular plpes
Whlle neLwork dlsLrlbuLlon models and Clu models are used for seemlngly
dlsslmllar appllcaLlons and provlde dlfferenL Lypes of resulLs, Lhe Lwo caLegorles of
models can be used ln a compllmenLary manner. neLwork modellng can provlde Lhe
nodal heads and flow dlsLrlbuLlon wlLhln a plpe neLwork. uslng Lhe flow raLes from a
neLwork model, Clu can Lhen be used Lo lmprove Lhe undersLandlng of Lhe baslc
mechanlcs of Lhe processes LhaL occur as flow moves Lhrough an aged plpe.
lurLhermore, lmprovlng Lhe undersLandlng of Lhe baslc mechanlcs of flow processes wlll
enable Lhe developmenL of more descrlpLlve models.

11

CPA1L8 ll

8ACkC8Cunu

LaboraLory 1esLlng
Much research has been conducLed wlLh respecL Lo Lhe effecLs of aglng plpes on
waLer Lransmlsslon (cf. Colebrook and WhlLe 1937a, b, Wllllams and Pazen 1960,
Mamrelll and SLrelcher 1962, Sharp and Walskl 1988, 8oxall eL al. 2004). 1he
accumulaLlon of maLerlal on Lhe lnslde wall of dlsLrlbuLlon plpes has Lwo prlmary
effecLs: lncreased roughness and reduced plpe dlameLer (Colebrook 1937a). Powever,
as noLed prevlously, mosL aLLenLlon has been glven Lo Lhe changes LhaL occur ln
roughness, whlle very llLLle conslderaLlon has been glven Lo changes ln plpe dlameLer.
ln order Lo address Lhls deflclency, eleven aged plpes were locaLed, obLalned, and
sub[ecLed Lo laboraLory LesLlng. 1he plpe secLlons varled ln age from 23 Lo 30 years and
ln nomlnal dlameLer from 0.020-m (0.73-ln) Lo 0.100-m (4-ln). ln general for Lhe
plpes varled beLween 20 and 40 where represenLs plpe lengLh and represenLs plpe
dlameLer. 1he lnLernal volume of each plpe secLlon was deLermlned by fllllng Lhe plpe
secLlons wlLh waLer and measurlng Lhe waLer volume. LffecLlve plpe dlameLer was Lhen
back-calculaLed by manlpulaLlng Lhe equaLlon for Lhe volume of a cyllnder (
Lo solve for effecLlve dlameLer where ls Lhe volume of a cyllnder, ls Lhe
effecLlve dlameLer, and ls Lhe plpe lengLh. 1hus, Lhe effecLlve dlameLer represenLs Lhe
dlameLer of a smooLh cyllnder LhaL wlll have Lhe same lengLh and volume as Lhe plpe
LesL secLlon. 1he dlameLer raLlo, , was calculaLed by dlvldlng Lhls calculaLed effecLlve
12

dlameLer ( ) by Lhe lnslde plpe dlameLer ( ) as obLalned from a Lable of sLandard plpe
dlameLers for new plpe (ASML 2004). 1he resulLs are LabulaLed ln 1able 1 and faclllLaLe
assessmenL of Lhe degree Lo whlch Lhe lnLernal dlameLer of Lhe aged plpes changed as a
resulL of LuberculaLlon. lurLhermore, because of lnsufflclenL age daLa no efforL has
been made ln Lhls sLudy Lo use age as a deLermlnlng facLor ln esLlmaLlng plpe roughness.
ln addlLlon Lo Lhe volumeLrlc measuremenLs, hydraullc roughness LesLlng was
also performed. 1he hydraullc LesLlng was performed by lnsLalllng each aged plpe ln a
laboraLory LesL llne and measurlng Lhe headloss aL mulLlple flow raLes. 1he measured

1able 1: Summary of Aged lpes
|pe Sect|on |pe Descr|pt|on -meters (|n) -meters (|n)

1 galvanlzed sLeel 2.093L-2 (0.824) 1.949L-2 (0.767) 0.931
7 Lhln-walled sLeel 9.738L-2 (3.834) 9.483L-2 (3.733) 0.974
8 blLumlnous coal llned casL lron 1.023L-1 (4.026) 9.407L-2 (3.703) 0.920
13

values of headloss and flow raLe were Lhen used Lo calculaLe Pazen-Wllllams C values
for each plpe uslng Lhe Pazen-Wllllams equaLlon (LquaLlon 1).

(1)

where , , and are Lhe veloclLy, Pazen-Wllllams coefflclenL, and Lhe plpe dlameLer,
ls a consLanL LhaL depends on unlLs (1.318 for uS cusLomary unlLs), and ls Lhe slope of
Lhe energy grade llne (frlcLlon slope). ln addlLlon, frlcLlon facLors were compuLed uslng
Lhe uarcy-Welsbach equaLlon (LquaLlon 2)

(2)

where ls Lhe headloss due Lo frlcLlon, ls Lhe uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon facLor, and ls
Lhe acceleraLlon due Lo gravlLy wlLh oLher varlables as prevlously deflne. llgure 2 ls a
ploL of Pazen-Wllllams C versus 8eynolds number obLalned from Lhe headloss LesLlng
wlLh Lhe plpes labeled accordlng Lo 1able 1. A charL slmllar Lo llgure 2 buL uslng Lhe
uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon facLor ln place of Pazen-Wllllams C has been lncluded as llgure
30 ln Lhe Appendlx. Confldence lnLervals have been lncluded for Lhe roughness
coefflclenLs ln llgures 2 and 30. All confldence lnLervals were calculaLed by performlng
a rooL-mean-square error analysls uslng error progresslon based on Lhe maxlmum
expecLed errors for each laboraLory measured quanLlLy.
14

llgure 2: loL of Pazen-Wllllams C versus 8eynolds number wlLh confldence lnLervals

1he deLermlnaLlon of whlch roughness coefflclenL (Pazen-Wllllams C or uarcy-
Welsbach frlcLlon facLor) Lo use for a speclflc chapLer wlLhln Lhls reporL was based on
Lhe lnLended appllcaLlon and audlence. ChapLers lll, lv, and v have been wrlLLen as
Lechnlcal papers. ChapLer lll ls wrlLLen for an audlence wlLh experLlse ln Lhe fleld of
waLer dlsLrlbuLlon neLwork modellng and Pazen-Wllllams C has been used exLenslvely
LhroughouL LhaL chapLer. Cn Lhe oLher hand, ChapLers lv and v are wrlLLen for an
audlence wlLh experLlse ln compuLaLlonal fluld dynamlcs modellng and as a resulL make
use of Lhe uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon facLor.
30.0
30.0
70.0
90.0
110.0
130.0
130.0
0 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000
n
a
z
e
n
-
W
|
|
|
|
a
m
s

C
keyno|ds Number
#1
#2
#3
#4
#3
#6
#7
#8
#9
#10
#11
13

Clu Modellng
Clu modellng was also performed on plpes 3 and 6 (cf. 1able 1) wlLh nomlnal
dlameLers of 0.023-m (1-ln) and 0.030-m (2-ln), respecLlvely, uslng Lhe general purpose
Clu code lLuLn1 (lluenL 2006). 1he Lwo plpes were physlcally spllL longlLudlnally Lo
faclllLaLe hlgh resoluLlon laser scannlng of Lhe lnLernal plpe wall ln order Lo obLaln
accuraLe Lhree-dlmenslonal represenLaLlons of Lhe lnLernal wall proflles of each plpe.
AfLer scannlng, Lhe dlglLal halves of each plpe were recomblned and used Lo speclfy Lhe
wall boundary condlLlons ln performlng Clu modellng. Lach of Lhe dlglLlzed plpes was
modeled uslng Lurbulence models based on Lhe 8eynolds averaged navler-SLokes
(8AnS) equaLlons for Lhree-dlmenslonal fluld flow. 1he 0.023-m (1-ln) plpe was LesLed
aL a 8eynolds number of 13,000 whlle Lhe 0.030-m (2-ln) plpe was LesLed aL 8eynolds
numbers of 6700 and 31,000. Lach flow condlLlon was chosen Lo maLch a speclflc
laboraLory LesL run Lo faclllLaLe sLralghLforward comparlsons beLween laboraLory and
Clu resulLs. 1he baslc sLeps ln Lhe 8AnS modellng lncluded bulldlng a compuLaLlonal
mesh, developlng and speclfylng boundary condlLlons, and lLeraLlng Lo achleve
convergence. ueLalled explanaLlon of each sLep ls lncluded ln ChapLer lv. 1he sLeps ln
performlng Lhe large eddy slmulaLlon (LLS) were very slmllar Lo Lhose ouLllned for 8AnS.
Powever, LLS ls much more compuLaLlonally lnLenslve Lhan 8AnS. As a resulL, Lhe LLS
porLlon of Lhls sLudy was comprlsed of a slngle slmulaLlon uslng Lhe 0.030-m plpe aL a
8eynolds number of 6800. ChapLer v deLalls Lhe sLeps lnvolved ln performlng Lhe LLS.

16

CPA1L8 lll

lM8CvlnC WA1L8 CuALl1? MCuLLlnC ln S?S1LMS
CCn1AlnlnC 1u8L8CuLA1Lu lLS
1

AbsLracL
LaboraLory LesLlng was performed on aged plpes wlLh varylng degrees of
LurberculaLlon ln order Lo characLerlze Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween reduced plpe dlameLer
and Pazen-Wllllams C. 1hese resulLs, comblned wlLh a manlpulaLlon of Lhe Pazen-
Wllllams equaLlon, provlded a slmple and dlrecL meLhod for addresslng poLenLlal
changes ln plpe dlameLer. 1hls meLhod was Lhen applled Lo a neLwork model uslng
LAnL1 2. 1he neLwork modellng appllcaLlon demonsLraLes Lhe magnlLudes and Lypes
of errors LhaL can be lnLroduced Lo waLer age ln a neLwork model by lgnorlng posslble
changes ln Lhe flow area of aged plpes. Speclflcally, lL was found LhaL Lhe largesL error
lnLroduced was ln Lhe paLLern of flucLuaLlons LhaL occurs as dlfferenL source waLers
moved Lhrough Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon sysLem.

lnLroducLlon
WaLer dlsLrlbuLlon neLworks are complex sysLems made up of plpes, valves,
sLorage Lanks, and pumps - along wlLh many oLher parLs. uue Lo Lhe complexlLy of
waLer dlsLrlbuLlon neLworks, lL ls very dlfflculL Lo comprehend Lhelr operaLlon [usL by
revlewlng a neLwork schemaLlc. neLwork models have become a valuable Lool ln

1
CoauLhored by 8yan 1. ChrlsLensen, SLeven L. 8arfuss, .L., and Mlchael C. !ohnson, h.u., .L.
17

undersLandlng Lhe day Lo day and exLreme evenL operaLlons of neLworks and for
lnvesLlgaLlng Lhe response of a neLwork Lo varlous scenarlos. ln recenL years Lhere has
been rapld growLh ln Lhe usage of neLwork models, sLlll, Lhere are several dlfflculLles
faced ln developlng accuraLe models. Cne of Lhe mosL slgnlflcanL dlfflculLles ls Lhe
acqulslLlon of adequaLe daLa (e.g. nodal heads, flow dlsLrlbuLlon, plpe characLerlsLlcs,
eLc.) ln order Lo accuraLely characLerlze plpe neLworks. 1hls challenge arlses as a resulL
of lncompleLe records, undocumenLed changes, and because plpe properLles such as
roughness and flow area may change as cerLaln Lypes of plpes age. 1he degree Lo whlch
age based degradaLlon occurs ls hlghly dependenL on waLer quallLy, plpe maLerlal, and
Lhe Lype of coaLlng applled Lo a plpe (Colebrook and WhlLe 1937a, Wllllams and Pazen
1960, LamonL 1981, Sharp and Walskl 1988). 1he reconclllaLlon of lnaccuraLe neLwork
daLa ls generally accompllshed Lhrough a process of callbraLlon whereby physlcal daLa
(such as nodal head values) are measured wlLhln a neLwork and compared Lo slmulaLed
values obLalned from a neLwork model. 8y comparlng Lhe measured values Lo Lhe
slmulaLed values and ad[usLlng Lhe physlcal aLLrlbuLes of Lhe neLwork model lL ls
posslble Lo lmprove Lhe correlaLlon beLween Lhe neLwork model and Lhe acLual neLwork
by ldenLlfylng and recLlfylng lnconslsLencles ln Lhe neLwork model. 1hroughouL Lhls
process, lL ls of vlLal lmporLance Lo ensure LhaL any changes made Lo Lhe lnpuL
parameLers of a dlsLrlbuLlon neLwork are [usLlflable based on Lhe supporLlng evldence
(Plrrel 2008).
18

Whlle developlng an accuraLe hydraullc model ls a necessary parL of modellng
waLer quallLy, neLwork models LhaL wlll be used Lo model waLer quallLy have speclal
requlremenLs versus Lhose LhaL wlll only be used Lo model hydraullc condlLlons.
neLwork models LhaL focus on modellng hydraullcs are commonly callbraLed by
comparlng Lhe nodal heads wlLhln Lhe hydraullc model Lo heads measured ln Lhe plpe
neLwork and ad[usLlng Lhe frlcLlon coefflclenLs of plpes wlLhln Lhe neLwork so LhaL Lhe
modeled and measured values are wlLhln an accepLable Lolerance of error. uurlng Lhls
process, poLenLlal changes ln plpe dlameLer are normally glven llLLle conslderaLlon
(8oxall eL al. 2004, Walskl 2004). AlLhough Lhls meLhod ls usually saLlsfacLory for
slLuaLlons ln whlch a model wlll be used for slmulaLlng pressures and flre flows, Lhls
procedure does noL accounL for posslble changes ln flow area resulLlng from plpe age
and as a resulL may noL model Lhe approprlaLe waLer veloclLles needed for Lhe accuraLe
modellng of waLer age. Moreover, many waLer quallLy problems lncludlng dlslnfecLanL
decay, dlslnfecLlon by-producL formaLlon, and LasLe and odor problems have been
assoclaLed wlLh Lhe resldence Llme of waLer ln dlsLrlbuLlon sysLems (AWWA and LLS
2002). 8esearch by Pallam eL al. (2002) and Clark and PaughL (2003) has also lndlcaLed
LhaL chlorlne decay raLe ls a funcLlon of veloclLy. Whlle Lhls research ls noL commonly
applled ln Lhe currenL neLwork models, fuLure models may accounL for Lhls dependence
whlch would furLher relnforce Lhe lmporLance of accuraLely modellng waLer veloclLy. ln
order Lo address Lhese lssues, several sLudles have suggesLed Lhe need Lo ad[usL Lhe
19

dlameLer of aged plpes LhaL have slgnlflcanLly reduced flow areas when modellng waLer
quallLy (SklpworLh eL al. 2002, Awwa8l 2004, 8oxall eL al. 2004, AWWA 2003).
lor example, 8oxall eL al. (2004) recommended Lhe assumpLlon LhaL a 1-mm
effecLlve roughness helghL ls equal Lo a 2-mm loss ln dlameLer. Whlle Lhls approach
may be accuraLe ln some cases, lL ls lmporLanL Lo remember LhaL Lhe early LesLs upon
whlch Lhe ldea of effecLlve roughness helghL ls based were performed uslng sand gralns
as Lhe roughness elemenLs (nlkuradse 1933, randLl 1933, Colebrook and WhlLe 1937b).
As a resulL, oLher Lypes of roughness elemenLs may noL have a dlrecL physlcal
correlaLlon wlLh effecLlve roughness helghL. SLlll, a correlaLlon beLween roughness and
area reducLlon would be very useful for aged plpes. Powever, such a correlaLlon cannoL
be obLalned from roughness LesLlng performed on arblLrary surfaces, buL lnsLead
requlres Lhe LesLlng of acLual aged plpes.
lnLeresL ln waLer quallLy modellng ls lncreaslng. Cne porLlon of a 1999 survey
commlssloned by Lhe AWWA Lnglneerlng and CompuLer AppllcaLlons CommlLLee soughL
Lo deLermlne currenL and planned appllcaLlons for waLer quallLy modellng (AWWA
2003). Among Lhe appllcaLlons clLed by survey respondenLs were: replaclng waLer
quallLy monlLorlng wlLh modellng, obLalnlng operaLlonal lnformaLlon, lnvesLlgaLlon of
waLer age, and locaLlng and slzlng sLorage Lanks. CrowLh ln Lhe fleld of waLer quallLy
modellng ls expecLed Lo conLlnue. Powever, Lhe poLenLlal changes LhaL can occur ln
aged plpes conLlnue Lo be a challenge ln developlng accuraLe neLwork models,
especlally wlLh respecL Lo accuraLely modellng waLer age. 1he ob[ecLlve of Lhls paper ls
20

Lo provlde guldance LhaL wlll enable sysLem modelers Lo lmprove Lhelr esLlmaLes of
waLer age ln neLworks wlLh degraded plpes. LaboraLory LesLlng has been used Lo assess
Lhe changes LhaL occur ln aged plpes. 1he laboraLory LesL resulLs are presenLed and Lhe
effecLs of Lhese changes on modellng waLer age were explored by applylng Lhe flndlngs
of Lhe laboraLory LesLlng Lo a plpe neLwork.

LaboraLory 1esLlng
LaboraLory LesLlng was conducLed ln order Lo evaluaLe Lhe hydraullc and physlcal
characLerlsLlcs of secLlons of aged plpe. 1he prlmary ob[ecLlve of Lhe physlcal LesLlng
was Lo lnvesLlgaLe meLhods for esLlmaLlng Lhe amounL of area reducLlon and Lo
deLermlne Lhe amounL of headloss presenL ln Lhe aged plpes. Lleven aged plpe secLlons
were obLalned from waLer uLlllLles and sub[ecLed Lo physlcal LesLlng. 1he plpe secLlons
varled ln age from 23 Lo 30 years and ln nomlnal dlameLer from 0.73-ln Lo 4-ln. 1he
ma[orlLy of Lhe plpe secLlons varled ln lengLh from 20 Lo 40 plpe dlameLers. MosL were
acqulred when uLlllLles were repalrlng or replaclng a plpe secLlon. 1esLlng was
performed ln order Lo deLermlne an effecLlve dlameLer and Lo evaluaLe Lhe roughness of
each plpe secLlon. lor Lhls purpose, Lhe lnLernal volume of each plpe secLlon was
deLermlned by fllllng Lhe plpe secLlons wlLh waLer and Lhen measurlng Lhe volume of
Lhe waLer. An average plpe dlameLer was Lhen back calculaLed uslng Lhe volume of Lhe
waLer and Lhe plpe lengLh wlLh Lhe assumpLlon of a clrcular plpe cross secLlon. 1he
dlameLer raLlo, d/u, was obLalned by dlvldlng Lhls calculaLed average dlameLer (d) by
Lhe lnslde plpe dlameLer (u) ln lLs new condlLlon as obLalned from a Lable of sLandard
21

plpe dlameLers for new plpe (ASML 2004). 1he sLandard plpe dlameLer was used
because lL ls generally easy Lo obLaln and ln many cases represenLs Lhe besL avallable
esLlmaLe for Lhe orlglnal plpe dlameLer LhaL would be avallable Lo a dlsLrlbuLlon sysLem
modeler. 1able 2 provldes a summary of Lhe aged plpe secLlons LesLed durlng Lhls sLudy.
A d/u value of 0.93 lndlcaLes LhaL a plpe's dlameLer has been reduced by 3. 8ecause
Lhe veloclLy for a glven flow raLe ls lnversely proporLlonal Lo Lhe square of plpe
dlameLer, a 3 reducLlon ln dlameLer wlll resulL ln an lncrease of 10.8 ln veloclLy for

1able 2: uescrlpLlon of Aged lpes
|pe Sect|on |pe Descr|pt|on D (|n) d (|n) d]D
ercent keduct|on
|n I|ow Area
1 galvanlzed sLeel 0.824 0.767 0.931 13
6 galvanlzed sLeel 2.067 1.970 0.933 9.2
7 Lhln-walled sLeel 3.834 3.733 0.974 3.1
8 blLumlnous coal llned casL lron 4.026 3.703 0.920 13
9 blLumlnous coal llned casL lron 4.026 4.017 0.998 0.40
10 blLumlnous coal llned casL lron 4.026 4.022 0.999 0.20
11 blLumlnous coal llned casL lron 4.026 4.026 1.00 0

22

LhaL flow raLe. 1hus, changes LhaL occur ln plpe dlameLer resulL ln comparaLlvely larger
changes ln veloclLy. 8ased on Lhe physlcal LesLlng performed durlng Lhls research, Lhe
plpe sample wlLh Lhe largesL reducLlon ln flow area was esLlmaLed Lo have losL 23 of lLs
area as compared Lo a new plpe. Modellng Lhls plpe wlLhouL accounLlng for changes ln
flow area would resulL ln modeled flow veloclLles belng 23 lower Lhan acLual
veloclLles. 1hree of Lhe plpes LhaL were LesLed durlng Lhls sLudy had flow area
reducLlons of less Lhan 1 whlle Lhe remalnlng seven losL beLween 3.1 and 16 of
Lhelr new plpe flow area.
AfLer deLermlnlng Lhe effecLlve dlameLer, hydraullc roughness LesLlng was
performed. 1he hydraullc LesLlng was carrled ouL by lnsLalllng each aged plpe secLlon ln
a laboraLory LesL llne and esLabllshlng a consLanL flow raLe Lhrough Lhe plpe. 1he
headloss due Lo frlcLlon across Lhe plpe and Lhe flow raLe were measure. 1he measured
values of headloss and flow raLe were Lhen used Lo calculaLe a Pazen-Wllllams C (based
on Lhe effecLlve plpe dlameLer ) for each plpe. llgure 3 ls a ploL of Lhe relaLlonshlp
found beLween d/u and Pazen-Wllllams C for Lhe eleven plpes (for a slmllar ploL ln
Lerms of Lhe uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon facLor refer Lo llgure 31 ln Lhe Appendlx). lL can
be seen LhaL as Lhe d/u raLlo decreases Lhe roughness of Lhe plpes lncreases. lnlLlally,
from Lhe plpe's new condlLlon wlLh d/u = 1, Pazen-Wllllams C drops rapldly compared
Lo small decreases ln d/u. Powever, below d/u = 0.97 Lhe relaLlonshlp has a much
mllder slope. A Lrend llne has been added over Lhe mlld porLlon of Lhe curve for d/u <
0.97, however, Lhls ls a prellmlnary Lrend llne lncluded for convenlence ln Lhls work. As
23

llgure 3: loL of d/u versus Pazen-Wllllams C

a resulL, cauLlon should be exerclsed ln lLs general appllcaLlon Lo aged plpes. Lach
clusLer of polnLs ln llgure 3 represenLs LesLlng on a slngle plpe secLlon aL mulLlple flow
veloclLles. 8esulLs for dlfferenL veloclLles have been lncluded so LhaL Lhe reader ls aware
of Lhe changes observed ln Pazen-Wllllams C as a funcLlon of veloclLy. Speclflcally, Lhe
dependence of Lhe Pazen-Wllllams C facLor on veloclLy ls less for cases where Lhe
Pazen-Wllllams C ls below 90 as opposed Lo Lhe cases where C ls greaLer Lhan 90. Also,
lL ls lmporLanL Lo noLe LhaL many of Lhe plpe secLlons LesLed durlng Lhls sLudy were
chosen because Lhey showed vlslble slgns of age relaLed degradaLlon. Accordlngly, Lhls
subseL of plpes ls noL expecLed Lo be generally represenLaLlve of Lhe roughness of plpes
y = 403.86x - 309.96
0
20
40
60
80
100
120
140
160
0.860 0.880 0.900 0.920 0.940 0.960 0.980 1.000 1.020
n
a
z
e
n
-
W
|
|
|
|
a
m
s

C
d]D
2.3 fps 3.0 fps 7.3 fps 10 fps Llnear flL for d/u < 0.97
24

ln dlsLrlbuLlon neLworks buL raLher ls used Lo lllusLraLe Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween plpe
roughness and dlameLer reducLlon.

lpe neLwork AppllcaLlon
#$%&'() *$+',-%(.%/',. ln order Lo show Lhe effecLs of area reducLlon on Lhe
accuracy of a plpe neLwork model, Lhe resulLs of Lhe physlcal LesLs were applled Lo an
example plpe neLwork uslng LAnL1 2 (uSLA 2000). 1he ob[ecLlve of Lhe plpe neLwork
appllcaLlon ls Lo demonsLraLe how Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween d/u and C facLor can be
applled durlng Lhe callbraLlon of a neLwork model. ln order Lo accompllsh Lhls, Lhe
sample neLwork was flrsL modeled wlLh very low C facLors buL wlLhouL addresslng
poLenLlal changes ln plpe dlameLer. nexL, plpe dlameLer changes were addressed
accordlng Lo Lhe resulLs presenLed ln llgure 3 and Lhe modellng of Lhe sample neLwork
was repeaLed. 1he resulLs obLalned from each model were compared ln order Lo assess
Lhe lmporLance of ad[usLlng plpe dlameLers. ln order Lo dlfferenLlaLe beLween Lhe Lwo
neLworks, Case 1 wlll refer Lo Lhe condlLlon where only C facLors were reduced and Case
2 wlll refer Lo Lhe condlLlon where dlameLer and C facLor were boLh ad[usLed. 1he
followlng secLlons provlde background lnformaLlon regardlng Lhe sample neLwork,
descrlbe how C facLors were reduced for Case 1, and presenL Lhe process used ln
reduclng plpe dlameLers Lo obLaln Lhe neLwork for Case 2.
0.+12$ 1/1$ ,$%&'(). 1he sample neLwork ls a hydraullcally lsolaLed porLlon of
an acLual neLwork. 1he neLwork has one reservolr, one sLorage Lank, one pressure
23

llgure 4: neLwork model uLlllzed for slmulaLlons - red lndlcaLes [uncLlons where hydranL
demands were slmulaLed, black [uncLlons represenL monlLorlng locaLlons

llgure 3: lpe slze dlsLrlbuLlon for Lhe sample neLwork

release valve, and Lwo pumps as shown ln llgure 4. 1he sample neLwork has 137 nodes
and 139 plpes wlLh a slze dlsLrlbuLlon as shown ln llgure 3.
0
20
40
60
80
2 4 6 8 12
C
o
u
n
t
|pe D|ameter (|nches)
1 8eservolr
2 umps

ressure 8elease valve

!-22432
!-23937
!-23934
SLorage 1ank

!-22470
!-19332
!-22321
!-22436
!-19633
!-22432
!-22433
26

3.-$ 45 ($*67$ 3 8.7%'(-. When new, Lhe plpes ln Lhe sample neLwork would be
expecLed Lo have C facLors ln Lhe range of C = 130 - 140. Powever, ln order Lo slmulaLe
severe age degradaLlon Lhe C facLor of each plpe ln Lhe sample neLwork was reduced Lo
63. A C facLor of 63 ls roughly cenLered along Lhe Lrend llne ln llgure 3 for d/u < 0.97.
Whlle uslng Lhe same C facLor for every plpe ls a slmpllflcaLlon ln LhaL small plpes
generally show more pronounced age relaLed degradaLlon Lhan large plpes (Wllllams
and Pazen 1960), Lhls assumpLlon does noL affecL Lhe valldlLy of Lhe procedure
presenLed ln Lhls analysls. 1he sample neLwork wlLh reduced C facLors represenLs an
aged neLwork LhaL has been callbraLed uslng nodal heads wlLhouL conslderaLlon for any
changes ln dlameLer LhaL may have occurred durlng Lhe aglng process.
1wo Lypes of neLwork slmulaLlons were Lhen run on Lhe aged neLwork. llrsL, flre
hydranL LesLlng was slmulaLed. 1he hydranL slmulaLlons conslsLed of Lhree hours of
regular operaLlon followed by one hour wlLh a 230 gpm hydranL LesL, one hour aL 300
gpm, and one hour aL 730 gpm followed by four hours of regular operaLlon. 1hls
process was repeaLed aL Lhree dlfferenL locaLlons ln order Lo ensure LhaL Lhere was aL
leasL one run for each of Lhe seven monlLorlng nodes LhaL produced sufflclenL headloss
ln order Lo adequaLely assess callbraLlon. nexL, exLended perlod slmulaLlons were
performed under condlLlons slmulaLlng normal dally operaLlons.
3.-$ 95 .*:6-% 1/1$ */.+$%$(-. 1he neLwork wlLh reduced C facLors was modlfled
ln order Lo conslder dlameLer reducLlon. 1he developmenL of Lhe meLhod used ln
27

esLlmaLlng reduced plpe dlameLers ls deLalled below and concludes wlLh a shorL
example.
1he Pazen-Wllllams equaLlon can be wrlLLen as

(3)

where , , and are Lhe veloclLy (fL/s), Pazen-Wllllams coefflclenL, and Lhe plpe
dlameLer (fL), ls a consLanL LhaL depends on unlLs, and ls Lhe slope of Lhe energy
grade llne (frlcLlon slope). 8ewrlLlng LquaLlon 3 ln Lerms of flow and deflnlng a new
consLanL (abouL 0.432 when lengLh and flow are measured ln feeL and cfs
respecLlvely) for all of Lhe consLanLs glves LquaLlon 4.

(4)

CallbraLlon daLa provlde a descrlpLlon of Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween Lhe flow raLe
(cfs) and Lhe slope of Lhe energy grade llne ( ). Powever, because of poLenLlal
changes ln plpe dlameLer Lhere are sLlll Lwo unknowns ln LquaLlon 4: dlameLer and C
facLor. Cne of Lhe easlesL ways Lo address Lhls problem ls Lo slmply assume LhaL plpe
dlameLers are unchanged whlch Lhen allows dlrecL compuLaLlon of C facLor. Powever,
employlng Lhls meLhod has Lhe aforemenLloned dlsadvanLage of modellng lncorrecL
veloclLles. LquaLlon 4 may be rewrlLLen ln Lerms of an unknown aged plpe dlameLer as
shown:

28

(3)

where ls Lhe Pazen-Wllllams based on a reduced dlameLer and ls Lhe reduced
dlameLer. LquaLlon 3 can be seL equal Lo LquaLlon 4 and Lhe ensulng slmpllflcaLlons
lead Lo

(6)

1he mosL lmporLanL observaLlon from LquaLlon 6 ls LhaL for any known values of
and , an lnflnlLe number of correspondlng palrs of and exlsL LhaL wlll resulL ln
an ldenLlcal relaLlonshlp beLween flow raLe and energy slope as Lhe orlglnal and .
Whlle LquaLlon 6 ls lnLeresLlng on an academlc level, lLs pracLlcal value ls llmlLed. Whlle
Lhere are an lnflnlLe number of palrs LhaL provlde Lhe proper relaLlonshlp beLween flow
raLe and headloss, only one palr resulLs ln Lhe correcL veloclLy for a glven plpe and Lhe
arblLrary selecLlon of LhaL correcL palr ls problemaLlc wlLhouL addlLlonal lnformaLlon.
1he addlLlonal lnformaLlon ls provlded by Lhe Lrend shown ln llgure 3:

(7)

When comblned, LquaLlons 6 and 7 allow dlrecL soluLlon of Lhe correcL and
values based on Lhe laboraLory experlmenLs of aged plpes. A convenlenL byproducL of
Lhe descrlbed formulaLlon ls LhaL neLwork models can flrsL be callbraLed for headloss by
only changlng C facLors. LaLer, lf necessary, dlameLer correcLlons can be applled
29

reLroacLlvely Lo lmprove Lhe modellng of waLer age wlLhouL affecLlng Lhe orlglnal
callbraLlon for headloss. CallbraLlon of a waLer dlsLrlbuLlon neLwork would be carrled
ouL ln Lhe followlng manner: flrsL, callbraLe Lhe neLwork based solely on headloss, nexL
revlew Lhe C facLors Lo deLermlne lf Lhe roughness ls sufflclenL Lo merlL Lhe reducLlon of
plpe dlameLer, and lf reducLlons are [usLlfled, use equaLlons 4 and 3 Lo deLermlne
and for Lhe plpes. 1he followlng example demonsLraLes Lhe lmplemenLaLlon of Lhls
meLhod.

Lxample 1
Conslder a case wlLh a slngle plpe connecLlng Lwo nodes ln a neLwork. 1he slope
of Lhe energy grade llne ( ) beLween Lhe nodes ls 0.00308, Lhe flow raLe ( ) ls 90
gpm (0.2 cfs), and Lhe lnslde dlameLer ( ) of Lhe plpe when new was 6-ln (0.3-fL).
Powever, Lhe plpe has an unknown reduced dlameLer ( ) as a resulL of aglng.
uslng LquaLlon 4 wlLh Lhe assumpLlon LhaL Lhe new plpe dlameLer ls appllcable
glves . Powever, a qulck check of llgure 3 lndlcaLes LhaL for an
appreclable reducLlon ln dlameLer wlll have occurred. nexL, LquaLlon 7 ls solved
for d/u and subsLlLuLed lnLo equaLlon 4 whlch allows easy calculaLlon of
. LlLher LquaLlon 6 or 7 may Lhen be used Lo deLermlne Lhe approprlaLe d/u
(for Lhls example 0.931). 1he lasL sLep ls Lo mulLlply Lhe value of d/u by Lhe
orlglnal plpe dlameLer ln order Lo deLermlne Lhe reduced dlameLer whlch ln Lhls
example ls 3.71-ln. 1hus, ln order Lo compensaLe for area reducLlon Lhe plpe
30

dlameLer should be reduced from 6-ln Lo 3.71-ln and Lhe C facLor lncreased from
63 Lo 74.

Whlle Lxample 1 ls a slmpllfled case applled Lo a slngle plpe [olnlng Lwo nodes, Lhe same
meLhod can be applled Lo a large plpe neLwork. lurLhermore, Lhe meLhod formulaLlon
guaranLeelng Lhe flow raLe versus headloss relaLlonshlp wlll be unchanged by dlameLer
changes ls very beneflclal. 1hls enables a modeler Lo flrsL callbraLe a neLwork model
based on headloss and flow dlsLrlbuLlon and Lhen ad[usL plpe dlameLers as necessary Lo
lmprove Lhe modellng of waLer age wlLhouL changlng Lhe sLaLus of a model's orlglnal
callbraLlon.
Case 1 was modlfled Lo obLaln Case 2 uslng Lhe procedure ouLllned ln Lxample 1.
llre hydranL and exLended perlod slmulaLlons were repeaLed for Case 2. Comparlson of
Lhe flre hydranL LesLlng resulLs obLalned from Cases 1 and 2 provlded verlflcaLlon LhaL
Lhe Lwo neLworks produced Lhe same nodal heads and flow dlsLrlbuLlon. Comparlson of
Lhe resulLs from exLended perlod slmulaLlons allowed evaluaLlon of Lhe lmporLance of
addresslng poLenLlal changes ln plpe dlameLer when modellng waLer age.
3'+1.(/-', '8 ($-62%-. 1he C facLor and dlameLer reducLlon LhaL were applled Lo
Lhe dlameLer reduced neLwork were wlLh a d/u raLlo of 0.931 (see Lxample 1).
A d/u raLlo of 0.931 corresponds Lo a 9.3 reducLlon ln flow area. llgure 6 ls a ploL of
Lhe head aL node !-23937 whlle slmulaLlng flre hydranL LesLlng aL node !-23934. As
expecLed, Lhe nodal heads ln Cases 1 and 2 were found Lo be ldenLlcal wlLhln roundlng
error. lurLhermore, Lhe correlaLlon for head shown ln llgure 6 was Lyplcal of Lhe
31

llgure 6: Pead aL node !-23937 whlle slmulaLlng flre hydranL LesLlng aL !-23934

correlaLlon beLween Cases 1 and 2 for nodal heads and flow dlsLrlbuLlon for each of Lhe
monlLorlng nodes. 1hls demonsLraLes LhaL Lhe appllcaLlon of Lhe meLhod ouLllned ln
Lxample 1 allows ad[usLmenL of plpe dlameLers and C facLors wlLhouL changlng Lhe
callbraLlon sLaLus of a neLwork model LhaL has already been callbraLed.
AfLer demonsLraLlng LhaL Case 2 malnLalned Lhe same nodal heads and flow
dlsLrlbuLlon as Case1, Lhe exLended perlod slmulaLlons were conducLed ln order Lo
ldenLlfy Lhe changes LhaL occur ln waLer age as a resulL of reduclng plpe dlameLers.
llgure 7 shows a ploL of waLer age ln Lhe sLorage Lank. 8educlng Lhe plpe dlameLer led
Lo a reducLlon of 6.8 ln Lhe modeled peak waLer age ln Lhe sLorage Lank whlle reduclng
Lhe mlnlmum waLer age by 7.2. llgure 8 ls a ploL of waLer age versus Llme aL node !-
22432. 1he relaLlonshlp beLween waLer age and Llme shown ln llgure 8 ls Lyplcal of
mosL of Lhe monlLorlng nodes ln Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon sysLem. ln general, Lhe peak waLer age
aL Lhe monlLorlng nodes was decreased by 6.7-8.4 and Lhe mlnlmum waLer age was
7700
7730
7800
7830
7900
7930
8000
0:00 2:00 4:00 6:00 8:00 10:00 12:00
n
e
a
d

(
f
t
)
1|me (h:mm)
Case 1 (C = 63, dlameLer unchanged) Case 2 (C = 74, dlameLer reduced)
32

llgure 7: WaLer age ln Lhe sLorage Lank

decreased by 7.4-10 (wlLh one excepLlon as noLed ln Lhe followlng paragraphs). 1hese
values are reasonable conslderlng Lhe 9.3 reducLlon ln flow area caused by applylng
Lhe d/u raLlo of 0.931. 1he reducLlon ln peak waLer age ls generally smaller Lhan Lhe
reducLlon ln mlnlmum waLer age because of Lhe lnfluence of Lhe sLorage Lank. 8educlng
plpe dlameLers affecLs Lravel Llmes buL noL Lhe Llme Lhe waLer spends ln sLorage.
lurLhermore, lL can be seen LhaL Lhe varlable wlLh Lhe mosL lmpacL on waLer age ls

llgure 8: WaLer age versus Llme aL node !-22432
290
300
310
320
330
340
330
18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00
W
a
t
e
r

A
g
e

(
h
r
)
1|me (h:mm)
case 1 (C = 63, dlameLer unchanged) case 2 (C = 74, dlameLer reduced)
0
100
200
300
400
18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00
W
a
t
e
r

A
g
e

(
h
r
)
1|me (h:mm)
33

waLer source: wheLher Lhe waLer ls comlng dlrecLly from Lhe reservolr or dlrecLly from
Lhe sLorage Lank. ln llgure 8 lL can be seen LhaL Lhe x-axls offseL beLween waLer age
peaks for Case 1 and Case 2 ls falrly small (~1:20). 1hls ls because Lhe Lravel Llme from
Lhe sLorage Lank Lo node !-22432 ls relaLlvely shorL. llgure 9 lllusLraLes Lhe much larger
(~8:40) offseL LhaL occurs aL node !-22436. 8ecause of Lhe longer Lravel Llme, lgnorlng
changes ln plpe dlameLer would have a much larger effecL aL node !-22436 Lhan aL node
!-22432. 1hls demonsLraLes LhaL changlng plpe dlameLers can have a large effecL on Lhe
flucLuaLlons ln waLer age LhaL occur due Lo changes ln Lhe operaLlonal sLaLus of pumps
and sLorage Lanks. 1he slLuaLlon becomes even more complex when comblnlng
operaLlonal varlables and looplng plpe sLrucLures as shown ln llgure 10. uue Lo Lhe
Lravel Llmes of waLer orlglnaLlng from Lhe reservolr and Lhe sLorage Lank and Lhe mlxlng
LhaL occurs aL varlous nodes, Lhe waLer age versus Llme relaLlonshlp aL node !-22432 ls
very complex and varles slgnlflcanLly beLween Lhe Lwo neLworks. lL ls also noLable LhaL

0
100
200
300
400
300
18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00
W
a
t
e
r

A
g
e

(
h
r
)
1|me (h:mm)
34


Lhls was Lhe slngle monlLorlng node where applylng dlameLer reducLlons lead Lo an
lncrease ln mlnlmum waLer age.
ln summary, Lwo slgnlflcanL dlfferences are observed ln neLworks as a resulL of
reduclng plpe dlameLers Lo compensaLe for aged plpe as opposed Lo only reduclng C
facLors: waLer age ls reduced and Lhe paLLern and Llmlng of Lhe flucLuaLlons LhaL occur
as a resulL of Lhe changlng operaLlonal sLaLus of pumps and sLorage Lanks ls alLered. 1he
largesL age reducLlons for Lhe sample neLwork were observed Lo be abouL 10. lor
appllcaLlons where modellng Lhe paLLern of Lhe changes ln waLer age ls cruclal uslng Lhe
correcL plpe dlameLer ls especlally crlLlcal.

Concluslons
Whlle many researchers have noLed Lhe lmporLance of uslng accuraLe plpe
dlameLers for modellng waLer quallLy, Lhls can be a very dlfflculL Lask Lo lmplemenL ln
pracLlce. 1hls paper has presenLed daLa LhaL quanLlfy Lhe degree Lo whlch dlameLer and
0
100
200
300
400
300
600
18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00 18:00 0:00 6:00 12:00
W
a
t
e
r

A
g
e

(
h
r
)
1|me (h:mm)
33

veloclLy changed ln several aged plpes as well as ouLllned a process for applylng Lhese
daLa ln Lhe callbraLlon of plpe neLwork models. 1he meLhod of appllcaLlon has been
shown Lo be useable wlLhouL affecLlng Lhe currenL callbraLlon sLaLus of a neLwork model
LhaL has been callbraLed for nodal heads and flow dlsLrlbuLlon. AlLhough Lhe Lrend
shown ln llgure 3 ls noL expecLed Lo be descrlpLlve of all aged plpes, lL acLs as a useful
guldellne for modelers worklng wlLh aged neLworks. Modelers should be especlally
cauLlous when applylng Lhe Lrend ln llgure 3 Lo plpes LhaL are conslderably larger Lhan
Lhe plpes analyzed for Lhls sLudy. Moreover, Lhe domlnanL process causlng lncreased
roughness and dlameLer reducLlon ln Lhe plpes analyzed for Lhls sLudy was lron
corroslon. CLher degradaLlon processes (calclum scale bulldup, blofllm formaLlon, eLc.)
may noL follow Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween d/u and C facLor descrlbed by Lhe Lrend llne ln
llgure 3.
1he plpe neLwork appllcaLlon hlghllghLs some of Lhe lnaccuracles lnLroduced by
noL accounLlng for dlameLer changes ln plpes. llrsL, applylng Lhe daLa ln an example
sysLem resulLed ln a decrease of 6.7-8.4 ln peak waLer age and a decrease of 7.2-10
ln Lhe mlnlmum waLer age. ln addlLlon, Lhe reducLlons ln Lravel Llme were found Lo
produce several lnLeresLlng changes ln Lhe paLLerns of waLer age LhaL occurred as a
resulL of Lhe changlng operaLlonal sLaLus of Lhe sLorage Lank. AlLhough Lhe speclflc
resulLs ln Lhls sLudy are noL dlrecLly appllcable Lo oLher dlsLrlbuLlon neLworks, Lhe
meLhods used hereln provlde guldance on lmprovlng Lhe callbraLlon of a neLwork LhaL
conLalns degraded plpe. 1he resulLs from Lhls sLudy lllusLraLe LhaL lL ls lmporLanL Lo be
36

mlndful of Lhe dlscrepancles LhaL can arlse lf changes ln Lhe flow area of an aged plpe
are lgnored when modellng waLer age. Applylng Lhese resulLs ln Lhe rlghL manner can
lmprove Lhe modellng of waLer quallLy by lmprovlng Lhe accuracy of modeled waLer
ages.
37

CPA1L8 lv

ALlCA1lCn Cl 1P8LL 8AnS 1u88uLLnCL MCuLLS
1C ACLu WA1L8 18AnSMlSSlCn lLS
2

AbsLracL
1he 8eynolds-Averaged navler-SLokes equaLlons were solved Lo model flow
Lhrough Lwo aged plpes aL 8eynolds numbers ranglng from 6700 Lo 31,000. 1urbulence
models employed lnclude a 4-equaLlon model, and 2-equaLlon reallzable
and models. Lach of Lhe aged plpes was prevlously sub[ecLed Lo experlmenLal
LesLlng. 1he Lurbulence model was found Lo more accuraLely reproduce
experlmenLal resulLs compared Lo Lhe reallzable and Lurbulence models.
Cverall, Lhe model produced uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon facLors ranglng from 3
hlgher Lo 13 lower Lhan Lhe values obLalned from experlmenLal LesLlng. Much of Lhe
error ls llkely aLLrlbuLable Lo deflclencles ln modellng complex flow sLrucLures wlLh flow
separaLlon and wall roughness elemenLs smaller Lhan Lhe grld scale.

lnLroducLlon
lrregular Lhree-dlmenslonal boundarles exlsL ln a varleLy of englneerlng
appllcaLlons. lrequenLly, hydraullc surfaces LhaL were orlglnally manufacLured smooLh
can develop lrregular surfaces over Llme as a resulL of corroslon, deposlLlon, and
accreLlon. 1hese degradaLlon processes commonly occur ln plpes used Lo LransporL

2
CoauLhored by 8yan 1. ChrlsLensen, 8oberL L. Spall, h.u., and SLeven L. 8arfuss, .L.
38

flulds, where Lhe domlnanL process ls a funcLlon of plpe maLerlal, fluld properLles, and
Lhe presence of suspended maLerlal ln Lhe fluld flow. Cne common slLuaLlon ln whlch
condlLlons can be favorable for Lhe formaLlon of lrregular bulldup on a surface occurs
when waLer ls LransporLed ln ferrous plpes. lerrous plpes corrode when Lhey come ln
conLacL wlLh waLer and, ln exLreme cases, corroslon can lead Lo Lhe formaLlon of a plpe
wall surface characLerlzed by lncreased roughness and lrregular form. 1he resulLlng
lrregular boundary greaLly compllcaLes Lhe flow dynamlcs of waLer movlng Lhrough a
plpe. 1he ablllLy Lo descrlbe complex Lhree-dlmenslonal flows ln plpes wlLh lrregular
boundarles ls essenLlal ln a number of flelds. Lxamples lnclude: Lhe LransporL of
dlssolved maLerlals, Lhe mechanlcs of suspended parLlcle accreLlon and subsequenL
eroslon, and fluld mlxlng. lndeed, numerlcal modellng has already been used wlLh much
success Lo descrlbe Lhe flow ln conLacL Lanks (Wang and lalconer 1998: khan eL al.
2006). noLwlLhsLandlng Lhe pracLlcal and academlc beneflLs provlded by modellng flow
Lhrough a plpe wlLh lrregular boundary surfaces, no research has been conducLed on Lhe
sub[ecL. As a resulL, Lhls sLudy appears Lo be Lhe flrsL appllcaLlon of compuLaLlonal fluld
dynamlcs (Clu) modellng Lo an acLual Lhree-dlmenslonal, lrregular plpe surface.
Whlle sLudles addresslng Lhree-dlmenslonal, lrregular roughness are non-
exlsLenL, numerous sLudles have been performed on flows wlLh regularly spaced
prlsmaLlc roughness elemenLs. Cf Lhose sLudles, Lhe ma[orlLy have focused on Lwo-
dlmenslonal roughness. lor example, varlous researchers have consldered Lhe effecLs
of flns (cf. aLankar eL al. 1979, ZelLoun and Pegazy 2003, ?ucel and ulnler 2006), rlbs
39

(cf. Acharya eL al. 1994, 8hodes and Senlor 2000, vl[lapurapu and Cul 2006), and wavy
walls (cf. 8uss and 8eer 1997, Mahmud eL al. 2003) on fluld flow ln plpes and channels.
AddlLlonally, prlsmaLlc Lhree-dlmenslonal roughness has been sLudled ln Lhe form of
dlmpled surfaces (cf. Mahmood eL al. 2001, ark and Llgranl 2003). 1he sLudy by
Acharya eL al. (1994) lncluded noLable comparlsons beLween experlmenLal sLudles, a
sLandard model, and a nonllnear model for flow ln a rlbbed plpe. 8oLh
models were found Lo perform well ln Lhe core flow reglons and poorly ln Lhe separaLed
reglons and shear-layer reglons near Lhe rlbs. Powever, Lhe non-llnear model dld glve
more reallsLlc predlcLlons for mean veloclLles ln Lhe upper shear layer and lmproved Lhe
modellng of sLreamwlse LurbulenL lnLenslLy. 1he nonllnear model also exhlblLed beLLer
accuracy ln Lhe calculaLlon of LurbulenL klneLlc energy producLlon and dlsslpaLlon ln Lhe
reaLLachmenL reglon.
Lach of Lhe prevlously clLed sLudles was conducLed on a surface wlLh relaLlvely
large roughness elemenLs LhaL, due Lo Lhelr slze, could be resolved by Lhe surface mesh.
Powever, real plpe surfaces generally have a range of roughness scales wlLh Lhe smallesL
roughness elemenLs much Loo small Lo resolve. Meshlng such a surface effecLlvely
fllLers ouL Lhe smallesL roughness elemenLs. 8esearchers have aLLempLed Lo accounL for
Lhe effecLs of small scale roughness elemenLs ln a varleLy of ways. MulLlple researchers
(cf. 8oLLa 1962, krogsLad 1991) have suggesLed modlflcaLlons Lo Lhe calculaLlon of
mlxlng lengLh ln order Lo address flow over rough surfaces. ln parLlcular, krogsLad
(1991) comblned van urlesL damplng funcLlons (van urlesL 1936) wlLh Lhe mlxlng lengLh
40

formulaLlon of Mlchel eL al. (1968). noneLheless, aLel (1998) has noLed Lhe appllcaLlon
of Lhese formulaLlons Lo complex flows wlLh separaLlon and Lo Lhree-dlmenslonal flows
ls noL easlly aLLalnable. AnoLher approach Lo modellng flow over rough surfaces ls Lo
expllclLly develop model formulaLlons ln order Lo accounL for surface roughness. 1he
model of Wllcox (1998) ls an example of Lhls approach and lncorporaLes
roughness helghL dependence lnLo Lhe wall boundary condlLlons. Powever, Lhls
approach requlres prlor knowledge of Lhe roughness characLerlsLlcs of Lhe surface Lo be
modeled.
1he lrregular Lhree-dlmenslonal boundarles used ln Lhls sLudy were obLalned
from Lwo aged plpes wlLh nomlnal dlameLers of 0.023-m and 0.030-m, respecLlvely.
llgure 11 ls a phoLograph of Lhe lnLerlor plpe wall of Lhe 0.030-m plpe sample. 1he aged
plpes were orlglnally used Lo LransporL cullnary waLer and Lhe Lhree-dlmenslonal
surfaces ln Lhese plpes are a resulL of an esLlmaLed 30 years of use for Lhe 0.023-m plpe
and 30-30 years use for Lhe 0.030-m plpe. 1he 0.023-m and 0.030-m plpes had
values of 98 and 36, respecLlvely, where represenLs plpe lengLh and represenLs
nomlnal plpe dlameLer. 1he Lerm "dlameLer" ls acLually somewhaL mlsleadlng when
applled Lo Lhe aged plpes consldered for Lhls sLudy glven LhaL Lhe plpes no longer had
clrcular cross-secLlons. 1he usage of Lhe Lerm "dlameLer" ls malnLalned purely ouL of
convenLlon.
1he analysls of Lhe aged plpes was carrled ouL ln Lhe Lhree sLeps. llrsL, Lhe plpes
were sub[ecLed Lo hydraullc LesLlng ln a laboraLory seLLlng. 1he hydraullc LesLlng was
41

llgure 11: hoLograph of Lhe longlLudlnally cuL 0.030-m aged plpe

used Lo deLermlne Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween Lhe uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon facLor and
8eynolds number for each plpe as descrlbed ln ChrlsLensen and 8arfuss (2009). AfLer
Lhe hydraullc LesLlng, Lhe lnLerlor walls of segmenLs of Lhe aged plpes were dlglLlzed vla
Lhree-dlmenslonal laser scannlng. 8ecause of numerlcal llmlLaLlons Lhe enLlre plpe
lengLhs LesLed ln Lhe laboraLory were noL dlglLlzed. lnsLead, only porLlons of Lhe
laboraLory LesLed plpes were dlglLlzed such LhaL values for Lhe scanned secLlons of
Lhe 0.023-m and 0.030-m plpes were 26 and 27, respecLlvely. 1he flnal sLage of Lhe
currenL sLudy was comprlsed of uslng Lhe dlglLlzed plpe surfaces Lo provlde Lhe wall
boundary condlLlons ln performlng Clu modellng. 1he modellng was conducLed ln
order Lo assess Lhe capablllLles of Clu Lechnlques aL reproduclng Lhe laboraLory
42

measured headloss daLa for plpes wlLh lrregular Lhree-dlmenslonal boundarles. 1he
followlng secLlons ouLllne Lhe plpe geomeLry, compuLaLlonal mesh, and boundary
condlLlons employed ln modellng Lhe aged plpes, summarlze Lhe numerlcal meLhod
whlch was uLlllzed, and presenL Lhe resulLs obLalned from Lhe Clu modellng.

lpe CeomeLry, CompuLaLlonal Mesh, and
8oundary CondlLlons
;/1$ <$'+$%(=" 8ecause of Lhe complexlLy of Lhe plpe boundarles, mesh
developmenL was a lengLhy Lask LhaL lncluded a generous amounL of Lrlal and error.
Agaln, llgure 11 ls a phoLograph of Lhe surface of Lhe 0.030-m plpe LhaL was modeled
for Lhls sLudy and provldes a general ldea of Lhe complex geomeLry of Lhe LesLed plpes.
1he lrregular surface of Lhe aged plpe ls a resulL of Lhe bulldup of corroslon byproducLs
on Lhe surface of Lhe plpe and ls commonly referred Lo as LuberculaLlon. 1he
LuberculaLlon domlnaLes Lhe surface proflles of boLh aged plpes consldered ln Lhls
sLudy. 1he maxlmum helghL of lndlvldual Lubercles ln Lhe aged plpes was abouL 0.01-m.
Powever, as noLed prevlously for real surfaces, Lhe roughness elemenLs of Lhe aged plpe
ln llgure 11 have a wlde range of slzes. 1he followlng paragraphs ouLllne Lhe process of
meshlng Lhe plpes and speclfylng Lhe boundary condlLlons.
3'+16%.%/',.2 +$->" Lach of Lhe dlglLlzed plpes was dlvlded lnLo upsLream and
downsLream secLlons. 1he dlvlslons were made so LhaL Lhe upsLream secLlons were
falrly shorL, wlLh for Lhe 0.023-m plpe and for Lhe 0.030-m plpe. 1he
upsLream secLlons were used Lo develop Lhe lnleL boundary condlLlons for Lhe
43

downsLream secLlons, whlch were used for Lhe prlmary flow modellng. ConsequenLly,
Lhe prlmary flow modellng of 0.023-m plpe was performed wlLh , whereas Lhe
0.030-m plpe was modeled wlLh . 1he followlng dlscusslon on mesh
developmenL corresponds Lo Lhe meshes used for prlmary flow modellng, alLhough Lhe
shorLer secLlons were meshed ln slmllar manner.
1he complexlLy of Lhe plpe surface necesslLaLed uslng Lrlangular elemenLs ln
meshlng Lhe wall boundarles. llgure 12 ls a cuLaway vlew of Lhe wall boundary mesh of
Lhe 0.030-m plpe whlch corresponds Lo Lhe secLlon shown ln llgure 11. llgure 13 ls a
renderlng of Lhe plpe surface based on Lhe mesh shown ln llgure 12. A comparlson of
llgures 11 Lhrough 13 lllusLraLes LhaL Lhe boundary mesh maLches Lhe general form of

llgure 12: CuLaway vlew of Lhe wall boundary mesh of Lhe 0.030-m aged plpe
44

llgure 13: 8endered surface of Lhe 0.030-m aged plpe

Lhe plpe surface very well and hlghllghLs Lhe llmlLaLlons of Lhe surface mesh aL capLurlng
Lhe flnesL deLalls of boundary varlaLlon. 1he surface mesh plalnly loses Lhe ablllLy Lo
descrlbe varlaLlons ln Lhe plpe boundary LhaL are smaller Lhan several Llmes Lhe slze of
lndlvldual mesh elemenLs.
1he meshlng process was concluded by creaLlng a volume mesh for each plpe.
1he volume mesh conslsLed of Lrlangular prlsms nexL Lo Lhe wall boundary wlLh
LeLrahedral elemenLs maklng up Lhe remalnder of Lhe lnLerlor volume. 1he Lrlangular
prlsms faclllLaLed resoluLlon of Lhe near wall reglon. lor Lhe 0.023-m plpe, Lhe helghL of
Lhe flrsL layer was 1.2810
-3
-m. A LoLal of fourLeen progresslvely Lhlcker layers
compleLed Lhe near-wall mesh. 1he prlsm layers used ln meshlng Lhe 0.030-m plpe had
43

a flrsL helghL of 2.3410
-3
-m wlLh a LoLal of Len progresslvely Lhlcker layers. 1hese
values were chosen ln order Lo ensure LhaL average dlmenslonless wall dlsLance
would be less Lhan one for all of Lhe modeled flow condlLlons. 1he dlmenslonless wall
dlsLance ls deflned as where ls Lhe dlsLance Lo Lhe nearesL wall, ls
Lhe klnemaLlc vlscoslLy, and ls Lhe shear veloclLy. 1he shear veloclLy ls deflned as
where ls Lhe wall shear sLress and ls Lhe fluld denslLy. llgure 14
shows a cross-secLlon of Lhe volume mesh used Lo model flow ln Lhe 0.030-m plpe, and

llgure 14: Cross-secLlon showlng Lhe mesh of Lhe 0.030-m nomlnal dlameLer plpe
46

lllusLraLes Lhe lrregular naLure of Lhe aged plpe cross-secLlon as well as Lhe slze
gradaLlon of Lhe wall boundlng prlsmaLlc elemenLs. 1he volume meshes of Lhe 0.023-m
and 0.030-m dlameLer plpes conslsLed of 2.9110
6
and 3.0610
6
cells, respecLlvely.
8ecause Lhe same sLeps were used ln Lhe developmenL of each compuLaLlonal mesh, Lhe
meshes for Lhe 0.023-m plpe and Lhe 0.030-m plpe were slmllar ln form.
?'6,*.(= 7',*/%/',-" Lacklng experlmenLally measured lnleL proflles, speclal
care was Laken ln developlng boundary condlLlons. uslng sLreamwlse perlodlc boundary
condlLlons, Lhe shorLer upsLream plpe secLlons were modeled for each comblnaLlon of
flow raLe and Lurbulence model consldered for Lhls sLudy. 1he ouLleL flow proflles from
Lhe lnlLlal plpe secLlon, lncludlng x, y, and z veloclLy componenLs, along wlLh Lhe
necessary Lurbulence parameLers, were Lhen exporLed and used Lo provlde quasl-fully
developed lnleL flow proflles for Lhe longer, downsLream secLlon of plpe (prlmary
modellng secLlon).

numerlcal MeLhod
1he sLeady, 8eynolds-Averaged navler-SLokes (8AnS) equaLlons were solved
uslng verslon 6.3.26 of Lhe general purpose Clu code lLuLn1 (lluenL 2006). A second-
order upwlnd meLhod was used for lnLerpolaLlon of varlables Lo cell faces for Lhe
convecLlve Lerms, whereas dlffuslve Lerms were dlscreLlzed uslng second-order cenLral
dlfferenclng. ressure-veloclLy coupllng was achleved uslng Lhe SlMLLC meLhod.
lLeraLlve convergence was achleved when Lhe normallzed reslduals of all dlscreLlzed
LransporL equaLlons were decreased by 3 orders of magnlLude.
47

1he followlng Lurbulence models, all based on Lhe 8ousslnesq approxlmaLlon Lo
relaLe Lhe 8eynolds sLresses Lo Lhe mean flow, were assessed: a Lwo-equaLlon reallzable
model (Shlh eL al. 1993), a sLandard model (Wllcox 1998), and a four-
equaLlon model (Llen and uurbln 1996) (hereln referred Lo as ).
ln all cases Lhe models were lnLegraLed dlrecLly Lo Lhe wall, LhaL ls, no wall funcLlons
were used. lor Lhe reallzable model, a Lwo-layer approach was employed. ln
parLlcular, Lhe one-equaLlon model of (WolfshLeln 1969) was employed ln Lhe near-wall,
vlscoslLy domlnaLed reglon deflned by where ls a LurbulenL
8eynolds number. CuLslde Lhls reglon, Lhe reallzable model was employed. 1he
and models may be lnLegraLed dlrecLly Lo Lhe wall wlLhouL modlflcaLlon.
1he 1998 formulaLlon of Lhe Wllcox model ls ln common use, and lLs equaLlons
and sLandard closure coefflclenLs are well known, hence for purposes of brevlLy Lhey are
noL shown. Powever, Lhe and Lwo-layer, reallzable formulaLlons are less
commonly used, and for compleLeness we presenL nexL Lhe LransporL equaLlons for
Lhese Lwo models as lmplemenLed ln lLuLn1 (lluenL 2006).
1he LransporL equaLlons for and ln Lhe Lwo-layer reallzable model are
glven as:

(8)

(9)
48

where ls Lhe klnemaLlc vlscoslLy, , ,
, and . 1he closure coefflclenLs are glven as
, , and . ln Lhe case of Lhe reallzable model, Lhe
LurbulenL vlscoslLy ls glven as where Lhe value of ls noL consLanL buL
glven (for a non-roLaLlng reference frame) by where
and ls Lhe mean raLe-of-roLaLlon Lensor. ln
addlLlon, and where , and
. 1he LransporL equaLlons for boLh and are solved ln Lhe
fully LurbulenL reglon ( ). ln Lhe near-wall reglon ( ) Lhe LransporL
equaLlons for momenLum and Lurbulence klneLlc energy are solved, however Lhe
LurbulenL vlscoslLy ls compuLed algebralcally as . Pere, Lhe lengLh scale ls
compuLed as . 1hls near-wall LurbulenL vlscoslLy ls blended wlLh
Lhe LurbulenL vlscoslLy compuLed ln Lhe fully LurbulenL reglon. ln addlLlon, Lhe value of
ln Lhe near wall reglon ls compuLed algebralcally as where Lhe lengLh scale
ls compuLed as . 1he values of compuLed uslng Lhe algebralc
formulaLlon and Lhe LransporL equaLlon are blended Lo ensure a smooLh LranslLlon near
. 1he closure coefflclenLs for Lhe near wall model are ,
, , , and .
49

1he LransporL equaLlon for ln Lhe model ls ldenLlcal Lo equaLlon (8).
1he equaLlon for ls glven as:

(10)

1he LurbulenL vlscoslLy ls glven by Lhe relaLlonshlp where ls a LurbulenL
Llme scale glven as:

(11)

where,

(12)

1he governlng equaLlons for and are wrlLLen as:

(13)

(14)

where Lhe lengLh scale, , appearlng ln Lhe elllpLlc relaxaLlon equaLlon for ls glven as:

(13)
30

(16)

1he closure coefflclenLs are , , , , , ,
, , , , and . noLe LhaL
Lhe wall boundary condlLlons for equaLlons 6 and 7 are glven as and .

8esulLs
@A12.,.%/', .,* B.2/*.%/'," 1he 0.023-m plpe was modeled aL
whlle Lhe 0.030-m plpe was modeled aL boLh and . 8ulk
8eynolds numbers were calculaLed as where represenLs a bulk
veloclLy and ls a characLerlsLlc lengLh. 1he characLerlsLlc lengLh used ln Lhls work was
where represenLs Lhe volume of Lhe soluLlon domaln and
represenLs Lhe lengLh of Lhe plpe secLlon. 1hls expresslon for Lhe characLerlsLlc lengLh
was obLalned by manlpulaLlng Lhe equaLlon for Lhe volume of a cyllnder
( wlLh Lhe characLerlsLlc lengLh subsLlLuLed for Lhe plpe dlameLer .
1hus, Lhe characLerlsLlc lengLh represenLs Lhe dlameLer of a smooLh cyllnder LhaL wlll
have Lhe same lengLh and volume as Lhe plpe LesL secLlon.
uurlng Lhe soluLlon process, mesh lndependence was assessed by flrsL
compuLlng Lhe plpe flow uslng base-level meshes, each havlng approxlmaLely 310
6

cells, and Lhen adapLlng Lhe meshes based on sLraln raLe so LhaL Lhe reflned meshes
conLalned approxlmaLely 410
6
cells. CradlenL adapLaLlon was uLlllzed uslng a curvaLure
31

opLlon such LhaL Lhe second gradlenLs of sLraln raLe were used ln adapLlng Lhe meshes.
ln addlLlon Lo Lhe sLraln-based adapLaLlon, Lhe mesh dependence was also assessed by
converLlng Lhe base level mesh Lo polyhedra. 1he polyhedral mesh was modeled for a
slngle 8eynolds number ( ) uslng Lhe model. 1able 3 shows Lhe
percenL change ln pressure drop (from plpe lnleL Lo plpe ouLleL) beLween Lhe resulLs
found uslng Lhe orlglnal and adapLed meshes. lor mosL cases Lhe percenL change ln
pressure drop was abouL 1 or less. 1he largesL percenLage change was found for flow
modeled uslng Lhe model ln Lhe 0.030-m plpe wlLh (3.88).
ulLlmaLely, because Lhere was llLLle change beLween Lhe resulLs obLalned uslng Lhe
base-level and adapLed meshes, Lhe base-level mesh resulLs were chosen for
presenLaLlon.
When lnLegraLlng Lurbulence models Lo Lhe wall, Lhe values for Lhe wall
ad[acenL cells should be approxlmaLely one or less ln order Lo adequaLely resolve Lhe
vlscous sublayer. Average wall was deLermlned by calculaLlng Lhe area welghLed
average of over Lhe wall boundary. ln addlLlon, maxlmum values of were
revlewed for each flow condlLlon. 1able 4 summarlzes Lhe average and maxlmum
values for for each comblnaLlon of flow raLe and Lurbulence model. Average was

1able 3: ercenL Change ln ressure urop
[
reallzable 1.01 0.119 1.21
0.318 1.44 1.40

0.630 3.88 0.340
w/polyhedra
n/A n/A 2.33
32

1able 4: Average and Maxlmum values of for Lach llow CondlLlon
lpe avg.

max.
0.023-m 13,000 0.23 0.37
0.030-m 6700 0.12 0.33
0.030-m 31,000 0.42 1.19

found Lo be less Lhan one for all modeled flow condlLlon. 1he maxlmum calculaLed
value of was 1.19, correspondlng Lo Lhe 0.030-m plpe wlLh .
1he momenLum lnLegral equaLlon was used Lo provlde lnslghL lnLo Lhe resulLs of
Lhe Lhree Lurbulence models dlffered. 1he sLeady 8eynolds averaged navler-SLokes
equaLlon for x-dlrecLlon momenLum can be wrlLLen, lncludlng Lhe 8ousslnesq
approxlmaLlon for LurbulenL sLresses, as:

(17)

lnLegraLlng Lhe lefL had slde of LquaLlon 17 over Lhe compuLaLlonal domaln (conLrol
volume) and applylng Lhe dlvergence Lheorem resulLs ln an expresslon for momenLum
flux across Lhe conLrol volume surfaces. Moreover, lnLegraLlon of Lhe rlghL had slde of
LquaLlon 17 provldes Lhe forces LhaL acL on Lhe soluLlon conLrol volume. 1he resulLlng
expresslon ls glven as:

(18)

33

lor Lhe modeled plpes, Lhe exLernal forces are due Lo modlfled pressure and normal
vlscous sLresses aL Lhe lnleL and ouLleL, and pressure and vlscous drag along Lhe plpe
wall. 1able 3 ls a LabulaLlon of Lhe componenLs ln LquaLlon 17. 1he forces resulLlng
from Lhe normal vlscous sLresses have been omlLLed from 1able 3 because Lhey are
several orders of magnlLude less Lhan Lhe oLher conLrlbuLlng forces. ln addlLlon Lo Lhe
rough plpes, smooLh plpe soluLlons obLalned uslng Lhe reallzable Lurbulence
model have been lncluded ln 1able 3 for comparlson. A revlew of Lhe momenLum flux
and force daLa reveals several slgnlflcanL generallzaLlons. llrsL, Lhe large dlsparlLy ln
magnlLude beLween Lhe pressure drag forces and Lhe vlscous drag forces clearly
lndlcaLes LhaL pressure drag ls Lhe domlnanL reslsLlve mechanlsm wlLhln Lhe aged plpe
secLlons. lurLhermore, Lhe pressure drag was falrly unlform whlle Lhe vlscous drag
varled wldely. Speclflcally, Lhere were no cases where Lhe percenL devlaLlon from mean
of Lhe pressure drag was greaLer Lhan 0.3, whereas Lhe percenL devlaLlon from mean
for vlscous drag forces ofLen exceeded 30. Whlle pressure drag was lmporLanL ln Lhe
rough aged plpes, Lhe smooLh plpes are sub[ecLed Lo only vlscous drag. Moreover, of
Lhe Lhree Lurbulence models uLlllzed ln calculaLlng flow ln Lhe rough plpes, Lhe
magnlLudes of Lhe vlscous forces calculaLed by Lhe Lurbulence model were mosL
slmllar Lo Lhe magnlLudes of Lhe vlscous forces ln Lhe smooLh plpes. LasLly, lL ls
observed LhaL Lhe model produced Lhe largesL drag values for nearly every
caLegory ln 1able 3 wlLh Lhls Lrend parLlcularly pronounced for Lhe vlscous drag forces.

34

1able 3: Summary of lorces and MomenLum llux
Momentum (kg-m]s
2
) Net ressure force
(In Cut) (N)
ressure Drag
Iorce (N)
V|scous Drag
Iorce (N)
0.02S-m p|pe
Qke=13,000
|n out

reallzable 2.428L-1 2.384L-1 11.3272 11.2238 8.63L-2
2.441L-1 2.634L-1 11.3293 11.2320 7.66L-2
2.273L-1 2.631L-1 11.4068 11.2487 1.224L-1
smooLh 9.64L-2 9.64L-2 6.67L-2 0 6.67L-2
0.0S0-m p|pe
Qke=6700

reallzable 9.42L-02 1.01L-01 38.3802 38.3296 4.39L-2
1.01L-01 1.03L-01 38.3433 38.3098 3.03L-2
9.87L-02 1.03L-01 38.3922 38.3262 6.18L-2
smooLh 8.86L-02 8.86L-02 3.18L-2 0 3.18L-2
0.0S0-m p|pe
Qke=31,000

reallzable 2.0027 2.1230 40.0627 39.4649 4.772L-1
2.0862 2.1841 39.8329 39.3833 3.797L-1
2.0211 2.1900 40.4373 39.3600 7.333L-1
smooLh 1.8712 1.8712 4.206L-01 0 4.203L-1

C.D'(.%'(= *.%. 7'+1.(/-',-" Comparlson beLween Lhe Clu models and Lhe
laboraLory LesLlng was performed ln Lerms of Lhe uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon facLor.
resenLed ln 1able 6 are Lhe uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon facLors deLermlned from
laboraLory LesLlng and Clu modellng. 1he frlcLlon facLors calculaLed from Lhe
experlmenLal resulLs of Lhe 0.030-m plpe aL and exhlblL near
8eynolds number lndependence, lndlcaLlng fully rough flow. ln general, Lhe frlcLlon

1able 6: Comparlson of uarcy-Welsbach lrlcLlon lacLors
Method 0.02S-m p|pe
Qke=13,000
0.0S0-m p|pe
Qke=6700
0.0S0-m p|pe
Qke=31,000
experlmenLal 1.37L-01 1.13L-01 1.08L-01
reallzable 1.13L-01 1.04L-01 7.67L-02
1.13L-01 6.97L-02 6.76L-02
1.33L-01 1.18L-01 9.22L-02

33

facLors calculaLed for Lhe 0.023-m plpe were somewhaL hlgher Lhan Lhe frlcLlon facLors
calculaLed for Lhe 0.030-m plpe lndlcaLlng LhaL Lhe 0.023-m plpe had a larger relaLlve
roughness Lhan Lhe 0.030-m plpe.
1he frlcLlon facLors calculaLed uslng Lhe model showed slgnlflcanLly
beLLer agreemenL wlLh Lhe experlmenLal resulLs Lhan Lhe frlcLlon facLors from Lhe
reallzable and sLandard models. 1he frlcLlon facLors compuLed uslng Lhe
model ranged from 3 hlgher Lo 13 lower Lhan Lhose obLalned from
laboraLory daLa. Moreover, Lhe reallzable and sLandard models exhlblLed
slmllar performance for each of Lhe Lwo hlgher 8eynolds number flows, buL Lhe
reallzable model was superlor for Lhe 0.030-m plpe wlLh . Whlle Lhe
model was generally lnferlor Lo Lhe oLher models aL maLchlng Lhe experlmenLal
resulLs, lL was Lhe mosL successful of Lhe Lhree Lurbulence models aL reproduclng Lhe
8eynolds number lndependence of Lhe experlmenLal resulLs for Lhe 0.030-m plpe. ln
conLrasL, Lhe frlcLlon facLors calculaLed uslng Lhe reallzable and model
resulLs boLh showed greaLer 8eynolds number dependence.
erhaps Lhe mosL lmporLanL observaLlon ls LhaL, wlLh a slngle excepLlon, Lhe
Lurbulence models always under-predlcLed Lhe uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon facLor (and by
exLenslon Lhe headloss). 1wo posslble causes for Lhls chronlc under predlcLlon of Lhe
uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon facLor are deflclencles ln modellng complex flows and Lhe
lnablllLy Lo fully resolve Lhe smallesL elemenLs of Lhe rough boundary surface. As noLed
prevlously, Lhe model conslsLenLly calculaLed hlgher drag forces Lhan Lhe oLher
36

Lurbulence models. 1hls, comblned wlLh Lhe facL LhaL nearly all frlcLlon facLors were
under-predlcLed, resulLed ln Lhe model provldlng Lhe mosL accuraLe frlcLlon
facLors and suggesLs LhaL Lhe model may be more capable aL compuLlng complex
flows wlLh separaLlon and Lhree-dlmenslonal flow sLrucLures.
;2'%- '8 +'*$2 ($-62%-" loLs showlng conLours of normallzed veloclLy
magnlLude and normallzed Lurbulence klneLlc energy are shown for each flow condlLlon
compuLed uslng Lhe model. Shown ln llgure 13 are conLours of normallzed
veloclLy for Lhe 0.023-m plpe aL . 1he effecLs of Lhe lrregular boundary on
Lhe veloclLy proflle are apparenL as lL ls hlghly dlsLorLed. ConLours of normallzed
Lurbulence klneLlc energy, shown ln llgure 16, are also hlghly dlsLorLed as a resulL of Lhe

llgure 13: veloclLy dlsLrlbuLlon normallzed by bulk veloclLy for Lhe 0.023-m plpe aL
. ConLours - mln = 0, max = 1.40, lnLerval = 0.14

0.000
1.421
37

wall boundary wlLh local maxlma seen aL lrregular lnLervals around Lhe edges of Lhe plpe
wall. Shown ln llgures 17 and 18 are ploLs of normallzed veloclLy conLours for flow ln
Lhe 0.030-m plpe wlLh and , respecLlvely. 1he Lwo ploLs are
very slmllar, however, subLle dlfferences can be seen ln Lhe veloclLy gradlenL
perpendlcular Lo Lhe sLreamwlse dlrecLlon. ln Lhe core reglon of flow Lhe veloclLy
gradlenL ls hlgher for Lhe case wlLh Lhan for . near Lhe wall,
Lhe condlLlons are reversed wlLh Lhe veloclLy gradlenL hlgher for . Llkewlse,
llgures 19 and 20 show slmllar resulLs wlLh respecL Lo Lurbulence klneLlc energy. 1he
gradlenL of Lurbulence klneLlc energy perpendlcular Lo Lhe sLreamwlse dlrecLlon ln Lhe

llgure 16: 1urbulence klneLlc energy dlsLrlbuLlon normallzed by for Lhe 0.023-m
plpe aL . ConLours - mln = 0, max = 0.18, lnLerval = 0.02

0.000
0.189
38


0.000
0.000
1.189
1.349
39

llgure 19 1urbulence klneLlc energy dlsLrlbuLlon normallzed by for Lhe 0.030-m

llgure 20: 1urbulence klneLlc energy dlsLrlbuLlon normallzed by for Lhe 0.030-m
0.000
9.244
0.111
0.000
60

core reglon of flow ls hlgher for , whereas ln Lhe near wall reglon Lhe
gradlenL ls hlgher for .

Concluslons
lpes wlLh lrregular, rough boundarles are common ln a varleLy of englneerlng
appllcaLlons. ln splLe of Lhelr ublqulLy very few numerlcal sLudles have dealL wlLh plpes
LhaL have Lhree-dlmenslonal lrregular roughness. CbLalnlng accuraLe surface
represenLaLlons, meshlng Lhe compuLaLlonal domaln, and model convergence are all
compllcaLed by lrregular boundary surfaces. neverLheless, Clu modellng offers many
poLenLlal beneflLs ln undersLandlng Lhe phenomena LhaL occur ln aged plpes wlLh Lhe
evenLual appllcaLlon of LhaL undersLandlng Lo plpe neLwork models where plpe
degradaLlon ls a problem.
1he model was Lhe besL performer of Lhe Lhree models consldered ln Lhls
sLudy. Speclflcally, Lhe model was mosL accuraLe for Lhe 0.030-m plpe wlLh
. AL hlgher 8eynolds numbers Lhe model under-predlcLed Lhe uarcy-
Welsbach frlcLlon facLor by abouL 13. WlLh a slngle excepLlon, all of Lhe Clu models
under-predlcLed Lhe uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon facLor. ressure drag was found Lo be Lhe
domlnanL reslsLlve force ln Lhe plpes. lor Lhls reason deflclencles ln calculaLlng flow
separaLlon are a llkely culprlL for Lhe near-unlversal under predlcLlon of Lhe frlcLlon
facLor along wlLh shorLcomlngs ln resolvlng Lhe smallesL roughness elemenLs.
uesplLe currenL llmlLaLlons, Clu modellng has been shown Lo be a powerful Lool
ln beLLer undersLandlng flow ln aged, rough plpes. Whlle noL perfecL, Lhese LesLs
61

lndlcaLe LhaL Clu modellng can be used successfully Lo model flow ln splLe of Lhe
lrregular boundarles ln aged plpes. 1he veloclLy and Lurbulence klneLlc energy proflles
presenLed ln Lhls work would be very dlfflculL Lo obLaln wlLhouL Clu, yeL have Lhe
poLenLlal Lo beneflL many dlsclpllnes where aged plpe are ln use. Speclflc advancemenLs
LhaL could lmprove modellng accuracy lnclude beLLer predlcLlons of flow separaLlon aL
hlgh 8eynolds numbers and lmproved meLhods Lo accounL for Lhe smallesL roughness
elemenLs LhaL cannoL be resolved by Lhe boundary mesh.

62

CPA1L8 v

ALlCA1lCn Cl LA8CL Luu? SlMuLA1lCn 1C
ACLu WA1L8 18AnSMlSSlCn lLS
3

AbsLracL
1he fllLered navler-SLokes equaLlons were solved uslng Lhe Lechnlques of large
eddy slmulaLlon Lo model flow Lhrough an aged plpe aL a 8eynolds number of 6800. 1he
large eddy slmulaLlon produced uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon facLors LhaL were 20 less Lhan
Lhe frlcLlon facLors obLalned from experlmenLal LesLs. Much of Lhe error ls belleved Lo
be a consequence of fllLerlng Lhe smallesL roughness elemenLs when meshlng Lhe plpe
wall boundary and posslble deflclencles ln Lhe subgrld-scale model aL modellng Lhe
complex flow Lhree-dlmenslonal flow sLrucLures due Lo Lhe lrregular plpe boundary.

lnLroducLlon
1hree-dlmenslonal lrregular surfaces are presenL ln a varleLy of englneerlng
appllcaLlons. ln addlLlon, many surfaces LhaL are orlglnally manufacLured smooLh
become rough over Llme as a resulL of corroslon, deposlLlon, accreLlon and oLher
degradaLlon processes. When ferrous plpes are used Lo LransporL waLer, condlLlons are
ofLen favorable for Lhe formaLlon of rough, lrregular surfaces. As a resulL of aglng, Lhe
changes ln Lhe lnLerlor surface proflle of waLer LransporLlng plpes can be exLreme, wlLh
Lhe developmenL of an lrregular boundary greaLly lnfluenclng Lhe flow dynamlcs of

3
CoauLhored by 8yan 1. ChrlsLensen, 8oberL L. Spall, h.u., and SLeven L. 8arfuss, .L.
63

waLer LransporLed by degraded plpes. undersLandlng Lhe complex flow dynamlcs
resulLlng from lrregular surfaces ls cruclal Lo Lhe explanaLlon of many flow processes
LhaL occur ln aged plpes. ulssolved maLerlal LransporL, sedlmenL LransporL, and fluld
mlxlng are a few of Lhe processes LhaL would beneflL from a more deLalled
characLerlzaLlon of flow.
CompuLaLlonal fluld dynamlcs (Clu) uses numerlcal meLhods Lo compuLe flow by
solvlng Lhe navler-SLokes equaLlons. lor many flow processes, Lhe LurbulenL
flucLuaLlons of real fluld flow play an lmporLanL role ln Lhe modellng of Lhe process.
1wo prlmary Clu Lechnlques exlsL for resolvlng Lhe LurbulenL flucLuaLlons of fluld flow:
dlrecL numerlcal slmulaLlon (unS) and large eddy slmulaLlon (LLS). unS requlres Lhe
resoluLlon of all spaLlal and Lemporal scales wlLhln a flow. ConsequenLly, desplLe
conLlnulng advancemenLs ln compuLers, unS ls lnfeaslble for descrlblng Lhe hlghly
complex flows LhaL occur along Lhe lnLerlor walls of aged plpes (Moln and Mahesh
1998). ln LLS, Lhe moLlon of Lhe large eddles ls dlrecLly calculaLed whlle a subgrld-scale
model ls used Lo descrlbe Lhe smaller eddles. 1hls reducLlon ln model complexlLy allows
LLS Lo be applled Lo a much greaLer range of flows Lhan unS (lomelll 1999). Whlle Lhe
pracLlcal and academlc beneflLs provlded by modellng flow Lhrough a plpe wlLh lrregular
boundary surfaces are clear, Lhls appears Lo be Lhe flrsL appllcaLlon of LLS Lo an acLual
Lhree-dlmenslonal, lrregular surface. noLwlLhsLandlng Lhe lack of sLudles relaLed Lo
lrregular surfaces, Lhe uLlllLy of LLS has been demonsLraLed as several open channel
64

flows have been modeled ln order Lo sLudy sedlmenL LransporL (McCoy eL al. 2008,
SLoesser eL al. 2008, 1eruzzl eL al. 2009).
unger and lrledrlch (1991) were Lhe flrsL Lo use Lhe Lechnlques of LLS Lo model
LurbulenL flow ln a sLralghL plpe. 1helr sLudy was conducLed on a smooLh, sLralghL plpe
wlLh a bulk 8eynolds number of approxlmaLely uslng a cyllndrlcal
coordlnaLe mesh and found Lhe calculaLed mean veloclLy proflles and rooL mean square
veloclLy componenLs Lo be ln good agreemenL wlLh experlmenLal daLa. 1he nexL
appllcaLlon of LLS Lo LurbulenL flow ln a smooLh plpe was performed by Lggels (1994),
who also uLlllzed a cyllndrlcal coordlnaLe sysLem. Lggels evaluaLed Lhe effecLs of varylng
LLS model parameLers over mulLlple LesL runs. 1he parameLers varled by Lggels
lncluded grld spaclng, varlous model consLanLs, meLhods for modellng near wall
Lurbulence, eLc. (for a full llsL see Lggels 1994). ln general, Lhe resulLs obLalned were ln
good agreemenL wlLh experlmenLal daLa. 8udman and 8lackburn (1999) performed LLS
on LurbulenL flow ln a clrcular plpe buL uLlllzed a CarLeslan grld wlLh a specLral elemenL
spaLlal dlscreLlzaLlon ln order Lo assess Lhe appllcaLlon of LLS Lo complex geomeLrles.
Whlle 8udman and 8lackburn (1999) were successful aL reproduclng experlmenLal
measuremenLs of mean veloclLy, veloclLy flucLuaLlons, and shear sLress, Lhe numerlcal
scheme employed ln Lhelr sLudy requlred prlor knowledge of Lhe wall shear sLresses. As
a resulL, Lhelr meLhods are noL generally appllcable Lo more complex flows.
varlous researchers have exLended Lhe sLudy of LLS ln plpes beyond Lhe
sLandard case of a smooLh, sLralghL plpe. vl[lapurapu and Cul (2006) conducLed a
63

noLable sLudy on plpe flow LhaL applled LLS Lo rlbbed plpes wlLh dlfferenL rlb denslLles.
1he resulLs of vl[lapurapu and Cul agreed well wlLh rlb roughness calculaLlons based on
laboraLory experlmenLs and, as a resulL, demonsLraLed Lhe uLlllLy of LLS ln descrlblng
complex flows wlLh separaLlon. lurLher sLudles ln whlch LLS has been applled Lo fluld
flow ln plpes have lncluded curved plpes (8oersma and nleuwsLadL 1996) and roLaLlng
plpes (Lggels and nleuwsLadL 1993, ?ang and McCulrk 1999, lelz eL al. 2002). All of Lhe
prevlous sLudles clLed hereln uLlllzed elLher Lhe Smagorlnksy subgrld-scale model
(Smagorlnksy 1963) or Lhe dynamlc Smagorlnsky subgrld-scale model of Cermano eL al.
(1991) and Lllly (1992). lurLhermore, each sLudy was conducLed uslng an ldeallzed plpe
surface LhaL was elLher smooLh, or ln Lhe case of vl[lapurapu and Cul (2006), a surface
wlLh roughness elemenLs LhaL were ldenLlcal and sufflclenLly large Lo be resolved by Lhe
surface mesh. 8eal surfaces, on Lhe oLher hand, ofLen have a range of roughness scales
wlLh Lhe smallesL roughness elemenLs much Loo small Lo be resolved by a reasonably
slzed boundary mesh. As a resulL, meshlng a real surface fllLers ouL Lhe smallesL
roughness elemenLs. As Lhere are no meLhods for overcomlng Lhls llmlLaLlon when
performlng LLS, assesslng Lhe lmpacL on accuracy of neglecLlng Lhe small, unresolvable
elemenLs was an lmporLanL Loplc for Lhls sLudy.
1he aged plpe ln Lhls sLudy had a nomlnal dlameLer of 0.030-m. 1he plpe was
orlglnally used Lo LransporL cullnary waLer and Lhe lrregular Lhree-dlmenslonal boundary
surface of Lhe plpe was a resulL of degradaLlon occurrlng over an esLlmaLed 30-30 years
of use. 1he plpe secLlon had a dlmenslonless lengLh of , where represenLs
66

plpe lengLh and represenLs nomlnal lnslde dlameLer. 1hough used LhroughouL Lhls
sLudy, Lhe Lerm "dlameLer" ls somewhaL mlsleadlng slnce Lhe plpe consldered for Lhls
sLudy had a non-clrcular cross-secLlon. neverLheless, Lhe Lerm "dlameLer" ls malnLalned
ouL of convenLlon and for slmpllclLy.
1he plpe was sub[ecLed Lo hydraullc LesLlng ln a laboraLory seLLlng Lo flrsL
esLabllsh lLs headloss characLerlsLlcs. ln parLlcular, Lhe hydraullc LesLlng was used Lo
deLermlne Lhe relaLlonshlp beLween Lhe uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon facLor and 8eynolds
number uslng Lhe procedure descrlbed ln ChrlsLensen and 8arfuss (2009). AfLer
hydraullc LesLlng, a segmenL of Lhe aged plpe was dlglLlzed vla Lhree-dlmenslonal laser
scannlng of Lhe lnLerlor plpe surface. 1he surface scannlng of Lhe aged plpe provlded
hlghly accuraLe Lhree-dlmenslonal dlglLal represenLaLlons of Lhe lnLernal plpe boundary
whlch provlded Lhe wall boundary condlLlons for Lhe Clu calculaLlons. Whlle Lhe
laboraLory LesLlng was conducLed on a plpe secLlon wlLh , compuLaLlonal
resource llmlLaLlons necesslLaLed a lengLh of for performlng Lhe LLS. 1he
followlng secLlons ouLllne Lhe plpe geomeLry, mesh, and boundary condlLlons employed
ln modellng Lhe aged plpes, descrlbe Lhe numerlcal meLhod whlch was uLlllzed, and
presenL Lhe resulLs obLalned from Lhe LLS.

lpe CeomeLry, Mesh, and 8oundary
CondlLlons
;/1$ <$'+$%(=. 8ecause of Lhe complexlLy of Lhe plpe wall boundary, mesh
developmenL was a lengLhy Lask LhaL lncluded conslderable Lrlal and error. 1he surface
67

of Lhe 0.030-m plpe modeled ln Lhls sLudy ls shown ln llgure 21 and lllusLraLes Lhe
complex geomeLry of Lhe LesLed plpes. 1he largesL roughness elemenLs were observed
Lo have a helghL of approxlmaLely 0.01-m. Whlle Lhe largesL roughness elemenLs clearly
domlnaLe Lhe surface proflle of Lhe aged plpe, llgure 21 also lllusLraLes Lhe wlde range
ln roughness elemenL slze. 1he followlng paragraphs ouLllne Lhe developmenL of Lhe
compuLaLlonal mesh and speclfy Lhe boundary condlLlons.
3'+16%.%/',.2 +$->. 1he complexlLy of Lhe plpe surface necesslLaLed uslng
Lrlangular elemenLs ln meshlng Lhe wall boundarles. llgure 22 ls a cuLaway vlew of Lhe
wall boundary mesh correspondlng Lo Lhe plpe secLlon shown ln llgure 21. llgure 23 ls
a renderlng of Lhe plpe surface based on Lhe mesh shown ln llgure 21. A comparlson of
llgures 21 Lhrough 23 demonsLraLes how well Lhe boundary mesh maLches Lhe general

llgure 21: hoLograph of Lhe surface of Lhe 0.030-m plpe
68

llgure 22: CuLaway vlew of Lhe wall boundary mesh of Lhe 0.030-m plpe

form of Lhe plpe surface as well as hlghllghLs Lhe llmlLaLlons of Lhe surface mesh aL
capLurlng Lhe flnesL deLalls of boundary varlaLlon. Whlle Lhe larger roughness elemenLs
are descrlbed very well by Lhe surface mesh, Lhe resoluLlon of Lhe smaller roughness
elemenLs ranges from parLlal Lo nonexlsLenL dependlng on roughness elemenL slze.

llgure 23: 8enderlng of Lhe 0.030-m plpe
69

1he meshlng process was concluded wlLh Lhe creaLlon of Lhe volume mesh. 1he
volume mesh conslsLed of 12 layers of progresslvely Lhlcker Lrlangular prlsms nexL Lo Lhe
wall boundary, followed by Lwo layers of pyramlds whlch enabled Lhe LranslLlon Lo Lhe
hexahedral elemenLs maklng up Lhe bulk of Lhe lnLerlor volume. 1he lnlLlal 12 layers of
Lrlangular prlsms faclllLaLed resoluLlon of Lhe boundary layer. 1o Lhls end, Lhe helghL of
Lhe flrsL prlsm layer was 2.3410
-3
-m. 1hls value was chosen ln order Lo ensure an
average dlmenslonless wall dlsLance of durlng flow slmulaLlon. 1he
dlmenslonless wall dlsLance ls deflned as where ls Lhe dlsLance Lo Lhe
nearesL wall, ls Lhe klnemaLlc vlscoslLy, and ls Lhe shear veloclLy. 1he shear veloclLy
ls deflned as where ls Lhe wall shear sLress and ls Lhe fluld denslLy.
llgure 24 shows a cross-secLlon of Lhe volume mesh used Lo model flow ln Lhe 0.030-m
plpe, lllusLraLlng Lhe lrregular naLure of Lhe plpe cross-secLlon and Lhe slze gradaLlon of
Lhe wall boundlng prlsmaLlc elemenLs. 1he flnlshed volume mesh conslsLed of 1.710
6

cells.
?'6,*.(= 7',*/%/',-. 8ecause experlmenLally measured veloclLy proflles were
noL avallable, speclal care was Laken ln developlng Lhe lnleL boundary condlLlons. A
porLlon of Lhe dlglLlzed plpe surface lmmedlaLely upsLream of Lhe secLlon used for LLS
was used Lo develop Lhe lnleL proflle for Lhe LLS. 1he upsLream secLlon, wlLh ,
was modeled uslng a Lwo layer, reallzable Lurbulence model (Shlh eL al. 1993) and
sLreamwlse perlodlc boundary condlLlons. AfLer solvlng for Lhe flow ln Lhe upsLream
plpe, Lhe veloclLy dlsLrlbuLlon aL Lhe plpe ouLleL was exporLed and used Lo deflne Lhe
70

llgure 24: Cross-secLlon of Lhe volume mesh

lnleL veloclLy proflle of Lhe downsLream LLS secLlon. ln order Lo provlde an unsLeady
lnleL proflle, perLurbaLlons were added uslng Lhe vorLex meLhod of MaLhey eL al. (2003).
#6+$(/7.2 +$%>'*. 1he fllLered navler SLokes equaLlons were solved uslng
verslon 12.0.16 of Lhe general purpose Clu code lLuLn1 (lluenL 2009). 8ounded
second-order cenLral dlfferenclng was used Lo dlscreLlze Lhe momenLum Lerm whlle
dlffuslve Lerms were dlscreLlzed uslng second-order cenLral dlfferenclng. ressure-
veloclLy coupllng was achleved uslng Lhe fracLlonal sLep meLhod wlLh non-lLeraLlve Llme
71

advancemenL. A Llme sLep of 0.0023-s was employed, and Lhe normallzed reslduals of
all dlscreLlzed LransporL equaLlons were reduced by 3 orders of magnlLude for each Llme
sLep.
1he fllLered navler SLokes equaLlons for an lncompresslble fluld are presenLed as

(19)

and

(20)

where ls Lhe denslLy, ls Lhe Llme,

( ) ls Lhe fllLered componenL of Lhe
veloclLy, ls Lhe dynamlc vlscoslLy, ls Lhe pressure, and repeaLed lndlces lndlcaLe
summaLlon, ls Lhe sLress Lensor due Lo molecular vlscoslLy and ls Lhe subgrld-
scale sLress deflned by:

(21)

(22)

1he subgrld-scale sLresses are a resulL of Lhe fllLerlng process and are unknown. 1he
subgrld-scale model employed Lhe 8ousslnesq hypoLhesls (cf. Plnze 1973) glvlng:

(23)
72

(24)

where ls Lhe kronecker delLa, ls Lhe eddy vlscoslLy (whlch ls unknown and musL be
supplled by Lhe subgrld-scale model), and ls Lhe raLe-of-sLraln Lensor for Lhe resolved
scale deflned as

(23)

1he subgrld scale model used ln Lhls sLudy was developed by Cermano eL al. (1991) wlLh
subsequenL reflnemenL by Lllly (1992) and ls commonly referred Lo as Lhe dynamlc
Smagorlnsky model. 1he baslc assumpLlon of Lhe dynamlc Smagorlnsky model ls LhaL
Lhe small scales are ln equlllbrlum so LhaL energy producLlon and dlsslpaLlon are ln
balance. 1hls assumpLlon leads Lo Lhe followlng expresslon for Lhe eddy-vlscoslLy:

(26)

where and ls Lhe ls Lhe mlxlng lengLh for subgrld-scales calculaLed as

(27)

where ls Lhe von krmn consLanL, ls Lhe dlsLance Lo Lhe closesL wall, ls Lhe
Smagorlnsky consLanL, and ls Lhe volume of Lhe compuLaLlonal cell. A LesL fllLer
operaLlon ls performed glvlng resolved LurbulenL sLresses, , as
73

(28)

where Lhe represenLs Lhe grld fllLered values and Lhe represenLs Lhe LesL fllLered
resulLs. 1he model consLanL ls Lhen deflned as

(29)

where

(30)

and ls Lhe fllLer wldLh deflned as . 1he subgrld-scale sLresses compuLed
dynamlcally ln Lhls manner are zero for lamlnar flow and asympLoLlcally Lend Lo zero ln
Lhe near wall reglon. Powever, Lhe coefflclenL fleld obLalned uslng LquaLlons 29 and 30
ls hlghly varlable wlLh a slgnlflcanL percenLage of negaLlve values. 8ecause Lhls behavlor
can conLrlbuLe Lo numerlcal lnsLablllLles, values of are cllpped so LhaL .

8esulLs
8ulk 8eynolds number was calculaLed as where
represenLs Lhe bulk (mean) veloclLy and Lhe characLerlsLlc lengLh. 1he characLerlsLlc
lengLh was deflned as where represenLs Lhe volume of Lhe
soluLlon domaln and represenLs Lhe plpe lengLh. 8ased on Lhls deflnlLlon Lhe
characLerlsLlc lengLh represenLs Lhe dlameLer of a clrcular plpe havlng Lhe same volume
74

and lengLh as Lhe aged plpe. ln Lhls work, Lhe characLerlsLlc lengLh of Lhe aged plpe was
found Lo be 0.0307-m. 1he mean veloclLy was speclfled as 0.213-m/s wlLh a klnemaLlc
vlscoslLy of 1.3910
-6
-m/s
2
, resulLlng ln .
uurlng Lhe soluLlon process, mesh lndependence was assessed by flrsL
compuLlng Lhe resulLs uslng a base-level mesh wlLh approxlmaLely 1.710
6
cells, and
Lhen performlng Lwo separaLe mesh adapLaLlons. ln Lhe flrsL adapLaLlon, Lhe 3 cell
layers ad[acenL Lo Lhe wall boundary of Lhe base-level mesh were reflned Lo produce a
mesh wlLh approxlmaLely 3.610
6
cells. lor Lhe second adapLaLlon, Lhe cells wlLh Lhe
largesL rooL-mean-squared veloclLy flucLuaLlons were reflned Lo glve a flnal mesh of
4.310
6
cells. llow was Lhen compuLed uslng each of Lhe reflned meshes, and Lhe
resulLs were compared Lo Lhe values obLalned from Lhe base-level mesh uslng drop ln
LoLal pressure as Lhe basls for comparlson. 1he drop ln LoLal pressure compuLed uslng
Lhe base-level mesh was 12.4-a. 1he flrsL reflned mesh compuLed a drop of 12.8-a
whlle Lhe second compuLed a drop of 12.3-a, dlfferences of approxlmaLely 3 and <1
from Lhe base-level mesh, respecLlvely.
ower specLral denslLy ls proporLlonal Lo wavenumber ralsed Lo Lhe -3/3 power
( ) LhroughouL Lhe lnerLlal range (kolmogorov 1941). ln order Lo valldaLe Lhe
LLS, ploLs of Lhe power specLral denslLy were creaLed. 1lme serles daLa of Lhe
lnsLanLaneous x-componenL of veloclLy was recorded aL Lhree polnLs wlLhln Lhe soluLlon
domaln for approxlmaLely 11 Lhrough-flow Llmes ( ) where Lhe Lhrough-flow Llme ls
deflned as . 1he Lhree polnLs were locaLed aL Lhe cenLrold of Lhe plpe
73

cross secLlon, halfway beLween Lhe cenLrold and Lhe plpe wall ( ), and near Lhe
plpe wall ( ). lourler analysls was used Lo obLaln ploLs of power specLral
denslLy versus wavenumber from Lhe Llmes serles daLa. llgure 23 ls a log-log ploL of Lhe
power specLral denslLy aL Lhe cenLrold of Lhe plpe cross-secLlon and lncludes a cenLral
welghLed movlng average of Lhe power specLral denslLy daLa polnLs. lor comparlson, a
llne wlLh a slope of -3/3 ls shown. 1he llnear porLlon of Lhe ploL of power specLral
denslLy ls very close Lo LheoreLlcal value. ln addlLlon, Lhe specLral ploLs obLalned from
Lhe monlLorlng polnLs aL and were slmllar.
1he ablllLy of LLS Lo reproduced laboraLory resulLs was evaluaLed ln Lerms of Lhe
uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon facLor. 1he laboraLory resulLs gave a frlcLlon facLor of 0.113
whlle Lhe LLS resulLs gave a frlcLlon facLor of 0.090. Whlle Lhe LLS resulLs represenL a

llgure 23: ower specLral denslLy aL Lhe cenLrold of Lhe cross-secLlon
76

20 devlaLlon as compared Lo Lhe laboraLory daLa, resulLs wlLh slmllar accuracy may be
saLlsfacLory for many appllcaLlons. Several posslble explanaLlons exlsL for Lhe
underpredlcLlon of Lhe frlcLlon facLor. 1he mosL promlnenL are: Lhe secLlon modeled
uslng LLS was Loo shorL Lo be represenLaLlve of Lhe much longer laboraLory LesL secLlon,
Lhe lnablllLy Lo resolve Lhe smallesL scale roughness elemenLs, and posslble deflclencles
ln Lhe subgrld-scale model for descrlblng complex flows. Lach of Lhese posslblllLles wlll
be addressed ln Lhe followlng paragraphs.
As noLed, Lhe lengLh of Lhe plpe used ln Lhe LLS was llmlLed Lo . ln
conLrasL, Lhe lengLh of Lhe laboraLory LesLed plpe secLlon was . 8ecause of
Lhe lrregular naLure of Lhe roughness ln Lhe aged plpe, lL ls worLhwhlle Lo conslder
wheLher Lhe plpe secLlon used for Lhe LLS was represenLaLlve of Lhe laboraLory LesLed
secLlon. 1o faclllLaLe comparlson, Lhe model of Llen and uurbln (1996)
was employed Lo compuLe flow Lhrough Lhe same aged plpe as modeled uslng LLS buL
wlLh a lengLh of . 1he mesh uLlllzed for modellng conslsLed of
410
6
mlxed cells. Slmllarly Lo Lhe LLS, Lhe boundary layer was resolved uslng prlsmaLlc
elemenLs, however, for Lhe model Lhe bulk of Lhe lnLerlor volume was
meshed uslng LeLrahedral elemenLs. lurLhermore, Lhe approach ln developlng
boundary condlLlons for Lhe model was comparable Lo Lhe approach
ouLllned prevlously for Lhe LLS. WlLh Lhe mesh and boundary condlLlons deflned ln Lhls
manner, Lhe model was very accuraLe aL reproduclng Lhe laboraLory
calculaLed frlcLlon facLors, glvlng a frlcLlon facLor of 0.113 (a 2 lncrease over laboraLory
77

resulLs). Powever, lf only Lhe secLlon uLlllzed ln performlng Lhe LLS ls
consldered, Lhe model produces a frlcLlon facLor of 0.131, suggesLlng
LhaL Lhe shorLer plpe secLlon modeled uslng LLS ls acLually rougher Lhan Lhe average
roughness of Lhe longer plpe secLlon LhaL was LesLed ln Lhe laboraLory. llgure 26 ls a
ploL of Lhe LoLal pressure drop versus axlal plpe poslLlon for Lhe secLlon uslng
LLS and Lhe Lurbulence model. 1oLal pressure drop wlLhln Lhe plpes
does noL occur aL a consLanL raLe, buL raLher varles dependlng on locaLlon wlLhln Lhe
plpe. Powever, llgure 26 lllusLraLes LhaL Lhe varlaLlon ls relaLlvely small when compared
Lo Lhe LoLal drop over Lhe modeled lengLh of plpe. lor Lhese reasons Lhe shorL lengLh of
Lhe modeled secLlon ls noL belleved Lo be a prlmary cause of Lhe underpredlcLlon of Lhe
frlcLlon facLor by LLS.

llgure 26: 1oLal pressure drop versus axlal poslLlon
-2
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
14
16
18
0 0.03 0.1 0.13 0.2 0.23 0.3 0.33
1
o
t
a
|

r
e
s
s
u
r
e

D
r
o
p

(
a
)
Ax|a| |pe ost|on (m)
LLS k-c-v2-f
78

1he Moody dlagram (Moody 1944) wlll be used ln order Lo conslder Lhe poLenLlal
effecLs of Lhe roughness elemenLs LhaL were Loo small Lo be resolved by Lhe surface
mesh. 1he Moody ulagram shows Lhe uarcy Welsbach frlcLlon facLor for a smooLh plpe
aL Lo be 0.034. 1herefore, a smooLh plpe wlLh Lhe same plpe dlameLer,
lengLh, and flow condlLlons as uLlllzed ln Lhe LLS wlll have pressure drop of 4.73-a. ln
conLrasL, a plpe wlLh a roughness helghL of 1-mm (a general value for rusLed casL lron
plpe before Lhe onseL of slgnlflcanL LuberculaLlon) would have a uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon
facLor of 0.034 resulLlng ln a pressure drop of 7.31-a, lncreases of 0.02 ln frlcLlon facLor
and 2.76-a ln pressure loss over Lhe smooLh plpe. 1he dlfference ln pressure drop
beLween a smooLh plpe and a plpe wlLh a 1-mm roughness helghL ls very close Lo Lhe
magnlLude of Lhe underpredlcLlon of Lhe LLS. noneLheless, lL should be noLed LhaL Lhe
roughness values from Lhls slmpllfled analysls should noL be expecLed Lo be addlLlve
wlLh Lhe LLS resulLs, buL raLher Lhe relaLlonshlp ls much more complex. lnsLead, Lhls
analysls demonsLraLes LhaL errors assoclaLed wlLh roughness elemenL fllLerlng are of Lhe
proper order of magnlLude Lo explaln Lhe underpredlcLlon of Lhe LLS.
1he flnal source of poLenLlal error LhaL wlll be dlscussed ls deflclency ln Lhe
subgrld-scale model formulaLlon. 1he dynamlc Smagorlnsky model (Lllly 1992) has been
used exLenslvely slnce lLs developmenL, noneLheless, as noLed prevlously, LquaLlons 29
and 30 produce hlghly varlable coefflclenL flelds and requlre cllpplng or damplng ln
order Lo malnLaln model sLablllLy. Several researchers (cf. Chosal eL al. 1993, Meneveau
eL al. 1996, vreman 2004) have recognlzed LhaL Lhe hlghly varlable coefflclenL fleld wlLh
79

Lhe assoclaLed cllpplng and damplng funcLlons llmlL Lhe appllcablllLy of Lhe dynamlc
Smagorlnsky model Lo complex flows. As Lhe flow ln Lhls sLudy ls Lhree-dlmenslonally
complex, lL ls reasonable Lo suppose LhaL a more advanced sub-grld scale model may
lmprove resulLs.
ln order Lo presenL Lhe flow characLerlsLlcs calculaLed by LLS, conLour ploLs have
been lncluded. llgure 27 ls a ploL of Lhe mean veloclLy magnlLude normallzed by Lhe
bulk veloclLy. 1he effecLs of Lhe lrregular boundary are clearly vlslble as Lhe conLours
are hlghly dlsLorLed. SLlll, Lhe overall proflle ls ln llne wlLh expecLaLlons for a LurbulenL
veloclLy proflle, Lhe veloclLy gradlenL ls hlgh near Lhe wall boundary and relaLlvely low
LhroughouL Lhe core flow reglon. llgures 28 and 29 are radlal and longlLudlnal ploLs of

llgure 27: Mean veloclLy magnlLude normallzed by bulk veloclLy. conLours - mln = 0,
max = 1.20, lnLerval = 0.1

1.239
0.000
80

llgure 28: 8ooL mean square veloclLy flucLuaLlons normallzed by bulk veloclLy. conLours
- mln = 0, max = 0.30, lnLerval = 0.03

llgure 29: LonglLudlnal ploL of rooL mean square veloclLy flucLuaLlons normallzed by
bulk veloclLy. conLours -mln = 0, max = 0.3, lnLerval = 0.03

0.000
0.300
0.340
0.000
81

Lhe rooL mean square veloclLy flucLuaLlons normallzed by Lhe bulk veloclLy. 1he largesL
veloclLy flucLuaLlons occur aL a small dlsLance from Lhe plpe wall. 1he radlal ploL
demonsLraLes how Lhe locaLlons of Lhe maxlma are lrregularly spaced around Lhe
exLerlor of Lhe plpe. Slmllarly, Lhe longlLudlnal ploL lllusLraLes Lhe varlaLlon ln Lhe
sLreamwlse dlrecLlon. All of Lhe ploLs exhlblL lrregularlLy as a resulL of Lhe Lhree-
dlmenslonal naLure of Lhe wall boundary.

Concluslon
LLS can be a powerful ald ln undersLandlng Lhe flow dynamlcs of aged plpes. 1he
ablllLy of LLS Lo descrlbe LurbulenL flucLuaLlons ls parLlcularly lmporLanL ln
undersLandlng processes such as dlssolved maLerlal LransporL, suspended parLlcle
accreLlon and eroslon, and fluld mlxlng, where Lurbulence plays a slgnlflcanL role.
uesplLe Lhe uLlllLy of LLS for descrlblng flow, Lhls ls belleved Lo be Lhe flrsL appllcaLlon Lo
aged plpes wlLh Lhree-dlmenslonal, lrregular boundarles. ln Lhls sLudy LLS produced
frlcLlon facLors abouL 20 lower Lhan experlmenLally measured values. Conslderlng Lhe
complexlLy of Lhe modeled plpe, and Lhe degree Lo whlch Lhe plpe has changed, Lhe LLS
produced frlcLlon facLor sLlll represenLs a good esLlmaLe of Lhe aged plpe frlcLlon, and
llkely has sufflclenL accuracy for many appllcaLlons. neverLheless, Lhe weaknesses of
LLS as applled Lo aged plpes are hlghllghLed ln Lhls analysls. 1hree prlmary areas of
concern were ldenLlfled: Lhe shorL lengLh of Lhe plpe secLlon used ln LLS, Lhe
unresolvable roughness elemenLs, and Lhe subgrld-scale model. upon furLher revlew,
82

Lhe unresolvable roughness elemenLs and Lhe subgrld-scale model were ldenLlfled Lo be
Lhe mosL llkely lmpedlmenLs Lo obLalnlng more accuraLe LLS resulLs.
AddlLlonal LesLlng would help Lo deLermlne more preclsely Lhe sLrengLhs and
weakness of LLS as applled Lo Lhe lrregular boundarles of aged plpes. 1esLlng addlLlonal
plpes of dlfferenL slzes and mulLlple flow raLes would help Lo beLLer esLabllsh Lhe
accuracy of LLS ln aged plpes. lncreaslng Lhe lengLh of LesL secLlons wlll help ellmlnaLe
blas LhaL may occur as a resulL of LesLlng shorL plpe secLlons. Slmllarly, performlng LLS
uslng mulLlple subgrld-scale models wlll help Lo valldaLe whlch models perform Lhe besL
for complex flows.

83

CPA1L8 vl

SuMMA8? Anu CCnCLuSlCnS

Summary
1he general purpose of Lhls research was Lo lmprove Lhe accuracy of neLwork
dlsLrlbuLlon models. ln order Lo achleve Lhls goal, Lhe followlng lnLermedlaLe ob[ecLlves
were ldenLlfled:
1. LvaluaLe Lhe changes LhaL occur ln aged plpes wlLh respecL Lo hydraullc
roughness and flow area
2. Assess Lhe capablllLy of Clu for modellng Lhe complex flow of plpes wlLh
lrregular Lhree-dlmenslonal boundarles
3. LvaluaLe how Lhe changes ln aged plpes found for Cb[ecLlve 1 affecL Lhe
hydraullcs wlLhln a plpe neLwork
a. Macro-scale (dlsLrlbuLlon wlde)
b. Mlcro-scale (< 1-m)
4. uevelop a meLhod for predlcLlng Lhe effecLlve dlameLer of a plpe based on lLs
roughness and orlglnal dlameLer
3. ueLermlne Lhe effecLs of aglng on dlsLrlbuLlon sysLem performance uslng a
slmpllfled model of an exlsLlng neLwork
Lach of Lhe sLudy ob[ecLlves has been addressed Lhrough Lhe use of neLwork and Clu
modellng.
84

1he developmenL of accuraLe neLwork models has become an lmporLanL parL of
undersLandlng Lhe operaLlon of dlsLrlbuLlon sysLems. Powever, Lhe changes LhaL Lake
place ln dlsLrlbuLlon sysLems greaLly compllcaLe neLwork modellng. 1hese changes can
largely be overcome Lhrough a process of careful callbraLlon. 1he flrsL sLep ln lmprovlng
Lhe callbraLlon of neLwork models of sysLems conLalnlng aged plpes ls Lo obLaln an
undersLandlng of how plpes change wlLh age. 1he prellmlnary laboraLory LesLlng
answered LhaL quesLlon by evaluaLlng Lhe changes LhaL occurred ln Lhe hydraullc
roughness and flow area of aged plpes (Cb[ecLlve 1). nexL, Lhe resulLs from Lhe
prellmlnary laboraLory LesLlng were used Lo develop a meLhod for predlcLlng Lhe
effecLlve dlameLer of a plpe based on lLs roughness and orlglnal dlameLer (Cb[ecLlve 4).
AppllcaLlon of Lhese flndlngs durlng Lhe callbraLlon of a sample neLwork model
demonsLraLed Lhe effecLs of aglng on dlsLrlbuLlon hydraullcs and overall sysLem
performance (Cb[ecLlves 3.a and 3).
Clu modellng, on Lhe oLher hand, was used durlng Lhls sLudy Lo provldlng hlghly
deLalled descrlpLlons of flow Lhrough Lwo aged plpe secLlons. uurlng Lhe course of Lhls
sLudy Clu has been found capable of modellng Lhe complex flow LhaL occurs ln plpes
wlLh lrregular Lhree-dlmenslonal boundarles (Cb[ecLlve 2). rocesses such as
dlslnfecLlon byproducL formaLlon and LransporL, suspended maLerlal LransporL, and flow
mlxlng have been ldenLlfled as poLenLlal beneflclarles of Lhe lncreased daLa obLalnable
from Clu. Whlle Lhe Clu resulLs from Lhe currenL sLudy have noL been dlrecLly applled
Lo neLwork modellng, Lhe uLlllLy of Clu for descrlblng complex flow has been
83

demonsLraLed Lo be a useful Lool for analyzlng Lhe hydraullcs of aged plpes (Cb[ecLlve
3.b).

Concluslons and 8ecommendaLlons
3',%(/D6%/',-. MeeLlng Lhe ob[ecLlves for Lhls sLudy has resulLed ln several
noLeworLhy conLrlbuLlons wlLh respecL Lo neLwork and Clu modellng. 1he speclflc
conLrlbuLlon can be llsLed as follows:
1. 1he effecL of aglng plpes on dlsLrlbuLlon hydraullcs has been ouLllned wlLh
respecL Lo modellng correcL waLer age
2. A meLhod for correcLlng Lhe dlameLers of aged plpes has been descrlbed
3. Clu has been used Lo compuLe flow ln an aged plpe for Lhe flrsL Llme
a. 8AnS
b. LLS
4. Clu has been demonsLraLed Lo be a useful meLhod for descrlblng flow over small
secLlons of Lhree-dlmenslonally lrregular plpes
1he flrsL Lwo conLrlbuLlons were achleved by applylng Lhe laboraLory resulLs Lo ln
performlng neLwork modellng, whlle Lhe flnal Lwo were addressed by Lhe Clu modellng.
1he followlng secLlons dlscuss Lhe concluslons and recommendaLlon for each Lype of
model wlLhln Lhe conLexL of Lhe sLudy conLrlbuLlons.
#$%&'() +'*$2/,<. 1he roughness and dlameLer changes ln eleven aged plpes
were measured. 8y uLlllzlng Lhe laboraLory resulLs Lo ad[usL Lhe plpe dlameLers ln a
neLwork dlsLrlbuLlon model, errors ln peak waLer age of 6.7 Lo 8.4 were observed as a
86

consequence of dlsregardlng Lhe changes LhaL occur ln Lhe dlameLer of aged plpes.
Meanwhlle, errors of 7.2 Lo 10 were noLed for mlnlmum waLer age. Whlle Lhe
magnlLude of Lhese errors may noL be large when conslderlng Lhe uncerLalnLy LhaL may
exlsL ln a neLwork dlsLrlbuLlon model, Lhe errors are sysLemaLlc ln naLure. Whenever
posslble, sysLemaLlc error should be mlnlmlzed. 1he varlable wlLh Lhe largesL effecL on
Lhe waLer age aL a locaLlon wlLhln Lhe sample dlsLrlbuLlon neLwork was Lhe operaLlonal
sLaLus of Lhe waLer Lank: wheLher waLer was flowlng lnLo Lhe Lank, or ouL of Lhe Lank.
8educlng plpe dlameLer slgnlflcanLly changed Lhe Llmlng of Lhe maxlma and mlnlma ln
waLer age by reduclng Lhe overall Lravel Llme of waLer ln Lhe dlsLrlbuLlon sysLem. lL was
demonsLraLed LhaL looplng plpe sLrucLures wlLhln Lhe neLwork along wlLh Lhe assoclaLed
mlxlng LhaL occurs aL nodes can resulL ln slLuaLlons where Lhe varlaLlon of waLer age as a
funcLlon of Llme ls compleLely changed by reduclng plpe dlameLers.
1he meLhod ouLllned for applylng dlameLer correcLlons ln callbraLlng dlsLrlbuLlon
neLworks ls efflclenL. A modeler can flrsL callbraLe a neLwork based on flow dlsLrlbuLlon
and headloss and Lhen revlew wheLher dlameLer correcLlons are [usLlflable based on
plpe roughness. lf dlameLer reducLlons are [udged Lo be necessary, Lhe correcLlons can
be lnsLlLuLed ln a slngle sLep wlLhouL changlng Lhe flow dlsLrlbuLlon or headloss ln a
model, only Lhe flow veloclLy ls alLered. neverLheless, modelers should be cauLlous
whenever alLerlng Lhe physlcal aLLrlbuLes of dlsLrlbuLlon model componenLs. Maklng a
change ln Lhe model LhaL does noL represenL Lhe physlcal reallLy of Lhe neLwork
lnLroduces raLher Lhan ellmlnaLes error. Modelers should be especlally wary of uslng
87

Lhe daLa ln Lhls sLudy for plpes LhaL are ouLslde of Lhe slze range of Lhe plpes analyzed
for Lhls sLudy or for cases where Lhe process causlng lncreased roughness and dlameLer
reducLlon ln Lhe plpes ls dlfferenL Lhan Lhe lron corroslon noLed ln Lhese plpes.
1he plpe neLwork example has demonsLraLed Lhe uLlllLy of relaLlng roughness Lo
. ln order Lo furLher sLrengLhen Lhe prevlously presenLed relaLlonshlp beLween
roughness and , more aged plpe roughness LesLs and volume LesLs are necessary.
1esLs on larger plpes and plpes wlLh dlfferenL Lypes of bulldup would be especlally
useful. Moreover, Lhe mosL compleLe valldaLlon of Lhe uLlllLy of ad[usLlng aged plpe
dlameLers would be Lo develop a waLer dlsLrlbuLlon model uslng Lhe speclfled dlameLer
reducLlons and compare model ouLpuL Lo daLa obLalned from fleld LesLlng of Lhe acLual
dlsLrlbuLlon sysLem.
3EF +'*$2/,<. Clu modellng has Lhe poLenLlal Lo lmprove Lhe undersLandlng of
many of Lhe flow mechanlcs ln aged plpes. uesplLe Lhe wldespread usage of aged plpes,
very few numerlcal sLudles have focused on plpes LhaL have Lhree-dlmenslonal lrregular
roughness. CbLalnlng accuraLe surface represenLaLlons, meshlng Lhe compuLaLlonal
domaln, and model convergence are all compllcaLed by lrregular boundary surfaces.
neverLheless, Clu modellng can poLenLlally offer much lnslghL lnLo Lhe flow phenomena
LhaL occur ln aged plpes. WaLer quallLy modellng, ln parLlcular, has much Lo galn from
an lmproved undersLandlng of Lhe flow ln rough plpes.
1he Lurbulence model was Lhe mosL accuraLe of Lhe Lhree 8AnS models
aL maLchlng Lhe headloss measured from Lhe laboraLory LesLlng. erformance of Lhe
88

model was besL for Lhe 0.030-m plpe aL where Lhe uarcy-Welsbach
frlcLlon facLor was over predlcLed by 3 as compared Lo laboraLory daLa. lnLeresLlngly,
for every oLher flow scenarlo Lhe frlcLlon facLor was under predlcLed by Lhe 8AnS
models. lor Lhe 0.023-m plpe aL , Lhe Lurbulence model under
predlcLed Lhe uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon facLor by abouL 14 whlle for Lhe 0.030-m plpe aL
Lhe uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon facLor was under predlcLed by abouL 13.
8ecause form drag was Lhe domlnanL reslsLlve force ln Lhe aged plpes, deflclencles ln
calculaLlng flow separaLlon are a llkely culprlL for Lhe near-unlversal under predlcLlon of
frlcLlon facLor. 1he lnablllLy of Lhe boundary meshes Lo resolve Lhe smallesL varlaLlons
surface roughness may also play a more mlnor role ln Lhe under predlcLlon of frlcLlon
facLor.
1he Lurbulence model was also more accuraLe Lhan LLS aL predlcLlng Lhe
uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon facLor of Lhe 0.030-m plpe as Lhe LLS under predlcLed Lhe
frlcLlon facLor by 20. uesplLe Lhe superlorlLy of Lhe model aL predlcLlng frlcLlon
facLors, LLS sLlll has advanLages ln descrlblng processes where LurbulenL flucLuaLlons are
lmporLanL. erhaps Lhe mosL llkely source of error ln Lhe LLS ls Lhe subgrld-scale
modellng. Whlle Lhe dynamlc Smagorlnsky subgrld-scale model (Cermano eL al. 1991,
Lllly 1992) used ln Lhls sLudy has been wldely used slnce lLs developmenL, Lhe flow
addressed ln Lhls work ls hlghly complex and an lmproved subgrld-scale model may be
requlred Lo obLaln beLLer resulLs.
89

uesplLe currenL llmlLaLlons, Clu modellng has been shown Lo be a powerful Lool
ln beLLer undersLandlng flow ln aged, rough plpes. 1he currenL LesLlng demonsLraLes
Lhe lmporLance of modelers belng aware of Lhe llmlLaLlons of Clu ln descrlblng complex
flows aL hlgh 8eynolds numbers. Whlle lmperfecL, Lhese LesLs lndlcaLe LhaL Clu
modellng can be used successfully Lo model flow ln aged plpes. WlLhouL Clu, lL ls very
dlfflculL Lo obLaln lnformaLlon on Lhe Lurbulence parameLers and veloclLy proflles of
aged plpes.
Several areas of Lhe Clu modellng would beneflL from furLher sLudy. ln Lhe
currenL sLudy only a handful of 8eynolds numbers were consldered. lurLher research
should evaluaLe Lhe capablllLles of Clu models over an expanded range of 8eynolds
numbers wlLh a speclflc emphasls on hlgher values. ln addlLlon, modellng larger plpes
would furLher expand Lhe daLa seL. 1he prlnclpal goal of Lhe Clu modellng ln Lhls work
has been Lo evaluaLe Lhe accuracy of Clu ln modellng complex flows ln aged plpes. 1he
nexL sLep ls Lo use Lhe Clu models ln order Lo beLLer undersLand Lhe LransporL
processes, fluld mlxlng, eLc. LhaL occur ln aged plpes.
90

8LlL8LnCLS

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Awwa8l (Awwa 8esearch loundaLlon) (2004). ;($*/7%/B$ +'*$2- 8'( &.%$( K6.2/%= /,
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8oersma, 8. !., and nleuwsLadL, l. 1. M. (1996). Large-eddy slmulaLlon of LurbulenL flow
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8oxall, !. 8., Saul, A. !., and SklpworLh, . !. (2004). Modellng for hydraullc capaclLy." I"
GJJG, 96(4), 161-169.

ChrlsLensen, 8. 1. and 8arfuss, S. L. (2009). lmprovlng waLer quallLy modellng ln
sysLems conLalnlng LuberculaLed plpes." ;('7"L G,,6.2 3',8$($,7$ .,* @A1'-/%/', 9MMN,
AWWA, San ulego, CA.

Clark, 8. M. and PaughL, C. P. (2003). CharacLerlzlng plpe wall demand: lmpllcaLlons for
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Colebrook, C. l. and WhlLe, C. M. (1937a). 1he reducLlon of carrylng capaclLy of plpes
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Colebrook, C. l. and WhlLe, C. M. (1937b). LxperlmenLs wlLh fluld frlcLlon ln roughened
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Lggels, !. C. M. (1994). "ulrecL and large eddy slmulaLlon of LurbulenL flow ln a
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Lggels, !. C. M. and nleuwsLadL, l. 1. M. (1993). "Large-eddy slmulaLlon of LurbulenL
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%>
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lelz, A. A., Culd-8ouls, M., and LaurlaL, C. (2002). Large eddy slmulaLlon of LurbulenL
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Plnze, !. C. (1973) Q6(D62$,7$, McCraw-Plll, new ?ork.

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khan, L. A., Wlckleln, L. A., 1elxelra L. C. (2006). valldaLlon of a Lhree-dlmenslonal
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92

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Mahmood, C. l., Plll, M. L., nelson, u. L., Llgranl, . M., Moon, P.-k., and Clezer, 8.
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Mahmud, S., lslam, A. k. M. S., leroz, C. M. (2003). llow and heaL Lransfer
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Mamrelll, L. S., and SLrelcher, L. (1962). Loss ln capaclLy of waLer malns: Callfornla
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MaLhey, l., Cokl[aL, u., 8erLogllo, !. ., and SergenL, L. (2003). SpeclflcaLlon of LLS lnleL
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Q(.,-8$(, AnLalya, 1urkey.

McCoy, A., ConsLanLlnescu, C., Weber, L. (2008)."numerlcal lnvesLlgaLlon of flow
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94

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%>
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93

ZelLoun, C., and Pegazy, A. S. (2003). PeaL Lransfer for lamlnar flow ln lnLernally flnned
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233-239.
96

ALnulx

97

Appendlx: SupplemenLary llgures

llgure 30: loL of Lhe uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon facLor versus 8eynolds number wlLh
confldence lnLervals

0.00000
0.03000
0.10000
0.13000
0.20000
0.23000
0.30000
0 30,000 100,000 130,000 200,000 230,000 300,000 330,000 400,000 430,000
D
a
r
c
y
-
W
e
|
s
b
a
c
h

f
r
|
c
t
|
o
n

f
a
c
t
o
r
keyno|ds Number
#1
#2
#3
#4
#3
#6
#7
#8
#9
#10
#11
98

llgure 31: loL of d/u versus uarcy-Welsbach frlcLlon facLor

y = -1.8127x + 1.8076
0
0.03
0.1
0.13
0.2
0.23
0.3
0.860 0.880 0.900 0.920 0.940 0.960 0.980 1.000 1.020
n
a
z
e
n
-
W
|
|
|
|
a
m
s

C
d]D
2.3 fps 3.0 fps 7.3 fps 10 fps Llnear flL for d/u < 0.97

Age Effects On Iron-Based Pipes in Water Distribution Systems

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