Biology Practical Notes

Module 1: Our Local Ecosystem

1.1) Process and analyse information obtained from a variety of sampling studies to
justify the use of different sampling techniques to make population estimates
when total counts cannot be performed.
Type Method Advantage Disadvantage
Transect


Good for environmental
(terrain/vegetation)
changes

Observes the type of
vegetation and their
height.

Controlled Variables:
- Length of String
- Intervals (e.g. a
knot at every
1m).
1. Randomly select an
area that you want to
observe.
2. Using string, tie a knot
into an even interval
through the area.
3. As you walk along the
transect, record the
organisms and plants
(including their height)
that are touching the
string.
4. Use a key to identify
each organism.

When observing
changes, transect
are also useful to
show what
Abiotic factors
cause these
changes e.g.
sunlight,
temperature,
moisture,
vegetation and
water levels).
Useful when the
area is too large
to do a direct
investigation.
You only
record the
organisms
that are found
across the
transect.
Therefore, the
results may
not be
accurate so
many
transects need
to be made.

Quadrat

Useful when organisms
are immobile (dont
move/slow)

Observes the types and
number of species that
are found within the
frame. The number is
either counted or an
estimated percentage is
made.

Controlled Variables:
- Size of Quadrat
- Shape of
Quadrat
1. Place the frame
(square/rectangle
etc.) is randomly
chosen areas within
the study site.
2. Record the number of
organisms(s) found
within the quadrat.
3. Calculate the average
number of the
organisms(s).
4. Multiply this number
by the total area of
the site in order to get
the organisms(s)
abundance in the
area.
The number of an organism
found within the quadrat can
be calculated using this
formula:


Useful for
estimating the
population of
stationary
organisms, plants
and animals.
It is a more
specific way of
estimating the
population of a
species than
using transects.

You only
record the
organisms
that are found
within the
quadrat.
It does not
make it an
accurate
estimate of
the entire
study site.


Type Method Advantages Disadvantages
Capture Recapture

Useful when
determining the
abundance of mobile
(moving) animals.

Observes the number of
animals through a
period of time.

Controlled Variables:
- Number of
times collected
(once)
- Organism
tagged
- Amount
recaptured
- Amount tagged
1. Capture a sample of
the population of a
species(e.g. 10
animals)
2. Tag the sample of the
population (e.g.
microchip, rings)
3. Release the sample of
population back into
the wild.
4. Wait for a period of
time.
5. Recapture a sample of
the population of the
same species.
6. Count the number of
tagged animals in the
second sample.
7. Estimate the total
population by using
this formula:




It is the main
method that is
used to estimate
the distribution
of mobile
(moving)
populations.

Knowledge
about the
biology of the
organisms and
some idea of
their range
and mobility is
needed.
Daily and
seasonal
changes in the
population will
affect your
method.
If you are not
aware of the
changes, you
may carry out
the method at
a time when
the population
has migrated.
Can be
dangerous to
individuals or
have an
impact on
them in some
way.
Tagging the
sample can be
expensive and
labour
(physically)
intensive.
It requires
ongoing
monitoring
and vital data
collection.


Example of a Transect Example of a Quadrat











Observation of an Onion Cell Under a Light Microscope
Prac 1.2) Perform a first-hand investigation to gather first-hand information using a light
microscope to observe cells in plants and animals and identify the nucleus, cytoplasm,
cell wall, chloroplast and vacuoles.
Practical Pg. 71 Observing Cells Using a Light Microscope
Aim: To observe a plant cell under the light microscope.
Method:





Steps:
1. Remove the outer papery skin of the onion.
2. Peel off one layer of the onion and place the layer on a white tile, with the shiny side facing
up.
3. Using forceps - pull away a small section of its shiny outer skin.
4. Place the section on a cover slide.
5. Add a drop of iodine to stain the section and then cover it with a cover slip.
6. Soak up any excess iodine with a piece of paper towelling.
7. Observe the section under the microscope.
Results:



Chemical Substances
Prac 2.1) Plan, choose equipment or resources and perform a first-hand investigation to
gather information and use available evidence to identify the following substances in
tissues:


Prac 2.4 Pg 86 Chemical Substances Found in Tissues
Aim: To identify the availability of glucose, starch, lipids, proteins, chloride ions and lignin in tissues.
Method:
Chemical Compound Test Indication
Glucose Tes Tape (pink at the end)

Paper changes from pink to
purple.
Benedict solution (blue)/water
bark
Changes colour to bright
orange.
Starch Iodine solution (light brown) Changes to dark blue/black
Lipids Brown paper bag Goes translucent
Proteins Biuret test (light blue) Changes colour to lilac/purple
Chloride ions Silver Nitrate solution White precipitate created
Lignin Toluidine blue
solution/phlorglucinol and HCL
Lignin will stain blue.
WARNING: Careful when using Silver Nitrate. Wear an apron as it can stain clothing.
Results:
Chemical Compound Test Using: Amount Indication
Glucose Tes tape

1 Strip

End of paper changed
from pink to purple.
Benedict Solution 3-5 drops in warm
water bark
Changed colour from
blue to bright orange
in 2 minutes.
Starch Iodine Solution One drop Instantly turns black
from cloudy white.
Proteins Biuret test 3-5 drops Changed colour from
light blue to lilac
(purple) in a few
minutes.
Lipids Brown paper bag 1 piece Turned translucent
instantaneously.
Chloride ions Silver Nitrate solution 3-5 drops Formed a white
precipitate instantly.
Lignin Phlorglucinol and
Hydrochloric acid
3-5 drops The end of the match
stick turned bright pink
instantaneously.


Glucose
Proteins
Starch
Chloride Ions
Lipids
Lignin
Diagrams:
Glucose (Tes tape)











Glucose (Benedict Solution)
Proteins











Chlorine Ions
Lipids











Lignin

Conclusion:
In conclusion, it has been proven that each of our material contained either glucose, starch,
proteins, lipids, chlorine ions or lignin. This is proven through the many experiments that we
conducted.


Osmosis and Diffusion
Prac 2.2) Perform a first-hand investigation to model the selectively permeable natural
of a cell membrane.
Prac 2.5 Pg. 91 - Modelling a Cell Membrane
Prac 2.6 Pg. 91 - Diffusion and Osmosis
Aim: To observe how Osmosis works using a dialysis tube (the cell membrane)
Method:





Steps:
1. Soak the dialysis tube in a breaker full of water.
2. Rub the dialysis tube in between your finger to open the tube.
3. Run water through it so that the tube opens completely.
4. Tie a knot at one of end of the tube.
5. Pour starch into solution halfway up and then tie a knot to form a sausage.
6. Place 200mL of water into a beaker, and then place 2 drops of iodine solution into the water.
7. Place the dialysis tube completely in the water. Leave it overnight.
Results:






Conclusion:
The iodine solution from outside of the dialysis tube entered the tube and made the starch turn dark
blue. The dialysis tube acted as a semi-permeable membrane where the water could enter but not
exit.

Potato Cell Membrane
Aim: To observe how a cell membrane functions using a potato.
Method:






Steps:
1. Slice the bottom of the potato sideways so that it can sit still.
2. Make a deep hole near the edge of the potato.
3. Put some salt into the hole then add some water.
4. Place the potato into a container.
5. Fill the container with water but dont submerge the potato.
6. Observe and record what happens.
Results:






Conclusion:
It has been proven that a semi-permeable membrane selects what can enter and what can exit, in
this case only water can enter but nothing could exit through the potato.

SA: V Ratio
Prac 2.4) perform a first-hand investigation to demonstrate the effect of surface area to
volume ratio on rate of diffusion.
Practical 2.7 Page 94: Surface Area and Volume Ratio
Aim: to investigate the surface area to volume ratio by using jelly cubes of sizes

and
1

by looking at the rate of diffusion through these cubes.

Method:




Steps:
1. In a large beaker, place the

and

cubes of jelly inside it.

2. Carefully, pour in the Hydrochloric Acid until all three jellies are covered, and then start your
stop watch.
3. Record how long it takes for each jelly to go clear.
4. Collate your information as a class and work out your average.
CAUTION:
1. Wear gloves when you are handling the acid and also wear goggles.
2. Be careful when you are working with the acid.
3. Watch your fingers when you are cutting the jelly.
DISPOSAL:
Dispose the jelly in a waste beaker.
Dispose the acid into another waste beaker DONT PUT IT DOWN THE DRAIN!!
Results:
Property Block Number
1 2 3
Size of the cube according to its
dimensions (cm)
3 x 3 x 3 2 x 2 x 2 1 x 1 x 1
Total Surface Area (

) 54

24

Volume (

) 27

Surface area to volume ratio 54:27
=2:1
24:8
=3:1
6:1
Time taken 1 hour
30 minutes
44 minutes
30 seconds
13 minutes
37 seconds
Conclusion:
In conclusion, the smaller the cube, the larger the SA:V ratio, therefore making it have a faster rate
of diffusion. The larger the cube, the smaller the SA:V ration, therfore making it have a slower rate of
diffusion.